Journal of Hindu-Christian Studies Volume 30 Yoga and God: Hindu and Christian Article 9 Perspectives

2017 Kristapuran̄ a:̣ Reshaping Divine Space Pär Eliasson Uppsala University

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Recommended Citation Eliasson, Pär (2017) "Kristapuran̄ a:̣ Reshaping Divine Space," Journal of Hindu-Christian Studies: Vol. 30, Article 9. Available at: https://doi.org/10.7825/2164-6279.1661

The Journal of Hindu-Christian Studies is a publication of the Society for Hindu-Christian Studies. The digital version is made available by Digital Commons @ Butler University. For questions about the Journal or the Society, please contact [email protected]. For more information about Digital Commons @ Butler University, please contact [email protected]. Eliasson: Kristapura?n?a: Reshaping Divine Space

Kristapurāṇa: Reshaping Divine Space

Pär Eliasson Uppsala University

of the falsity of the same idea, and its power Divine space loses hold of them. IF a place is simply a physical location, the word space can be used for something shaped by Catholic mission in early modern mental processes. Physical places influence our The early Catholic missionaries, who came lives by putting limits to the physically to the then Portuguese colony Goa from the practicable, whereas spaces exercise their early years of the sixteenth century and influence through mental processes like shaping onwards, found a divine space already defined our beliefs, values and sentiments. A space may by an impressive Hindu vocabulary. Wishing to be a mental superstructure based on an actual see people embracing the Christian faith, they place, but, since its power is mental, it is not needed strategies for convincing people to necessary that this place physically exists. One change their beliefs about the divine and leading such space, with power to affect the lives of them to a perception of divine space that was in human beings, is . Belief in heaven has accordance with Christian views. In due time the had and still has great impact on many people’s official chose a strategy of thinking and acting. Heaven can be regarded as closing the door to spaces that we can call a part of a more general conceptual space Hindu, by repression of indigenous languages inhabited by (ideas of) the divine and/or and religious practices and by opening an spiritual. I will refer to this as divine space. analogous space defined by Portuguese and Language has the power to create new Latin words. This was done partly by campaigns spaces and reshape old ones, but also to close of destroying temples and Hindu scriptures doors to unwanted spaces by making it difficult from 1540 onwards,2 partly by a decree in 1684 to speak about them. By means of language, (by Viceroy Francisco de Tavora) that all official some are convinced of the existence of heaven,1 church communication must henceforth be in and by means of language others are convinced Portuguese, and Goans must abandon their

Pär Eliasson is a PhD candidate in the Department of Linguistics and Philology at Uppsala University. His dissertation is on the intercultural and translation aspects of early modern Christian literature in Marathi, Konkani and Hindi with a particular interest in how it relates to Hindu literature, vocabulary and thought. He is also involved in the project “Hindu Lexicography and the Cosmopolitan in the Encounter between Europe and around 1700,” which is about the Hindustani dictionary of François Marie de Tours. This project is being led by Prof. Heinz Werner Wessler at Uppsala University.

Journal of Hindu-Christian Studies 30 (2017): 72-82

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Kristapurāṇa: Reshaping Divine Space 73

mother tongue, and another decree in 1704 (by in Portuguese – Arte de Lingoa the apostolic legate Charles Thomas Maillard de Canarim – and a little catechism for children – Tournon) which seriously restricted the Doutrina Christam em lingoa Bramana Canarim – possibility of letting embrace both printed posthumously in Rachol in 1640 indigenous cultural practices.3 Because of the and 1622 respectively.10 Kristapurāṇa is written padroado system, by which the Portuguese kings in a language that Stephens himself as well as got the right and duty to deploy clerics and run most scholars identify as Marathi.11 Stephens’ the churches in their colonies, the Portuguese desire, as he wrote in a letter to the General of authorities controlled the Catholic mission in the Society of in Rome, was “to see in this Asia throughout the early modern period.4 This province some books printed […] in the script of knit state and church tightly together and the place, as was done in Malabar, with great limited the scope for the Church to act as an profit for the Church in that region”,12 was not independent force in relation to the Portuguese put into effect. Instead, Kristapurāṇa was printed colonial power. in Roman script three times during the Thomas Stephens and his purāṇa seventeenth century – 1616, 1649 and 1654, all in There was, however, another significant Goa – but none of these seem to be available 13 trend in the early modern Catholic mission in today. The analysis and references in this Goa, namely that of , exemplified paper rely on Nelson Falcao’s edition from 2009, by Stephens and other Jesuits. Most notable which is based mainly but not exclusively on two among these is Thomas Stephens (1549-1619), manuscripts in Devanagari script, found in 1923 14 the author of the well-known Marathi epic in the William Marsden collection in London. known as Kristapurāṇa. Stephens “fled from Kristapurāṇa is a Christocentric retelling of England” in his twenties, due to harassments he the Bible in more than 10,000 verses, a biblical faced because of his Catholic faith,5 and joined epic in two parts corresponding to the Old and the Jesuits in Rome with a wish to be sent to New Testaments. In the prose preface in India. His wish was granted and he reached Goa Marathi, Stephens expresses his hope that “[…] in 1579, when he was 30 years old.6 Stephens through that story, everybody will come to became an important person in the Jesuit know the true God (paramesvara) and his only mission in Goa, where he stayed until his death son Jesus Christ, the Jesus apart from whose in 1619, except for a year at Basein College north name there is no other name under heaven of Mumbai.7 Stephens’ work was followed by a (svarga) through which one gets salvation 15 wave of Christian literature in various dialects of (mukti).” the closely related languages Marathi and Each chapter of Kristapurāṇa forms a sort of Konkani,8 but he may also have influenced both dialogue sermon, where the voice of the priest is the structure and vocabulary of works of the often interrupted by questions and Italian Jesuit Robert de Nobili, who wrote in commentaries mainly from Brahmins in the Tamil.9 Apart from his big Kristapurāṇa, Stephens audience. In the first chapter, Stephens wrote a few letters to family members and describes how a priest (probably himself) was religious superiors in Europe, a grammar of the teaching children in the catechism on a Sunday evening, when a Brahmin came to him

