Ideals and Realities in Chinese Immigrant Parenting: Tiger Mother Versus Others

Ideals and realities in Chinese immigrant parenting: Tiger mother versus others

Karen Guo PhD1 The University of Waikato, Hamilton, New Zealand

Abstract: This paper is about Chinese immigrant parenting. Drawing on discourses of cultural ideals and living realities of Chinese immigrants, it sketches the complex cultural and contextual web of Chinese immigrant parenting, and explains why the tiger mother practice illustrated in one of the 2011 bestselling books Battle Hymn of the Tiger Mother was a story of a mother’s pursuit of cultural ideals in her parenting. The paper proposes that traditions and contexts both play an important role in the constitution of parental expectations and practices of Chinese immigrants.

Keywords: tiger mother, Chinese immigrant, parenting, education, Chinese culture

iger mother stories have become a recent for excellence from her two daughters in both T focus of public discourses. The tiger moth- behavior and academic performance. Amy Chua, er’s harsh parental practices derived from her a law professor at Yale University, immigrated to so-called Chinese upbringings have made Amy America as a child from China via the Philippines. Chua, a second-generation of Chinese-American, She married an American Jew and had two daugh- a center of attention. Key to Chua’s account is the ters. In the book Battle Hymn of the Tiger Mother, notion that strict Chinese parenting is effective Chua (2011) describes many examples of her because it creates academic success. It is Chua’s close involvement in her daughters’ education, concepts of Chinese, strict parenting, and suc- and a series of rules that she consistently imposed cess that have given rise to current controversies on the children, including, for example, not to get and issues. They leave people to wonder whether any grade less than an A and not to choose their Chinese immigrant parents are all strict and if own extracurricular activities. Chua confesses that strict parenting is effective. she was determined to bring up her daughters the The heated discourses on the tiger style have ‘Chinese’ way she had experienced. In her book, obscured people’s perception about Chinese Chua states: ‘a lot of people wonder how Chinese immigrant parenting. It is more important now parents raise such stereotypically successful kids. than ever before that we take a new look at this They wonder how Chinese parents produce so subject. Drawing on the cultural ideal of Chinese many math whizzes and music prodigies, what it’s traditions in relation to education and field stud- like inside the family, and whether they could do ies on Chinese immigrant parenting, this paper it too. Well, I can tell them, because I’ve done it’ addresses the question: ‘has Chua provided a (p. 1). valid account of Chinese immigrant parenting?’ Amy Chua might not have guessed that her To investigate this question, I explore the com- book would ignite a plethora of controversy and plex cultural and contextual web of Chinese reflection in many parts of the world. With the immigrants in which Chua should also have release of the book, Wall Street Journal in America a place. published its excerpt, titled Why Chinese mothers are superior? This publication generated Tiger mother in context more than 6,000 comments from the general Central features for tiger parenting are Chua’s public (Leese, 2011, January 21). Financial harsh parental control and extreme demands Press in England commented that the solidity of Chinese education shocked the whole world. In 1 Correspondence to: Karen Guo, The University of Waikato, The Australian Opinion, Callick (2011, February Hamilton, New Zealand; e-mail: [email protected] 22) considered how the educational standards in

