Intro to the History of Yoga: Philosophy, Practice, Transformation

Notes for the online course with Dr. Sean Feit Oakes

Table of Contents

Class 1. The Śramana Movement 2

Class 2. The Buddha & his community 13

Class 3. Patañjali’s Yoga 19

Class 4. Devotion: The Bhagavad Gītā & the Birth of Bhakti 25

Class 5. Deities and Hindu Mythology in the Purāṇas 34

Class 6. Mantra, ritual, and magic in Tantra 38

Class 7. Haṭha Yoga: Breath, sex, & power 44

Class 8. Yoga in modernism: universalism, embodiment, globalization 51

https://www.seanfeitoakes.com/courses/intro-history-yoga-philosophy-practice-transformation/ © 2019-20 Sean Feit Oakes, PhD. For use by registered students of the course only. All rights reserved.

1 Class 1. The Śramana Movement

timeline

3300-1500 BCE? Indus Valley Civilization (ruins at Harappa & Mohenjo-Daro). No texts remain.

1500 BCE+ [Possible] “Indo-Aryan Invasion/Migration” from central Asia 1500-500+ BCE Vedic Period — culture of ritual sacrifce (yajña) centered on fre ceremony (homa)

500 BCE-300 CE Śramana (“Recluse”) Movement & evolution of Classical Yoga, including:

Buddhism, founded by Siddhārtha Gotama (485-400 BCE?), or Śakyamuni (“Sage of the Śakyas”)

Early schools: Sarvāstivāda, Theravāda (“Way of the Elders”, now in Śri Lanka, Thailand, Burma) Texts: The “Pāli Canon,” with parallel versions preserved in China (called āgama), and commentaries

Later schools: Mahāyāna (Great Vehicle, 300 CE) & Vajrayāna (Diamond Vehicle, 600+ CE) Texts: Prajñaparamīta & other Mahāyāna sūtra literature, tantra, āgama, commentaries

Jainism, founded by Mahāvīra (500-428 BCE?)

Schools: Digambara (“Sky-clad”) & Śvētāmbara (“White-clad”) Texts: “Jain Āgama,” lost, later reconstructed

The Six Darśana (“Views/Systems”) that would become the roots of later Hinduism:

Saṃkhya (“enumeration”): atheist, rational, dualistic (Awareness & Nature are distinct) Text: Saṃkhya Karika of Iśvarakṛṣṇa (~200-400 CE)

Yoga: atheist, meditative, liberation practice-oriented, philosophically similar to Saṃkhya Text: Yoga-Sūtra of Patañjali (~400 CE), properly called the Pātañjalayogaśāstra

Nyāya (“method”): atomistic school of logic and epistemology [the study of knowledge]

Vaiśeṣika: empirical epistemology, philosophically similar to Nyāya

Mīmāṃsā: hermeneutics (“interpretation”) of the Veda, especially re: ritual action

Vedānta (“end/ultimate of the Veda”): the primary philosophical basis for later Hinduism Texts: Upaniṣads (700 BCE-), Brahma Sutras (400 BCE-200 CE), & Bhagavad-Gītā (-200 CE)

2 The Path of Classical Yoga

The path to liberation is described similarly throughout the Classical Yoga traditions. Here’s a version mostly from Buddhism that is essentially the same in Vedānta and Yoga:

1. We sufer (Pāli: dukkha/Sanskrit: duḥkha) through attachment to pleasant experience & aversion to unpleasant experience.

2. Seeing sufering begins the path of choosing wholesome actions over unwholesome. This is ethics (sīla/śīla).

3. Temporary cessation of attachment/lust & aversion/hatred comes with meditative stabilization (samādhi).

4. Stability can lead to yogic power (iddhi/siddhi), & to perceiving the fow of experience clearly & accurately.

5. Clarity reveals everything as conditioned, impermanent, & impersonal, including our sense of identity. Seeing these truths is wisdom (pañña/prajña), which ends sufering.

6. The end of sufering is called liberation (mokṣa) in Vedānta, unbinding (nibbāna/nirvāṇa) in Buddhism, & independence (kaivalya) in Yoga. All the terms imply ending the beginningless cycle of birth & death (saṁsāra).

Note: While this sequence is essentially the same in all the Classical Yogas, one important diference between the proto-Hindu (Vedānta) and Buddhist systems is that in Vedānta the Individual Self and God are thus seen as not separate, while Buddhism emphasizes that neither a separate self nor a universal deity can be found.

The Four Varṇa

Varṇa (literally “color”, which would evolve into the doctrines of “caste” and “birth” (jati))

Kṣatriya: the ruling (military) class Brahmin: hereditary priests who memorize the texts/chants & conduct the sacrifce Vaiśya: artisans & workers Śūdra: slaves, servants, and subjugated non-Aryans

Not part of the varṇa system were indigenous people and other “outcastes” excluded fully from the system, which determined legal rights and provided the framework for civic life.

3 Vedic hymns: The Sacrifice of Puruṣa (Puruṣa-Sūkta) (Ṛg Veda 10.80)

1 The Man has a thousand heads, a thousand eyes, a thousand feet. He pervaded the earth on all sides and extended beyond it as far as ten fingers.

2 It is the Man who is all this, whatever has been and whatever is to be. He is the ruler of immortality, when he grows beyond everything through food. [3]

3 Such is his greatness, and the Man is yet more than this. All creatures are a quarter of him; three quarters are what is immortal in heaven.

4 With three quarters the Man rose upwards, and one quarter of him still remains here. From this [4] he spread out in all directions, into that which eats and that which does not eat.

5 From him Virāj [5] was born, and from Virāj came the Man. When he was born, he ranged beyond the earth behind and before.

6 When the gods spread [6] the sacrifice with the Man as the offering, spring was the clarified butter, summer the fuel, autumn the oblation.

7 They anointed [7] the Man, the sacrifice [8] born at the beginning, upon the sacred grass. [9] With him the gods, Sādhyas, [10] and sages sacrificed.

8 From that sacrifice [8] in which everything was offered, the melted fat [11] was collected, and he [12] made it into those beasts who live in the air, in the forest, and in villages.

9 From that sacrifice in which everything was offered, the verses and chants were born, the metres were born from it, and from it the formulas were born. [13]

10 Horses were born from it, and those other animals that have two rows of teeth; [14] cows were born from it, and from it goats and sheep were born.

11 When they divided the Man, into how many parts did they apportion him? What do they call his mouth, his two arms and thighs and feet?

12 His mouth became the Brahmin; his arms were made into the Warrior, his thighs the People, and from his feet the Servants were born. [15]

13 The moon was born from his mind; from his eye the sun was born. Indra and Agni came from his mouth, and from his vital breath the Wind was born.

14 From his navel the middle realm of space arose; from his head the sky evolved. From his two feet came the earth, and the quarters of the sky from his ear. Thus they [16] set the worlds in order.

15 There were seven enclosing-sticks [17] for him, and thrice seven fuel-sticks, when the gods, spreading the sacrifice, bound the Man as the sacrificial beast.

4 16 With the sacrifice the gods sacrificed to the sacrifice [18] These were the first ritual laws. [19] These very powers reached the dome of the sky where dwell the Sādhyas, [10] the ancient gods.1

Notes: The Sacrifice of Puruṣa (Doniger, 31-2)

1. Cf. the horse as the primeval sacrificial victim in 1.162 and 1.163. 2. The dismemberment of the Norse giant Ymir is the most striking parallel, but there are many others. 3. This rather obscure phrase seems to imply that through food (perhaps the sacrificial offering) Puruṣa grows beyond the world of the immortals, even as he grows beyond the earth (v. 1 and v. 5). He himself also transcends both what grows by food and what does not (v. 4), i.e. the world of animate and inanimate creatures, or Agni (eater) and Soma (eaten). 4. That is, from the quarter still remaining on earth, or perhaps from the condition in which he had already spread out from earth with three quarters of his form. 5. The active female creative principle, Virāj is later replaced by Prakṛti or material nature, the mate of Puruṣa in Sānkhya philosophy. 6. This is the word used to indicate the performance of a Vedic sacrifice, spread or stretched out (like the earth spread upon the cosmic waters) or woven (like a fabric upon a loom). Cf. 10.130.i-2. 7. The word actually means ‘ to sprinkle’ with consecrated water, but indicates the consecration of an initiate or a king. 8. Here ‘the sacrifice’ indicates the sacrificial victim; they are explicitly identified with one another (and with the divinity to whom the sacrifice is dedicated) in verse 16. 9. A mixture of special grasses that was strewn on the ground for the gods to sit upon. 10. A class of demi-gods or saints, whose name literally means ‘those who are yet to be fulfilled’. 11. Literally, a mixture of butter and sour milk used in the sacrifice; figuratively, the fat that drained from the sacrificial victim. 12. Probably the Creator, though possibly Puruṣa himself. 13. The verses are the elements of the Rig Veda, the chants of the Sāma Veda, and the formulas of the Yajur Veda. The metres often appear as elements in primeval creation; cf. 10.130.3-j and , 1.164.23-5. 14. That is, incisors above and below, such as dogs and cats have. 15. The four classes or varṇas of classical Indian society. 16. The gods. 17. The enclosing-sticks are green twigs that keep the fire from spreading; the fuel sticks are seasoned wood used for kindling. 18. The meaning is that Puruṣa was both the victim that the gods sacrificed and the divinity to whom the sacrifice was dedicated; that is, he was both the subject and the object of the sacrifice. Through a typical Vedic paradox, the sacrifice itself creates the sacrifice. 19. Literally, the dharmas, a protean word that here designates the archetypal patterns of behavior established during this first sacrifice to serve as the model for all future sacrifices.

1 Wendy Doniger, The Rig Veda (NY: Penguin, 1981), 29-32. 5 Vedic Hymns: The Long-haired Ascetic (Ṛg Veda 10.136)

1 Long-hair holds fire, holds the drug, holds sky and earth. Long-hair reveals everything, so that everyone can see the sun. [1] Long-hair declares the light.

2 These ascetics, swathed in wind, [2] put dirty red rags on. [3] When gods enter them, they ride with the rush of the wind.

3 ‘Crazy with asceticism, we have mounted the wind. [4] Our bodies are all you mere mortals can see.’

4 He sails through the air, looking down on all shapes below. [5] The ascetic is friend to this god and that god, devoted to what is well done.

5 The stallion of the wind, friend of gales, lashed on by gods – the ascetic lives in the two seas, on the east and on the west.

6 He moves with the motion of heavenly girls [6] and youths, of wild beasts. Long-hair, reading their minds, is their sweet, their most exciting friend.

7 The wind has churned it [7] up; Kunamnamā [8] prepared it for him. Long-hair drinks from the cup, sharing the drug [9] with Rudra.2

Notes: The Long-haired Ascetic (Doniger, 139)

1. This act is attributed to other Vedic gods, too. Cf. 1.50.5. 2. That is, they are naked; but the connection with the wind is also literally important, as in verses 3, 5, and 7. 3. Some are naked, some wear red (later saffron) rags. 4. The ascetic rides the wind as if it were a horse; cf. v. 5. The ascetic controls the wind by controlling his own breath. 5. This act is often attributed to the sun. The ecstatic ascetic takes on the characteristics of several gods. The verse also describes the sensation of flying outside of one’s own body, observed below (cf. v. 3). 6. The Apsarases or nymphs of heaven, with their companions the Gandharvas. 7. The drug. 8. A female deity who appears only here; her name may indicate a witch or a hunchback. 9. Viṣa, a drug or poison.

2 Ibid., 137-38. 6 Map of the 16 kingdoms or republics (mahājanapada, 600-400 BCE)3

The term “India” didn’t come into use till about the 15th century, and was probably frst used by the Persians, who also used the term “Hindustan,” then the British occupiers. Soon after it began to be used for self-reference by the Indian people.

The ancient political name for the Indian subcontinent was Bhārat, while in spiritual texts Jambudvīpa (“Rose- apple continent/island”) is common.

3 Kmusser, "India, 600 Bce," (Wikimedia.org: Wikipedia, 2006). https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Atlas_of_India#/ media/File:Ancient_india.png 7 Yoga in the Upaniṣads

Ātman: The Indescribable Self (Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad 4.4.22-23) (~600 BCE)

Excerpt from a dialogue between the sage Yajñavalkya and Janaka, the king of Videha:

“This immense, unborn self is none other than the one consisting of perception here among the vital functions (prāṇa). There, in that space within the heart, he lies—the controller of all, the lord of all, the ruler of all! He does not become more by good actions or in any way less by bad actions. He is the lord of all! He is the ruler of creatures! He is the guardian of creatures! He is the dike separating these worlds so they would not mingle with each other. It is he that Brahmins seek to know by means of vedic recitation, sacrifice, gift-giving, austerity, and fasting. It is he, on knowing whom a man becomes a sage. It is when they desire him as their world that wandering ascetics undertake the ascetic life of wandering.

“It was when they knew this that men of old did not desire offspring, reasoning: ‘Ours is this self, and it is our world. What then is the use of offspring for us?’ So they gave up the desire for sons, the desire for wealth, and the desire for worlds, and undertook the mendicant life. The desire for sons, after all, is the same as the desire for wealth, and the desire for wealth is the same as the desire for worlds—both are simply desires.

“About this self (ātman), one can only say ‘not—, not—.’ [neti, neti] He is ungraspable, for he cannot be grasped. He is undecaying, for he is not subject to decay. He has nothing sticking to him, for he does not stick to anything. He is not bound; yet he neither trembles in fear nor suffers injury. These two thoughts do not pass across this self at all: ‘Therefore, I did something bad’; and ‘Therefore, I did something good.’ This self, on the other hand, passes across both those; he is not burnt by anything that he has done or left undone. The same point is made by this Ṛgvedic verse:

He is a Brahmin’s eternal greatness—he’s not made greater or smaller by action. It’s his trail that one should get to know; And when a man knows him, he’s no longer stained by bad deeds.

“A man who knows this, therefore, becomes calm, composed, cool, patient, and collected. He sees the self (ātman) in just himself (ātman) and all things as the self. Evil does not pass across him, and he passes across all evil. He is not burnt by evil; he burns up all evil. He becomes a Brahmin—free from evil, free from stain, free from doubt.

“He is the world of brahman, Your Majesty, and I have taken you to him.” So said Yajñavalkya. “Here, sir, I’ll give you the people of Videha together with myself to be your slaves!”4

4 Patrick Olivelle, Upaniṣads: A New Translation (London: Oxford, 1996), 125-27. 8 Death as Guru (The Kaṭha Upaniṣad, 1.1-9) (~300 BCE)

1.1-2 Uśan, the son of Vājaśravas, once gave away all his possessions. He had a son named Naciketas. Young as he was, faith took hold of him while the cows presented as sacrificial gifts were being led away, and he reflected:

3 “They’ve drunk all their water, eaten all their fodder, They have been milked dry, they are totally barren— ‘Joyless’ are those worlds called, to which a man goes who gives them as gifts.”

4 So he asked his father: “Father, to whom will you give me?” He repeated it for a second time, and again for a third time. His father yelled at him: “I’ll give you to Death!”

[NACIKETAS] 5 I go as the very first of many. I go as the middlemost of many. What’s it that Yama must do, That he will do with me today?

[A VOICE] 6 Look ahead! See how they have gone, those who have gone before us! Look back! So will they go, those who will come after us. A mortal man ripens like grain, And like grain he is born again.

7 A Brahmin guest enters a house as the fire in all men. Bring water, O Vaivasvata, that is how they appease him.

8 Hopes and expectations, fellowship and goodwill, Children and livestock, rites and gifts— all these a Brahmin wrests from the foolish man, in whose house he resides without any food.