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74 Pär Eliasson

with a request to give them a Christian purāṇa in connotations, such as vaikuṁṭha for heaven and Marathi. Now when the old purāṇas are vaikuṁṭharājā (“King of vaikuṁṭha”) for God. In forbidden, he says, people may otherwise resort Hindu usage, vaikuṁṭha is the name of Viṣṇu’s to gambling for pastime. The priest was pleased heaven and vaikuṁṭharājā an epithet of Viṣṇu. In with the request and promised to start telling Stephens’ usage, the words refer to the God of what would become the Kristapurāṇa part by Christianity and his heaven. In this way, part every Sunday.16 Stephens used words familiar to the people of In the Portuguese dedication to the Goa, but gave them partly new meanings. archbishop of Goa, Stephens explains that the Signal and signification work is written as a sort of catechism in the style To understand what Stephens does in order most pleasing to the natives.17 The style and to reshape or redefine divine space, I will rely on language is explained in more detail in Ferdinand de Saussure’s theory of a sign as Stephens’ Marathi preface: “combination of a concept and a sound All this is written in Marathi. Seeing that 21 pattern.” A sign in this sense the unity of a Marathi is the most fitting language word and the concept it expresses or stands for. among the languages of the land for the A sign thus consists of two parts, the concept and message about things related to God, but the sound pattern, also referred to as signification that people do not understand pure 22 and signal respectively. Since “the link between Marathi […] I left out several difficult 23 idea and sound is intrinsically arbitrary”, any words of past great poets and, in the signification can be represented by any signal. manner of present [?] great poets, mixed Applying this idea and terminology to it with a number of easy words from the Stephens’ usage of “Hindu” words like vaikuṁṭha language of the Brahmins and so made and vaikuṁṭharājā, his strategy can be described the poetry easy […]. And those who still as keeping the signal but altering the sometimes miss the elegance and signification. The signal Vaikuṁṭharājā is the beautiful language of the old poetry will same sound pattern as used by the Hindus for enjoy reading this poetry […].18 talking about Viṣṇu, but in Stephens’ usage its Kristapurāṇa is written in the same ovī metre signification is the God of Christianity. A sign as had been used several hundred years earlier being the combination of signification and by Mukunda and Jñānadeva,19 as well as by signal, i.e. of concept and sound pattern, altering Stephens’ contemporary Ekanātha and his the signification means altering the sign as a grandson Mukteśvara.20 Thus, Stephens whole. The vaikuṁṭharājā of Kristapurāṇa is embraced the literary form used in and therefore not the same sign as the identically associated with a Hindu (predominantly pronounced and written vaikuṁṭharājā of a Vaiṣṇava) religious and literary tradition. He Vaiṣṇava discourse, since it signifies a different also embraced the Hindu vocabulary of these concept. Nevertheless, the concepts of Viṣṇu for authors and tried to redefine the divine space Vaiṣṇavas and God for Christians are so similar that they had defined and make it compatible that they, so to speak, hold analogous places in with the Catholic faith. Kristapurāṇa is full of their respective linguistic systems, both idiomatic expressions with deep Hindu

