Holocene Environmental Change, Artiodactyl Abundances, and Human Hunting Strategies in the Great Basin Author(S): David A

Society for American Archaeology

Holocene Environmental Change, Artiodactyl Abundances, and Human Hunting Strategies in the Great Basin Author(s): David A. Byers and Jack M. Broughton Source: American Antiquity, Vol. 69, No. 2 (Apr., 2004), pp. 235-255 Published by: Society for American Archaeology Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4128418 . Accessed: 14/11/2013 15:14

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This content downloaded from 155.97.85.112 on Thu, 14 Nov 2013 15:14:52 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions HOLOCENE ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE, ARTIODACTYL ABUNDANCES, AND HUMAN HUNTING STRATEGIES IN THE GREAT BASIN

David A. Byers and Jack M. Broughton

Despite a deep Great Basin tradition of incorporatingpaleoenvironmental change within ecologically oriented analyses of past humanlifeways, there has been little attentionfocused on Holocene variation in artiodactyl abundancesand the human hunting strategies dependentupon them.Here, we draw upon recentlygenerated paleontological evidencefrom Homestead Cave of the Bonneville Basin to document a late Holocene artiodactyl population increase. Wethen use the prey model of foraging theory to predict late Holocene increases in the hunting of artiodactyls, relative to lagomorphs. Thatprediction is then tested against several fine-grained archaeological records of hunting behavior in the Bonneville Basin, Hogup Cave and Camels Back Cave, and a variety of more coarse-grainedfaunal recordsfrom throughoutthe Great Basin. Close fits are found between the deductivelyderived prediction and the empirical records of huntingbehavior: dramaticproportional increases in artiodactyl huntingoccurred during the late Holocene. The results havefar-reaching implicationsfor our under- standing of prehistoric human adaptations in the Great Basin.

A pesar de que en la Gran Cuenca hay una tradicidnenraizada de incorporarlos cambiospaleoambientales en los andlisis de tipo ecoldgico acerca de los modos de vida de las poblaciones antiguas, se ha prestado muypoca atencidn a la variacidn en abundanciade artioddctilos duranteel Holoceno y su influenciaen las estrategias de caza de los seres humanos. En este articulo utilizamosnuevas evidenciaspaleontoldgicas obtenidasen la cueva Homesteady la cuenca del Bonnevillepara doc- umentarincrementos en la poblacidn de artioddctilosdurante el Holoceno tardio.Ademds, se hace uso del modelo de presa de la teoria de forrajeo para predecir incrementosen la caceria de artioddctilos con respecto a los lagomorfos, durante el Holoceno tardio. Finalmente,se comparanestas predicciones con datos detallados arqueolo'gicossobre prdcticas de caceria en la cuenca del Bonneville, las cuevas Hogup y CamelsBack, y con un grupo de datos mds generales sobre lafauna en toda la Gran Cuenca. Encontramosunafuerte correlacidn entre las predicciones tedricas y los datos empfricosacerca de prdcticas de cacerfa: durante el Holoceno hubierondramdticos incrementos en la caza de artioddctilos. Estos resultados tienen implicacionesimportantes concernientes a nuestraconcepcidn de las adaptacionesprehist6ricashumanas en la CuencaGrande. or overhalf a century,Holocene paleocli- two basins and suggest that severe droughtschar- matic recordsfrom the GreatBasin (Figure acterizedregional climates for most of the middle 1) have suggestedthat the middleHolocene Holocene.Not only diddrought conditions prevail, (8000 to 5000 B.P.) was hot and dry (see reviews but averagetemperatures appear to havebeen a full in Benson et al. 2002; Grayson1993, 2000a;Mad- 3-50 C warmerthan those of the late Holocene sen 2000; Madsenet al. 2001). While some degree (Benson et al. 2002). These results are consistent of regional variabilityin the timing and intensity with a varietyof sedimentological,chemical, and of middle Holocene xericity is clearly apparent, physical records produced over the last several recentlyderived geologically based climate records decadesfrom localities distributed across the Great from the Pyramidand Owens Lake basins under- Basin.Antevs' (1955) characterizationof the mid- line the severityand potentialbiotic impactof cli- dle Holocene as a "LongDrought," it now seems, matic conditions during this time (Benson et al. was not too far off. However, in many settings 2002). Thoserecords reflect paleolake levels forthe across the aridWest, it also appearsthat warmer

David A. Byers a Departmentof Anthropology,University of Utah, 270 South 1400 East, Salt Lake City, Utah 84112, [email protected] Jack M. Broughton a Departmentof Anthropology,University of Utah, 270 South 1400 East, Salt Lake City, Utah 84112, [email protected]

American Antiquity,69(2), 2004, pp. 235-255 Copyright@2004 by the Society for AmericanArchaeology

235

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I 1 .

?--

1 CaliforniaA / I it / Pyramid I OreonG: d re alt

\ \ Basin4\ Great i 6 ratBasin GWhi I/ Utah Nevada

Lake \ / .\

10kArizona 150 km

Figure 1. The Great Basin (indicated by the dotted line), with locations of places mentioned in the text. Key to numbered sites is as follows: 1, Homestead Cave; 2, Hogup Cave; 3, Danger Cave; 4, Last Supper Cave; 5, Dirty Shame Rockshelter; 6, Camels Back Cave; 7, Gatecliff Shelter; 8, O'Malley Shelter; 9, Pie Creek Shelter. and drierconditions were initiatedearlier-within et al. 2002; Bettinger1999; Grayson1993, 2000a; the early Holocene between 10,000 to 8000 B.P. Kelly 1997). (e.g., Brunelle and Anderson 2003; Davis et al. Early and middle Holocene changes in Great 1985, 2002; Mensing 2001; Mohr et al. 2000; Basin floras have been documented primarily Wigand and Rhode 2002). In addition, seasonal throughdetailed studies of packrat(Neotoma sp.) swings in temperatureand precipitationmay have middens,pollen records,and treelinemovements. been more pronouncedduring the early Holocene The established trends follow predictably from than any time after (e.g., Davis 1999; Thompson early and middle Holocene increasesin tempera- et al. 1993; Zielinski and Mershon1997). ture and decreases in precipitation.In the Bon- The bioticresponse to Holoceneclimatic change neville Basin of westernUtah, the abundancesof has been the focus of intensiveresearch over the more mesic plant taxa, including conifers in the last severaldecades as well. Holocenevegetational upperelevations and sagebrush (Artemisia spp.) in dynamics and small mammalbiogeography have lowlandsettings, decline during this time (Madsen been especiallywell-studied (Grayson 2000a; Mad- andCurrey 1979; Madsen et al. 2001;Rhode 2000). sen 2000; Rhode 2000; Rhode and Madsen 1995; In theWhite Mountains of southeasternCalifornia, Spaulding 1991; Wigandand Rhode 2002), and a dramaticupslope movementsoccurred during the roughoutline of humanpopulation fluctuations has middleHolocene for both pinyon-juniper woodland been establishedfor many areasas well (Benson and bristleconepine (Pinus longaeva) (Jennings