[DEATH] 9 Three nights, O Brahmin, you stayed in my house, a guest worthy of homage, without any food; Three wishes, therefore, deign to make in return. So homage to you, O Brahmin! And may I fare well!

Naciketas’s 3 Wishes (Kaṭha Upaniṣad, 1.20-21)

1. His father’s good will when he returns [relational healing] 2. Explanation of “the fre-altar that leads to heaven” [internalization of the ritual] 3. The answer to the question of existence after death [existential certainty]

[NACIKETAS] 20 There is this doubt about a man who is dead. “He exists,” say some, others, “He exists not.” I want to know this, so please teach me. This is the third of my three wishes.

[DEATH] 21 As to this even the gods of old had doubts, for it’s hard to understand, it’s a subtle doctrine. Make, Naciketas, another wish. Do not press me! Release me from this.5

5 Ibid., 375-79. 9 Adhyātma Yoga (Kaṭha Upaniṣad, 2.12-6.18)

2.12 The primeval one who is hard to perceive, wrapped in mystery, hidden in the cave, residing within the impenetrable depth—Regarding him as god, an insight gained by inner contemplation [Adhyātma Yoga], both sorrow and joy the wise abandon.

...3.3 Know the self as a rider in a chariot, and the body, as simply the chariot. Know the intellect as the charioteer, and the mind, as simply the reins.

4 The senses, they say, are the horses, and sense objects are the paths around them; He who is linked to the body, senses, and mind, the wise proclaim as the one who enjoys.

5 When a man lacks understanding, and his mind is never controlled; His senses do not obey him, as bad horses, a charioteer.

6 But when a man has understanding, and his mind is ever controlled; His senses do obey him, as good horses, a charioteer.

7 When a man lacks understanding, is unmindful and always impure; He does not reach that final step, but gets on the round of rebirth.

8 But when a man has understanding, is mindful and always pure; He does reach that final step, from which he is not reborn again.

9 When a man’s mind is his reins, intellect, his charioteer; He reaches the end of the road, that highest step of Viṣṇu.

...6.10 When the five perceptions are stilled, together with the mind, And not even reason bestirs itself; they call it the highest state.

11 When senses are firmly reined in, that is Yoga, so people think. From distractions a man is then free, for Yoga is the coming-into-being, as well as the ceasing-to-be.

...14 When they are all banished, those desires lurking in one’s heart; Then a mortal becomes immortal, and attains brahman in this world.

15 When the knots are all cut, that bind one’s heart on earth; Then a mortal becomes immortal—For such is the teaching.

16 One hundred and one, the veins of the heart. One of them runs up to the crown of the head. Going up by it, he reaches the immortal. The rest, in their ascent, spread out in all directions.

17 A person the size of a thumb in the body (ātman), always resides within the hearts of men; One should draw him out of the body with determination, like a reed from the grass sheath; One should know him as immortal and bright. One should know him as immortal and bright.

10 18 Then, after Naciketas received this body of knowledge, and the entire set of yogic rules taught by Death, He attained brahman, he became free from aging and death; so will others who know this teaching about the self.6

6 Ibid., 385-403. 11 25 Tattva (elements/qualities), Saṃkhya & Yoga

1. puruṣa — individual consciousness, knowing subject, witness, seer, pure awareness; also ātman, jīva 2. prakṛti — power, nature, the substance of the universe, matter/energy, manifests as all lower tattva:

3. Intelligence (buddhi) — reason, imagination, awakeness, knowing, intelligence; like a mirror 4. Sense of Self (ahaṅkāra) — the I AM sense, identity, the felt sense of self 5. Mind (manas) — thought, attention, perception, preferences, memory (past) & fantasy/fear (future)

Instruments of Knowing (jñānendriya) Instruments of Action (karmendriya)

6. ears (śrotra): hearing 11. mouth (vāk): speech 7. skin (tvak): contact 12. hands (pāni): manipulation 8. eyes (cakṣus): sight 13. feet (pāda): locomotion 9. tongue (rasanā): taste 14. genitals (upastha): procreation 10. nose (ghrāṇa): smell 15. bowels (pāyu): elimination

Physical Senses (tanmātra) Great Elements (mahā-bhūta)

16. sound (śabda) 21. space (ākāśa) bīja: HAM 17. touch (sparśa) 22. air (vāyu) bīja: YAM 18. form (rūpa) 23. fire (tejas / agni) bīja: RAM 19. taste (rasa) 24. water (āpaḥ) bīja: VAM 20. smell (gandha) 25. earth (prthvī) bīja: LAM

Practice: The 25 Tattva

Inquiry: Bring awareness to contact each tattva individually, in reverse order (gross to subtle). Sensing each quality or activity, notice its qualities, and notice the awareness of it.

Is this quality or activity stable? ...permanent? ...pleasant or unpleasant? Is it me, or my self, or a “part” of me, or “external” to me? Am I attached to this quality or activity being a certain way? ...continuing/ceasing? ...existing?

Meditation: Withdrawal of the Senses (pratyāhāra) Observe sense activity, aware of +/- charge (vedanā) Non-engagement with sense activity: presence without preference (vairagya)

Refection: What conditions support you to not get “hooked” by sensory experiences? When you notice you’re hooked, how do you recover your presence? What does it feel like when you’re not hooked?

12 Class 2. The Buddha & his community

Gotama’s renunciation

“Bhikkhus, before my enlightenment, while I was still only an unenlightened Bodhisatta, I too, being myself subject to birth, sought what was also subject to birth; being myself subject to aging, sickness, death, sorrow, and defilement, I sought what was also subject to aging, sickness, death, sorrow, and defilement. Then I considered thus: ‘Why, being myself subject to birth, do I seek what is also subject to birth? Why, being myself subject to aging, sickness, death, sorrow, and defilement, do I seek what is also subject to aging, sickness, death, sorrow, and defilement? Suppose that, being myself subject to birth, having understood the danger in what is subject to birth, I seek the unborn supreme security from bondage, Nibbāna. Suppose that, being myself subject to aging, sickness, death, sorrow, and defilement, having understood the danger in what is subject to aging, sickness, death, sorrow, and defilement, I seek the unaging, unailing, deathless, sorrowless, and undefiled supreme security from bondage, Nibbāna.’

“Later, while still young, a black-haired young man endowed with the blessing of youth, in the prime of life, though my mother and father wished otherwise and wept with tearful faces, I shaved off my hair and beard, put on the yellow robe, and went forth from the home life into homelessness.”7

Gotama’s practice of yoga (samādhi)

“Having gone forth, bhikkhus, in search of what is wholesome, seeking the supreme state of sublime peace, I went to Āḷāra Kālāma and said to him: ‘Friend Kālāma, I want to lead the holy life in this Dhamma and Discipline.’ Āḷāra Kālāma replied: ‘The venerable one may stay here. This Dhamma is such that a wise man can soon enter upon and abide in it, realising for himself through direct knowledge his own teacher’s doctrine.’ I soon quickly learned that Dhamma. As far as mere lip-reciting and rehearsal of his teaching went, I could speak with knowledge and assurance, and I claimed, ‘I know and see’—and there were others who did likewise. I considered: ‘It is not through mere faith alone that Āḷāra Kālāma declares: “By realising for myself with direct knowledge, I enter upon and abide in this Dhamma.” Certainly Āḷāra Kālāma abides knowing and seeing this Dhamma.’ Then I went to Āḷāra Kālāma and asked him: ‘Friend Kālāma, in what way do you declare that by realising for yourself with direct knowledge you enter upon and abide in this Dhamma?’ In reply he declared the base of nothingness.

“I considered: ‘Not only Āḷāra Kālāma has faith, energy, mindfulness, concentration, and wisdom. I too have faith, energy, mindfulness, concentration, and wisdom. Suppose I endeavor to realize the Dhamma that Āḷāra Kālāma declares he enters upon and abides in by realising for himself with direct knowledge?’

“I soon quickly entered upon and abided in that Dhamma by realising for myself with direct knowledge. Then I went to Āḷāra Kālāma and asked him: ‘Friend Kālāma, is it in this way that you declare that you

7 MN 26: Pāsarāsi Sutta (“The Noble Search”) in Bhikkhu Bodhi and Bhikkhu Ñānamoli, The Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha: A New Translation of the Majjhima Nikāya (Boston: Wisdom, 1995). https://suttacentral.net/mn26/en/bodhi 13 enter upon and abide in this Dhamma by realising for yourself with direct knowledge?’—‘That is the way, friend.’—‘It is in this way, friend, that I also enter upon and abide in this Dhamma by realising for myself with direct knowledge.’ … ‘So you know the Dhamma that I know and I know the Dhamma that you know. As I am, so are you; as you are, so am I. Come, friend, let us now lead this community together.’

“Thus Āḷāra Kālāma, my teacher, placed me, his pupil, on an equal footing with himself and awarded me the highest honor. But it occurred to me: ‘This Dhamma does not lead to disenchantment, to dispassion, to cessation, to peace, to direct knowledge, to enlightenment, to Nibbāna, but only to reappearance in the base of nothingness. Not being satisfied with that Dhamma, disappointed with it, I left.’”8

Gotama’s practice of Austerities (tapas)

“Such was my asceticism, Sāriputta, that I went naked, rejecting conventions, licking my hands, not coming when asked, not stopping when asked; I did not accept food brought or food specially made or an invitation to a meal; I received nothing from a pot, from a bowl, across a threshold, across a stick, across a pestle, from two eating together, from a pregnant woman, from a woman giving suck, from a woman in the midst of men, from where food was advertised to be distributed, from where a dog was waiting, from where flies were buzzing; I accepted no fish or meat, I drank no liquor, wine, or fermented brew. I kept to one house, to one morsel; I kept to two houses, to two morsels;…I kept to seven houses, to seven morsels. I lived on one saucerful a day, on two saucerfuls a day…on seven saucerfuls a day; I took food once a day, once every two days…once every seven days; thus even up to once every fortnight, I dwelt pursuing the practice of taking food at stated intervals. I was an eater of greens or millet or wild rice or hide-parings or moss or ricebran or rice-scum or sesamum flour or grass or cow dung. I lived on forest roots and fruits; I fed on fallen fruits. I clothed myself in hemp, in hemp- mixed cloth, in shrouds, in refuse rags, in tree bark, in antelope hide, in strips of antelope hide, in kusa grass fabric, in bark fabric, in wood-shavings fabric, in head-hair wool, in animal wool, in owls’ wings. I was one who pulled out hair and beard, pursuing the practice of pulling out hair and beard. I was one who stood continuously, rejecting seats. I was one who squatted continuously, devoted to maintaining the squatting position. I was one who used a mattress of spikes; I made a mattress of spikes my bed. I dwelt pursuing the practice of bathing in water three times daily including the evening. Thus in such a variety of ways I dwelt pursuing the practice of tormenting and mortifying the body. Such was my asceticism.

...“Sāriputta, there are certain recluses and brahmins whose doctrine and view is this: ‘Purification comes about through food.’ They say: ‘Let us live on kola-fruits,’ and they eat kola-fruits, they eat kola- fruit powder, they drink kola-fruit water, and they make many kinds of kola-fruit concoctions. Now I recall having eaten a single kola-fruit a day. Sāriputta, you may think that the kola-fruit was bigger at that time, yet you should not regard it so: the kola-fruit was then at most the same size as now. Through feeding on a single kola-fruit a day, my body reached a state of extreme emaciation.

8 Ibid. 14 Because of eating so little my limbs became like the jointed segments of vine stems or bamboo stems. Because of eating so little my backside became like a camel’s hoof. Because of eating so little the projections on my spine stood forth like corded beads. Because of eating so little my ribs jutted out as gaunt as the crazy rafters of an old roof-less barn. Because of eating so little the gleam of my eyes sank far down in their sockets, looking like a gleam of water that has sunk far down in a deep well. Because of eating so little my scalp shriveled and withered as a green bitter gourd shrivels and withers in the wind and sun. Because of eating so little my belly skin adhered to my backbone; thus if I wanted to touch my belly skin I encountered my backbone, and if I wanted to touch my backbone I encountered my belly skin. Because of eating so little, if I wanted to defecate or urinate, I fell over on my face right there. Because of eating so little, if I tried to ease my body by rubbing my limbs with my hands, the hair, rotted at its roots, fell from my body as I rubbed.

...“Yet, Sāriputta, by such conduct, by such practice, by such performance of austerities, I did not attain any superhuman states, any distinction in knowledge and vision worthy of the noble ones. Why was that? Because I did not attain that noble wisdom which when attained is noble and emancipating and leads the one who practices in accordance with it to the complete destruction of suffering.”9

The Buddhist Path: The Middle Way & Eightfold Path

“Bhikkhus, these two extremes should not be followed by one who has gone forth into homelessness. What two? The pursuit of sensual happiness in sensual pleasures, which is low, vulgar, the way of worldlings, ignoble, unbeneficial; and the pursuit of self-mortification, which is painful, ignoble, unbeneficial. Without veering towards either of these extremes, the Tathagata has awakened to the middle way, which gives rise to vision, which gives rise to knowledge, which leads to peace, to direct knowledge, to enlightenment, to Nibbāna.

“And what, bhikkhus, is that middle way awakened to by the Tathagata, which gives rise to vision … which leads to Nibbāna? It is this Noble Eightfold Path; that is, right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, right concentration. This, bhikkhus, is that middle way awakened to by the Tathagata, which gives rise to vision, which gives rise to knowledge, which leads to peace, to direct knowledge, to enlightenment, to Nibbāna.”10

Gotama declares his Liberation

“So long, bhikkhus, as my knowledge and vision of these Four Noble Truths as they really are... was not thoroughly purified in this way, I did not claim to have awakened to the unsurpassed perfect enlightenment in this world with its devas, Mara, and Brahma, in this generation with its ascetics and brahmins, its devas and humans. But when my knowledge and vision of these Four Noble Truths as they really are... was thoroughly purified in this way, then I claimed to have awakened to the unsurpassed perfect enlightenment in this world with its devas, Mara, and Brahma, in this generation with its

9 MN 12: Mahāsīhanāda Sutta (“The Greater Discourse on the Lion’s Roar”) in Ibid. https://suttacentral.net/mn12/en/bodhi 10 SN 56.11: Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta (“Turning the Wheel of Dhamma”) in Bhikkhu Bodhi, The Connected Discourses of the Buddha: A New Translation of the Saṃyutta Nikāya (Somerville: Wisdom, 2000). https://suttacentral.net/sn56.11/en/bodhi 15 ascetics and brahmins, its devas and humans. The knowledge and vision arose in me: ‘Unshakable is the liberation of my mind. This is my last birth. Now there is no more renewed existence.’”11

The Buddhist Path: The 4 Noble Truths (cattāri ariyasaccāni)

1. Suffering/Stress/Dissatisfaction (P: dukkha/S: duḥkha)

Dukkha: “birth… aging… illness… death… union with the displeasing… separation from the pleasing… not to get what one wants… in brief, the Five Aggregates subject to clinging...” [see 5 Aggregates below]

2. Craving (taṇhā/trṣna), the origin of suffering

Taṇhā: 3 kinds of craving: “...for sensual pleasures, ...for existence, ...for non-existence”

3. The Cessation (nirodha) of suffering

Nirodha: “the fading away and cessation of craving… giving up and relinquishing of it… freedom… nonattachment”

4. The path (magga/marga) leading to cessation

Magga: The Noble Eightfold Path (ariya atthangika magga):

Wisdom (pañña): Right (or Wise) View Right Intention/Thought Action/Ethics (sīla): Right Speech Right Action Right Livelihood Integration (samādhi): Right Effort Right Mindfulness Right Concentration/Integration/Meditation

The Buddhist Path: The 4 Foundations of Mindfulness (sati/smṛti)12

1. Mindfulness of Body (rupa): Conscious awareness of…

Breathing: deep, shallow, whole body, stilling 4 Postures: walking, standing, sitting, lying down Activity: moving, looking, reaching, carrying, eating, eliminating, postures, waking, speech & silence 32 Body Parts: reflected on as not sexually desirable

11 Ibid. 12 See MN 10: Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta (“Foundations of Mindfulness”) in Bodhi and Ñānamoli, The Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha: A New Translation of the Majjhima Nikāya. [online text in diferent translation: https://suttacentral.net/mn10/en/ sujato] 16 4 Elements: earth, water, fire, wind as perceived in the body 9 stages of a corpse in decay: with the reflection “I will become like this.”