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Australian schools could be raised in the context Traditional Chinese cultural ideals in of the ideas of the tiger mother. The stories of the relation to education tiger mother brought together many people from Studies show that Chinese immigrants hold many around the world to contemplate the effectiveness traditional Chinese ideals about child rearing and of Chinese parenting. education even when living in a place not of their At the same time, debate has also stirred in aca- origin (Chen, 2001; Ebbeck & Gokhale, 2004). demic fields where the impact of Chua’s approach Chen (2001) concluded in his comparative study on education has been questioned. These ques- of Chinese parents, Chinese-American parents tions have, in part, been influenced by the real- and American parents that in terms of raising ization that ‘with the recent publication of Amy and educating children, ‘no significant differences Chua’s bestselling book, there are many who have were found between the Chinese and Chinese- come to believe that children will be more success- American groups’ (p. 310). ful if they are parent controlled’ (Lichtman, 2011, p. x). Challenges to Chua’s style came from edu- Cultivation of ideal behaviors cational scholars such as Tony Bates at Worcester The ideas of Chinese philosophers, particularly University, Joshua Levine in Finland, and Brian Confucius, have influenced how children are Chaplan at George Mason University. They found brought up. In Confucian terms, parenting is problems with Chua’s model of effective parent- aligned with the development of children’s proper ing. Lichtman (2011) purposefully named his characteristics of self perfection (Li & Wang, book as An alternative to the tiger parenting style. 2004; Lin, 2007). An ideal person shows self- Several factors seem to have given rise to this restraint and pursues knowledge to the best of interest in Chinese immigrant parenting. Firstly, one’s ability (Guo, 1989). The development of Chinese immigrant children excel in schools; they these characteristics leads one into a purposeful are often referred to as model kids. Secondly, China life. Among his many ideas, Confucius’ conceptu- is becoming increasingly powerful; its rising power alization of family provides important insights for poses a challenge to many other nations about understanding the human characteristics expected how children should be prepared to survive in the in Chinese culture. Family in Confucian thought global world. Thirdly, Amy Chua’s ‘Chinese’ par- revolves around two notions: the collectivist tra- enting is shockingly ruthless, but seems very effec- dition; and the ethic of filial piety. The former tive, given the fact that her daughters were soloists characterizes the nature of interdependence in on violin and piano with international orchestras, families, and the latter highlights the importance performed at Carnegie Hall and achieved out- of obeying and honoring seniors (Huntsinger, standing academic outcomes. Fourthly, as Paul Huntsinger, Ching, & Lee, 2000). Confucius (2011, January 20) bluntly wrote in Time ‘Chua emphasizes that ‘children achieve for their family’ has set a whole nation of parents to wonder: Are (Huntsinger et al., 2000, p. 8). we the losers she is talking about?’ To develop proper characteristics, self- Ironically, despite Chua’s open acknowledg- cultivation referred to as ziwoxiuyang is the most ment of the effectiveness of Chinese parenting, favored approach (Shek & Chan, 1999). It is Chinese parents did not recognize Chua’s stories mainly achieved by learning shame and self-cri- as theirs. A well-known Chinese scholar, Hong tique. Fung (1999, p. 182) confirms that ‘Chinese Huang directly condemned Chua as ‘the mother culture is rather a “shame-socialized culture” from hell’. She stated: among all the Chinese in which individuals are strongly socialized to immigrant mothers I know, none treats her be aware of what others think of them, and are children as Chua does (Fang & Chen, 2011). A encouraged to act so as to maximize the positive prominent educator, vice director of the Chinese esteem they are granted from others, while trying Educational Bureau, Zhu (2011) also said that to avoid incurring their disapproval’. Amy Chua did not take the Chinese educational Closely related to shame or self-critique is the approach. emphasis on loss of face. According to Hu (1944),