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containing the concept of Supreme Being. heaven is described as an ascension to svarga and Therefore, Stephens could use the signal vaikuṁṭha alike.31 Still the terms are not entirely vaikuṁṭharājā for the Christian concept of God synonymous. For example, Stephens tells us that and thereby form a new Christian sign related to Jesus ascended through ten svargas before he the old Hindu one, but with a meaning fitting reached the gate of vaikuṁṭha: better in his message. In Saussure’s structuralistic theory, a So ascending ten aisā dāhā svargā language is “a system based entirely on the svargas, kramītā contrasts between its concrete units”24 which Everything was caraṇāṁtaḷi rāhile means that a sign is defined by being what the under his feet. samasta other signs are not. If all signs are defined by Then he reached maga vaikuṁṭha dvāra their mutual differences, changing the meaning ṭhākita of one sign has consequences for the entire The gate of pātalā javaḷi32 linguistic system. In view of this, what Stephens vaikuṁṭha. does can be described as entering a new linguistic system and trying to reshape it by The impression that vaikuṁṭha is higher changing the significations of certain signs and than svarga is confirmed later in the same to a lesser extent introducing new signs, chapter, when Jesus is exhorted to establish his primarily Portuguese loan words like pādrī for a throne “above all svargas in the holy 33 priest and spīrītu sāṁtu for the Holy Spirit.25 vaikuṁṭha”. So Stephens treats vaikuṁṭha as a name of the highest heaven or highest realm of Reshaping divine space svarga, which is in accordance with Vaiṣṇavaite To show how Stephens does this, I will begin terminology, which places vaikuṁṭha above all with words used for heaven and then move on other worlds or .34 to the related concept of salvation. The most It is interesting how Stephens handles the common words for heaven in Kristapurāṇa are fact that vaikuṁṭha is a sign borrowed from a svarga and vaikuṁṭha, both used independently Vaiṣṇavaite language system, where it implies as well as in compounds like svargasthāna the concept of Viṣṇu as Supreme Being and king (“place/land of heaven”),26 svargamaṁdira of vaikuṁṭha. Indeed, Stephens accepts and uses (“house of heaven”),27 different versions of many divine epithets that would normally be svarga rājya28 (“kingdom of heaven”), and understood as epithets of Viṣṇu. Nelson Falcao, vaikuṁṭhīcā rāja (“kingdom of heaven”).29 In maybe correctly, interprets this as an Marathi, svarga is generally translatable as ‘sky’ appreciation of the underlying monotheism of or ‘heaven’, whereas vaikuṁṭha exclusively . He writes that Stephens “accepts the refers to heaven. More specifically vaikuṁṭha is whole of the Vaiṣṇavaite tradition and a name of Viṣṇu’s in , attributes names like Vaikunṭhanātha, whereas svarga sometimes but not exclusively Vaikunṭharāṇā, Vaikunṭharāyā, refers to ’s heaven.30 Vaikunṭhanāyaka, Vaikunṭharājā and others for Kristapurāṇa often seems to treat svarga and God the Father and the Son of God.”35 However, vaikuṁṭha as synonyms. Jesus’ ascension to I would argue that the Vaiṣṇavaite attributes

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that Stephens uses for God are not names, but Then those guards tevhāṁ te rākhaṇāṁīta epithets with meanings like “king of vaikuṁṭha”.36 ask: pusatī Stephens never uses any proper name of Viṣṇu Who is that King of kavaṇa to rājāmutkicā38 or any other Hindu god. Using epithets like mukti? vaikunṭharājā for God is a subtle way of saying that it is really not Viṣṇu but the God of The answer is: Christianity who is king of vaikuṁṭha. In Christian theology, heaven is a realm of This Lord of angels, hāci boḍavyācā svāmī eternal life and unparalleled joy, where those the life of the world, jagajivana 39 who are saved from sin, death and the devil, will King of mokṣapada! mokṣapadācā rājā live in communion with God. Stephens’ principal Marathi words for salvation are mukti Thereafter Jesus enters the house of mokṣa and mokṣa, and he treats vaikuṁṭha as the place (mokṣa āśrama) accompanied by the blessed where the blessed enjoy mukti/mokṣa. Only a few bhaktas or pious ones: verses after the one quoted above, with Jesus Telling such aisā āpurva dāuna standing in front of the gate of vaikuṁṭha, marvellous yejusvāmī Stephens paraphrases the famous passage in things, Lord Jesus, Psalm 24: Together with the bhāgyevaṁtā Lift up your heads, you gates; blessed bhaktas, bhaktāṁsamāṁgamī be lifted up, you ancient doors, With great thora haseṁ mokṣa āśramī that the King of glory may come in. laughter into the Who is this King of glory? house of mokṣa The LORD strong and mighty, 40 37 He entered. praveśa kelā the LORD mighty in battle.