This content downloaded from 155.97.85.112 on Thu, 14 Nov 2013 15:14:52 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions Byers and Broughton] HOLOCENEARTIODACTYL HUNTING 237 and Elliot-Fisk 1993; LaMarche 1973). In the 1999; Grayson 1993, 2000a; Madsen 2002). Of MojaveDesert to the south,the abundanceof ther- course, Great Basin archaeologists have long mophilousshrubs increased at the expenseof more affordedenvironmental change a critical role in mesic taxa(Spaulding 1991). Similarly,in lowland shapingmany other aspects of pasthuman lifeways settingsof northernNevada, sagebrush-dominated (see the review in Rhode 1999). communitieswere replacedby shadscale(Atriplex In spite of this intensiveresearch effort devoted spp.) and other more heat-tolerant plants to understandingthe biotic responses to climate (Mehringer1985; Wigand and Mehringer1985). change and the fact thathuman-environment rela- The response of small mammalsto Holocene tionshipshas been "arguablythe problemin Basin climaticchange is in close accordwith the vegeta- anthropologyover the last half century"(O'Con- tion record and is best exemplified by the well- nell and Elston 1999:263; emphasis in original), stratified and well-dated 13,000-year faunal therehas been little attentionfocused on Holocene sequencefrom HomesteadCave in the Bonneville variationin artiodactylabundances and the response Basin. Based on over 184,000 identified mam- of humanhunters to thatvariation (but see Grayson malian bones and teeth, Grayson(2000a, 2000b) 1982;Pippin 1977; Thomas 1970). In thispaper, we has revealeda series of pronouncedchanges in the draw upon the availablepaleontological evidence Holocene distributionsand abundancesof small bearingon Holocene changesin artiodactylabun- mammalspecies. Specifically,mesic small mam- dancesand then use theprey model of foragingthe- mal species decline in abundanceacross the early ory to predict how human hunters would have Holocene section of deposits and are virtually respondedto the documentedtrends. These pre- absentby the beginningof the middle Holocene. dictionsare thentested in detailwith severalhigh- While some species respondedonly to the increas- resolution archaeological sequences of hunting ing aridity of early and middle Holocene times, behaviorin the BonnevilleBasin and,more gener- other species reactedto both the onset and termi- ally, with a wide varietyof coarser-grainedrecords nationof the xeric episode. Westernharvest mice distributedthroughout the GreatBasin. This analy- (Reithrodontomysmegalotis), for instance, are most sis suggests that artiodactylpopulations increased abundanttoday in moister settings in the Great as climateameliorated during the late Holocene and Basin and are known to decline in numberduring humanforagers took full advantageof theincreased periodsof drought(mammalian nomenclature fol- abundanceof high-rankedprey. The results have far- lows Kays andWilson [2002]).These mice decline reachingimplications for ourunderstanding of pre- substantiallyacross the early Holocene strataof historichuman adaptations in the GreatBasin and HomesteadCave, are scarce in themiddle Holocene perhapsother regions of NorthAmerica character- deposits, and return to abundance in the late ized by similarpaleoenvironmental histories. Holocene layers of the cave. A numberof small mammal from Homestead Cave species display Artiodactyl Response to Climatic Change similarpatterns as do otherHolocene records,not only in the BonnevilleBasin (Schmittet al. 2002a) Empiricalresearch on artiodactylpopulations from but also in a varietyof otherGreat Basin contexts the GreatBasin and otherregions of the aridWest as well (e.g., Grayson1983, 1987, 1988). suggests that mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus), Earlyand middle Holocene aridity also appears pronghorn(Antilocapra americana), bison (Bison to havenegatively affected indigenous human pop- bison), bighornsheep (Ovis canadensis), and elk ulationsin the GreatBasin. In fact, the Holocene (Cervuselaphus) are sensitiveto variationin tem- historyof humanpopulations in manylocations is peratureand precipitation.This information,cou- broadlyparallel to that of the mesic small mam- pled with our currentunderstanding of Holocene mals summarizedabove. At least to judge from climatic changes in the Great Basin, provides a such proxy measures as the number of sites or basis to anticipatesubstantial Holocene variation radiocarbondates per unit of time, humanpopula- in artiodactylpopulation densities in the region. tion densitieswere low throughmuch of the early Although the relationshipbetween weather pat- and middle Holocene but increasedsubstantially ternsand artiodactylabundances are complex and in the late Holocene (Bensonet al. 2002; Bettinger species specific, and a varietyof nonclimaticfac-

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90 90 = .461, p= .035 rs = -.577, p= 006 80 rs -v 80 a 70 70 ' 0 60 . 0 60 * 850 wS50 C 40 . 40 8 - ( - 30 . 30 D 20 ? .c 20

10 10 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 Two Year Lag January- MarchPrecipitation (cm) MayTemperature (oC)

2. The between a winter Figure relationship given year's Figure 3. The relationship between a given year's average and the number of new lambs precipitation bighorn sheep May temperature and the number of new bighorn sheep 100 ewes two later in National per years Canyonlands lambs per 100 ewes in Canyonlands National Park, Utah Utah from Park, (data Douglas 2001). (data from Douglas 2001). tors clearly affect herd size (e.g., predation,dis- have been documentedfor elk, pronghorn,bison, ease), hot and dry climates negativelyimpact all mule deer,and bighornsheep in a varietyof con- GreatBasin artiodactylspecies. The primarylinks texts acrossthe aridWest (Byers and Hogg 1995; between artiodactylpopulations and climate pat- Douglas2001; Frank and McNaughton 1992; How- ternsstem fromthe effects of temperatureand pre- ell et al. 2002;Kitchen and O' Gara 1982; Longhurst cipitation variation on forage quality and the et al. 1979, VanVuren and Bray 1986). Figures 2 availabilityof drinkingwater. and 3 display the results of a 23-year study of Environmentalproductivity and forage quality bighornsheep in southernUtah that clearly demon- arepositively correlated with effective precipitation stratesthe generalrelationships between precipi- and soil moisturein the aridWest (e.g., Douglas tation,temperature and artiodactylreproduction. 2001; Murphy1970). The availabilityof high-qual- Althoughit seems clearthat long-term drought ity forage, in turn,has profoundeffects on mater- conditionswill negativelyimpact artiodactyl abun- nal condition, initial offspring survival, birth dancesin general,other climatic factors are impor- weight, growthrate, survival through the firstwin- tantas well. Extremeseasonality in temperatureand ter,resistance to disease, overallrecruitment rates, the distributionof precipitation,for instance, appear and, ultimately,herd size (Byers and Hogg 1995; especiallyinfluential; hot, drought-strickensprings Douglas 2001; Fox et al. 2000; Leslie andDouglas and summers,coupled with cold winterswith deep 1979;Mackie et al. 1998;Peek et al. 2002;Stephen- snowpacks,can clearlycause substantialmortality son et al. 1985).The availabilityof high-qualityfor- and reduceherd sizes (e.g., Bartmanand Bowden age also has a directeffect on the extent to which 1984; Benedict 1999; Mackie et al 1982; see also animalsrequire free drinkingwater. When forage Grahamand Lundelius1984; Kiltie 1984).1 plants have low watercontent (performed water), Overall,these datasuggest that artiodactyl pop- animals requirefree water sources (Bailey 1990; ulationswould have been adverselyaffected by the McCartneyand Miller 1998;Smith and Krausman hot and dry or highly seasonalclimatic conditions 1988;Van Dyke et al. 1983). Bighornsheep in arid of theearly and middle Holocene. Great Basin pale- settings, for instance, requirefree water sources ontologicalrecords should thus reflectexpansions withinclose proximityto plantforage, thermal pro- of artiodactylpopulations as climate ameliorated tection (caves androckshelters), and rocky escape at the beginningof the late Holocene. terrain.The availability of watersources on theland- thus limits and scape severely populationdensities, PaleontologicalEvidence from Homestead and those sources is now a maintaining restoring Cave,Bonneville Basin seriousmanagement issue for bighorn sheep (Leslie and Douglas 1979; McCutchen1981). Homestead Cave Due to thesefactors, positive effects of increased precipitationand cooler temperaturesand strongly The stratifieddeposits of HomesteadCave (Mad- negativeeffects of droughtand high temperatures sen 2000) provideda richarray of biologicalmate-

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Figure 4. Photograph of Homestead Cave (courtesy David B. Madsen and Monson Shaver III). rialsthat inform on Holocenechanges in Bonneville ple columnwas excavatedto a depthof 3 m in the Basinclimate. This depositalso representsthe only rearcave-floor sediments. The well-defined deposits high-resolution, Holocene paleontological contained18 separate,excavatable strata. Materials sequence of artiodactylabundances in the Great removedfrom the column were passed througha Basin;it thusprovides an ideal contextin which to seriesof ? in (6.4 mm),X in (3.2 mm),and 6sin (1.6 examinethe effects of regionalclimatic change on mm) screensin the lab.The depositsconsisted pri- artiodactylpopulation histories. marilyof degradingowl pellets,rich in smallverte- HomesteadCave is a wave-constructedcavern brateremains, with littleevidence of contamination locatedseveral kilometers west of GreatSalt Lake by humanforagers. Twenty-one 14C assays were on a northwesternspur of the LakesideMountains derivedfrom the deposits.The coherencyof the 14C (Figures1, 4, and5). The cave sits at an elevationof results suggests that the deposits were laid down 1,406m, midwaybetween the Provo and Gilbert lev- sequentiallybetween - 11,300and -1000 14Cyr B.P. els of LakeBonneville. In 1993and 1994, a 1-m2sam- (Madsen2000; Madsenet al. 2001).