2. Mindfulness of Feeling (vedanā): Conscious awareness of…

the pleasant, unpleasant, or neither pleasant nor unpleasant “feeling tone” of sense experiences

3. Mindfulness of Mind States (citta): Conscious awareness of...

the presence/absence of: desire, aversion, delusion; the mind distracted, collected, concentrated, liberated

4. Mindfulness of Mental Phenomena/Qualities (dhamma): Conscious awareness of...

the presence or absence of the 5 Hindrances: 1. Sense Desire Antidote: meditation on impermanence 2. Ill Will Antidote: meditation on loving-kindness 3. Sloth & Torpor Antidote: walking med., visualization of light, recollection of death 4. Restlessness & Worry Antidote: single-pointed concentration 5. Skeptical Doubt Antidote: investigation, inquiry, study

…the 5 Aggregates: 1. Form (rupa): the objects of the 5 physical senses, emphasizing the visual 2. Feeling (vedanā): pleasant, unpleasant, or neither 3. Perception (sañña): recognition, naming 4. Formations (saṅkhāra): mental/emotional activity, emphasizing volition 5. Consciousness (viññaṇa): awareness of sense-contact

...the 6 Sense-bases: Eye, Ear, Nose, Tongue, Body, Mind

...the 7 Awakening Factors: Mindfulness, Investigation of Phenomena, Energy, Rapture, Tranquillity, Concentration, Equanimity

...the 4 Noble Truths: Suffering, Cause, Cessation, Path

The 4 Divine Abodes (brahmavihāra): Loving-kindness, Compassion, Appreciation, Equanimity

“Here a [practitioner] abides pervading one quarter [direction] with a mind imbued with loving- kindness … compassion … appreciative joy … equanimity, likewise the second, likewise the third, likewise the fourth; so above, below, around, and everywhere, and to all as to [herself, she] abides pervading the all encompassing world with a mind imbued loving-kindness … compassion … appreciative joy … equanimity, abundant, exalted, immeasurable, without hostility and without ill will.”13

13 MN 127: Anuruddha Sutta (“With Anuruddha”) in Ibid. [online text in diferent translation: https://suttacentral.net/ mn127/en/sujato] 17 Early Buddhist Practice: Meditation & Inquiry

Mindfulness: 1. Bring your attention to sensing your body: Feel/imagine these body parts: hair, skin, flesh, bones, organs, fluids, reflecting on each as not sexy, impermanent, not “me.”

2. Bring your attention, as you move, to sensing your body moving: Feel the sensations of the various postures you take through the day, expanding to include all kinds of activity.

3. Bring your attention to the movement of breath in your whole body:

And how, monastics, does a monastic meditate by observing an aspect of the body? Here, a monastic has gone to a wilderness, or to the root of a tree, or to an empty building. They sit down in the meditation posture, with their body erect, and focus their mindfulness right there. Mindful, they breath in; mindful, they breath out.

Breathing in deep they clearly know ‘I am breathing in deep’; breathing out deep they clearly know ‘I am breathing out deep’. Breathing in shallow they clearly know ‘I am breathing in shallow’; breathing out shallow they clearly know ‘I am breathing out shallow’.

They practice like this: ‘I will breathe in experiencing the whole breath’; they practice like this: ‘I will breathe out experiencing the whole breath’. They practice like this: ‘I will breathe in stilling the breath- energies’; they practice like this: ‘I will breathe out stilling the breath-energies’.14

4. Notice the pleasant, unpleasant, or neutral charge that accompanies every sense experience.

5. When you notice yourself thinking, connect with the emotional quality in the body: Feeling body without continuing thought, watch the charge and story fade and cease.

6. When the mind is able to settle on the breath or body without constantly flickering away: Connect with one area of sensation and sustain attention there for as long as possible, relaxing and settling into the pleasure of stillness and stability.

14 Ibid. 18 Class 3. Patañjali’s Yoga

200+ BCE - 400+ CE? Patañjali, author/editor of the “Yoga-Sūtra” (YS), or Pātañjalayogaśāstra Vyāsa, author of the first and most cited YS commentary, the Vyāsabhāṣya

Authorship theories: 1. Patañjali writes the YS ~100-200 CE, based on Saṁkhya philosophy (...even though the main Saṁkhya texts are written later: ~200-450 CE) Vyāsa writes a commentary ~300-400 CE that explains the text in Hindu terms

2. Patañjali and Vyāsa are the same person, ~300-400 CE If so, the YS and Commentary can’t be separated, even though they sometimes disagree [This position is the current scholarly consensus.]

3. Patañjali was Buddhist, and wrote the first 3 chapters of the YS ~100-200 CE Vyāsa writes the 4th chapter & a commentary in the 6th-7th century Vyāsa’s commentary reinterprets the YS to make it a Hindu/Brahmanic text

4. Patañjali is the same person who wrote texts on medicine and grammar ~200 BCE. Text analysis says this is not possible, but it’s still the basis of an invocation chanted in traditional Iyengar yoga classes:

yogena cittasya padena vācāṁ Through Yoga the citta, through grammar the language, malaṁ śarīrasya ca vaidyakena and through medicine the physical body who among all those Sages handed this over yo’pākarot taṁ pravaraṁ munīnāṁ I respectfully bow to Patañjali. patañjaliṁ prāñjalir ānato’smi The upper body of human shape, ābāhu puruṣākaraṁ carrying a conch, a discus, śankhacakrāsi dhāriṇam and a sword, having 1000 bright heads, I bow to Patañjali. sahasra śirasaṁ śvetaṁ praṇamāmi patañjalim

19 Three different philosophical positions taken by the YS commentaries

1. Saṁkhya (“Enumeration”): commentaries by Vyāsa (~400+ CE), Vachaspati Mishra (~900+), Bhoja (~1000+) View: both Persons/Awareness (puruṣa) and Nature (prakṛti) are real, but separate.

2. Advaita Vedānta (“Nondual” Vedānta): commentaries by Śankaracarya (~800+) and/or Śankara (~1300+) View: The Person (Iśvāra/God) is real, but Nature is Illusion (māyā).

3. Viśiṣṭādvaita (“Qualified Nondual”): commentary by Vijñānabhikṣu (~1400+) View: Yoga = Union with God, but Persons and the Divine are still fundamentally separate.15

Patañjali’s definition of Yoga (YS 1.1-4, tr. Hartranft)16

1.1 atha yogānuśāsanam Now, the teachings of yoga.

1.2 yogaś citta-vṛtti-nirodhaḥ Yoga is to still the patterning of consciousness.

1.3 tadā draṣṭuḥ svarūpe ‘vasthānam Then, pure awareness can abide in its very nature. 1.4 vṛtti-sārūpyam itaratra Otherwise, awareness takes itself to be the patterns of consciousness.

15 For the fascinating and history of the YS, and the various authorship and commentary see David Gordon White, The Yoga Sutra of Patanjali: A Biography (Princeton: Princeton U.P., 2014). 16 All YS translations in this course taken from Chip Hartranft, The Yoga-Sūtra of Patañjali (Boston: Shambhala, 2003). Hartranft’s version of the YS is excellent, clear, and oriented toward the practical experience of meditators and yoga practitioners. For this accessibility and usefulness alone it is my favorite translation by far.

Other good English translations of the YS include Barbara Stoler Miller’s, BKS Iyengar’s, and a version that is not a translation but an imaginative “remix” of the YS through the lenses of contemporary critical theory, Lacanian psychoanalysis, and social justice: Threads of Yoga by Matthew Remski. 20 Patañjali’s 8 Limbs/Components (aṣtānga) of Yoga practice (YS 2.29-3.3)

1. External Discipline (yama): the “great vow of yoga”

Not harming (ahimsā): creates safety for all Truthfulness (satya): clarifies actions & results Not Stealing (asteya): reveals the “truly precious” Impeccable Conduct in Sexuality (brahmacarya): supports vitality Not being Acquisitive (aparigrahā): unlocks the purpose of life

2. Internal Discipline (niyama)

Purification (śauca): decreases attachment to the body Contentment (santoṣa): “brings unsurpassed joy” Discipline/heat (tapas): refines body & senses Self-study (svādhyāya): deepens communion with divine Orientation toward ideal of Pure Awareness (īśvara-praṇidhānā):

3. Posture (āsana)

Sit for meditation in a way that embodies steadiness (sthira) & ease (sukham), with effort relaxing, coalescence reveals body & universe as indivisible, “then one is no longer disturbed by the play of opposites”

4. Breath Regulation (prāṇāyāma)

effort relaxing, the flow of IN & EX stops; as patterns are observed, breath becomes spacious & subtle, “then the veil is lifted from the mind’s luminosity”

5. Withdrawal of the Senses (pratyāhāra): interiorization of attention

6. Concentration (dhāraṇā): binds consciousness to a single object

7. Meditative Absorption (dhyana): all attention is unified with the object

8. Integration (samādhi): reveals the essential nature of things to be Empty (śūnya)

21 Concepts & practices in the Yoga-Sūtra

5 kinds of mental pattern (citta vṛtti) (1.5-11) 2 polarities of yogic will (1.12-16)

Right Perception (pramāna) Practice (abhyāsa): repetition, discipline, Misperception (viparyaya) determination Conceptualization (vikalpa) Non-reaction (vairāgya): equanimity, dispassion Deep Sleep (nidrā) Remembering (smṛtayaḥ) 4 types of cognition (1.17-19)

5 faculties (1.20) Analytical Thinking (vitarka) Insight/Reflection (vicāra) Faith/Confidence (śraddhā): balances wisdom Bliss (ānanda) Energy (vīrya): balances integration Feeling like a Self (asmitā) Mindfulness (smṛti): present moment awareness Integration (samādhi): balances energy 3 components of yogic action (kriyā) (2.1) Wisdom (prajña): balances faith Discipline (tapas) 5 defilements (kleśa) (2.3-9) Self-study (svādhyāya) Orientation toward the ideal of pure awareness Ignorance (avidyā): not seeing things as they are (īśvara-praṇidhānā) Sense of ‘I’ (asmitā): arises via identification with senses Attachment (rāga): habitual reaction to pleasant 4 kinds of coalescence (samāpatti) (1.41-46) Aversion (dveṣa): habitual reaction to unpleasant With thought (savitarkā) Clinging to Life (abhiniveśaḥ): self-preservation instinct Beyond thought (nirvitarkā) Reflective (savicārā) Reflection-free (nirvicārā)

22 Teachings of the Yoga-Sūtra: Working with distraction

Barriers: sickness, apathy, doubt, carelessness, laziness, hedonism, delusion, lack of progress, inconstancy Symptoms: distress, depression, unsteadiness of posture or breathing

Practices to subdue distraction:

1.33 radiating friendliness, compassion, delight, and equanimity toward all things, whether pleasant or painful, good or bad 1.34 pausing after breath flows in or out 1.35 steadily observing as new sensations materialize 1.36 experiencing thoughts that are luminous and free of sorrow 1.37 focusing on things that do not inspire attachment 1.38 reflecting on insights culled from sleep and dreaming 1.39 meditative absorption in any desired object

Teachings of the Yoga-Sūtra: How integration (samādhi) deepens

3.9 calm latent impressions (saṃskāra) replace distracting ones 3.10 “consciousness flows from one tranquil moment to the next” 3.11 distractions dwindle & focus arises 3.12 focus develops through continuity of consciousness

Teachings of the Yoga-Sūtra: Applying perfect discipline (saṃyama) for insight

“Focusing with Perfect Discipline on…”

3.16 form, span, and time: gives insight into past+future 3.17 word, meaning, perception: gives insight into language 3.18 latent impressions: gives insight into previous births 3.19 perceptions of another: gives insight into their consciousness 3.23 effects of actions: gives insight into death 3.26 mind’s luminosity: gives insight into the subtle, hidden, distant 3.35 the heart (hṛdaye): gives insight into the nature of consciousness 3.36 distinguishing between luminosity (sattva) of nature (prakṛti) & pure awareness (puruṣa): gives insight into the nature of awareness

Teachings of the Yoga-Sūtra: The doorway to liberation

3.50 see distinction between pure awareness (puruṣa) & the luminous aspects of the phenomenal world (prakṛti) 3.53-54 focus on succession of moments in time reveals the illusion of continuity/similarity of things 3.55 discriminating insight (viveka) deconstructs everything: Seeing that prakṛti is always distinct from puruṣa 3.56 luminous consciousness reflects pure awareness (puruṣa) to itself

23 Teachings of the Yoga-Sūtra: Liberation/Independence (kaivalya)

4.18 all mental patterns (citta vṛtti) are known by puruṣa, unchanging witness 4.25 see citta (Consciousness) & puruṣa as different: creation of the self ceases 4.29 with equanimity toward even exalted states, continuously discriminating between puruṣa & prakṛti, enter the final stage, seeing nature as a cloud of experiential forms (dharma-megha) 4.33 “see that the flow is actually a series of discrete events” 4.34 witnessing the flow/change of the Qualities of Nature (guṇas) in the present: see that puruṣa is Independent (kaivalya), “grounded in pure seeing. That is all.”

24 Class 4. Devotion: The Bhagavad Gītā & the Birth of Bhakti

The Bhagavad Gītā (“Blessed Song”) (BG) appears at the center of the great Indian epic The Mahābhārata.

Parts of the epic are established in oral tradition by 400-300 BCE, including the BG, but the full text is written down by 200 CE, contemporary with Patañjali’s Yoga-Sūtra, the texts of the Saṃkhya system, and early Mahāyāna Buddhism. It expresses the philosophy of Vedānta (the “end/ultimate teachings of the Veda”), but also shows influence from Buddhism and Saṃkhya. Some of the Gītā’s prominent themes are:

Dharma/svadharma — The appropriate actions that role that each person is ordained to take in their life Karma — The natural law of action and its results, framed here as renunciation of the fruits of action Mokṣa/Nirvāṇa — Liberation from suffering and the round of birth and death Bhakti — Devotion to God, especially to Kṛṣṇa/Viśṇu as the easiest/best pathway to Liberation

The story of the Mahābhārata

Dhṛtarāṣṭra (“Firm Rule”): blind king, father of the 100 [bad] Kaurava brothers. Brother of Pāndu (“Pale”): father of the 5 [good, mostly] Pandava brothers: Yudhiṣṭira, Bhīma, Arjuna, Nakula, Sahadeva. Pāndu dies, leaving the 5 in Dhṛtarāṣṭra’s care. All 5 Pandava brothers marry one woman, Draupadī.

A rivalry grows between the Kauravas & Pandavas for control of the kingdom. The two sides play a dice game for the kingdom, the Kauravas cheat and win. Pandavas exiled for 13 years, the last of which must be in disguise. Many adventures during those 13 years.

Kṛṣṇa (Arjuna’s cousin) tries to make peace, fails. War is inevitable. Kṛṣṇa agrees to be Arjuna’s charioteer.