In Stephens’ version, Jesus is not King of As the gate through which he enters is the glory but King of mukti and mokṣapada: gate of vaikuṁṭha, the house of mokṣa is

obviously the same as vaikuṁṭha.41 They say: Listen, hmaṇati parisāho rāje Hindu mukti means liberation from saṁsāra, kings, this world. Saṁsāra implies punarjanma (rebirth), Open your gates, tumace dārivaṭhe which does not fit into Christian ideas of what ughaḍije man needs to be liberated from. Christianity has And, O Gates, give āṇī dārīvaṭhe ho tumhi no concept of rebirth in that sense, but the word place vosarije punarjanma reminisces of the biblical idea of For the invincible āḍaḷa jivitvāceṁ being born again.42 Stephens draws on this idea Soul! in the eighth chapter of Kristapurāṇa, but avoids The King and mukticā rājā cakravati the word punarjanma. Instead, he speaks about a Emperor of mukti navā janma (new birth) in this saṁsāra through Has come to enter, praveśāvyā ālā hmaṇati the grace of the Holy Spirit, by means of they say. baptism, and firm faith.

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Now the new birth ātāṁ navā janma The Lord will let us tayā bhogāvayā begins. ārambhata akhaṁḍiti Without human to puruśa saṁgāvirahita Enjoy it endlessly. desila svāmīyāṁ45 intercourse It comes through īsphirita sāṁtāṁce krupe In this way, Stephens almost completely the grace of the upajata ignores the word punarjanma, but introduces the Holy Spirit similar word navā janma and gives it a very In the world saṁsārā āṁtu different meaning. Described with Saussure’s (saṁsāra). terminology, he introduces a similar signal and provides it with a new signification. The Hindu That is the birth of to janma jñānaschānāṁcā punarjanma signifies continued confinement in baptism saṁsāra, but the Christian navā janma signifies And firm faith. āṇī druḍamanabhāvācā liberation from saṁsāra. When the word It is the holy birth to svāmīyāṁce krupecā punarjanma is finally used in II.43/44.28, it stands Of the Lord’s grace. pavitra janmu43 for the resurrection of the body at the time of the last judgement.46 Like the Hindu concept of punarjanma, this Stephens ignores the Hindu concept navā janma takes place in saṁsāra. But if every expressed by the signal punarjanma, introduces new birth in a Hindu worldview by implication the similar signal navā janma, and gives it an means at least temporary deprivation of mukti, opposite signification, and finally introduces the this navā janma is rather a birth out of saṁsāra sign of punarjanma with a signification that is 44 and into the state of mukti. Those who are born different from the one current in Hindu with this navā janma will not get the inheritance contexts but applicable in a Christian message. of saṁsāra, but the supreme inheritance of Conclusion svarga: The analysis in this article has treated words

for heaven and salvation used in Thomas God does not give devā tayā lekuravāṁsiṁ Stephens’ Kristapurāṇa. The analysis has focused those children on how Stephens treats words linked with The inheritance of saṁsārice dāīja nedisi concepts in the Hindu/Vaiṣnava language saṁsāra. system from which they are taken, concepts An excellent utama dāīja desiṁ difficult or impossible to accommodate in inheritance he gives Stephens’ Christian worldview. Such word- Of the world of svarga bhuvaniceṁ concept links are vaikuṁṭha as the abode of svarga. Viṣnu, and mukti/mokṣa as liberation not only

from death, but also from rebirth. In the case of The joy of vaikuṁṭha vaikuṁṭhici Viṣnu and vaikuṁṭha, Stephens handles the sukhaprāptī problem by using epithets like vaikunṭharājā for Together with the āhmāṁ boḍavyā God, but never uses any of Viṣnu’s proper angels sāṁgāti names. It is not what he says about vaikuṁṭha as