the concept of face is both interesting and powerful that officialdom is the natural outlet for scholarly in Chinese culture because it is not directly under- achievers (Gu, 2006). The status of officials is stood as the physical face but mien tzu, a recogni- defined as the top in the social hierarchy in tradition ego, meaning the respect from other people. tional Chinese culture and society. In the phrase The loss of face ‘makes it impossible for him [a per- of xueer you zeshi, scholarly achievement is con- son] to function properly within the community’ ceived as the most essential way to establish one’s (p. 45). For this reason, in Chinese culture, learn- status in society. Confucius stated that the pur- ing and development are devoted to one’s desire to pose of education was to develop shi, people who maintain a respectable social image in order to pre- served in governments as important scholarly offi- vent a loss of face (Chang & Holt, 1994). cials (Gu, 2006). It has been recognized that there is a close con- In Confucian philosophies, particularly in his nection between parents’ mien tzu and parental emphasis on the importance of scholarly knowl- discipline. At the center of this connection is the edge that Confucius also highlighted the impor- belief about parental responsibilities. Parenting tance of you jiaowu lei, emphasizing that learning in Chinese culture is concerned with family edu- should make no distinction of classes (Gu, 2006). cation, referred to as cha chiao (Fung & Lau, This idea makes possible every child’s dream for 2009). If a child misbehaves or fails in studies, it success and becomes the basis of the view that is viewed as a reflection of poorcha chiao. Parents education is the stepping stone for improving are often the ones to be criticized for spoiling social positions. their child or not having taught their child right Closely associated with the idea of you jiaowu (Chen & Luster, 2002). Fung (1999) says that lei is the practice of civil service examinations. ‘Chinese parents made a distinction between ai According to Chan (2006), at the practical level, (love) and niai (spoiling). The former meant love education was implemented in traditional China with discipline, and the latter, too much love, and through the process of civil service examinations to too little discipline or literally, “drown with love”’ recruit government officials. He wrote that ‘at the (p. 189). In order to save their mien tzu, Chinese heart of traditional education [in China] was the parents face the pressure of presenting to others civil service examination, which provided the per- their proper cha chiao. Parents’ mien tzu is there- fect opportunity for defining the Confucian classics fore linked to their children’s performance, and as the standard curriculum within the mechanism as a result, parents use any means to teach chil- of education, through which the best and bright- dren right. One of the major means of parental est examinees were discovered and selected as state discipline is corporal punishment. Through the officials’ (p. 3). The civil service examination, thus, use of physical approaches to regulating children’s brings out another key aspect of education in behaviors, Chinese parents clearly show children Chinese culture, which is competition. This is the the consequences of misbehaviors (Fung, 1999). case with Gu’s (2006) explanation of the feature of According to Fung and Lau (2009), the notion of Chinese education: common people improve their parental discipline owes much to a Chinese belief social positions by outperforming others through in family accountability for child development. seeking scholarly-related knowledge. Along with academic achievement, Chinese Aspirations for academic success culture stresses the importance of hard work (Li ‘Confucian thought strongly emphasizes intel- & Wang, 2004).Within the competitive context lectual development, skill acquisition and love of civil service examinations, hard work is of great for learning’ (Li & Wang, 2004, p. 416), and importance in helping one to succeed in outper- academic success is the eventual goal. For many forming others (Lin, 2007). In Confucian ideolo- Chinese, academic success provides the fuel for gies, hard work is defined by its relation to one’s upward social mobility. attitudes to learning and this becomes the basis One of the best known of Confucian phi- of the view that the most important dimension losophies is the idea of xueer you zeshi, meaning of seeking knowledge is the concept of haoxuexin,

46 JOURNAL OF FAMILY STUDIES Volume 19, Issue 1, April 2013 © eContent Management Pty Ltd Ideals and realities in Chinese immigrant parenting meaning having a heart of learning (Li, 2004). Chua revealed her father’s reason for Chinese consider that hereditary factors are not immigrating to America: to escape from his fam- as important as the social environment and ‘they ily business because he did not like it. Making believe that one can go beyond what nature has a change is the basis of his move. While Chua given’ (Li & Wang, 2004, p. 419). Hard work has did not state this, her father might have had the social and moral implications because ‘if a person underlying belief that in America he could pursue is perceived as refusing to learn, he or she may what he wanted to do. So here is a case where the be regarded as socially irresponsible (for parents decision for change arises out of the desire for a and family), and worse yet, immoral (not want- life of his own. ing to strive to be good)’ (Li, 2004, p. 126). Chua’s father’s aim for immigration is a com- The assumption that achievement resides with mon one. This is perhaps related to Chinese individual efforts also has implications for how people’s perception that developed countries are Chinese parents understand issues such as chil- more democratic and less competitive than China dren who do not ‘achieve’. Failure signals where (Kwong & Chen, 2010). Another typical idea more efforts are needed (Ng, Pomerrantz, & Lam, revolving around the concept of better life among 2007). When children fail, it becomes essential Chinese immigrants is the hope for a better educa- that parents reassess children’s attitudes to learn- tion and better future for their children. Implicit ing and make them try harder. in this idea is Chinese immigrant parents’ aspiration that their children become better than their Realities of Chinese immigrant parenting peers in China, possibly better than most peers For many Chinese, immigration is an experience in the new country, and better than before they of resettling that is constituted by three interre- moved out of their home country. lated dimensions: (1) aspirations for a better life; (2) stress and uncertainties; (3) strategy develop- Stress and uncertainty ment (Sharlin & Moin, 2001). These dimensions Research indicates that immigration is a series of are also integral aspects of parenting practices. stressful experiences, characterized by ‘determination and hesitation, expectations and apprehen- For a better life sions, and dreams and worries’ (Li, 2001, p. 489). Chinese people immigrate to other countries in When immigrants adapt to a new and culturally hope for a better life. Making this huge change unfamiliar environment they face a high level in life illuminates the future for them, as well as of uncertainty (Sharlin & Moin, 2001; Souto- helps them improve the quality of their present Manning, 2007). Chinese immigrants are no life. This forward looking approach to living is exception. There are many sorts of barriers in their a powerful force by which Chinese immigrants moves toward settling in another country, includ- actively and tactically explore their experiences in ing for example: racial discrimination; unrec- immigrant countries. ognized qualifications; and lack of friends from Better life is a dynamic concept, given the vast mainstream groups (Vong, 2002; Wu, 2009). diversity of individuals and their living experi- Immigrant parenting is also a complex and ences. At the risk of oversimplification, I use Amy stressful experience. For Chinese immigrant par- Chua’s own account of her father’s intention to ents, the distinction regarding children’s learning immigrate as an example: in China and in their chosen countries generates pressure. Guo (2010) reported in her study with My father was the one who wanted to immigrate to America. Brilliant at math, in love with astronomy 14 Chinese immigrant parents of preschool chil- and philosophy, he hated the grubbing, backstab- dren in New Zealand that some parents referred to bing world of his family’s plastics business and defied the advanced academic learning of preschool chil- every plan they had for him. Even as a boy, he was dren in China as a source of stress. One mother desperate to get to America, so it was a dream come stated that ‘three-year-olds in China know a lot. true. (2011, p. 15) I don’t want Anne [her child] to be too behind.