At dawn before the war begins, Arjuna asks Kṛṣṇa to drive him out to the center of the field to see the two armies preparing for battle. He realizes the horror that is about to unfold, and loses faith in fighting, saying that no good can come of such violence and destruction. Overwhelmed, he wants to give up. Kṛṣṇa begins to counsel him, and their ensuing dialogue is the Bhagavad Gītā, in which Kṛṣṇa teaches Arjuna the practice and doctrines of Yoga, and reveals his true nature as God through a majestic and terrifying vision.

The 18 day war kills almost everyone, and the Pandavas win, barely. Both sides cheat. Yudhiṣṭira becomes king. Bhīṣma (the Kaurava commander) gives beautiful teachings on liberation before dying.

King Dhṛtarāṣṭra retires to an āśrama for spiritual practice, and later dies in a forest fire with his wives. After 36 years, Kṛṣṇa dies, shot by a hunter while meditating, and his family all die in a brawl. (His fate is due to a curse placed on him for allowing the war to proceed.)

The Pandava brothers retire to the forest, then ascend Mt. Meru, dying one by one along the way. All except Yudhiṣṭira spend time in hell because of their deceit during the war. In the end all are reunited in heaven, including the Kaurava brothers.

25 Bhagavad Gītā chapter 1 — Arjuna’s despair

dharmakṣetre kurukṣetre samavetā yuyutsavaḥ māmakāḥ pāṇḍavāścāiva kim akurvata saṃjaya || (1.1)

[Dhṛtarāṣṭra] In the field of righteousness (dharma), the field of Kuru (action), tell me, Sanjaya, what happened when my army and the Pandavas faced each other, eager for battle?17

[Arjuna] As I see my own kinsmen, gathered here, eager to fight, my legs weaken, my mouth dries, my body trembles, my hair stands on end, my skin burns, the bow Gandiva drops from my hand, I am beside myself, my mind reels. I see evil omens, Kṛṣṇa; no good can come from killing my own kinsmen in battle. ... It would be better if Dhṛtarāṣṭra’s men killed me in battle, unarmed and unresisting.

Bhagavad Gītā chapter 2 — Knowledge (Jñāna Yoga)

2.13 Just as, in this body, the Self passes through childhood, youth, and old age, so after death it passes to another body.

2.15 Only the man who is unmoved by any sensations, the wise man indifferent to pleasure, to pain, is fit for becoming deathless.

2.17 The presence that pervades the universe is imperishable, unchanging, beyond both is and is not: how could it ever vanish? These bodies come to an end; but that vast embodied Self is ageless, fathomless, eternal. Therefore you must fight, Arjuna.

2.31 Know what your duty is and do it without hesitation. For a warrior, there is nothing better than a battle that duty enjoins.

2.47 You have a right to your actions, but never to your actions’ fruits. Act for the action’s sake. And do not be attached to inaction. Self-possessed, resolute, act without any thought of results, open to success or failure. This equanimity is yoga.

2.50 The wise man lets go of all results, whether good or bad, and is focused on the action alone. Yoga is skill in actions.

17 All translations from Stephen Mitchell, Bhagavad Gita: A New Translation (NY: Three Rivers Press, 2000). Mitchell’s version is readable and poetic at the expense of precision sometimes, so I recommended serious students read it in parallel with a more literal translation such as Georg Feuerstein, The Bhagavad-Gītā: A New Translation (Boston: Shambhala, 2014). or R.C. Zaehner, The Bhagavad-Gītā (London: Oxford, 1969). Both of those editions also have excellent notes, which the Mitchell does not. 26 vocabulary

ātman — (individual) self/soul; Ātman — (divine) Self/Soul, not different from Brahman (God) karma — action, cause; which leads to phala — fruit, result niṣkāma karma — desireless action, he core yoga practice/orientation in the BG kauśala — skillful, auspicious, appropriate [action] svadharma — one’s personal duty/role/truth; caste duty

Bhagavad Gītā chapter 3 — Action (Karma Yoga)

3.7 The superior man is he whose mind can control his senses; with no attachment to results, he engages in the yoga of action.

3.27 Actions are really performed by the working of the three gunas; but a man deluded by the I-sense imagines, “I am the doer.”

3.34 Craving and aversion arise when the senses encounter sense-objects. Do not fall prey to these two brigands blocking your path.

3.43 Knowing the Self, sustaining the self by the Self, Arjuna, kill the difficult-to-conquer enemy called desire.

vocabulary pratyāhāra — Sense-restraint 3 guṇa — qualities, aspects of nature (prakṛti) sattva — luminosity, purity; rajas — mobility, activity; tamas — mass, inertia, delusion

Bhagavad Gītā chapter 4 — Wisdom

yadā yadā hi dharmasya glānir bhavati bhārata abhyutthānam adharmasya tadātmānam sṛjāmyaham || (4.7)

4.7 Whenever righteousness falters and chaos threatens to prevail, I take on a human body and manifest myself on earth.

4.11 However men try to reach me, I return their love with my love; whatever path they may travel, it leads to me in the end.

4.18 He who can see inaction in the midst of action, and action in the midst of inaction, is wise and can act in the spirit of yoga.

27 With no desire for success, no anxiety about failure, indiferent to results, he burns up his actions in the fre of wisdom.

vocabulary avatāra — descent, manifestation [of the deity]

Bhagavad Gītā chapter 5 — Renunciation (saṃnyāsa)

5.3 The true renunciate neither desires things nor avoids them; indifferent to pleasure and pain, he is easily freed from all bondage.

5.8 The man who has seen the truth thinks, “I am not the doer” at all times— when he sees, hears, touches, when he smells, eats, walks, sleeps, breathes, when he defecates, talks, or takes hold, when he opens his eyes or shuts them: at all times he thinks, “This is merely sense-objects acting on the senses.”

5.27 Closing his eyes, his vision focused between the eyebrows, making the in- breath and the out-breath equal as they pass through his nostrils, he controls his senses and his mind, intent upon liberation; when desire, fear, and anger have left him, that man is forever free.

vocabulary abhyāsa — practice vairāgya — non-attachment, freedom from desire and grasping saṃnyāsa — renunciation

Bhagavad Gītā chapter 6 — Meditation (Rāja Yoga)

6.13 With torso and head held straight, with posture steady and unmoving, gazing at the tip of his nose, not letting his eyes look elsewhere, he should sit there calm, fearless, firm in his vow to be chaste, his whole mind controlled, directed, focused, absorbed in me.

6.26 However often the restless mind may break loose and wander, he should rein it in and constantly bring it back to the Self.

6.31 He who is rooted in oneness realizes that I am in every being; wherever he goes, he remains in me. When he sees all beings as equal in suffering or in joy because they are like himself, that man has grown perfect in yoga. 28 Bhagavad Gītā chapter 8 — Freedom

8.12 Closing the nine gates of the body, keeping the attention in the heart, drawing the breath to the forehead, with the mind absorbed, one-pointed, uttering the sacred OM, which itself is freedom, focused on me as you leave the body, you attain the ultimate goal.

For men whose minds are forever focused on me, whose love has grown deep through meditation, I am easy to reach, Arjuna.

vocabulary mokṣa — liberation, realization

Bhagavad Gītā chapter 10 — Divine Manifestations

10.20 I am the Self, Arjuna, seated in the heart of all beings; I am the beginning and the life span of beings, and their end as well.

Of the sky gods, I am Vishnu; of the heavenly lights, the sun; Marichi, chief of the wind gods; among stars, I am the moon; of the Vedas, I am the hymns; Indra among the gods; the mind among the six senses; the consciousness of all beings;

10.41 Whatever in this world is excellent and glows with intelligence or beauty— be sure that it has its source in a fragment of my divine splendor.

Bhagavad Gītā chapter 11 — The Cosmic Vision

11.4 [Arjuna] If you think I am strong enough, worthy enough, to endure it, grant me now, Lord, a vision of your vast, imperishable Self.

[Kṛṣṇa] Look, Arjuna: thousands, millions of my divine forms, beings of all kinds and sizes, of every color and shape.

11.9 [Sanjaya] After he had spoken these words, Krishna, the great Lord of Yoga, revealed to Arjuna his majestic, transcendent, limitless form.

With innumerable mouths and eyes, faces too marvelous to stare at, dazzling ornaments, innumerable weapons uplifted, flaming—

29 crowned with fire, wrapped in pure light, with celestial fragrance, he stood forth as the infinite God, composed of all wonders.

If a thousand suns were to rise and stand in the noon sky, blazing, such brilliance would be like the fierce brilliance of that mighty Self.

Arjuna saw the whole universe enfolded, with its countless billions of life-forms, gathered together in the body of the God of gods.

11.23 [Arjuna] Your stupendous form, your billions of eyes, limbs, bellies, mouths, dreadful fangs: seeing them the worlds tremble, and so do I.

11.25 Seeing your billion-fanged mouths blaze like the fires of doomsday, I faint, I stagger, I despair. Have mercy on me, Lord Vishnu!

All Dhritarashtra’s men and all these multitudes of kings—Bhishma, Drona, Karna, with all our warriors behind them—are rushing headlong into your hideous, gaping, knife-fanged jaws; I see them with skulls crushed, their raw flesh stuck to your teeth.

As the rivers in many torrents rush toward the ocean, all these warriors are pouring down into your blazing mouths.

11.31 Who are you, in this terrifying form? Have mercy, Lord; grant me even a glimmer of understanding to prop up my staggering mind.

[Kṛṣṇa] I am death [time], shatterer of worlds, annihilating all things. With or without you, these warriors in their facing armies will die.

Bhagavad Gītā chapter 12 — Devotion (Bhakti Yoga)

12.2 Those who love and revere me with unwavering faith, always centering their minds on me—they are the most perfect in yoga.

12.6 Those who love and revere me, who surrender all actions to me, who meditate upon me with undistracted attention, whose minds have entered my being— I come to them all, Arjuna, and quickly rescue them all from the ocean of death and birth.

Concentrate every thought on me alone; with a mind fully absorbed, one-pointed, you will live within me, forever.

If you find that you are unable to center your thoughts on me, strengthen your mind by the steady practice of concentration. If this is beyond your powers, dedicate yourself to me; performing all actions for my sake, you will surely achieve success. 30 If even this is beyond you, rely on my basic teaching: act always without attachment, surrendering your action’s fruits.

vocabulary bhakti yoga — devotion to the Divine saṃsāra — the round of birth & death

Bhagavad Gītā chapter 13 — The Field & the Knower (saṃkhya)

13.1 This body is called the field, Arjuna; the one who watches whatever happens within it—wise men call him the Knower. I am the Knower of the field in every body, Arjuna; genuine knowledge means knowing both the field and its Knower.

13.19 Know that both Nature and Self are equally without beginning, and know that Nature gives rise to changes in the field and to gunas.

Nature is the cause of any activity in the body; the Self is the cause of any feelings of pleasure or pain.

The Self, abiding in Nature, experiences the gunas; its attachment to the gunas causes its birth in good wombs or evil wombs.

It is called the witness, the consenter, the sustainer, the enjoyer, the great Lord, and also the highest Self, the supreme Person in this body.

13.23 He who thus knows the Self as separate from Nature and the gunas will never be born again, whatever path he may follow.

vocabulary puruṣa — person, “the knower” prakṛti — nature, “the field” saṃkhya — “enumeration”, one of the 6 Hindu darśana (Views)

Bhagavad Gītā chapter 14 — The 3 Guṇas

14.5 The three gunas, born of Nature—sattva, rajas, and tamas— bind to the mortal body the deathless embodied Self.

31 14.9 Sattva causes attachment to joy, rajas to action, and tamas, obscuring knowledge, attaches beings to dullness.

14.21 [Arjuna] How can I recognize the man who has gone beyond the three gunas? What has he done to go beyond them? How does he act?

[Kṛṣṇa] Whatever quality arises—light, activity, delusion— he neither dislikes its presence nor desires it when it is not there.

vocabulary guṇa — constituents of Nature: sattva — luminosity, rajas — movement, tamas — mass

Bhagavad Gītā chapter 18 — Renunciation & Liberation

18.51 With a purified understanding, fully mastering himself, relinquishing all sense-objects, released from aversion and craving, solitary, eating lightly, controlling speech, mind, and body, absorbed in deep meditation at all times, calm, impartial, free from the “I” and “mine,” from aggression, arrogance, greed, desire, and anger, he is fit for the state of absolute freedom.

Serene in this state of freedom, beyond desire and sorrow, seeing all beings as equal, he attains true devotion to me.

18.64 Now listen to my final words, the deepest secret of all; I am speaking for your own welfare, since you are precious to me.

If you focus your mind on me and revere me with all your heart, you will surely come to me; this I promise, because I love you.

sarvadharmān parityajya mām ekaṃ śaraṇaṃ vraja ahaṃ tvā sarvapāpebhyo mokṣayiṣyāmi mā śucaḥ || (18.66)

Relinquishing all your duties, take refuge in me alone. Do not fear: I will free you from the evils of birth and death.

32 Mantras for repetition (japa) or chanting (kirtan)

Ganeśa śaranam, śaranam Ganeśa Homage to Ganeśa, Remover of Obstacles, Gan Gan Ganapati śaranam Ganeśa “Lord of the Hosts” Jaya Ganeśa jaya jaya Gananatha

OM Namah Śivaya Homage to Śiva, Lord of Yogis, Supreme God

Nataraj, Nataraja, Nartana Sundara Nataraja Homage to Śiva, Lord of the Dance Śivaraj, Śivaraja, Śiva kami priya Śivaraja Cidambareśa Nataraja, Parthi puriśvara Nataraja

Śri Rām jai Rām jai jai Rām Homage to Rama & Sītā, manifestations of Sītā Rām (x3) Jaya Sītā Rām Viṣṇu & Lakṣmi

Hey Ma Durga (x3), rakṣamam Homage to Durga/Kālī, infinite, sometimes Kālī bolo Kālī bolo, bolo bolo ma “dark,” Goddess Jaya Mata Kālī, jaya jaya Ma

Śri Kṛṣṇa Govinda, Hare Murare Homage to Kṛṣṇa & Radha, manifestations of Hey Natha Narayana Vasudeva Viṣṇu & Lakṣmi

Gopala Gopala, Devaki Nandana Gopala

Govinda jaya jaya, Gopala jaya jaya Radha Ramana Hari Govinda jaya jaya

The Great Mantra (maha-mantra) of Kṛṣna

HARE KṚṢNA HARE KṚṢNA KṚṢNA KṚṢNA HARE HARE HARE RĀMA HARE RĀMA RĀMA RĀMA HARE HARE

33 Class 5. Deities and Hindu Mythology in the Purāṇas18

timeline

Ṛg, Sama, Yajur, & Atharva Veda (1200+ BCE), in 4 sections: Veda, Brāhmaṇa, Ārayṇaka, Upaniṣad (earliest 700 BCE)

Elemental divinities: Indra (storm), Agni (fire), Soma (ritual drink), Aśvinau (twin horsemen), Varuṇa (sky, waters), Maruta (violent storm gods), Uṣas (dawn), Vāyu (wind), Savitṛ/Surya (sun), Viṣṇu (preservation), Yama (death), Vāc (speech), Rudra (storm; early form of Śiva)

Mahābhārata and Rāmāyana epic narratives (300 BCE - 300 CE)

The Mahābhārata [see class 4] is an early source of Hindu mythology, and establishes Vaiṣnava (Kṛṣṇa) worship. Rāma from the Rāmāyana and Kṛṣṇa from the Mahābhārata begin as hero archetypes and are absorbed into Vaiṣnava Hindu mythic structure as avatāra (Incarnations) of Viṣṇu.