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such that most dramatically alters the concept in this regard.48 The Jesuit Antonio de Saldanha, expressed by the word, but what he says about in both his mid-seventeenth century works its king, vaikunṭharājā. The king of vaikunṭha that about Saint Anthony of Padua, one in Marathi Kristapurāṇa refers to is not Viṣnu, but the triune and the other in Konkani, used mukti and God of Christianity. Similarly, the most dramatic svarga.49 altering of the concept expressed by The Konkani-Portuguese dictionary that, as mukti/mokṣa is not brought about by what is said the title says, was composed by Jesuits and about mukti/mokṣa as such, but through revised by Diogo Ribeiro S. J. in 1626 has variants tinkering with words that express what of all these words. It translates ‘Suǎrgu’ as Ceo50, mukti/mokṣa are understood as liberation from. ‘Vǎincuttǎ’ as Paraizo celestial, ‘Mugti” as Bem- Stephens rids saṁsāra of punarjanma and gives aventurança or Salvação51 and ‘Mokhe’ as Bem- punarjanma a new meaning, significantly aventurança.52 different from the unwanted concept of rebirth. Vaikuṁṭha and svarga are both used in By altering the concepts expressed by words less Christanchi Sastrazza Cathexismo, a catechism crucial for his message, Stephens manages to written in a Marathi dialect spoken around alter even the central concepts without present day Mumbai by an anonymous author explicitly redefining them, and also without and printed in Roman script in 1778.53 The same criticizing or refuting the concepts expressed by is the case in a long passion poem in Marathi the same words in Hindu usage. His work can be published by Anant Kakba Priolkar as Kristāceṁ read as an attempt to reshape what I have yātanāgīta.54 According to a remark in the referred to as divine space. By giving familiar manuscript that he found in Goa, it was words the capacity to express new concepts, he composed by a Father Manuel Jaques de made it possible to imagine divine space in a new Noronha, born and living in Goa, and written way. From another perspective, it can of course down by a Manuel Saluador Rebello, living in be seen as an attempt to obscure or rid the same Madgaon, in 1768.55 words of the capacity to express competing On the Hindi or Hindustani side, the French Hindu ideas. Capuchin missionary François Marie de Tours, Although the Christian literary activity in chose Persian words for heaven and salvation Marathi and Konkani was seriously impeded by instead of using the vocabulary adopted the above-mentioned decrees in 1684 and 1704, by the Marathi and Konkani authors. He and although using words with strong Hindu composed a Latin-Hindi-French thesaurus in connotations in a Christian context may seem 1704 and a sort of outline for a catechism in Latin radical, vaikuṁṭha, svarga, mukti and mokṣa47 all and Hindi with supplemented vocabulary, seem to have been in use throughout the known as Fragmentum Fabrionianum. As per my seventeenth and eighteenth century. It seems knowledge, none of them was ever printed. that mukti was more used than mokṣa and svarga Instead of using the Sanskrit vocabulary of the more than the stronger Hindu sounding Marathi and Konkani authors, de Tours’ vaikuṁṭha. Stephens’ own Konkani catechism, thesaurus has āsmāṁn for caelum, bacht for printed posthumously in 1622, using svarga, paradisum, khālasī and salāmat(ī) for salvatio.56 vaikuṁṭha and mukti, seems quite representative Assessing the reasons and consequences of this

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choice is beyond the scope of this article. It may testifies to a high esteem of Indian languages be due partly to the languages having different and literary art. I will let this article end with an stocks of words or the missionaries different excerpt from a passage in the first chapter of target groups, but might also be the outcome of Kristapurāṇa, where Thomas Stephens praises different theological or linguistic ideas. the Indian language that he had so painstakingly Whereas Nelson Falcao and others have made his own: praised Kristapurāṇa as an example of successful inculturation of Christianity in India,57 Like the jasmine jaisī puṣpāmāṁji puṣpa Alexander Henn has insisted that it must be blossom among mogarī understood in light of the violent campaigns flowers against Hinduism in Goa that preceded it.58 Or musk among ki parimaḷāṁmāji Thomas Stephens was a child of his time, and as perfumes, kasturi a Catholic priest in Portuguese Goa, he was So graceful among taisī bhāṣāṁmāji sājirī inevitably a part of a repressive system where languages the Catholic Church was tightly knit to the Is Marathi. marāthiyā59 colonial power. Nevertheless, Stephens’ work

Notes

1 A similar idea is expressed in Romans 10:17: Thomas Stephens, S.J. (1559-1619), Anand, Gujarat “Consequently, faith comes from hearing the Sahitya Prakash, 2003, pp. 7-10. message, and the message is heard through the word 8 Cf. Tulpule, pp. 379-386. about Christ.” All Bible quotes in this article are taken 9 G. Nardini, “Roberto Nobili’s Vivāha dharma”, in from NIV. A. Flüchter and R. Wirbser (eds.), Translating 2 A. Henn, Hindu-Catholic Encounters in Goa: Catechisms, Translating Cultures. The Expansion of Religion, Colonialism, and Modernity, Indiana, Indiana Catholicism in the Early Modern World, University Press, 2014, p. 40; G.S. Tulpule, Classical Leiden/Boston, Brill, 2017, p. 233. Marāṭhī literature: from the beginning to a. d. 1818, 10 See Falcao, Kristapurāṇa: A Christian-Hindu Wiesbaden, Harrassowitz, 1979, p. 379. Encounter, p. 11. 3 Henn, Hindu-Catholic Encounters in Goa, p. 73. 11 Kristapurāṇa 58/59.120, in N. Falcao (ed. and 4 E. Koepping, ‘India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, trans.), Phādar Thomas Sṭīphanskṛta Khristapurāṇa, Burma/Myanmar’, in P.C. Pahn (ed.), Christianities in Bengaluru, Khristu Jyoti Publications, 2009. Asia, Singapore, Blackwell Publishing, 2011, p. 16. 12 “Fr. Stephens’ Letter to Rome – 1608”, in N. 5 See Stephens’ letter to his brother (dated 24 Falcao (ed. and trans.), Phādar Thomas Sṭīphanskṛta Oktober 1583) in N. Falcao (ed. and trans.), Phādar Khristapurāṇa, p. 1685. Thomas Stīphanskṛta Khristapurāṇa, Bengaluru, Khristu 13 Falcao Kristapurāṇa: A Christian-Hindu Encounter, Jyoti Publications, 2009, p. 1671. pp. 20-21. 6 C. Veliath, ‘Thomas Stephens – a human 14 Falcao (ed. and trans.), Phādar Thomas monument of inculturation in India’, Bulletin of the Sṭīphanskṛta Khristapurāṇa, Bengaluru, Khristu Jyoti Faculty of Foreign Studies, Sophia University, no. 46, 2011, Publications, 2009. Concerning the relation of the pp. 161-162. Marsden version to other extant versions, see Falcao, 7 Cf. N. Falcao Kristapurāṇa: A Christian-Hindu Kristapurāṇa: A Christian-Hindu Encounter, pp. 22-23; Encounter. A Study of Inculturation in the Kristapurāṇa of