Figure 5. Key paleoenvironmental indicators from Homestead Cave used in this study: left, pharyngeal tooth of Gila atraria; right, artiodactyl fecal pellets.

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Bonneville Basin MoistureHistory and the freshwaterhabitats with sufficientlylow year-round Homestead Cave Fish Record salinitiesand temperatures were limited during this time.However, chub remains increase dramatically The Homestead Cave fish record representsthe in the lateHolocene strata suggesting that only then most detailed,stratified, and well-datedpaleonto- did suitable freshwater habitats become wide- logical fish sequencein the GreatBasin (Broughton spread.2More specifically, the changing abun- 2000a, 2000b). Patternsin the fish remainsderived dances of Utah chubs exhibit two markedpeaks fromthe Holocenesequence of depositsat the cave across the Holocene-aged strataof the cave: first are generally consistent with the small mammal in stratumXII and second in stratumXVII. These record,summarized above, andadd further insight deposits providedradiocarbon dates of 3400 and into the natureof BonnevilleBasin climatehistory. 1020 14Cyrs B.P.,respectively. These peaks in chub As with the small mammalmaterials derived from frequenciesare in close accord with limited core the cave, the fish remainswere depositedby rap- and shoreline data that suggest Great Salt Lake tors, especially owls. More specifically,fish mate- experiencedhighstands around both of these times rials appearto have been deposited by owls that (Broughtonet al. 2000; Murchison1989). scavengedcarcasses derived from periodic die-offs The small mammal record from Homestead of fish that inhabitedLake Bonneville and Great Cave suggests again that a warming and drying Salt Lake. Spikes in fish remains in the cave trend occurredacross the early Holocene of the depositsthus signal recessions from previous high- Bonneville Basin. The fish record suggests, not standsin whichthe lakes were sufficientlydeep and inconsistently,that early Holocene lake elevations freshto supportfish populations (Broughton 2000a; and, hence, regional precipitation levels were Broughtonet al. 2000). They should thus reflect alwaysbelow the thresholdrequired to allow chubs regional, Bonneville Basin-wide, lake levels and to successfully colonize Great Salt Lake. Both precipitationregimes. recordsalso attestto droughtconditions persisting Utahchub (Gila atraria) is by farthe most abun- throughoutthe middleHolocene with a substantial dantfish taxonin the Holocene depositsat Home- shift to cooler and wetterclimate occurringat the stead Cave. Although Utah chubs have never beginningof the late Holocene. inhabitedGreat Salt Lakehistorically, this species Regionalpaleovegetational records mirror these is tolerantof moderatesalinity levels and warm trends, although it is notable that certain early watertemperatures and is the only memberof the Holoceneplant records suggest relatively cool and LakeBonneville fish faunathat now occupieslow- moist conditions (Wigandand Rhode 2002). The elevationcreeks, springs, and marshes of the north- latterrecords, however, are typically more montane ern Bonneville Basin. However,genetic analyses in distribution;lower elevation Bonneville Basin of modem populationsof Utah chub suggest that records typically suggest warm and dry early duringwetter periods of the Holocene, GreatSalt Holocene climates. These differences,as Wigand Lake may have become sufficiently deep and and Rhode (2002:349) suggest, may resultfrom a dilutedto supportthis species(Rosenfeld 1991:89). warmerand drierearly Holocene climaticregime Even if Utah chub could not have invadedGreat in which mesophilicplants were lost firstin lower Salt Lake duringwetter cycles, the extent of local elevations but persisted longer, perhaps under freshwater marshes should have varied with stress,in moremesic uplandsettings. Alternatively, regionalmoisture and the elevationof the lake. In an enhanced early Holocene seasonality (Davis any case, change in the Holocene abundanceof 1999; Thompson et al. 1993) may have affected Utahchubs near the cave shouldbe linkedto higher uplandwoodland settings differently than lowland elevationsof GreatSalt Lake and hence moister cli- shrubcommunities (Wigand and Rhode 2002:349). maticepisodes for the BonnevilleBasin as a whole. Figure 6 displays the changingabundances of TheArtiodactyl Fecal-Pellet Record Utah chub specimens by stratumat Homestead Given the raptor-basedorigin of the Homestead Cave. These data show that chub remainsare rel- vertebratefauna, it is not surprisingthat artiodactyl ativelyuncommon in the cave sedimentsthat date skeletal elements are virtuallynonexistent in the to the first half of the Holocene and suggest that deposit (Grayson2000b). However, over 21,000

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1.0 t -e- NISPGila atraria [s] 0.8-

0.6

-o S0.4

0.2

0.0

Stratum(Date B.P.)

Figure 6. Changing (standardized [s]) abundances of Utah Chub specimens across the Homestead Cave sample column (exclusive of stratum I; * average of multiple dates); includes specimens identified as "Cyprinidae" (see Broughton 2000a). The highest NISP value is set at 1.0, with the remaining values scaled accordingly. individualartiodactyl fecal pellets were identified Figure7 displaysthe changingdensities of artio- from the site, providingthe only high-resolution, dactyl pellets across the HomesteadCave deposi- Holocene paleontologicalsequence of artiodactyl tional sequence; the standardizedfrequencies of abundancesin the entire GreatBasin (Hunt et al. chub remainsare includedfor comparison.Artio- 2000; Madsen2000). The size andmorphology of dactyldroppings are generallyuncommon in both the pellets are consistent with pronghorn,mule the earlyand middle Holocene strata (II-XI: -8800- deer,and bighorn sheep, but species-levelidentifi- 5000 14Cyr B.P.) but are extremely abundantin cationswere not attempted.Each of these taxa are many late Holocene deposits (XII-XVIII:-3500- known to have occupied the LakesideMountains 1000 14Cyr B.P.). The range of variationhere is in either recent or prehistorictimes, and bighorn quite dramaticwith the collective sample of early sheep, deer,and pronghorn are known to use caves and middle Holocene strataaveraging 2.74 pellets to escape summerheat or the cold of winter(Geist per liter, while the late Holocene strataaverage is 1971; Huntet al. 2000; Krauseman1979). Huntet 13.43 pellets/liter.The patterningdoes not appear al. (2000) specifically observedpronghorn using to be related to stratigraphicvariation in pellet Bonneville Basin caves. Mule deer and bighorn preservation.Indeed, Neotoma fecal pellets are sheep defecate after resting and routinely leave scarce in the late Holocene deposits but occur in bedding scrapeslittered with pellets (Geist 1971; extremelyhigh densities(601/liter) in thebasal, ter- Linsdaleand Tomich 1953). minal Pleistocene stratumof the sequence (Hunt Since thenumber of artiodactylpellets deposited et al. 2000). in a cave at any pointin time shouldreflect the fre- These Holocene spikesin artiodactylpellet fre- quencyof cave visits by these animals,the density quenciesalso appearto alignwith the peaks in chub of pellets (pellets/liter)in sedimentscan also serve remainsat HomesteadCave (Figure7), the latter, as a proxy measureof their abundancein the sur- again, an index of BonnevilleBasin-wide precipi- rounding landscape. We emphasize that in pre- tationlevels. While the visual trendsare striking, senting the Homestead artiodactyl abundance the peaks in chubbones and artiodactylpellets are history at the ordinallevel, we are simply follow- slightly offset, leading to an insignificantcorrela- ing the approachtaken by Hunt et al. (2000) that tion (rs = .351, p = .167). providedthe originalidentifications. In sum, this record suggests that artiodactyl

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S 1.0 - - -E- NISPGila atraria [s] 0.8 ArtiodactylPellets/L [s]

0.6 •/' cuI S0.47 I \I 0.2 /

0.0 |, Ic n, i | I ,0 , N N \ * ? SN ?SN 5SN (S\8~5S O-N ss

StrAtucb Nate B.P.