The 18 Purāṇa Early: Brahmāṇanda, Harivaṃśa, Mārkaṇḍeya, Matsya, Vāyu, Viṣṇu (300-500 CE) Middle: Agni, Bhāgavata, Devi, Garuḍa, Kūrma, Liṅga, Saura, Vāmana, Varāha (500-1000 CE) Late: Brahma, Skanda, Śiva, Mahābhāgavata, and others... (1000-1500 CE)

Purāṇic deities, the primary gods and goddesses of devotional Hinduism

The trimūrti (Three Forms): Brahmā-Viṣṇu-Śiva. Feminine forms (tridevī): Sarasvatī-Lakṣmī-Pārvatī.

Brahmā: Creation. Sarasvatī: Wisdom, music, learning. Mount of both: Swan

Viṣṇu: Preservation of Dharma (Righteousness); mount: Garuda. Lakṣmī/Śrī: Earth, abundance, wealth; mount: Owl.

10 avatāra of Viṣṇu: Satya/Krita Yuga: Matsya (Fish), Kūrma (Tortoise), Varāha (Boar), Narasimha (Man-Lion); Tretā Yuga: Vāmana (Dwarf), Paraśurāma (Axe-wielder), Rāma (from the Rāmāyana); Dvapara Yuga: Kṛṣṇa/Gōvinda/Gopāla/Harī (from the Mahābhārata); Kali Yuga: Buddha (to delude demons), Kalki (White Horse-rider, ends world, restores Satya Yuga).

Rāma partners Sītā, an avatārā of Lakṣmī (Rāmāyana), & befriends Hanumān (Monkey) Kṛṣṇa partners Rādhā, an avatārā of Lakṣmī (Mahābhārata, Harivaṃśa, Bhāgavata Purāṇa, Gītagovinda)

Śiva: Destruction, asceticism, Lord of Yogis; mount: Bull. Śakti: Umā/Pārvatī: peaceful, maternal; Kālī/Durgā: wrathful; mount: Lion/Tiger. Śiva & Parvatī’s children: Skanda/Kārttikēya (War) & Ganeśa (Remover of Obstacles, Lord of the Hosts).

18 An accessible and accurate compliation of these myths is Wendy Doniger, Hindu Myths: A Sourcebook Translated from the Sanskrit (NY: Penguin, 1975). 34 Churning the Ocean of Milk (from the Mahābhārata, Viṣṇu Purāṇa, & Bhāgavata Purāṇa)

...The Gods and the Asuras knew that they could gain Amṛta, the Water of Life, if they churned up one of the seven oceans that, ring beyond ring, encircles the worlds. They came down to the Ocean of Milk. They took the Mountain Mandara for a churning-pole and the hundred-headed serpent Vāsuki for a churning-rope. They wound the serpent around the mountain … and the Ocean of Milk frothed and bubbled as they churned. For a thousand years the Gods and the Asuras churned the Ocean of Milk. All that time Vāsuki, the serpent, from his hundred heads spat venom. The venom bit into the rocks and broke them up; it flowed down, destroying the worlds of Gods and men. Then all creation would have been destroyed in that flood of venom if it had not been for the act of one of the Gods. Śiva took up the venom in a cup and drank it. His throat became blue with that draught of bitterness. But by his act, the Gods won to more powers than the Asuras had.

… Then out of the Ocean of Milk came the wish-bestowing cow, Surabhi. Gods and Asuras rejoiced at the prosperity that came with her. Then appeared the Apsarases, the heavenly nymphs, and the Gods and the Asuras sported with them. The moon was churned up, and Śiva took it and set it upon his forehead. But now the Asuras wearied in their toil, and more and more they sported with the Apsarases. The Gods, their powers increased through Śiva’s deed, labored at the churning, and the whole Ocean of Milk foamed and bubbled. Then was churned up the gem of gems, Kaustubha, and then white Uccaiḥśravas, the best of horses. Now the Gods grew in strength as they labored, and they labored as they grew in strength, while the Asuras abandoned themselves more and more to pleasures, and they fought amongst themselves on account of the pleasures that all of them sought. And then, seated on a lotus and holding a lotus in her hand, a lovely Goddess appeared. She went to Viṣṇu; she cast herself on the breast of the God, and, reclining there, she delighted the Gods with the glances she bestowed on them. All knew her for Śrī, the Goddess of Good Fortune. And the Asuras, in despair because Good Fortune had gone to the side of the Gods, stood around, determined to seize by force the next good thing that came out of the churning.

And then, behold! there appeared the sage Dhanvantari, and in his hands was the cup that held the Amṛta, the Water of Life. The Asuras strove to seize it; they would drink it all themselves, or else they would fling the Amṛta where the serpent’s venom was dripping on the rocks. Almost they overpowered the Gods in their efforts to seize the Amṛta. Then Viṣṇu changed himself into a ravishing form; he seemed to be the loveliest of the nymphs of Heaven. The Asuras went towards where the seeming nymph postured for them. Even then they fought amongst each other. And the Gods took the cup, and, sharing it, they drank of the Amṛta. And now they were filled with such vigor that the Asuras could not overpower them. Many they drove down into hell where they became Demons. That was the beginning of the wars between the Gods and the Demons—the wars that went on for ages. The Gods were triumphant and the three worlds became filled with radiance and power. Indra, king of the Gods, seated upon his throne, made a hymn in praise of Śrī. She granted him his wish, which was that she should never abandon the Gods.19

19 Colum, Myths of the World, (sacred-texts.com: Internet Sacred Text Archive, 1930), http://www.sacred-texts.com/etc/ omw/omw64.htm. 35 Vaiṣṇava Bhakti: Stories of Viṣṇu in the form of Kṛṣṇa

Infancy: Kṛṣṇa kills the ogress Pūtanā (from the Bhāgavata Purāṇa)

An ogre named Pūtanā (Stinking) was sent by Kṛṣṇa’s evil uncle Kaṃsa to kill all the infants [because he carries a prophecy that Kṛṣṇa will kill him]. Pūtanā shape-shifts into the form of a beautiful woman, and finds baby Kṛṣṇa sleeping, his true nature concealed “like a fire covered with ashes.” She smears poison on her breast and nurses him, but he “drank out her life’s breath with the milk” and is unharmed by the poison. After she dies, they cremate her body, and it burns with a sweet smell like sandalwood because all her evil was purified when she offered her breast to Kṛṣṇa, even with ill-intention.

Childhood: Kṛṣṇa’s mother looks inside his mouth (from the Bhāgavata Purāṇa)

Kṛṣṇa and his brother Balarāma play around the village of Vṛṇḍāvan, stealing food, especially butter and curds, getting dirty, peeing in clean houses, playing with calves. One day, baby Kṛṣṇa is eating dirt, and when his mother, Yaśodhā tries to take it out of his mouth, she sees the whole universe inside his mouth. She takes refuge in God (Harī), and when she has fully understood identity and illusion, Kṛṣṇa takes away her memory of the vision, and she embraces him with a deepened maternal affection.

Manhood: Kṛṣṇa steals the clothes of the village girls (from the Bhāgavata Purāṇa)

All the girls of the village have been praying and making offerings to the goddess Kātyāyanī to make Kṛṣṇa their husband. At dawn they go to bathe in the Kālindī river, leaving their clothes on the bank. Kṛṣṇa appears with his friends in order to grant them their desire, then steals their clothes and climbs a tree. He urges them to come out of the river and get their clothes, and they are embarrassed, but in love. They protest, but eventually come out of the cold water, covering their crotches. He convinces them to bow to the river god, Varuṇa, which makes them lift their arms over their heads. He gives them their clothes, blesses them, and promises to come to each of them at night. They are purified through their love/lust for Kṛṣṇa.20

Kṛṣṇa as lover: two poems of Mirabai

O friends on this path, my eyes are no longer my eyes. A sweetness has entered through them, has pierced through to my heart. How long did I stand in the house of this body and stare at the road? My Beloved is a steeped herb, he has cured me for life. Mira belongs to Giridhara, the One Who Lifts All, and everyone says she is mad.

The rain clouds arrived, half mad; but I still heard nothing from him. Frogs opened their mouths, peacocks shrieked, cuckoos and partridge sang out. Heavy darkness came down, bolts of lighting, the lover felt terror in her heart. But the wind of fragrances did come; and heavy rain began to fall. The black cobra of love burns; the Storm-Bodied One is inside Mira’s heart.21

20 Full translations are at Doniger, Hindu Myths: A Sourcebook Translated from the Sanskrit, 214-29. These synopses are my own. 21 Robert Bly and Jane Hirshfeld, Mirabai: Ecstatic Poems (Boston: Beacon, 2004). 36 Śaiva Goddess Worship: Stories of Devī in the forms of Kālī and Durgā

Durgā kills the buffalo demon, Mahiṣa (from the Skanda & Mārkaṇḍeya Purāṇa)

The goddess in the form of Gaurī (Golden) was practicing asceticism in honor of Śiva when the gods came to her to plead for her help in subduing the buffalo demon. She took the form of a beautiful woman, went to the Tawny Mountain, stationed guards around it, and practiced there. The buffalo demon tricked his way into the hermitage disguised as an old man. Upon hearing that she was propitiating Śiva, he displayed his own power and promised her riches if she would marry him. She taunts him into anger and he attacks her. All the gods show up and give her their weapons, and she rides her lion into battle in the wrathful form of Durgā. She gets drunk on celestial wine, which is the blood of those beings sacrificed to her, mounts the demon, stands on his neck, and cuts off his head.

Kālī and Śiva destroy Dakṣa’s Sacrifice (Yajña), Satī is burnt & dismembered

Satī practiced intense asceticism in order to win Śiva as her husband. She marries Śiva against her father Dakṣa’s will. When Dakṣa plans a large ceremony, he invites all the gods except Śiva and Satī. She goes anyway, but when her father receives her with anger and insults Śiva, she feels like she’s dishonored Śiva and burns her own body on the pyre. After she dies, Śiva cuts off two of his dreadlocks and throws them down. Up springs the warrior Virabhadra and the wrathful form of the goddess, Bhadrakālī, who destroy the ceremony. Śiva is so distraught that he flies around the world carrying Satī’s body. Viṣṇu cuts her body into 52 pieces, and everywhere they fall becomes a place to worship Śiva & Śakti.22

Kālī on the battlefield: a poem by Rāmprasād Sen (18th c)

Hey! Who is She, dark as clouds, nubile, naked, shameless, captivating hearts? Most improper for a family girl! Stomping like an elephant, dizzy with drink, tongue distended, hair flying, crushing demons, horrid shrieks—what a sight! Men and gods recoil in fear. Who is She? Her fingers blossoming blue lotus buds bitten by bees, Her face the full moon— So think the cakora birds offering themselves at Her lips. A dispute begins: is She the bees’ blue lotus or the cakoras’ moon? “Chi-chi” chirp the birds, “Gun-gun” drone the bees. Who is She? Her loins are exquisite, and Her thighs streaming with blood bring to mind sturdy banana plant stalks. Above them around Her waist She has threaded human hands on a string, adding tinkling bells for decoration. With the fairest of hands She grasps a sword and severed head on the left, and promises boons and protection on the right. While she hacks to pieces horses, chariots, elephants, Her companions cheer Her on—“Victory! Victory!” Who is she? Demons see her breasts, very lofty mountains, and strike their elephants’ heads in fear to get away. What could be more amazing? The Beautiful One beautifies Herself with heads, Caṇḍa’s and Muṇḍa’s! Strung On a necklace! The sweetest smile breaks out on Her cheerful face; in a dazzling flash of teeth, lightning shoots to sparkle in Her nose jewel. With a wink of Her eyes, sun, fire, and moon She stomps up and down and the earth quakes and quakes.23

22 Full translations are at Doniger, Hindu Myths: A Sourcebook Translated from the Sanskrit, 242-51. These synopses are my own. 23 Rachel Fell McDermott, Singing to the Goddess: Poems to Kālī and Umā from Bengal (London: Oxford, 2001), 23-24. 37 Class 6. Mantra, ritual, and magic in Tantra

Tantra: 1. A body of Indian esoteric texts (tantra, āgama, & sūtra) mostly written between the 4th and 13th c. 2. Etymology: √tan: propagate, spread; √tra: save, protect.

Because it elaborates copious and profound matters, especially relating to the principles of reality [tattvas] and mantras, and because it saves us [from the cycle of suffering], it is called a tantra.24

Tantra is that Asian body of beliefs and practices which, working from the principle that the universe we experience is nothing other than the concrete manifestation of the divine energy of the godhead that creates and maintains that universe, seeks to ritually appropriate and channel that energy, within the human microcosm, in creative and emancipatory ways.25

Tantric schools/lineages

Śaiva (orienting toward Śiva as primary divinity, though many schools were Goddess oriented) Buddhist/Bauddha (orienting toward Buddhas and Bodhisattvas (Enlightened Beings) as divinities)

Tantra also influenced Vaiṣṇava (orienting toward Viṣṇu) Hinduism, Jainism and Indian Islam. Tantric principles spread to include Tibetan and Mongolian Buddhisms, Chinese Daoism and Ch’an, Japanese esoteric Buddhisms such as Tendai, Shingon, and aspects of Zen.

A few modern tantric26 lineages, with some prominent Western or accessible teachers, include:

Hindu: Kaśmiri Śaivism/Swami Lakṣmanjoo: Mark Dyczkowski, Bettina Baümer Baba Muktānanda/Siddha Yoga: Gurumayi Chidvilasānanda, Paul Muller-Ortega, Christopher Wallis Śrī Vidyā: Douglas Brooks

Vajrayāna Buddhist (Tibetan/Nepalese/Bhutanese): Nyingma (“Old Translation”): Dilgo Khyentse Rinpoche (R), Namkhai Norbu R. Kadam/Sakya: Nyoshul Khen R., Dzongsar Khyentse R., Lama Surya Das Kagyū: Milarepa, Kalu R., Chogyam Trungpa R., Pema Chödrön, Tsoknyi R., Mingyur R. Geluk: The Dalai Lamas

24 Kāmikā-tantra, quoted in Christopher Wallis, Tantra Illuminated (The Woodlands: Anusara Press, 2012), 26. 25 Defnition of Tantra by White, after Madeleine Birdie and André Padoux, in David Gordon White, Tantra in Practice (Princeton: Princeton, 2000), 8-9. 26 A Note on Sexual Tantra: Sexually-oriented schools, known as “Neo-Tantra” by scholars, largely derive from 19th c. European/American practices around sexual discipline and spirituality, often combining ideas from classical Tantra, Haṭha Yoga, Daoism, globalized Hinduism, New Age mysticism, occultism, and modern yoga. Though classical Tantra did contain sexual ritual, most Neo-Tantra has only minimal connection with pre-modern tantric lineages. 38 Tantric principles: Guru

22. The disciple, directed by the compassionate guru who is pleased with his devotion, is liberated from [the fetters of] action and gains liberation as well as other rewards (bhuktimukti).

38. Why such exertions as those of pilgrimage, wherefore observances that emaciate the body, when the pure service of and devotion to the guru [afford the same fruit]?

51-52. Siva is all-pervading, subtle, transcending the mind, without attributes, imperishable, space-like, unborn, infinite: how could he be worshiped, O Dear One? This is why Siva takes on the visible form of the guru who, [when] worshiped with devotion, grants liberation and rewards.

53. I am Siva without any form, O Goddess, imperceptible to the human senses. This is why the virtuous disciples can worship [Me] in the form of the guru.

54. The guru is the the supreme Siva himself, manifestly perceptible as enclosed in human skin. Remaining thus concealed, he bestows grace (anugraha) on the good disciple.

99. Difficult to find is the guru who, when pleased, immediately affords the treasure of liberation, thus saving from the cosmic flow.

104. Many are the gurus who shine [feebly] like lamps in a house. Difficult to obtain is the guru who, like the sun, illuminates everything.

105. Many are the gurus well versed in the Veda, the Sastras, and so forth. Difficult to find is the guru who has mastered the supreme Truth (paratattva).