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29 Falcao (ed. and trans.), Phādar Thomas Stīphanskṛta Kristapurāṇa II.42/43.45. 30 Khristapurāṇa, pp. 1586-1656. Molesworth, Molesworth’s Marathi-English 15 Falcao (ed. and trans.), Phādar Thomas Dictionary, pp. 773, 879. 31 Sṭīphanskṛta Khristapurāṇa, p. (75): “[…] tiye Kristapurāṇa II.57/58.43, II.57/58.54. 32 kathevaraunu samastāṁsi satyavaṁtā paramesvarā vā Kristapurāṇa II.58/59.25. 33 teyāceā yekāci putrā jesu kristācī voḷakhi hovāveyā, jeyā Kristapurāṇa II.58/59.52: “sakaḷa svargā jesuvāṁconu āṇiyeka nāṁva jeāce varaunu prāṇiyāsi varute/pavitra vaikuṁṭhāteṁ”. 34 mukti joḍe aiseṁ svargākhāluteṁ nameḷe.” L. González-Reimann, ‘Cosmic Cycles, 16 Kristapurāṇa I.1. 126-181. Cosmology, and Cosmography’, in Jacobsen, Knut A., 17 Falcao (ed. and trans.), Phādar Thomas Helene Basu, Angelika Malinar and Vasudha Sṭīphanskṛta Khristapurāṇa, pp. (83)-(84): “[…] uma obra Narayanan (eds.), Brill’s Encyclopedia of Hinduism. composta a modo da terra, e no estilo de que os naturaes Available from: Brill Online, 2015. Reference. mais gostam, a qual contém uma instruição e como Gothenburg University Library, (accessed 25 June cathecismo […].” 2015). 35 18 Falcao (ed. and trans.), Phādar Thomas Falcao, Kristapurāṇa: A Christian-Hindu Sṭīphanskṛta Khristapurāṇa, p. (78): “heṁ sarva Encounter, p. 202. 36 marāṭhiye bhāsena lihileṁ āhe. heā desīṁceāṁ See e.g. Kristapurāṇa II.32/33.98, II.2.62, II.1.9, bhāsāṁbhitura hī bhāsa paramesvarāceā vastu niropūṁsi II.2.34, II.7.2, II.2.58, II.58/59.45. 37 yogya aisī disali mhaṇaunu, paṇa sudha marāṭhī madhimā Psalm 24:7-8. 38 lokāsi nakaḷe dekhunu […] māgileāṁ kavesvarāṁcī Kristapurāṇa II.58/59.31-32. 39 bahutekeṁ avaghaḍeṁ utareṁ saṁḍunu sāṁpuceṁyāṁ Kristapurāṇa II.58/59.37. 40 kavesvarāṁciye ritupramāṇeṁ āṇiyekeṁ soṁpīṁ Kristapurāṇa II.58/59.42. 41 brāhmaṇāṁce bhāsecīṁ utareṁ ṭhāīṁ ṭhāīṁ misarita Cf. also Kristapurāṇa II.48.94, where Jesus tells karunu kavitva soṁpeṁ keleṁ […] āṇī je kavaṇa the criminal hanging on the cross besides his own: yekādeveḷāṁ purvileāṁ kavitvāṁca struṁgāru vā baravī “Today you will be with me in muktipada” (āji mājhe bhāsa adyāpīṁ āṭhavatātī te heṁ kavitva vācunu saṁtosu saṁve vartasi/mutkipadi). The verse corresponds to mānitī […].” All translations from Marathi are my Luke 23:43 and the locative form muktipadi obviously own. stands for Vulgate’s in paradiso, “in paradise”. 42 19 A. Master, A Grammar of Old Marathi, Oxford, Cf. the story about Jesus and Nikodemus in Oxford University Press, 1964, p. 13. John 3. 43 20 J. Wilson, ‘Notes on the Constituent Elements, Kristapurāṇa II.8.40-41. Here Kristapurāṇa the Diffusion, and the Application of the Maráthí differs slightly from the corresponding text in John Language’, 1857, in J.T. Molesworth, Molesworth’s 3:5, where the new birth comes through “water and Marathi-English Dictionary, Pune, Shubhada-Saraswat the Spirit” only. 44 Prakashan, 1996, p. xxvii. Cf. Romans 6:3-14; Galatians 2:19-20. 45 21 F. de Saussure, Course in General Linguistics, Kristapurāṇa II.8.42-43. 46 trans. Roy Harris, London, Duckworth, 1983, p. 67. Falcao, Phādar Thomas Stīphanskṛta 22 Saussure, p. 67. Khristapurāṇa, p.1495. 47 23 Saussure, p. 111. More precisely, vernacularized variants of 24 Saussure, Course in General Linguistics, p. 105 these words were in use. The following account gives 25 E.g. Kristapurāṇa I.1.7, I.1.127. transliterations of standardized Marathi forms 26 Kristapurāṇa II.37/38.113. rather than the variants used in the early modern 27 Kristapurāṇa II.35/36.51. texts. 28 Kristapurāṇa II.32/33.80, II.29/30.58.