Stratum(Date B.P.)

Figure 7. Changing densities (pellets/liter) of artiodactyl fecal pellets across the Homestead Cave sample column (exclusive of stratum I; * average of multiple dates). The highest density is set at 1.0, with the remaining values scaled accordingly (data from Hunt et al. 2000:53). Utah Chub frequencies, from Figure 6, are provided for comparison. abundancesresponded predictably to regionalcli- cause an increasein the overallreturn rate and a mate change. They were relatively uncommon general narrowing of the diet to include fewer throughoutthe early Holocene, a time character- lower-rankedprey (Stephensand Krebs 1986). ized by growingwarmth and aridityand, perhaps, We also regardprey body size as the most crit- amplified seasonality. Populations remained ical, archaeologicallyrecoverable, dimension of depressedduring the hot anddry middle Holocene, hunterpreference ranking. This position has, in but increaseddramatically with the climatic ame- fact, been supportedby recent ethnographictests lioration of the late Holocene. Such a trend has of foragingmodels that show that for singly han- clear implicationsfor changes in humanhunting dled prey, the largestanimals almost always pro- strategiesin this area. duce the highest returnrates (Broughton 1999). Althoughthe relationshipbetween body size and returnrates is it is and Human Response to a Late Holocene strong, clearly imperfect, individualsmall-sized when collected Artiodactyl Increase in the Great Basin prey items, en masse, can sometimes producehigher returns The preymodel of foragingtheory is now routinely thanlarge prey capturedsingly (e.g., Madsen and used in zooarchaeologicalanalyses of ancienthunt- Schmitt 1998). ing behavior(e.g., Broughton1994, 2002; Cannon Recentethnographic research on men'shunting 2000; Janetski1997; Lupo and Schmitt 1997), and goals (e.g., Hawkes 1991, 1993; Weissner2002), we use it here to predict how Bonneville Basin however,underscores the overridingsignificance hunterswould have respondedto the apparentlate thathunters attach to preybody size: if largegame Holocene increasein artiodactylabundances. Two are presenton the landscape,male hunterspersis- of the most straightforwardpredictions of the prey tently seek them out. The pursuitof smallerprey model are:(1) the highest-rankedprey are always is far more variable.In fact, many huntersignore taken upon encounter;and (2), the inclusion of small game, even when pursuing them would lower-rankedprey in the diet dependsnot on their increasetheir overall caloric returns. Clearly, small own abundancebut, instead,on the encounterrate prey move into and out of the set of targetedprey with higher-rankedprey. It follows that increases for human hunters,but large game is invariably in the encounterrate with high-rankedprey should includedwithin it. Body size really does seem to

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Figure 8. View west to the portal of Hogup Cave. be the truestgeneral measure of hunterpreference Aikens (1970) openedseveral trenches in 1967 and ranking(Broughton and Bayham2003). 1968 withinthe archaeologicallyrich cave deposits In sum, implicationsfrom the prey model and and excavated 16 stratigraphicunits in sediments recent tests of it with human foragers provide a that reachedover 4 m in depth. One-quarter-inch strongbasis to predictthat increasingabundances screenswere used to collect not only an enormous of large game on ancientlandscapes will result in sample of faunal remains, but also an extensive proportionateincreases in large-gamehunting. In record of perishableartifacts, including, textiles, the Great Basin context, where artiodactylsand nets, andmoccasins (Aikens 1970; Durrant1970). lagomorphsdominate mammalian archaeofaunas, Twenty-three14C dates place the human occupa- it follows that patterningin the artiodactylindex tion of the cave between-8400 to -500 14Cyr B.P. (I artiodactyls/[Xartiodactyls + I lagomorphs]) Figure 9 displays the artiodactylindex values should trackthe paleontologicallyderived trends across the Hogup Cave strata.As predicted,artio- in artiodactylabundances. More specifically, we dactyl abundancesshow a dramaticincrease at the predictthat artiodactyl index values calculated from middle-lateHolocene transition.The differencein archaeologicaldeposits should increase substan- the meanartiodactyl index values between the mid- tially at the middle-lateHolocene transition,but dle Holocene (strata1-7) andlate Holocene (8-16) should also parallel the apparentfluctuations in stratais, in fact, highly significant (F = 15.159, artiodactylpopulations within the late Holocene. p = .002, df = 15). Not only are artiodactylssig- We conducttests of thishypothesis below usingtwo nificantlymore abundant in the collectiveset of late of the richest,longest, and best-datedarchaeolog- Holocene stratacompared to those of the middle ical faunal sequences in the Bonneville Basin: Holocene, but the specific fluctuationswithin the Hogup Cave and Camels Back Cave. late Holocene arewell-aligned with the artiodactyl pellet spikes at Homestead Cave. Both data sets Cave Hogup show dramatic peaks in artiodactyl specimens Hogup Cave is a limestone cavern located along betweenabout 4000 and3000 14Cyr B.P andagain the southernend of the HogupMountains, only 48 at about 1000 B.P. km northwestof HomesteadCave (Figures 1 and While the taphonomic history of this set of 8). The cave sits at an elevationof 1,433 m, mid- deposits is clearly complex and people were only way between the Provo and Stansburyshorelines. one of many predatorsthat introducedbones into

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Table 1. Bone Modificationsof the Hogup Cave Lagomorphs(data from Hockett 1994).

Strata Total Human Raptor/Carnivore Human/Raptor-Carnivore Artiodactyl Sets NISP Modified Specimens Modified Specimens Ratio Index 15 to16 303 2 14 .14 .14 12 to 14 2,146 33 65 .51 .15 9 to 11 1,139 17 97 .18 .19 1 to 8 14,620 158 1,119 .14 .05 Total 18,208 210 1,375 .15 the cave (Hockett1993, 1994), severallines of evi- the taphonomicdata were provided(Table 1; r = dence suggestthat the trendin the artiodactylindex .738, p = .262). is trulyreflecting variation in humanhunting behav- Additionalevidence comes fromthe percentage ior. These are based on both taphonomicanalyses of burned lagomorph specimens identified and of the HogupCave lagomorphmaterials as well as reportedfor each of the HogupCave strata(Hock- temporalpatterns in the associatedtools likelyused ett 1993). We assume here that a greaterhuman to hunt artiodactylsand lagomorphs. presencein the cave wouldresult in higherfire fre- First,it could be arguedthat the late Holocene quenciesand, hence, a higherproportion of burned rise in artiodactylindex values simplyrepresents a sedimentsin general.If so, theproportion of burned proportionateincrease in thehuman use of thecave, to unburnedbones can be used as a crudemeasure comparedto other accumulators.If so, we would of change in the relative contributionof human expect that the proportionof bones with human deposited animal remains.3In this case, the per- modifications should increase within the upper centageof burnedlagomorph specimens varies lit- strataof the deposit.Hockett's (1993, 1994) tapho- tle throughtime (Table2; middlevs. late Holocene nomic analysis of the Hogup Cave lagomorph aggregatesF = 1.615,p = .224, df= 15) and there remains suggests, however, that this is probably is no correlationbetween the proportionof burned not the case. AlthoughHockett was unableto iden- bones and the artiodactylindex (rs= - .190, p = tify the depositionalagent for the vast majorityof .480). When viewed together,these taphonomic lagomorph specimens, there is no correlation datasuggest that the relative contributions made by between the artiodactyl index and the ratio of humanand nonhuman predators to theHogup Cave human to carnivore/raptormodified specimens lagomorph assemblage did not vary markedly among the four stratigraphicaggregates in which throughtime, and,thus, changesin the artiodactyl

Table 2. Distributionof BurnedLagomorph Specimens by Stratumat Hogup Cave (data from Hockett 1993).