108. Many are the gurus who despoil their disciples of their wealth. Difficult to find, O Goddess, is the guru who destroys the sufferings of the disciple.

109. Many on earth are [the gurus] who follow the rules of caste and stage of life (varnaśramadharma) and who know the kula practice (kulacara), but the guru whose mind is free of all discursive thought is not easy to find.

130-32. Having found a holy guru endowed with all the proper qualities, one who destroys all doubts and bestows knowledge, O Goddess, one should not stay with another one. If, however, one happens to have a guru who has no real knowledge and who causes doubts, no harm would be incurred by leaving him. Indeed, as the bee eager for honey flies from flower to flower, so the disciple eager for knowledge goes from master to master. (from the Kulārṇava Tantra)27

27 From the Kulārṇava Tantra, in Andre Padoux, “The Tantric Guru” in Ibid., 48-51. 39 Tantric principles: Mantra

The subtle breath which rises up from the heart of the master, and which is like the moon or a crystal, or a very fine thread, is composed of sound, which serenely travels along the series of centers until it comes to rest at last in the dvādaśānta. The dvādaśānta is the terminal point where the suṣumnā comes to an end. The suṣumnā is the central pathway of the three paths. At this point, after having caused his heart to overflow, the teacher must recite the mantra, which then blazes brightly like a submarine fire and bursts forth from his eye sockets and skin pores, until filling the tranquil top knot, in which are melted the streams of clarified butter, which has been propitiated and satisfied by the streams of clarified butter. The mantra then reaches the disciple’s heart.

In this way mantras give liberation when they are awakened and completely purified. In whatever center the mantra is then recited, whether it be the root, the bulb, the ether, the navel, the heart, the throat, the forehead, the palate, the half-moon, the obstructor, the sound, the limit of sound, the pervading one, the power, the equalized one, the transcendent, or the supreme center of the purified Self, in short, in whatever center, and whether all together or separately, that mantra is then the supreme mantra. This is the wisdom-vow described in the Devya-yamala-tantra which has as its purpose the establishment of the potency of mantras. (from Abhinavagupta, Tantrāloka)28

.

3.49 The supreme mantra that bestows the grace of the Auspicious One (Śrī) is the foundation of the highest path (urdhvāmnāya). He who knows this as our supreme form is himself Śiva.

3.50 This mantra is performed, O beloved, with each exhalation [which makes the sound ham] and inhalation [which makes the sound sa] of breath, repeated by all breathing beings, from Śiva all the way down to the worms.

13.64 Just as words such as “pot,” “vessel,” and “jar” all mean the same object [artha: goal, meaning, thing], so too are god and mantra and guru said to be the same object.

15.34 Placing oneself in postures such as the lotus, the cross-legged, or warrior pose, one should perform repetition of the mantra and offer worship. Otherwise [initiation, grace, and effort] will bear no fruit.

15.113 One should perform the recitation of the mantra by fixing oneself on it, with life breath coursing through it, setting it within one’s consciousness, and making the deep connections that form the meaning of its syllables.

16.116 One who knows the mantra of supreme grace is liberated whether he dwells in a place of true pilgrimage, or a place without means to ford across the world, or even in the midst of the ocean of worldliness—there is no doubt about it. (from the Kulārṇava Tantra)29

28 Abhinava Gupta, Tantrāloka (10th c.), in Paul Muller-Ortega, The Triadic Heart of Śiva (Albany: SUNY Press, 1989), 167-68. 29 Douglas Renfrew Brooks, “Ocean of the Heart: Selections from the Kulārṇava Tantra” in White, Tantra in Practice, 353-60. 40 Tantric Principles: 36 Tattva

0. The Heart (hṛdaya)/Śiva-Śakti in perfect fusion (Parama-Śiva, Paramārtha): Ultimate Non-dual Reality.

1. Pure Consciousness (Śiva): unlimited absolute consciousness; the formless ground. 2. Power/Goddess (Śakti): unlimited creative power; divine feminine, “great goddess” (Mahādevī); blissful Self-reflective awareness (vimarśa).

3. the still-benevolent one (Sadāśiva): first differentiation. Associated with icchā-śakti. 4. the lord (Īśvara): personal God. Associated with jñana-śakti. 5. pure wisdom (Śuddha-vidyā): mantra as conscious reality. Associated with kriyā-śakti.

6. illusion (māyā): “supreme veil”, “the world-source” (jagad-yoni), the power of differentiation. Māyā is the source of the 5 veils (kañcuka):

7. limited action (kalā), veils kriyā-śakti 8. limited knowledge (vidyā), veils jñana-śakti 9. lack (rāga), veils icchā-śakti 10. time (kāla) 11. space/causality (niyati)

12. puruṣa: individual consciousness, knowing subject, ātman, jīva, kṣetrajña. 13. prakṛti: nature, the substance of the universe, matter/energy.

14. intelligence (buddhi): reason, imagination, like a mirror 15. ego (ahaṅkāra): the I-maker, identity 16. mind (manas): thoughts & feelings, attention

Organs of Knowing (jñānendriya) Organs of Action (karmendriya) Senses (tanmātra) Elements (mahā-bhūta)

17. ears (śrotra): hearing 22. mouth (vāk): speech 27. sound (śabda) 32. space (ākāśa) 18. skin (tvak): contact 23. hands (pāni): manipulation 28. touch (sparśa) 33. air (vāyu) 19. eyes (cakṣus): sight 24. feet (pāda): locomotion 29. form (rūpa) 34. fre (tejas / agni) 20. tongue (rasanā): taste 25. genitals (upastha): procreation 30. taste (rasa) 35. water (āpaḥ) 21. nose (ghrāṇa): smell 26. bowels (pāyu): elimination 31. smell (gandha) 36. earth (prthvī)

Tantric Principles: 3 Mala (Impurities) & 5 Acts (pañca-kṛtya)

1. Individuality, primal contraction (āṇava-mala). The primary cause of suffering (duḥkha). 2. Differentiation, limitation, illusion (māyīya-mala). The feeling of separateness. 3. Action (kārma-mala). The bondage of karma via attachment (rāga) and aversion (dveṣa).

1. Creation, expansion (sṛṣṭi) 2. Preservation, sustaining (sthiti) 3. Dissolution, contraction, withdrawal (saṃhāra) 4. Concealing, forgetting, self-limitation (tirodhāna) 5. Revealing, remembering, grace (anugraha) 41 Kṣemarāja, The Heart of Recognition (tr. Wallis, excerpts)

1. Awareness, free and independent, is the cause of the performance of everything.

2. She unfolds the universe through Her own Will and on the canvas which is Herself.

3. It is diverse because it is divided into mutually adapted subjects and objects.

4. The individual conscious being also, as a contraction of universal Awareness, embodies the entire universe in a microcosmic form.

5. Awareness descends from her wholly Self-aware and expanded state and becomes contracted in order to perceive an object: this is the mind. ...

13. When there is full realization of that, the mind turns within and ascends to its wholly self-aware and expanded state, and thus is [realized as] Awareness. ...

16. When one discovers this Bliss of Awareness, and firmly fixes the realization that the body etc. are one with that Awareness—so that it persists even when they are still perceivable—this is jīvanmukti: embodied liberation.

17. The Bliss of Awareness is discovered through the expansion of the Center.

18. The means here are: dissolving mental constructs, contraction and expansion of energy, cutting off the flows, concentrating on the beginning and ending point, and so on.

19. Upon emerging from meditation, while still experiencing its impression, contemplate that whatever arises is one with [the same pure] Awareness [of the samādhi state]: practicing this again and again, one will attain a samādhi that continuously arises.

20. Then, due to immersion in the fully expanded, all-encompassing Self—which is in essence the bliss of the Light of Awareness and the great potency of [all] mantras—one attains the state of being the Lord of the Circle of the goddesses of one’s own consciousness, who are constantly engaged in the creation and dissolution of all things. All this is Śiva. All is blesséd.30

30 Kṣemarāja (d. 1025, disciple of Abhināvagupta), The Heart of the Doctrine of Recognition (Pratyabhijña-hṛdayam), Christopher Wallis, The Recognition Sutras (Boulder: Mattamayura Press, 2017). 42 Tibetan Tantra: The Abbreviated Quintessence Sadhana of Yeshé Tsogyal, Queen of the Ocean of Wisdom

Ho! In the Guru Wisdom Dakini, I take refuge; I arouse the mind of awakening for the benefit of all beings. Instantaneously, I am perfectly and completely aware of myself As the wisdom form of Tsogyal Vajra Yogini. From the visualized heart center life force syllable and mantra-garland, Rays of light radiate forth and gather back, performing the two benefits. Within dharmata, the true nature of phenomena, ordinary forms and sounds as deities and mantras, coalesce as the single bindu of great bliss. I awaken to the emptiness of the manifest aspect of the visualization. The natural expressivity of emptiness arises as the deity. To all beings, I dedicate the merit of striving in this practice. May the auspiciousness of the spontaneously accomplished two benefits be present.31

Tibetan Tantra: The Single Word of Heart-Advice

Homage to all the sacred masters. The heart-mind of all the Buddhas of the past, the present, and the future, widely renowned as Dharmakaya, as Mahamudra, as enlightened mind, is precisely your own mind, which thinks of this and that. Simply allow this unique awareness to rest vividly awake and present in its natural way. You don’t need to worry or think, “Is this really it? Could this be Mahamudra?” Don't bother yourself with these doubts and questions. Don’t hope for improvement or be afraid of degeneration.

By practicing in this extraordinarily simple way, again and again, you will definitely recognize the groundless, rootless open essence of all thoughts, appearances, and phenomena. When that happens, realization blooms naturally. All attachments, all habitual patterns, all conditioning is spontaneously liberated and released in this blossoming of realization.

I swear there is not a more profound and ultimate instruction from all the holy and realized masters of the enlightened lineage that is more profound and more vital than this single word of my heart-advice. Please don't waste this. Don’t squander it. Remember this teaching always. There is no mistake in it. Rely on the blessings of such a teaching, rather than on the blessings of others.

This was written by Karmapa Rangjung Dorje in the Yangon Hermitage. May all beings be happy. Sarva mangalam.32

31 Composed by Jñana (Dudjom Rinpoché, Jigdral Yeshé Dorjé). 32 Composed by the Third Karmapa, Rangjung Dorje. 43 Class 7. Haṭha Yoga: Breath, sex, & power

Haṭha (lit. “Forceful”) Yoga (HY) evolved from Tantra, emphasizing wind/energy (vāyu/prāṇā), mudrā, and the sublimation of sexual energy, in order to awaken the goddess called kuṇḍalinī (“the Coiled One”) in the body. One text, the Yogabīja, gives an esoteric definition of “Haṭha” as Sun (ha)-Moon (ṭha) that has become popular.

Although the literal definition is “Forceful,” HY texts recommend caution and gentle effort in the practice:

...just as the lion, elephant, and tiger should be tamed very gradually, just so (should) the breath be cultivated; otherwise it kills the Yogin. (Haṭhapradīpikā 2.15)

The practice must only be carried out gradually, not all at once. The body of him who tries to do it all at once is destroyed. For this reason the practice is to be carried out very gradually… (Khecarīvidyā 1.54-55)

Important early texts include the Amṛtasiddhi (11th c), Vivekamārtaṇḍa (10th c), and Goraksạśataka (10th c).

The first to teach a systematic HY method is the Dattātreyayogaśāstra (13th c), which includes the 10 mudrā of HY: mahāmudrā, mahābandha, khecarīmudrā, the 3 bandhas (jālandharabandha, uḍḍiyāṇabandha, and mūlabandha), viparītakaraṇī, vajrolī, amarolī, and sahajolī.33

Later texts, which quote the earlier ones, include the Haṭhapradīpikā/Haṭhayogapradīpikā (1450 CE) (HYP), which became the standard core text for “Classical Haṭha Yoga.” The HYP describes a set of practices that combines aspects of Patañjali’s Aṣṭāṅga with Haṭha and Laya Yoga (Dissolving) methods from earlier HY texts: yama (10 Outer Disciplines), niyama (10 Inner Disciplines), āsana (15 Postures), ṣatkarma (“Six [Cleansing] Actions”, but the text lists 8), prāṇāyāma (Breath Discipline), kumbhaka (8 Breath Methods + 2 types of retention), mudrā (10 Energetic Gestures, including the bandha: 3 Bonds/Locks), kuṇḍalinī (The Coiled [Goddess]), samādhi (Unification of Mind), nāda (Meditation on the Subtle/Inner Sound—a Laya method).

The HYP ends with the claim that haṭha yoga and laya yoga lead to rāja yoga, which is samādhi, and that samādhi is mukti (Liberation).

33 Much of this history is drawn from James Mallinson, "Hatha Yoga," in Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism, ed. Knut A. Jacobsen, et al. (Leiden: Brill, 2012), 771. See also James Mallinson and Mark Singleton, Roots of Yoga (NY: Penguin, 2016). 44 Practices in the Haṭha Yoga Pradīpikā: disciplines

10 yama (Outer Disciplines) 10 niyama (Inner Disciplines) ahimsā (non-harming) tapas (austerity/heat) satya (truth) santoṣa (contentment) asteya (non-stealing) āstikya (faith) brahmacarya (continence) dāna (generosity) kśamā (forgiveness) iśvara-pujana (worship) dhṛtiḥ (endurance) siddhānta-vākya-śravaṇa (study) dayā (compassion) hrī (remorse at wrongdoing) arjava (humility) matī (intellect) mitahāra (moderate diet) japa (mantra repetition) śauca (cleanliness) hutam/yajña (sacrifice)

Practices in the Haṭha Yoga Pradīpikā: 15 āsana svastikāsana (ankles crossed) paschimottanāsana (“west side”) gomukhāsana (cow face) mayūrāsana (peacock) vīrāsana (hero) śavāsana (corpse) kūrmāsana (tortoise) siddhāsana (Siddha’s)/vajrāsana/muktāsana/guptāsana kukkutāsana (rooster) padmāsana (lotus) uttānakūrmāsana (reclining tortoise) siṃhāsana (lion) dhanurāsana (bow) bhadrāsana (gracious)/gorakśāsana matsyendrāsana (Matsyendra’s pose)

Practices in the Haṭha Yoga Pradīpikā: 8 ṣatkarma (“6 Actions”) dhauti (internal cleansing) In addition to these 6, which are standard in many basti (enema) texts, the HYP includes: neti (nasal cleansing) trataka (steady gazing) nāḍi śodhana (channel cleansing) nauli (abdominal churning) gaja karani (vomiting) kapālabhati (skull shining)

45 Practices in the Haṭha Yoga Pradīpikā: prāṇāyāma

The central HY practice is the lengthening and holding of the breath, which is said variously to awaken kuṇḍalinī, preserve bindu (semen) in the head, and lift bindu to the head. The HYP uses the term kumbhaka (Retention/Pot) for the standard modern prāṇāyāma (Breath Cultivation), as well as the types of Retention.

8 Kumbhaka (Retentions) surya bheda (sun-piercing) (IN R, hold, long EX L) ujjayi (victorious) sītkari (hissing) śītalī (cooling) bhastrikā (bellows) (pierces 3 granthi (Knots)) brahmāri (bee) mūrccha (swooning) plāvinī (gulping) sahita kumbhaka (breath retention) kevala kumbhaka (spontaneous retention)

Practices in the Haṭha Yoga Pradīpikā: mudrā & bandha

The mechanism by which breath (prāna) is cultivated to the point of awakening kuṇḍalinī is the esoteric gestural language of mudrā, which includes the 3 familiar bandha. Mudrā aims to control male ejaculation in order to draw the suble energy of semen, called bindu (Drop) into the Central Column (suśumna).