Who knows where she will go after growing up’ immigrant parents bring high hopes to their own (p. 239). Immigration, for the parents in that accomplishments. These hopes derive in part from study, had the purpose of creating a better life their culture of origin that pushes people to aim for their children, but the ‘slow’ learning process for the best, in part from their own past successes in New Zealand educational systems made them in study, and in part from their expectation for very anxious that their children would be behind a better life in the chosen country. If the parents their Chinese peers. For Chinese immigrant par- cannot see themselves fulfill their own hopes, the ents, the future orientation that their children many efforts they make to create a successful life would have to survive in their world is particu- for their children are useful ways in which parents larly important. In recognition of the rising power realize their own immigration aspirations. of China, and the possibility that their children go back there, Chinese immigrant parents faced Parenting practices the pressure of raising children in the same aca- Broadly speaking, Chinese immigrant parents demic ways as those in China. attend simultaneously to two sets of practices: Therefore, one of the most significant chal- what they brought with them and what they are lenges that Chinese immigrant parents face is experiencing. Attempts to bring up ‘successful’ how to respond to the differences between the children result in two specific parenting practices practices of their own and those in the host coun- among them: retaining Chinese culture and pre- try (Florsheim, 1997). Schnittker (2002) noted paring children for mainstream lives. that the real task that Chinese immigrant parents undertake is to identify and integrate effective Retaining Chinese culture learning approaches from different cultures. In their struggle to raise ‘well educated’ children, a particular practice that Chinese immigrant par- Parenting responsibility ents use is to make their children more Chinese, In spite of the challenges they face, there is evi- and associate them with useful things from their dence that Chinese immigrant parents maintain home culture. Chan’s (2004) research on Chinese their parental efficacy (Souto-Manning, 2007). immigrants in Australia indicates that Chinese Underpinning this are their beliefs in the impor- immigrants try to be more Chinese than the tance of parental responsibility for children Chinese in China. According to Chan, this sig- (Adler, 2001). nifies a sense of uncertainty on the part of the One reason that Chinese immigrant parents Chinese immigrants, and their attempt to main- maintain their parental efficacy is that they place tain a racial integrity. It is in the context of their high significance on education, and the role of par- struggles to participate in the new society that ents in providing children with proper education. Chinese identity takes on significant meaning This is based on the Chinese tradition of cha chiao and comes to be actively maintained by Chinese and the importance of education in Chinese cul- immigrants. One Chinese immigrant mother in ture. Chinese skilled immigrants particularly have Guo’s (2010) study stated the impossibility of her an expectation that their children excel in educa- son becoming a pure New Zealander so she said tion. As Li (2001) in Canada discusses: ‘given their she needed to help him keep his Chinese identity. [Chinese immigrants’] educational and profes- Moreover, the idea of reinforcing their home cul- sional qualifications, it is not surprising that these ture also constitutes a clear recognition of the value immigrant parents wanted their children to secure of the home culture to the parents themselves and a good life through education’ (p. 491). their offspring. Li wrote in her study with Canadian Beneath the surface, the difficulties that Chinese parents that the parents claimed: ‘children Chinese immigrant parents experience to success- who grow up in Chinese culture are generally moti- fully settle in their immigration countries may also vated to pursue excellence’ (Li, 2001, p. 482), and play potential roles in their reliance on the children ‘the demanding nature of Chinese parenting could to do well in education. As noted above, Chinese ultimately produce positive outcomes’ (p. 484).