Number Total Proportion Artiodactyl Stratum Burned LagomorphNISP Burned Index 1 15 954 .02 .04 2 10 1,656 .01 .04 3 125 2,474 .05 .07 4 111 3,525 .03 .05 5 131 4,285 .03 .04 6 152 5,285 .03 .04 7 60 3,791 .02 .04 8 97 3,405 .03 .07 9 31 797 .04 .12 10 14 569 .02 .28 11 1 216 .00 .30 12 17 2,159 .01 .10 13 10 525 .02 .18 14 20 666 .03 .23 15 2 107 .02 .10 16 7 397 .02 .15 Total 803 30,811 .02

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0.3

x 0.2

0.1

0.0

a a B c St" -N - O

Stratum(Date B.P.)

Figure 9. Changing artiodactyl index values across the Hogup Cave strata. Values are based on the MNI (minimum number of individuals) data provided in Durrant (1970:242-243; * average of multiple dates); dating is from Aikens (1970:26-30). indexprobably do not merelyreflect proportionate associated with weaponrydesigned to kill artio- increasesin the humanuse of the cave. dactyls,then a projectilepoint index (I projectile Yetfar more convincing are trends in subsistence points/[I projectilepoints + I cordage]) should technologythat occur across the Hogup Cave strata. trackthe artiodactylindex. Figure 10 showsthe two If in fact the artiodactylindex truly monitorsthe indices plotted together across the Hogup Cave wideningand narrowing of the diet breadthin rela- strata.The two variablesappear well-aligned and tion to variationin artiodactylabundances, then a rank-ordercorrelation analysis confirms this temporaltrends in subsistencetechnology observed impression (rs = .841, p < .001). Further,late at the site shouldparallel trends in the faunaldata. Holocene values of the projectilepoint index are Insofaras nets and snareswere commonlyused to significantly higher than those of the middle capture lagomorphs and projectile points were Holocene (F = 19.084, p < .001, df = 15).4

--e-- Artiodactyls/(Artiodactyls+ Lagomorphs)[S] 1.0 -- Points/(Points+ Cordage)[S]

0.8 r = .841, p <.001

c 0.6

a 0.4I

0.0

Stau (Date0 CB4

Stratum(Date B.P.) Figure 10. Changing relative abundances of projectile points and cordage across the Hogup Cave strata; data from Aikens (1970:34, 120; * average of multiple dates). The artiodactyl index values are plotted for comparison. For both indices, the highest values are set to 1.0, and the remaining ones are scaled accordingly.

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0.4

0.3 x a) 0S0.2

Stratum (Date B.P.)

Figure 11. Changing artiodactyl index values across the Camels Back Cave strata (data from Schmitt and Lupo 2002: Table 7.7).

In sum, the lack of any trendsin bone modifi- Much like the recorddrawn from Hogup Cave, cations coupled with the strikingpatterns in sub- a dramaticlate Holocene increase in the artiodactyl sistence technology suggest that variationin the index occurs at CamelsBack Cave (Figure 11). A artiodactylindex is trulyreflecting variation in the comparisonof artiodactylindex valuesfor the col- huntingof artiodactyls.The patterning in thisindex, lective set of middle Holocene strata(I-X) com- we observe again, closely parallels Bonneville pared to those of the late Holocene (strata Basin moisturehistory and variation in artiodactyl XI-XVIII) indicatesthe differenceis significant(F pellet frequenciesat HomesteadCave (Figure6). = 9.258, p = .006, df = 22). During the late More artiodactylson the landscapeled to propor- Holocene,artiodactyl indices show especiallydra- tionateincreases in boththe hunting of artiodactyls matic peaks between about4000 and 3000 14Cyr and the manufactureof tools used to take them. B.P, and 1500 and 1000 14Cyr B.P.While thereare clearly differencesin the details, the generalpat- Camels Back Cave tern closely matchesboth the faunalrecord from Camels Back Cave is a small cave located in the Hogup Cave andthe HomesteadCave fecal pellet south end of Camels Back Ridge, about 84 km record. from the southwest margin of Great Salt Lake Camels Back Cave undoubtedlyexperienced a (Schmitt and Madsen 2002). Between 1996 and complex formationalhistory as well, receiving 1998, excavationof a -2-x-4 m unit uncovereda bones from both human and nonhuman agents well-defined stratigraphicsequence documenting acrossthe Holocene.Although we cannotconduct 33 alternatingcultural and nonculturallayers. A an analysisof variationin subsistencetechnology huge collection of faunal materials, exceeding because artifactssuch as cordagedid not preserve 51,000 specimens, was recoveredby sieving the here(Schmitt and Madsen 2002), a relativelycom- sedimentswith both 4 in and in screens(Schmitt prehensivetaphonomic analysis of the fauna has et al. 2002, 2004; Schmittand Lupo 2002). Twenty- been conducted(Schmitt and Lupo 2002). From one 14Cdates indicate that people occupied the that analysis,two particularlines of evidence sug- cave intermittentlyover the last 7,500 years.Given gest thatthe trend in theartiodactyl index accurately the precise stratigraphicand temporalcontrol and reflectsvariation in humanprey selection.Both of the enormous faunal collection that it provided, these involvepatterning in theproportion of burned CamelsBack Cave offers a veryfine-grained record lagomorphand artiodactylspecimens across the of middle and late Holocene huntingbehavior in Camels Back strata.Burned bone, includingboth the Bonneville Basin. charredand calcined specimens, was extremely

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0.7 -e-- All IdentifiedSpecimens 0.6 Burned Specimens Only / --v 0.5 r =.842, p < .001

0.3 / o 0.2

S0uZ

Stratum(DateB.P.) Stratum (Date B.P.)