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56 48 Stephens, Thomas. Doutrina Christam em Lingoa Thesaursus, pp. 113, 145, 273. Cf. Fragmentum Bramana Canarim, Rachol, Goa, 1622. Facsimile in: Fabronianum, pp. 1, 2, 5, 6. 57 Saldanha, Mariano, Doutrina Cristã em Lingua Concani E.g. Falcao, Kristapurāṇa: A Christian-Hindu pr Tomás Estêvão, S. J. Impressa em Rachol (Goa) em 1622. Encounter. 58 Segunda edição, fac-similada, Com Introdução, Notas e E.g. Henn ‘Kristapurāṇa: Translating the Name Glossário, Lisbon, Agência Geral das Colónias, 1945, pp. of God in Early Modern Goa’. 59 25, 32. For an analysis of how the theme of salvation Kristapurāṇa I.1.123. is treated in Doutrina Christam, see Eliasson, Pär, Mukti in Kristapurāṇa. How Thomas Stephens S.J. (1549-1619) Bibliography conveys a christian message of salvation in words with Eliasson, Pär, Mukti in Kristapurāṇa. How Thomas Hindu connotations, (MA thesis), University of Stephens S.J. (1549-1619) conveys a christian message of Gothenburg, 2015, pp. 41-44. salvation in words with Hindu connotations, (MA thesis), 49 A. K. Priolkar (ed.), Pādrī Āṁtoniyu da Sāldadāñja University of Gothenburg, 2015. URL: viracita Sāṁtu Āṁtonicī jivitvakathā, Mumbai, Marathi "https://gupea.ub.gu.se/handle/2077/40770?locale= Samshodhana Mandala, 1964, no. 1, 2, 286, 506, 522, en" (accessed 15-06-2017). 532; A. K. Priolkar (ed.), Sancto Antonīchĩ Acharyã, Mumbai, Marathi Samshodhana Mandala, 1963, pp. Falcao, Nelson, Kristapurāṇa: A Christian-Hindu 14, 70, 72. Encounter. A Study of Inculturation in the Kristapurāṇa of 50 T. Maruyama (ed.), Vocabulario da Lingoa Thomas Stephens, S.J. (1559-1619), Anand, Gujarat Canarim feito pellos padres da Companhia de Jesus que Sahitya Prakash, 2003. reside na Christandade de Salcete e novamente Falcao, Nelson (ed. and trans.), Phādar Thomas acressentado com varios modos de fallar pello Padre Diogo Sṭīphanskṛta Khristapurāṇa, Bengaluru, Khristu Jyoti Ribeiro da mesma Companhia. Anno 1626, Nagoya, Publications, 2009. Nanzan University, 2005, p. 312 51 Maruyama (ed.), Vocabulario da Lingoa Canarim, González-Reimann, Luis, ‘Cosmic Cycles, Cosmology, p. 207 and Cosmography’, in Jacobsen, Knut A., Helene Basu, 52 Maruyama (ed.), Vocabulario da Lingoa Canarim, Angelika Malinar and Vasudha Narayanan (eds.), p. 204. Brill’s Encyclopedia of Hinduism. Available from: Brill 53 E.g. Mīnā (ed.), Uttara koṁkanī marāṭhī bolīcā Online, 2015. Reference. Gothenburg University graṁtha. Kristāṃcī sāstrājā katheśijhmu, Mumbai, Library. URL: http://referenceworks.brillonline. Marathi Samshodhana Mandala, 1962, 1:5, 1:8; 2:2. See com.ezproxy.ub.gu.se/entries/brill-s-encyclopedia- also M. Jośī, ”Prastāvanā” p. 3-5, in: J. Mīnā (ed.), Uttara of-hinduism/ cosmic-cycles-cosmology-aand- koṁkanī marāṭhī bolīcā graṁtha. Kristāṃcī sāstrājā cosmography-BEHCOM_1020020 (accessed 25 June katheśijhmu, Mumbai, Marathi Samshodhana 2015). Mandala, 1962. Henn, Alexander, Hindu-Catholic Encounters in Goa: 54 A. K. Priolkar (ed.), Kristāceṁ yātanāgīta, Religion, Colonialism, and Modernity, Indiana, Indiana Mumbai, Marathi Samshodhana Mandala, 1959, no. University Press, 2014. 52, 71, 102 (bhūmīṁ vaikuṁṭhi ̄̇ for “in the garden of Henn, Alexander, ‘Kristapurāṇa: Translating the Eden”), 111, 145 (Jesus is given the epithet mugtipati, Name of God in Early Modern Goa’, South Asia “Lord of mukti”), 63, 79, 150. Multidisciplinary Academic Journal [Online], no. 12, 55 Priolkar, ”Prastāvanā”, p. 4, in: Priolkar (ed.), 2015, Online since 21 October 2015. URL : Kristāceṁ yātanāgīta, Mumbai, Marathi Samshodhana http://samaj.revues.org/4038 (accessed 23 Mandala, 1959. December 2015).