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Parental control, teaching and training Parental discipline of children has a cultural Central tasks of Chinese immigrant parents are to basis which I discussed earlier. If we know that control and work closely with children in order to Chinese parents discipline children because of a produce disciplined, hardworking and intelligent genuine love (ai), we could understand why Chua learners (Li & Wang, 2004). and other Chinese immigrant parents do it with An important function of home for Chinese their children. In Fung’s (1999) study of Chinese immigrant parents is, therefore, to provide children parents, a father explained his use of discipline: ‘I’d with the Chinese style of learning in ways that culti- rather let my child dislike me now, instead of let- vate appropriate attitudes and characteristics needed ting others dislike my child in the future’ (p. 189). for success in Chinese terms. A specific parenting strategy is teaching. Chinese immigrant parents Preparing children for mainstream lives teach children what is morally and socially correct An extended goal common to many Chinese (Johnston & Wong, 2002). They teach children to immigrant parents is to prepare children for do ‘serious things at home’ too (Guo, 2010, p. 118), mainstream lives, as it is still the mainstream which were meant by the parents as math, music or society that most children need to fit in (Guo, languages. In Guo’s study, a detailed description of 2010; Wu, 2009). Underpinning this goal is the home teaching is provided by a Chinese immigrant parents’ perception that living in Chinese families father of a three year old child: and immigrant societies is rooted within two con- trasting cultural perspectives. The parents cannot Luke has a forty minute piano session each day. He provide their children with non-Chinese learning has to sit there all the time because piano is a formal experiences. It is therefore important that parents lesson. Although he could not in the beginning back to two months ago, he can do it now. Besides piano, support children to cross the cultural boundaries. Luke’s mother teaches him drawing. (p. 119) The parents’ own encounters of otherness could also have implications for their attempts to main- Now extremely influential in Chinese immigrant stream the children (Ochocka & Janzen, 2008). parenting is the notion of training, referred to as It is possible too that in times and places of parental control, concern, devotion, involvement exposure and experiences to new cultural infor- and sacrifice as well as close interactions between par- mation and knowledge, Chinese immigrant parents and children (Chao, 1994). According to Chao, ents sense the value of new cultural practices. the purpose of training is to lead children to a habit After studying Asian-American children, Adler of persistent learning (Chao, 1994). Success in real- (2001) concluded that Asian-American parents izing this aim, however, is not always easy. One dif- were willing to have children obtain American ficulty is to ensure that children do not rebel. For this culture. For her as well as for other researchers reason, there are Chinese parents who hold onto the (Costigan & Dokis, 2006; Costigan & Su, 2004), idea that training is also about discipline and harsh- this parental attitude arose out of a belief in the ness. Chua is an example of that. When her daugh- importance of new cultural knowledge for chil- ter Sophia did not work hard on her piano practice, dren’s development. Chinese immigrant parents’ Chua yelled: ‘if the next time’s not perfect, I’m going hope for children’s mainstream education is also to take all your stuffed animals and burn them’. seen in Guo’s (2010) study. All the parents stated To many people, what Chua did sounds ruth- that the key purpose for sending their children less. Mindful of the dangers of emotional dam- to preschools was for the children to learn to age that Chua could have made on her daughters, function in New Zealand society. people criticized Chua’s culture-bound child punishment as an explanation for her ‘abusive’ Discussion on ideal and reality: Tiger practice. Lichtman (2011) argues that the tiger mother and other Chinese immigrant parents mother’s dictatorial style could have children ‘suf- By examining the aspirations, beliefs and practices fer from low self-esteem and be angry and resent- of Chinese immigrant parents, this paper provides ful’ (p. 55). insights into understanding Chinese immigrant