Figure 12. Changing artiodactyl index values across the Camels Back Cave strata derived from all identified specimens and just those that exhibited evidence of burning (data from Schmitt and Lupo 2002: Tables 7.7 and 7.8). abundantin the depositand was recoveredthrough- it is representedby an exceptionallydetailed pale- out the cave sediments(Schmitt and Lupo 2002). oenvironmentalrecord-including the only high- First,an evaluationof the percentageof burned resolutionpaleontological record of artiodactylsin versusunburned lagomorph bones in the collective the GreatBasin-and a set of fairly fine-grained, set of middleHolocene strata compared to those of trans-Holocenerecords of humanhunting behav- the late Holocene shows no differencebetween the ior.Insofar as the Holoceneclimatic conditions and two groups (F = .946, p = .342, df = 22). This artiodactylabundance history documented in detail suggests that the relative contributionsof lago- for theBonneville Basin can be generalizedto other morphmaterials by humanand nonhumanpreda- regionsof the GreatBasin, we anticipatea similar tors did not vary markedlybetween these sets of humanresponse. That is, faunalrecords from other deposits. settingsin the GreatBasin shouldshow significant Second, and more convincingly,we calculated late Holocene increasesin the proportionalrepre- the artiodactylindex for each stratumusing only sentationof artiodactylbone. artiodactyland lagomorphspecimens that exhib- Whilemany other faunal records have been gen- ited burning. As Figure 12 shows, a dramatic eratedfrom the GreatBasin, coarse-grainedtem- increase in artiodactylabundances occurs again poralcontrol or taphonomicissues precludeall but duringthe lateHolocene. Indeed, the two indices- the mostcoarse-grained assessments. Still, as Table one calculatedwith the entireassemblage of artio- 3 shows, many recordsreveal trendsvery similar dactyl and lagomorphbones, and one calculated to those derivedfrom the Bonneville Basin. This using just the burnedspecimens-are themselves suggests that the patternidentified in the eastern highly correlated(rs = .743, p < .001). While we GreatBasin may, in fact, be a very generalone. recognize the potential for bones that were depositedby raptorsor carnivoresto become sub- Discussion sequently burned by human fires, this seems unlikely to be a serious issue here since the Variationin GreatBasin extremelyrich, largely owl-deposited, small rodent Temporal SettlementPatterns assemblage shows minimal evidence of burning (Schmittand Lupo 2002). While the preymodel predictsrelative increases in artiodactylhunting during the late Holoceneunder Other GreatBasin Records Archaeofaunal conditions of expandinglarge game populations, We have focused on the BonnevilleBasin because this model makes several importantassumptions

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Table 3. RelativeAbundances of Lagomorphsand Artiodactylsby Middle and Late Holocene StratigraphicUnits for Selected Archaeological Sites in the GreatBasin.

NISP NISP Artiodactyl Analytical Site Lagomorphs Artiodactyls Index X2 P-Value Units Reference Danger Cave Middle Holocene 574 72 .11 6.39 <.000 StratumIII Late Holocene 553 213 .28 StratumV Grayson 1988

Dirty Shame Rockshelter Middle Holocene 1,399 34 .02 255.08 <.000 StrataIII - VI Late Holocene 634 193 .23 StrataI - II Grayson 1977

Gatecliff Shelter Middle Holocene 276 15 .05 25.71 <.000 Horizons12, 14, 15 Grayson 1983 Late Holocene 4,906 951 .16 Horizons 1 - 11 Thomas 1983

Last Supper Cave Middle Holocene 426 62 .13 68.17 <.000 Stratum4 Late Holocene 354 189 .35 Strata2 and 3 Grayson 1988

O'MalleyShelter Middle Holocene 167 10 .06 21.23 <.000 StratumI Late Holocene 935 233 .20 StrataII - VII Fowler et al. 1973

Pie CreekShelter Middle Holocene 200 234 .54 21.70 <.000 ComponentIV Late Holocene 813 1551 .66 ComponentI-III Carpenter2003 aboutthe real world situations to whichit is applied. in the use of uplandcaves.5 In particular,Bayham Perhapsmost importantin this context, the prey arguedthat this cave was initiallyused as anArchaic model assumesthat foragers search through a rel- short-termresidential locality but latershifted to a ativelyhomogenous or fine-grainedhabitat pursu- logisticalhunting camp. This changeaccompanied ing andconsuming prey as they go. Thus,the prey the establishmentof sedentary,agriculturally based model takes no accountingof the fact that many Hohokamvillages in distantlowlands. Since the predatorstravel far from central places to huntand earlierresidential occupations of the shelterwere transportprey back to such locations to consume relativelymore intensive,they would have had a them. Traveland transportcosts to and from cen- greaterimpact on local artiodactylpopulations, tralplaces to foragingpatches are thus not consid- comparedto the cave's later,more ephemeraluse ered by the prey model but could, theoretically, as a hunter'scamp. In addition,with the substan- influence the economics of huntingbehavior and tial increasesin travelcosts requiredto reach the ultimatelythe taxonomiccomposition of archaeo- cavefor Hohokam hunters, overall returns and large logical faunas(Bayham 1982; Bird and Bliege Bird game abundanceswould have to have been suffi- 2000; Broughton1999, 2002; Cannon2000, 2003). ciently high to justify its use (see Cannon2000, A shift in the regionalsettlement pattern is one of 2003). Hohokam hunters could thus only be the most obvious ways in which such costs can be expectedto visit VentanaCave in especiallygame- altered and so could potentially be a variable rich months,seasons, or years;higher proportions causally linked to the establishedtrends in Great of artiodactylsin Hohokam-ageddeposits follow Basin archaeologicalfaunas. accordingly. Bayham(1982; Szuterand Bayham 1989), for An analogousscenario in the BonnevilleBasin example, proposedthat a dramaticlate Holocene context would be one where early and middle increasein artiodactylsat VentanaCave in south- Holocene Archaic foragers used sites such as ern Arizona was a response to reorientationsof Hogup andCamels Back caves as short-termresi- regionalsettlement patterns and functional changes dentialbases, whereas later on they servedas logis-

This content downloaded from 155.97.85.112 on Thu, 14 Nov 2013 15:14:52 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions Byers and Broughton] HOLOCENEARTIODACTYL HUNTING 249 tical camps for huntersderived from agricultural for otherwise regionally depressed artiodactyl villages associatedwith the "FremontComplex" herds.Although taphonomic issues do not permit (Janetski 1997; Madsen and Simms 1998). This a secureconclusion here, we note thatthe propor- hypothesismakes fairly straightforward predictions tional representationof artiodactylspecimens is about trends in anatomicalpart representationin highest for the middle Holocene occupationsof relationto economic utility,but systematicanaly- this area(O'Connell 1975). ses of this sort have yet to be conducted.Short of We also emphasizethat artiodactyl abundances this, several lines of evidence make this scenario appearto have been highly variablethrough time seem unlikelyin the BonnevilleBasin setting. within the late Holocene, as the Bonneville Basin First, most of the larger Fremontsites in the paleontological and archaeological records so northernBonneville Basin are located on its east- clearly suggest. Thus, generatingdetailed predic- ern margin,often within easy reach of the mesic tions aboutvariation in artiodactylabundances and and, hence, relativelygame-rich Wasatch Moun- the subsequenthuman hunting response at anypar- tains. Settings such as Hogup Cave and Camels ticularspot on the landscaperequires careful atten- Back Cave would thus seem to be far too remote tion to high-resolution, locally derived and relatively unproductiveto be logistical out- paleoenvironmentalrecords. Overall environmen- posts for Fremonthunters (Janetksi 1997:1082). tal productivitywas, of course, not the only factor But moresignificantly, dramatic increases in therel- influencing the prehistoricabundances of artio- ativeabundances of artiodactylsare first registered dactylsin the GreatBasin. Despite generally favor- in these BonnevilleBasin caves at about3500 B.P., able environmental conditions for artiodactyls some 1,500 yearsbefore the emergenceof the Fre- acrossmany stretchesof the late Holocene, in cer- mont (Madsenand Simms 1998). If the increasein tain contexts, humanhunting pressure appears to artiodactylsis reflectingthe increasinglogistical have ultimatelyovertaken them, causing substan- use of these sites, GreatBasin archaeologistshave tial population declines (Grayson 1991a, 2001; yet to identify the complementarysuite of resi- Janetski 1997). Such anthropogenicdepressions dentialbases thatthey served. have now been documentedin some detailin several otherareas of westernNorth America, includ- Variationand Regional AnthropogenicDepres- ing California(e.g., Broughton2002; Hildebrandt sions the "Later"Late Holocene of and Jones 2002), the Southwest (Cannon 2000, Althoughwe expectproportional increases in artio- 2003), andthe PacificNorthwest (Butler 2000). In dactylhunting to characterizemany settingsin the these settings,expanding densities of lateHolocene late Holocene GreatBasin, thereare good reasons human populations appear to have caused the to anticipateregional or site-specificexceptions as depressionof a wide diversityof large,high-ranked well. Insofaras particularspatiotemporal contexts prey taxa, from elk to sturgeon(Acipenser sp.). It duringthe early and middle Holocene were char- may thusbe telling thatthe strongestcases for late acterizedby moisterclimate, they may also have Holocene depressionsof artiodactylsin the Great supportedhigher densities of artiodactyls.In such Basin havebeen derivedfrom spatiotemporal con- contexts,increases in the proportionalrepresenta- texts that appearto have supportedsome of the tion of artiodactylswould not be anticipatedat the highest humanpopulation densities in the region. middle-lateHolocene transition. Grayson(1991a, 2001), for instance,has docu- Severalrecords seem to show just this pattern. mentedsignificant declines through time in therel- Sudden Shelter, for instance, a higher elevation ative abundances of bighorn sheep from late (2,267 m) mesic uplandsite locatedin centralUtah, Holocene archaeologicalsites in theWhite Moun- shows consistently high artiodactylindex values tains of the far western Great Basin (Figure 1). (>.87) acrossthe site's entireoccupational history, These sites are directly upslope from the well- spanningfrom about8000 to 3000 B.P. (Rampton wateredOwens Valley,a settingthat, according to 1999). On the otherside of the GreatBasin in Sur- Steward(1938), supportedone of the highestearly priseValley, substantial natural springs apparently historicperiod human densities in the entireGreat flowed throughoutthe periodof middle Holocene Basin. drought.This may haveprovided a mesic refugium The Fremontoccupation of the eastern Great