10 Mudrā (Gestures) mahā mudrā (great seal) śambhāvi mudrā (midbrow gaze) mahā vedha mudrā (great piercing seal) [added to the original 10 mudrā] khecarī mudrā (space walking seal)

mahā bandha (great bond: the 3 bandha) uddiyāna bandha (upward flying bond) mūla bandha (root bond), forces kuṇḍalinī into brahma nāḍi jālandhara bandha (throat bond) viparīta karanī mudrā (inversion) vajrolī mudrā (bindu retention/sublimation [men]) sahajoli mudrā (rajas retention/sublimation [women]) amarolī mudrā (drinking urine)

46 Sexual Energy in Classical Haṭha Yoga

The early HY texts teach a method to preserve bindu (lit. Drop, referring to semen) and draw it upward through the Central Column (suśumna) to the head.

The ancient tradition of the ūrdhvaretās tapasvī (the ascetic whose seed is [turned] upwards), which is closely associated with the practice of yoga in texts such as the Mahābhārata, is likely to be the source of early Haṭha Yoga, in which the preservation of bindu is paramount.34

An 11th century commentary on the Buddhist Kālacakra Tantra describes the seminal retention practice:

In this system [Haṭha Yoga], when the the undying moment does not arise because the breath is unrestrained [even] when the image is seen by means of withdrawal (pratyāhāra) and the other [Limbs of Yoga], then, having forcefully (haṭhena) made the breath flow in the central channel through the practice of nāda, which is about to be explained, [the yogi] should attain the undying moment by restraining the bindu of the bodhicitta [i.e.~semen] in the vajra [i.e.~penis] when it is in the lotus of wisdom [i.e.~vagina].35

By the time the HYP is compiled, the practice of restraining bindu has become central to HY, and the purpose of mudrā and bandha. It is the esoteric/alchemical corollary to the practice of brahmacarya (Celibacy/Continence), transmuting semen, or for women, rajas (Menstrual Fluid) into subtle life force energy.

Vajrolī mudrā (Seminal Retention or Sublimation)

Vajrolī mudrā describes the practice of using nauli to draw fluids up the urethra (held open by inserting a catheter in to the bladder) in order to recover semen accidentally lost during [ritual] sexual intercourse.

The Dattātreyayogaśāstra follows its teachings on vajrolī by saying that it is the only way to bring about rājayoga, and the Haṭharatnāvalī says that one becomes a rājayogī through control of semen. The implication of the name rājayoga here is that one can live like a king, indulging oneself in sensory pleasures, yet still be a yogi, i.e. one need not renounce the world and become an ascetic.36

Echoing the “union” of masculine and feminine energies celebrated in much Tantra, the early Amṛtasiddhi discusses simply the joining of the two sexual fluids.

Semen is made of [the substance of] the moon and menstrual blood, of the sun. Simply from the union of the two, the highest state arises.37

34 Mallinson, "Hatha Yoga," 779. 35 From the Vimalaprabhā, Puṇḍarīka’s 11th c. commentary on the Kālacakratantra. 4.119, Jim Mallinson, unpublished. Used with permission of author. 36 "Yoga and Sex: What Is the Purpose of VajrolīMudrā?," in Yoga in Transformation (Vienna2013), 9. 37 Jason Birch, "The Meaning of Hatha in Early Hathayoga," Journal of the American Oriental Society 131, no. 4 (2011): 537. 47 Practices in the Haṭha Yoga Pradīpikā: samādhi and kuṇḍalinī

As described in the HYP, raising kuṇḍalinī through suśumna nāḍi (the central channel) to brahmarandhra (above the crown center) leads to an experience of śunya (emptiness/void), or laya (dissolution).

Grip her tail and wake the sleeping serpent. The shakti stirs and surges upwards. Inhale through the sun. Grip using paridhana. Make the still serpent below move every day for an hour and a half, morning and evening. The kanda [Bulb] is said to be twelve fingers above the anus, four fingers wide, soft, white, and like a folded cloth. Hold the feet firmly near the ankles with the hands while in Vajrasana and press the kanda. After making the kundalini move, the yogi should stay in Vajrasana and immediately do Bhastrika to quickly awaken the kundalini.38

3 Focuses for meditation (samādhi)

śambhāvi mudrā (midbrow gaze, “seal of Śambho/Śiva”) nasikagra dṛṣti (nose-tip gaze), till jyoti (subtle light) appears khecarī mudrā (turning back the tongue (or awareness, in earlier models), said to be the doorway to laya)

Laya: the completion stage of Haṭha Yoga

The laya of the yogis—inhalation and exhalation ceased, grasping of objects destroyed, inactive, unchanging—is supreme. … They say “laya, laya.” What is the nature of laya? Laya is forgetting objects because vasanas [desires associated with imagination] don’t recur. … The breath, staying in the left and right nadis, goes into the middle. The Khecarimudra lives in that place, without a doubt. … Shiva’s place is between the brows. There the mind dissolves. That state is known as turya. There, time is not. … The breath of one practicing this way day and night in the path of breath is dissolved. Then the mind also dissolves. Drench the body with nectar from the head to the soles of the feet. One will definitely get a great body, and great strength and heroism. Center the mind in the shakti and the shakti in the mind. Observe the mind with the mind, then concentrate on the highest state. Center the self in space and space in the self. Make everything space, then don’t think of anything.

… The entire universe is just a creation of thought. The play of the mind is just a creation of thought. Abandon the mind which is only thought. Take refuge in the changeless, O Rama and surely find peace. As camphor in fire, like salt in water, so the mind immersed in Reality dissolves. The knowable, the known, and knowledge—all are said to be the mind. When knowledge and the knowable are lost, there is no [duality]. All this, whether mobile or immobile, is a presentation of the mind. Duality is not obtained from the mind’s state of unmani. The mind dissolves from abandoning knowable things. After the mind is dissolved, kaivalya remains. Thus are the paths to samadhi, consisting of the various sorts of methods told by the great, ancient teachers following their own correct experience. Salutations to you, Sushumna, kundalini, nectar born of the moon, manonmani, great power in the form of consciousness.39

38 HYP 3.111-115 in Brian Dana Akers, The Hatha Yoga Pradipika (Woodstock: Yoga Vidya, 2002), 79-80. 39 HYP 4.31-64 in Ibid., 91-100. 48 Esoteric Anatomy in Haṭha Yoga

5 prāna/vāyu (Winds) body area movement practice

1 - prāna upper torso up, exhale jālandhara-bandha (press down)

2 - apāna lower torso down, inhale mūla-bandha (draw up)

3 - samāna abdomen balancing, digestion uddīyāna-bandha, agnisāra, nauli, bhastrika

4 - udāna limbs up, circulating śakti-calana (circulating, inner orbit)

5 - vyāna whole body pervading, radiating effortless prāṇāyāma, whole body breath

3 nāḍi (Channels) translation physiology associations river action

1 - ida “comfort” left side moon, feminine, apāna Ganga contraction, cooling

2 - piṅgala “tawny” right side sun, masculine, prāṇa Yamuna expansion, heating

3 - suśumna “most gracious” center ascent of kuṇḍalinī, udāna Saraswati rising, stillness

7 cakra (Wheels) location lotus petals element shape color bīja mantra

7 – sahasrāra above crown 1000

6 – ajñā center of head 2

5 – viṣuddhi throat 16 space (ākāśa) circle blackish haṃ

4 – anāhata heart 12 wind (vāyu) hexagon grey-blue yaṃ

3 – manipura belly/solar plexus 10 fire (agni) inv. triangle red raṃ

2 – svādhisthāna pelvic center 6 water (āpaḥ) crescent white vaṃ

1 – mūlādhāra perineum 4 earth (prthvī) square yellow laṃ

3 granṭhi (Knots) cakra location

3 - rudra-granthi ajña head/wisdom eye

2 - viṣṇu-granthi anāhata heart center

1 - brahma-granthi mūlādhāra root/pelvis

49 A note on cakras, old & new

Some modern systems use the 7 colors of the rainbow (ROYGBIV) for the cakras, and associate psychological qualities (grounding, creativity, will, love, communication, wisdom, union) with them, but these may be Western inventions, even though they resonate well with some of the traditional concepts and may be very useful for contemporary practitioners.

A more traditional system from Śaiva Tantra called tattva śuddhi (Purification of the Elements) uses the set of 5 Elements, with colors, shapes, and seed syllables that correspond. Tantric cakra systems in both Śaiva and Buddhist lineages often use a set of 5 cakra instead of 7, with the root and pelvic cakra combined into one, and the top cakra in the head rather than above the crown. There are many other cakra systems, with other numbers and descriptions of cakra.

In general, the common Western idea of yogic subtle anatomy is that these structures — nāḍi, cakra, granṭhi — describe always already existing features of the subtle body: we think there is a cakra there in the body to tune in to. Historically, it may be more accurate to think of the subtle body descriptions as instructions for visualization and esoteric embodiment. One would “install” a certain deity in certain places in the body using mantra and imagination in the form of sustained, detailed visualization. This practice is still central in some Tantric systems but is not taught in most globalized yoga lineages.

50 Class 8. Yoga in modernism: universalism, embodiment, globalization

timeline

1845 Boston Transcendentalist Ralph Waldo Emerson reads the Bhagavad Gītā (tr. Wilkins: first English trans.)

It was the first of books; it was as if an empire spoke to us, nothing small or unworthy, but large, serene, consistent, the voice of an old intelligence which in another age and climate had pondered over and thus disposed of the same questions which exercise us. (Emerson)40

1526-1857 Islamic Mughal Empire rules India. In 1600, British East India Company begins gaining dominance.

1858 British occupy India in order to crush the Rebellion of 1857 against the East India Company (1757-1857). In 1858, the “British Raj” included what is now India, Burma/Myanmar, Pakistan, and Bangladesh.

1893 Swami Vivekananda visits Chicago Parliament of Religions; founds Vedanta Society in NY, SF, LA.

Do I wish that the Christian would become Hindu? God forbid. Do I wish that the Hindu or Buddhist would become Christian? God forbid. … But each must assimilate the spirit of the others and yet preserve his individuality and grow according to his own law of growth. …[H]oliness, purity, and charity are not the exclusive possessions of any church in the world and ... every system has produced men and women of the most exalted character. In the face of this evidence, if anybody dreams of the exclusive survival of his own religion and the destruction of the others, I pity him from the bottom of my heart, and point out to him that upon the banner of every religion will soon be written in spite of resistance: ‘Help and not fight,’ ‘Assimilation and not Destruction,’ ‘Harmony and Peace and not Dissension.’ (Vivekananda, closing address at the Chicago Parliament of Religions)41

1947 British rule of India ends with Independence and Partition into India (Hindu) and Pakistan (Muslim). 1948 British rule of Burma ends.

“Perennial Philosophy”

Renaissance (neo-Platonist) idea popular in the 19th century that all great religions point to the same universal metaphysical truths. Embraced by the New England Transcendentalist movement (Thoreau, Emerson, Alcott, Whitman), the Unitarians, the Theosophical Society (Blavatsky, Besant, Olcott), Neo-Vedanta (Vivekananda, Aurobindo, S. Radhakrishnan), and the Traditionalists (Guénon, Coomaraswamy, Sichuan, Huston Smith). Further popularized by Aldous Huxley in The Perennial Philosophy (1945).

40 E. H. Rick Jarow, "Emerson’s Gita: Krishna and the Tradition of Conscience," (2008), 4. 41 https://www.thoughtco.com/swami-vivekanandas-speeches-1770689, see also http://www.ibe.unesco.org/ International/Publications/Thinkers/ThinkersPdf/vivekane.pdf. [Note: using Anglicized spellings throughout section.] 51 Sanātana Dharma

A term for the universal truths and practices of Hinduism, used in 19th and 20th centuries as part of Hindu Modernism movement, which elevated Hinduism to “world religion” status. Hindu Modernists (Ram Mohan Roy, Vivekananda, S. Radhakrishnan, M.K. Gandhi) deemphasized “tantric” influences and emphasized doctrine of pan-entheism (God in everything).

“Modern Postural Yoga”: the southern lineage

1926 Tirumalai Krishnamacharya (TK) hired by Māharāja of Mysore to teach yoga to his family at the palace. 1933 TK founds Mysore Yogashala. The Māhārāja’s heir cuts off funding and the shala closes in 1950. 1927 Śri K Pattabhi Jois begins 26 year study with TK while at Mysore Sanskrit College. 1934 BKS Iyengar studies with brother-in-law TK “for about ten or fifteen days” over 2 years.42 1937 Iyengar starts teaching in Pune. Becomes famous in West after teaching violinist Yehudi Menuhin. 1938 Russian actress Eugenie Peterson moves to India, changes her name to Indra Devi, acts in Indian films, and studies with TK. 1939 opens yoga school in Shanghai, then in 1948 opens studio in Hollywood. 1948 K. Pattabhi Jois opens Ashtanga Yoga Research Institute in Mysore. Founds Ashtanga yoga system.1960 TK’s son, TKV Desikachar, a structural engineer, begins 29 year study with his father. Founds Viniyoga.

Globalized schools of yoga descended from southern lineage:

Iyengar, founded by BKS Iyengar (1937) Ashtanga, founded by Śri K Pattabhi Jois (1948). Basis of modern power yoga and vinyasa flow styles. Viniyoga, founded by TKV Desikachar and student Gary Kraftsow. Anusara, founded by John Friend in 1997, based on Iyengar alignment and Siddha philosophy. (Ends 2012). Jivamukti, founded by David Life and Sharon Gannon (1984).

“Modern Postural Yoga”: the northern lineage

1936 Shivananda Saraswati founds Divine Life Society in Rishikesh 1943 Satyananda Saraswati arrives at Shivananda ashram, takes sannyasa in 1947. 1947 Vishnudevananda takes sannyasa, becomes first prof. of Hatha Yoga at Yoga-Vedanta Forest Academy. 1949 After studying with Ramana Maharishi, Satchidananda takes sannyasa with Shivananda. 1956 Swami Satyananda wanders as a yogi beggar through India. Opens Bihar School of Yoga in 1964. 1959 Vishnudevananda opens first Sivananda Yoga Vedanta Centre in Montreal, Canada.

Globalized schools of yoga descended from northern lineage:

Shivananda, founded by Vishnudevananda (1959) Integral, founded by Satchidananda (1966) Bihar, founded by Satyananda (1964) Yasodhara/Hidden Language, founded by Shivananda Radha, a German female initiate of Shivananda

42 https://web.archive.org/web/20130307101611/http://www.namarupa.org/magazine/nr03/downloads/ NamaRupa_03_02.pdf 52 Other prominent systems:

Kripalu, founded by Amrit Desai following his teacher Kripalvananda. Teaches spontaneous āsana. Bikram, founded by “All India Yoga Champion” Bikram Choudhury. Original form of “hot yoga.” Siddha, founded by Muktananda, disciple of Nityananda. Current head Gurumayi Chidvilasananda. Kundalini/3HO, founded by Yogi Bhajan. A modern reinvention of Haṭha Yoga from a Sikh perspective.

Śri T. Krishnamacharya: Yoga Makaranda (1934), excerpts43

The philosophy of yoga is to withdraw the mind from external activities, to draw its focus inwards, and to bring it into deep concentration. … Only after practising according to krama [correct order] for a period of time will the yogabhyasi gain strength of body, good health and happiness, and the mind will mainly reside in sattvaguna. (7-8)

… From practising only asana, one gains strength of the body; from the practice of only the yama, one develops compassion towards all living beings; from practising only pranayama, it is possible to achieve long life and good health. … [If] one follows ahimsa, satya, astheya, aparigraha, and brahmacharya systematically without fail, one develops a relationship of affection and compassion not just for other people but equally for all living beings. This attitude of perceiving all living beings with total impartiality (equality) is essential for the welfare of society. … The five niyama are sauca, santosha, tapas, svadhyaya, and isvara pranidhana. If one follows them as krama, then riots, anger, hatred and aversion will become illusory and will slowly disappear from society.