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Holy Bible, New International Version®, NIV® Priolkar, Anant Kakba (ed.), Kristāceṁ yātanāgīta, Copyright © 1973, 1978, 1984, 2011 by Biblica, Inc.® Mumbai, Marathi Samshodhana Mandala, 1959. Used by permission. All rights reserved worldwide. Priolkar, Anant Kakba (ed.), Pādrī Āṁtoniyu da Jośī, Mīnā, ”Prastāvanā”, in: Jośī, Mīnā (ed.), Uttara Sāldadāñja viracita Sāṁtu Āṁtonicī jivitvakathā, koṁkanī marāṭhī bolīcā graṁtha. Kristāṃcī sāstrājā Mumbai, Marathi Samshodhana Mandala, 1964. katheśijhmu, Mumbai, Marathi Samshodhana Priolkar, Anant Kakba (ed.), Sancto Antonīchĩ Mandala, 1962. Acharyã, Mumbai, Marathi Samshodhana Mandala, Jośī, Mīnā (ed.), Uttara koṁkanī marāṭhī bolīcā graṁtha. 1963. Kristāṃcī sāstrājā katheśijhmu, Mumbai, Marathi Saussure, F. de, Course in General Linguistics, trans. Roy Samshodhana Mandala, 1962. Harris, London, Duckworth, 1983.

Koepping, Elisabeth, ‘India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Stephens, Thomas. Doutrina Christam em Lingoa Burma/Myanmar, in Pahn, Peter C. (ed.), Christianities Bramana Canarim, Rachol, Goa, 1622. Facsimile in: in Asia, Singapore, Blackwell Publishing, 2011. Saldanha, Mariano, Doutrina Cristã em Lingua Concani Maruyama, Toru (ed.), Vocabulario da Lingoa Canarim pr Tomás Estêvão, S. J. Impressa em Rachol (Goa) em 1622. feito pellos padres da Companhia de Jesus que reside na Segunda edição, fac-similada, Com Introdução, Notas e Christandade de Salcete e novamente acressentado com Glossário, Lisbon, Agência Geral das Colónias, 1945, pp. varios modos de fallar pello Padre Diogo Ribeiro da mesma 55-190. Companhia. Anno 1626, Nagoya, Nanzan University, Tulpule, Shankar Gopal, Classical Marāṭhī literature: 2005. from the beginning to a. d. 1818. Wiesbaden, Master, Alfred, A Grammar of Old Marathi, Oxford, Harrassowitz, 1979. Oxford University Press, 1964. Veliath, Cyril, ‘Thomas Stephens – a human Molesworth, J. T., Molesworth’s Marathi-English monument of inculturation in India’, Bulletin of the Dictionary, Pune, Shubhada-Saraswat Prakashan, Faculty of Foreign Studies, Sophia University, no. 46, 1996. 2011, pp. 153-178.

Nardini, Giulia, “Roberto Nobili’s Vivāha dharma”, in Wilson, John. 1857. ‘Notes on the Constituent Flüchter, Antje and Rouven Wirbser (eds.), Translating Elements, the Diffusion, and the Application of the Catechisms, Translating Cultures. The Expansion of Maráṭhí language’, in Molesworth, J. T., Molesworth’s Catholicism in the Early Modern World, Leiden/Boston, Marathi-English Dictionary, Pune, Shubhada-Saraswat Brill, 2017, pp. 223-251. Prakasha

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