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Basin representsanother context characterized by expense of the projectile points requiredto kill relativelyhigh humanpopulation densities, which ungulates.These patternswere revealedfrom a set appear to have increased considerablybetween of relativelyhigh-resolution archaeological records about1500 and900 B.P.(Madsen and Simms 1998; from the northernBonneville Basin, but more Massiminoand Metcalfe 1999). While moist con- coarse-graineddata from throughoutthe Great ditionsfavorable to artiodactylscharacterized much Basin suggest the trend may be far more wide- of Fremont times (Figure 7), expanding human spread.These patternsmay extendto otherregions population densities appear to have ultimately of NorthAmerica, such as California(Broughton depressedlocal herds.As Janetski(1997) has doc- and Bayham 2003; Hildebrandt and McGuire umented,artiodactyl index values are exceptionally 2002), Wyoming(Byers et al. 2003), and perhaps high (.98-.82) in the earliestFremont occupations even portionsof theEastern United States (see Pur- but decline substantiallythrough time afterthat.6 due 1989). Overall, these patterns not only show that Shifts in the regionalsettlement pattern do not indigenoushuman impact on animalpopulations appearto drive these patterns,although a more was highly variablein the Holocene GreatBasin, definitiveevaluation of this issue must await sys- butalso provideinsight into what demographic and tematicanalyses of artiodactylanatomical part rep- ecological factors influencethat variation.As we resentation.And while we are quite skepticalthat have noted, artiodactylpopulations appear to have the archaeologicalrecord will permitus to detect increaseddramatically nearly as soon as environ- to what degree prestigeor nutritionalmotivations mentalconditions improved at the close of the mid- underlielarge game huntingin any particularcon- dle Holocene. Such a populationirruption may text in the past (see Broughtonand Bayham 2003; have been possible then, as human populations Hildebrandtand McGuire 2002), therewere clearly themselveshad been keptthin by middleHolocene more artiodactylsto go aroundfor eitherpurpose, drought.Later depressions of artiodactylsoccurred at least duringthe early partof the late Holocene. in entirelydifferent contexts. Again, both the Fre- These good times for hunterscertainly did not uni- mont andthe late prehistoricOwens Valley appear formly characterizeall spatiotemporalcontexts of to have been characterizedby high humanpopu- the late Holocene and would not last in certain lationdensities fueled by highlevels of subsistence places where they did. In several settings charac- productivity-the latterbeing derivedfrom either terizedby high humanpopulation densities, artio- a richarray of wild resourcesor agriculture.In such dactylherds were ultimately depressed by intensive contexts,like muchof Californiawest of the Sierra humanhunting during the later late Holocene. Nevada, prehistoric peoples may have had the These conclusions, and the general research resourcesubstrates to allowtheir expansion, despite strategyused to reachthem, follow a long-stand- the continualdepression of the most attractiveprey ing GreatBasin traditionwherein environmental resources(Broughton 2003; see also Winterhalder change is viewed as providingan essential base- and Goland 1991;Winterhalder and Lu 1997). line from which to understandvariation in the humanrecord. Yet, in spite of this tradition,there havebeen few to use evidence Summary and Conclusions systematicattempts of paleoenvironmentalchange to understandlong- Paleoenvironmentalrecords from the Bonneville termvariation in humanhunting behavior (but see Basin suggest that artiodactyl populations Lupo and Schmitt 1997). In fact, two of the most expandedsubstantially with the coolerand moister visiblezooarchaeological analyses that have specif- climatic conditionsof the late Holocene. As pre- ically addressedhuman hunting variationin the dicted from the prey model, the diet breadthof GreatBasin have been conductedwithin contexts human huntersnarrowed and smaller lagomorph where environmentalchange was effectively held prey entered the targeted resource set less fre- constant(Grayson 1991a; Janetski 1997). Several quently.The relativeimportance of the tools man- factors appearto have preventedthe merging of ufactured to hunt artiodactyls and lagomorphs long-termpaleoenvironmental records with archae- shifted in turn:the abundanceof cordageused to ofaunaldata on humanhunting behavior. make rabbit nets and snares decreased at the First,only veryrecently have extremely detailed,