parenting, in particular the tiger mother practice. in America. In the book, Chua did not talk about The explanations involve reference to some Chinese any immediate issues that she had as an immigrant cultural ideals, the aspirations of Chinese immi- adult. This is different from many other Chinese grants to actualize the Confucius ideals, the living immigrants who are in the process of settling in realities of Chinese immigrant parents, and other new countries. In addition, Chua did not live in the factors such as the influences of the host countries. country of origin as others did and her understand- It is possible to say that the tiger mother ing of Chinese might still rest within the old tradi- approach embodies some childrearing ideals in tional paradigm. She might have learned that from Chinese culture and it resonates with some aspects her parents who only knew the traditional style. of the practices of many other Chinese immigrant This could have made Chua more ideal-oriented parents. It presents a Chinese immigrant mother’s than many other Chinese immigrant parents. aspiration for her daughters’ educational achieve- Secondly, Chua’s Chinese approach may be a ments; it explains how she was actively engaged condition of her response to her well Westernized in the parental role and prepared the children for daughters’ limited experience with Chinese cul- competitions; and it provides accounts of a moth- ture. By pushing her daughters into a Chinese er’s striving for her daughters’ retention of Chinese paradigm of learning, Chua might have seen her- culture. The central insight expressed in Chua’s self creating opportunities for them to establish a parenting is that success occurs through a good realistic sense of identity, and to retain the valuable education and parental control. This is manifest in aspects of Chinese traditions. While Chua found her descriptions of the interrelationship between herself needing to enforce Chinese practices, many parenting, education and achievement. For exam- other Chinese immigrants have to find ways of ple, Chua wrote: ‘academic achievement reflects balancing the Chinese culture and the culture of successful parenting, and if children did not excel the chosen countries for their children. This is at school then there was a problem and parents because other Chinese immigrant children are not were not doing their job’ (Chua, 2011, p. 4). in the same situation as Chua’s daughters. The beliefs and practices of Amy Chua and other Chua may also have had a mainstream goal for Chinese immigrant parents give a picture of the her daughters although she does not explicitly talk importance of Confucian ideal in their parenting. about that. Her daughters’ upbringing had given We see evidenced in the parents’ experiences central them many mainstream opportunities. With their tenets of the concepts of cultivation, family education Jewish American father, the girls might not have had and hard work. The parents place much importance much Chinese experience (Chua, 2011). Chua’s par- on children’s behaviors and study success. They put enting therefore can be considered as her endeavor to strategies of teaching and training children into prac- achieve a balance between Chinese styles of learning tice because they have a goal that academic achieve- and those of America. According to Hobson (2011), ment leads to success. Behind and beyond all these Battle Hymn of the Tiger Mother is an account of the parenting styles, there remains a deep seated cultural psychological warfare between a Chinese mother ideal about the value of education. However, given the and her Westernized daughters. Some other Chinese differences in their families, Chinese immigrant par- parents who are not in this situation, on the other ents actualize this goal from an extreme tiger mother hand, expect their children to receive mainstream approach to other approaches. It is understandable experiences outside homes, to make up for what that there is diversity in their practices. they cannot get from their parents. The key difference between Chua’s parenting Chua’s strong embracing of Chinese cultural and the styles of other Chinese immigrant families ideals in parenting raises questions. These are her is that Chua’s was not connected with the experi- overconfidence that Chinese practices were more ences of immigrants. There are some reasons for effective than those of non-Chinese, her sole focus that. Firstly, unlike most immigrant parents, who on children’s academic achievements and her harsh- are first generation immigrants, Chua herself is a ness with children. A major limitation of Chua’s second-generation and she has successfully settled practice is that it concentrates almost totally on

50 JOURNAL OF FAMILY STUDIES Volume 19, Issue 1, April 2013 © eContent Management Pty Ltd Ideals and realities in Chinese immigrant parenting the old Chinese traditions. While Chua reiterated parenting, the paper could have left out the others that she only told her story, one still cannot help that equally merit attention. The most secure but think that the purpose of generating a wave overall generalization at this point is that parent- of publicity and promoting the sale of her book ing for Chinese immigrants is an experience of could have led her to misleadingly label a particular exploration. The discussions and debates revolv- style as that of Chinese. Given her circumstances ing around Chinese immigrant parenting in gen- that are different from many other Chinese immi- eral and the tiger mother’s style in particular will, grants, Chua’s story, therefore, portrays a picture of let us hope, empower educators to reconceptual- a mother’s pursuit of cultural ideas in her parenting ize immigrant issues and enhance their work with in the absence of contextual realities. Chinese immigrant children and families.

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