...Asana practice renders correct blood circulation. The snayus (ligaments) and various parts of the body will function at the perfect, ultimate level. … Because of the power of pranayama practice, one develops strength in the bones, the bone marrow and the heart; one develops the brain, the head, the anna kosam, the fat layer, the mana kosam, the strength of breath and prana, and longevity; it sharpens the senses, strengthens the intellect and the voice and purifies the blood. ... Lack or weakness of viryam leads to lack of strength which leads to the atrophy of bones. Such a condition leads one to suffer from tuberculosis. Whoever has no impurities in their blood will never develop any disease, and their body will develop a kind of glow. How can darkness reside where there is sunlight? (8-9)

...There is a unique special aspect to dhyana. That is, suppose one practises pranayama, pratyahara and dharana to control the mind and is able to acquire a state of ekagrata or focus the mind in one direction. Such a person, if he thinks about some situation or matter and wishes that it should or should not occur, events will happen according to his wishes. (14)

Our ancients, the great rishis, followers of their sanatana dharma from the beginning of time, became experts in yama, niyama, asana, pranayama, pratyahara, dharana, dhyana, and samadhi, stopped all external movements of the mind, and through the path of raja yoga attained a high state of happiness in this

43 http://www.yogastudies.org/wp-content/uploads/Yoga_Makaranda.pdf. Also http://krishnamacharya.net/yoga- makaranda-part-ii 53 world and beyond. And they continue until this day to experience this. But during ancient times, all were skilled yoga practitioners and therefore had good health and strength, were blessed with a long life and were able to serve society. But just as due to bad association one acquires wrong gunas, nowadays due to bad influences people have slipped from the path of sanatana dharma and yoga and are perpetually sick, age quickly, have a short life-span, have become precocious and, shamefully, lead a selfish life. (16)

...Everyone has a right to do yoga. Everyone — brahmin, kshatriya, vaishya, sudra, gñani, strong, women, men, young, the old and very old, the sick, the weak, boys, girls, etcetera, all are entitled to yogabhyasa with no restrictions on age or caste. This is because yogabhyasa rapidly gives maximum visible benefits to all. … Everyone is entitled, irrespective of caste, to follow the path of yogabhyasa even in order to obtain divine virtues and the resulting eight animadi siddhis, and, if one ignores these siddhis, to proceed further on the ultimate path. But many do not agree with this opinion. This only reveals their confusion and the absence of a sattvic state of mind. (The sastras do not forbid yoga for anyone.) Whoever wishes to do yoga has the right to do it. Yet whoever it is, it is very important that they should only learn all the aspects and practise it under the guidance of a proper guru. … But “Ruffians, those who eat wrong food, talk filth or use abusive language, those who speak ill of others, lie about others, are obsessed with food, those who are addicted to sensual pleasures, those who pretend to be good, those who destroy and cheat, carry aversion in the mind, those who are disrespectful of the vedas, are alcoholics, or have any such bad habits, these people, no matter what caste or religion, are not fit to practise yoga.” This is firmly stated by Gherandacarya. … For example, everybody knows that pure cow’s milk gives good health and happiness. Yet if it is poured in a cup made of pig’s skin or dog’s skin, it turns into poison and becomes harmful. Similarly if you teach the pure divine nectar of yoga to ruffians and cheats, it will only cause disaster. ...Those who are eager to learn good skills, those who can learn to control their senses and are peaceful by nature, those who speak the truth, who wish to serve their guru, who are devoted to their mother and father, who do karma according to the sastra, who are clean, who love bathing in the Ganga, who follow their caste dharma, who are modest and patriotic, who have pride in their family, all these people are good vessels for yoga. (17-18)

… As a result of many people teaching yogabhyasa in this [inappropriate/incorrect] fashion, many leave the path of yoga saying that they do not see the benefits in yogabhyasa and fall into the traps of various diseases. They do not exercise the body properly and spend money unnecessarily. … In spite of this terrible situation, some young men and women collect some yoga texts from here and there and eagerly begin to practise in either a correct or incorrect way. For these people, god will reveal the secrets of yoga without fail. The modern age belongs to the youth. Let the god of yoga bless them to have good health, long life and body strength. (27)

...In modern times, many types of strange phenomena are occurring. Among these, using the skill of discernment to examine the good and the bad, the time has come to carefully choose only the good. … If one wants to develop such a skill, it is essential to have complete physical strength, strength of mind, and similarly one needs to conquer each of the five aspects [“good health, longevity, happiness, strong mind and strong body”] mentioned earlier. The secret of the five aspects is what we call yoga.

54 For such achievements in yoga, we do not need to send our country’s money elsewhere to procure any items. Whatever money we get, there is plenty of place in our country to store it. The foreigners have stolen all the skills and knowledge and treasures of mother India, either right in front of us or in a hidden way. They pretend that they have discovered all this by themselves, bundle it together, and then bring it back here as though doing us a favour and in exchange take all the money and things we have saved up for our family’s welfare. After some time passes, they will try and do the same thing with yogavidya. We can clearly state that the blame for this is that while we have read the books required for the knowledge of yoga to shine, we have not understood or studied the concepts or brought them into our experience. If we still sleep and keep our eyes closed, then the foreigners will become our gurus in yogavidya. (29-30)

Śivānanda: Essence of Yoga, excerpts44

As life on this earth is characterised by incessant change, and nothing here seems to have the character of reality, nothing here can satisfy man completely. … The universe is inconstant, and it is only a field of experience provided to the individuals so that they may evolve towards the experience of the Highest Truth. It is the glory of the people of Bharatavarsha (India) that to them the visible universe is not real and the invisible Eternal alone is real. They have no faith in what they perceive with the senses. They have faith only in that which is the ground of all experience, beyond the senses, beyond even the individual mind. (vi)

...The true greatness of Indian spiritual inheritance consists in the secret and glorious methods it has delivered to us for allaying life’s sorrow and human unhappiness and for acquiring for the circumstance of human existence, the infinite peace and perfection of the Divine Being. Human grief cannot be alleviated as long as the human individual is immured in ignorance and strives merely for his individual pleasure and good. The genius of India has, to its immortal honour, soared above the conventional ties and the bonds of society, grasped the spiritual truth, realised it and proclaimed to the world, for the welfare of all mankind, that “Life is One” and not many. (viii) … In this integral spiritual view of life is rooted the ethical basis of social and domestic relationship. Society is the collective body of individuals determined to pierce the veils and enter the realms of Immortal Being with the power of a unified and common aspiration and struggle to grasp the Highest. Unified we live; divided we cease to live. Human relationship is not meant to signify anything less than the attempt to live in everyday life the spiritual egoless love that is at the background of all existent beings. The love of the Self means the love of everything of the universe. The Indian genius would complete the teaching “Love thy neighbour as thyself” by adding “because thy neighbour is thy own Self.” (x)

… If you want to attain success in Yoga, you will have to abandon all worldly enjoyments and practise Tapas and Brahmacharya. You will have to control the mind skilfully and tactfully. You will have to use judicious and intelligent methods to curb it. If you use force, it will become more turbulent and mischievous. It cannot be controlled by force. It will jump and drift away more and more. Those who attempt to control the mind by force are like those who endeavour to bind a furious elephant with a thin silken thread.

44 http://www.dlshq.org/download/download.htm 55 A Guru or preceptor is indispensable for the practice of Yoga. The aspirant in the path of Yoga should be humble, simple, gentle, refined, tolerant, merciful and kind. … Self-sufficiency, impertinence, pride, luxury, name, fame, self-assertive nature, obstinacy, idea of superiority, sensual desires, evil company, laziness, overeating, overwork, too much mixing and too much talking are some of the obstacles in the path of Yoga. Admit your faults freely. When you are free from all these evil traits, Samadhi or union will come by itself. … Practise Yama and Niyama. Sit comfortably in Padma or Siddhasana. Restrain the breath. Withdraw the senses. Control the thoughts. Concentrate. Meditate and attain Asamprajnata or Nirvikalpa Samadhi (union with the Supreme Self).

May you shine as a brilliant Yogi by the practice of Yoga! May you enjoy the bliss of the Eternal! (1-2)

… A Hatha Yogi starts his Sadhana with body and Prana; a Raja Yogi starts his Sadhana with his mind; a Jnana Yogi starts his Sadhana with Buddhi or intellect and will.

A Hatha Yogi gets Siddhis (psychic powers) by uniting Prana and Apana and by taking the united Prana- Apana through the six Chakras (centres of spiritual energy) to Sahasrara at the crown of the head. A Raja Yogi gets Siddhis by Samyama, i.e., combined practice of Dharana, Dhyana and Samadhi at one time. A Jnana Yogi exhibits Siddhis through pure will or Sat-Sankalpa. A Bhakta gets Siddhis through self-surrender and the consequent descent of grace. … Take to Raja Yoga after possessing good health.

Do Asana, Kumbhaka, Mudra and shake the Kundalini. Then take it to Sahasrara through Chakras in the Sushumna. O children of light! Will you drink not, will you drink not, the nectar of immortality?

Brother! Attain good health. Without health how can you live? Without health, how can you earn? Without health how can you get success in Yoga or any undertaking? Possess wonderful health through the practice of Hatha Yoga. Drink the nectar in Sahasrara and live in the immortal abode of Siva. (3)

… Practise a few Asanas daily at least for a period of fifteen minutes. You will possess wonderful health. Be regular in your practice. Regularity is of paramount importance. Practise Bhujang, Salabh, Dhanur, Sarvang, Hala and Paschimottasan Asanas. Bhujang, Salabh and Dhanur will remove constipation and muscular pain of the back. Sirsh, Sarvang and Hala will help you in maintaining Brahmacharya, rendering the spine elastic and curing all diseases. Paschimottasan will reduce fat in the belly and help digestion. Relax all muscles in Savasana in the end. (4)

… Kundalini is awakened through Pranayama, Asanas and Mudras by Hatha Yogins, through concentration by Raja Yogins, through devotion and perfect self-surrender by Bhaktas or devotees; through analytical will, by the Jnanis; by Japa of Mantra and by the grace of the Guru.

If you are pure and free from all desires, Kundalini will awaken by itself and you will be benefited. If you awaken Kundalini by violent methods, forcibly, when your heart is impure, when desires lurk in your mind, you will come across temptations of various sorts, when you move from plane to plane, you will have a downfall. You will have no strength of will to resist these temptations. … When Kundalini is taken to the Sahasrara, when She is united with Lord Siva, perfect Samadhi (super-conscious blissful state) ensues. The Yogi drinks the nectar of immortality. May Mother Kundalini guide you all in your Yogic practices! May Her blessings be upon you all! (6)

56 … Thou art divine. Live up to it. Feel and realise thy divine nature. Do not murmur when you get difficulties, troubles, tribulations and diseases. Every difficulty is an opportunity for you to develop your will and power of endurance and to grow strong. Conquer the difficulties one by one. This is the beginning of a new life, a life of expansion, glory and divine splendour. Aspire and draw. Grow. Expand. Build up all positive qualities, the Daiva-Sampatti, viz., fortitude, patience and courage, that are dormant in you. Tread the spiritual path and realise: ‘I am the Immortal Self.” (38)

Issues in the globalization of yoga

Cultural Appropriation:

For starters, there’s the essential and ongoing condition of white supremacy and the intergenerational trauma of colonization. “The West has stolen and corrupted yoga”, means what it says, but it is also shorthand for “colonial brutality irretrievably altered the course of South Asian history, and it feels shitty to watch white people accessorize themselves with the only things they didn’t destroy.” It is a call for repentance, for realizing that the freedom that some privileged people have to self-actualize and chant and drink green juices comes with a hidden historical price tag that the spotlight of the internet can now illuminate. (Matthew Remski)45

Race & Diversity:

My yoga practice has also taught me much about race, culture, and diversity. First of all, I have learned that blacks folks, people of color, people with disabilities, and people with non-binary genders aren’t always welcomed in yoga spaces. Yoga and other spiritual practices seem to be endeavors reserved for wealthy, white, cisgendered folks, even though yoga is meant to reflect all aspects of an individual and all aspects of life itself.

Since the very beginning of my yoga journey, I have been fighting for increased diversity and representation on the mat. When I showed up to my first studio yoga class, the teacher told me that the class was going to be hard in a way that implied that I wouldn’t be able to keep up. I was also directed to karma classes because they were only $5. (Dianne Bondy)46

Feminism & Body Image:

That’s why body image issues are so important to me – far too many people are crippled by low self- esteem and spend an exorbitant amount of time and money chasing an ephemeral and elusive beauty ideal. And that’s a loss for the entire society. … Feminism and my yoga practice represented an awakening. They provided emotional, mental and physical freedom and I’ve long touted the positive benefits of each of them operating in unison in my life. But that’s not the case for everyone. Many feminists are turned off by yoga culture and the burgeoning yoga industry that reproduces many of the

45 http://matthewremski.com/wordpress/discussing-cultural-appropriation-amidst-the-yoga-trolling/ 46 https://yogainternational.com/article/view/yoga-race-and-culture 57 toxic images and messages that the practice itself has the capacity to minimize and silence in their power. And, as a result, the subversive nature of the practice is often discounted and dismissed. … And then in the yoga world, I see the –isms being reproduced with a lack of consciousness about why and how this is happening. In fact, too often, yoga culture will accuse individuals of being “unyogic” for calling out sexist tropes and the lack of diversity in mainstream yoga publications. And as yoga increases in popularity I see more and more teachers teaching physical yoga like an aerobic classes complete with fat shaming and a focus on the purely physical. (Melanie Klein)47

Abuse of Power:

...abuse in spiritual pedagogy happens materially on the level of form and interpersonal power. It involves who has the keys, who reads the texts, who’s got the initials after their name, who knows the commentaries, who got to sit at the guru’s feet and for how long, who holds the transmission. (Beyond this lies the shadier questions about who we put in the front of the room according to the idols we need to worship or smash.) … I’m not saying this power dynamic can’t work for some people some of the time, any more than I’d say that being a child is somehow a negative thing in itself. But if the transformation relationship is felt to work, it will probably be because it treats a wound other than that of inequality. If it treats inequality, it will be because it’s conscious of the inequality it enacts. Appealing to notions of consent without rigorously evaluating how inequality renders consent problematic means we’re only pretending to talk about consent, because we’re leaving power out of the equation. (Matthew Remski)48

It is true that, even as gurus idealized celibacy and ethical integrity, many scandals revealed sexual corruption and secrecy as central to their lifestyles. A number of yoga gurus have been outed as sexually active, usually with young, white, female students. These scandals have left the American public thinking the “guru model” is problematic for its inherently undemocratic tendencies, suspecting the model is an extreme form of authoritarianism that inevitably leads to demise. … Though yoga gurus certainly can slip into authoritarianism, the assumption that corruption is somehow inherent in that model betrays an orientalist stereotype of South Asians, their religions, and other cultural products as despotic in contrast to white, so-called democratic religions or cultures. (Andrea Jain)49

47 http://feministing.com/2014/02/18/the-academic-feminist-melanie-klein-on-yoga-and-feminism/ 48 http://matthewremski.com/wordpress/laying-down-the-gurus-tools-for-a-while-a-response-to-christopher-wallis/ 49 http://religiondispatches.org/lets-stop-calling-rape-and-harassment-by-bikram-yoga-founder-just-another-guru- scandal/ 58 thank you for your practice & study! may your path be nourished by good friends, good teachers, & suitable conditions for practice.

May all beings everywhere be free.

sarva maṇgalam

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