This content downloaded from 155.97.85.112 on Thu, 14 Nov 2013 15:14:52 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions Byers and Broughton] HOLOCENEARTIODACTYL HUNTING 251 well-dated environmentalrecords been amassed Economic Comparisonof Farmingand Foragingin the from locations to AmericanSouthwest. American Antiquity 67:65-88. closely adjacent comparably Bartman,Richard M., and David C. Bowden detailedrecords of humanhunting behavior. We are 1984 PredictingMule Deer Mortalityfrom WeatherData referring specifically here to the unprecedented in Colorado.Wildlife Society Bulletin 12:146-148. record Bayham,Frank E. paleoenvironmental recently providedby 1982 A DiachronicAnalysisofPrehistoricAnimal Exploita- Homestead Cave and its close proximity to the tionat VentanaCave. Ph.D. dissertation, Arizona State Uni- archaeological sequences of Hogup Cave and versity,Tempe. University Microfilms, Ann Arbor. Camels Back Cave. Benedict,James B. 1999 Effects of ChangingClimate on Game-Animaland Second, attemptsto addressHolocene trends in HumanUse of the ColoradoHigh Country(U.S.A.) since humanhunting behavior have been temperedby a 1000 BC. Arctic,Antarctic, andAlpine Research 31:1-15. of the Benson, Larry,Michaele Kashgarian,Robert Rye, Steve Lund, deep appreciation taphonomicchallenges FredPaillet, Joseph Smoot, Cynthia Kester, Scott Mensing, that confrontthe analysis of faunas derivedfrom Dave Meko, and SusanLindstrom the settings that provide the longest, deepest 2002 HoloceneMultidecadal and Multicentennial Droughts records: caves and rockshelters Affecting NorthernCalifornia and Nevada. Quaternary (e.g., Grayson Science Reviews21:659-682. 1983, 1991b; Hockett 1993; Schmitt and Lupo Bettinger,Robert L. 1995). It may be telling here again thattwo of the 1999 What Happenedin the Medithermal.In Modelsfor the Millennium:Great Basin edited mostnotable diachronic analyses of huntingbehav- AnthropologyToday, by CharlotteBeck, pp. 265-274. Universityof UtahPress, ior in the GreatBasin were based on archaeologi- Salt Lake City. cal vertebratedata derived, not from caves, but Bird, DouglasW., and Rebecca Bliege Bird 2000 The of Juvenile Shell- from sites 1991a; Janetksi1997). Ethnoarchaeology Foragers: open (Grayson fishing Strategies among Meriam Children.Journal of However,it now seems thatguided by explicit,the- AnthropologicalArchaeology 19:461-476. oreticallyderived predictions, we canwork through Broughton,Jack M. the thickets that have seemed 1994 Declines in MammalianForaging Efficiency during taphonomic may the LateHolocene, San FranciscoBay. Journal ofAnthro- impenetrablea shorttime ago. It is botha testament pological Archaeology13:371-401. to the utility of the basic prey model of foraging 1999 ResourceDepression and Intensificationduring the and a tributeto the detailed Late Holocene, San Francisco Bay: Evidencefrom the theory paleoenviron- EmeryvilleShellmound Vertebrate Fauna. Anthropologi- mental and taphonomicwork that has been con- cal Records32. Universityof CaliforniaPress, Berkeley. ductedover the last severaldecades that a serious 2000a The HomesteadCave Ichthyofauna.In Late Qua- in the Bonneville edited attemptat Holocene trends in human ternaryPaleoecology Basin, by explaining David B. Madsen,pp 103-122. Bulletin 130. Utah Geo- huntingbehavior from GreatBasin cave faunasis logical Survey,Salt Lake City. possible. 2000b TerminalPleistocene Fish Remains from Homestead Cave,Utah, and Implications for Fish Biogeographyin the BonnevilleBasin. 2000:645-656. Acknowledgments. We thank Duncan Metcalfe, Denise Copeia 2002 Prey SpatialStructure and BehaviorAffect Archaeo- Dearing, Judson Finley, Joan Coltrain, Kelly Beck, Daigh logical Testsof OptimalForaging Models: Examples from Tufts, David Madsen and, Donald Gary Haynes, especially, the Emeryville Shellmound VertebrateFauna. World for comments on the Grayson helpful manuscript. Tania Archaeology34:60-83. Brenes and Andrew Ugan kindly translatedthe abstractinto 2003 PristineBenchmarks and IndigenousConservation? Spanish. We thank Dave Schmitt for access to the Camels Implications from California Zooarchaeology. In The Back Cave data. Futurefrom the Past: Archaeozoologyin WildlifeConser- vation and HeritageManagement. Proceedings of the 9th ICAZ,edited by Roel C. G. M. Lauwerierand Ina Plug, References Cited pp. 6-18. Oxbow Books, Oxford,in press. Broughton,Jack M., and FrankE. Bayham Aikens, C. Melvin 2003 Showing Off, ForagingModels, and the Ascendance 1970 Hogup Cave. University of Utah Anthropological of LargeGame Hunting in the CaliforniaMiddle Archaic. Papers,No. 93, Universityof Utah Press, Salt Lake City. AmericanAntiquity 68:783-789. Antevs, Ernst Broughton,Jack M., David B. Madsen,and J. Quade 1955 Geologic-Climate Dating in the West. American 2000 Fish Remainsfrom HomesteadCave and Lake Lev- Antiquity20:317-335. els of the Past 13,000Years in the BonnevilleBasin. Qua- Bailey, JamesA. ternaryResearch 53:392-401. 1990 ManagementofRocky Mountain Bighorn Sheep Herds Brunelle,Andrea, and R. Scott Anderson in Colorado.Special Report No. 66. ColoradoDivision of 2003 Sedimentary Charcoal as an Indicator of Late- Wildlife, Denver. Holocene Droughtin the SierraNevada, California,and Barlow,K. Renee Its Relevanceto the Future.The Holocene 13:21-28. 2002 PredictingMaizeAgriculture Among the Fremont: An Butler,Virginia L.

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VanVuren, Dirk, and MartinP. Bray high averageannual lake elevations. 1986 PopulationDynamics of Bison in the HenryMoun- 3. We do not assume here that a burnedbone indicates tains, Utah. Journalof Mammology67: 503-511. that a person deposited it. We only suggest that substantial Wiessner,Polly changes in the intensityof the humanuse of a cave shouldbe A 2002 Hunting,Healing, and Hxaro Exchange: Long-term reflected in the of burned versus on by changes proportion Perspective !Kung(Ju/'hoansi) Large-game Hunting. unburnedcave sedimentsin See and Evolutionand HumanBehavior 23:407-436. general. Grayson(1988) Hockett for details on the involved in Wigand,Peter E., and PeterJ. Mehringer (1993) complexities 1985 Pollen andSeedAnalysis. In TheArchaeology ofHid- interpreting burned specimens from Great Basin cave den Cave, Nevada, edited by David H. Thomas, pp. deposits. 108-124. AnthropologicalPapers, Vol. 61, Pt. 1. Ameri- 4. Although Bonneville Basin foragers obviously used can Museumof NaturalHistory, New York. cordage for many purposesbeyond trappingsmall game, the Wigand,Peter E., and David Rhode overall abundance of cordage should nonetheless increase 2002 GreatBasin and VegetationHistory AquaticSystems: with a rise in the manufactureof nets and snares,other things The Last 150,000 Years.In GreatBasin Aquatic Systems being equal. Moreover, we might also expect technologies History,edited by RobertHershler, David B. Madsen,and associated with the exploitation of other lower-ranked Donald R. Currey,pp. 309-368. SmithsonianContribu- tions to the Earth Sciences 33. SmithsonianInstitution resources to be more abundantat times when artiodactyls Press,Washington, D.C. were generallyuncommon. We observe in this context that if Winterhalder,Bruce, and CarolGoland the Hogup Cave millingstone fragments are substitutedfor 1991 On Population,Foraging Efficiency, and Plant Domes- cordage in the ProjectilePoint Index, the measureis still pos- tication.Current Anthropology 34:710-715. itively correlatedwith the artiodactylindex (rs = .642, p = Winterhalder,Bruce, and FloraLu .007), and significantlyhigher index values exist for the late 1997 A Model and Forager-ResourcePopulation Ecology Holocene stratacompared to those of the middle Holocene for Conservation.Conservation Implications Indigenous (F = 15.273, p = .002, df= 15). Biology 11:1354-1364. 5. Graysonand Cannon(1999:151) note that the trendin Zielinski, GregoryA., and GrantR. Mershon the index at VentanaCave is the 1997 PaleoenvironmentalImplications of the Insoluble artiodactyl complicatedby MicroparticleRecord in the GISP2 (Greenland)Ice Core fact that it is correlated with sample size. However, a duringthe RapidlyChanging Climate of the Pleistocene- Cochran's test, which evaluates trends in sample relative Holocene Transition.Geological Society ofAmericaBul- abundanceswhile directlycontrolling for variationin sample letin 109:547-559. sizes (see Cannon2001), shows the trendin these data to be = highly significant(X2 trend 260.53, p < .000). 6. These of in Notes extremely high proportions artiodactyls early Fremont contexts suggest high artiodactylpopulation densities and high huntingreturns. This seems to run counter 1. Argumentsfor late Pleistocene megafaunalextinctions, to Barlow's (2002) elegant model that predicts intensive for example,focus on the seasonal swings in temperatures,or maize agricultureshould result from low foraging returns.It a "loss of as the critical climatic variable,rather equability," is unclear to us this is the but it the than in annual Extreme why case, may suggest simply changes average temperature. need to hunted resources from interannualvariation in and decouple gathered-cultivated temperature precipitationmay ones in of subsistence also have affects on than finer-grained analyses prehistoric greater artiodactylpopulations long- behavior. term averagesof these variables. 2. The ability of Utah chubs to invade Great Salt Lake may dependmore on the seasonal amplitudesof the lake than the average annual depths; extremely low summer depths Received June 4, 2003; Revised September25, 2003; could eliminate populations even during times of relatively Accepted September28, 2003.

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