284
CHAPTER (6) Meditations: In Other Traditions 6.1. Introduction
We have elaboratively discussed about the Buddhist method and theory of meditation and how Moe Gok Sayadaw has interpreted and preached it without deviating from the original Pali texts. In this chapter we propose to present the same as discussed in the other traditions, namely
Jainism and Hinduism. The theory and method of Yoga and meditation method in particular as employed by the Hindu philosophers must be recorded here. ' Yoga' having meditation as its prime object developed to an independent system in Indian philosophy. But due to my limited access the Sanskrit and Prakrit texts, I shall present here a short account of meditation of these two traditions on the basis of secondary sources. Let me start with the Jain philosophy first.
6.2. Dhyana: A Jain Perspective /
Jainism was born on the intellectual soil of India and it is still flourishing within the boundary of it. It is regarded that Jainism is older than Buddhism. Jainism was founded by Mahavlra. They have employed the term Dhyana for meditation. Jainism has given much importance to meditation is a means to attend liberation.
Dhyana means the instrument of attaining the ultimate goal of human existence-i.e. liberation and it is defined as the concentration of mind on a 285 particular object. In this ciiapter an attempt is made to present a picture of the physics and chemistry of Yoga in the light of Jain philosophy based on
TOM some Jain philosophical texts and tradition.
6.2.1. Classification of Dhyana
Subhacandara classifies Dhyana into Prasasta and Aprasasta. The former represents the psychological view where as the latter, the practical or ethical view. The former category is divided into two types, namely,
Dharma-Dhyana and Sukla-Dhyana and the latter, also into two types, namely, Arta-Dhyana and Raudra-Dhyana?"^^^
The Prasasta category of Dhyana has been deemed to be potent enough to make the aspirant realize the emancipated status. On the contrary, the Aprasasta one forces the mundane being to experience worldly suffering. Thus those who yearn for liberation should abjure Arta and Raudra Dhyana and embrace Dharma and Sukla ones.^^'
6.2.1.1. Aprasasta Dhyana (Non-virtuous Meditation)
It can be divided into two types, namely arta dhyana (sorrowful meditation) and raudra dhyana (inclement meditation). Herein, the world arta implies anguish and affliction, and the dwelling of the mind on the thoughts resulting from such a distressed state of mind is to be regarded as
''' Raiava.Viil/-i.p.27, -'"' Karti.p.469; Talvarlhasa,Vol.y.p.2S. •" ' Saravtha.Vol.O.p.Z'): Tlvanuuasana.p..^4. 286 arta-dhyana. Again it can be categorized into four types, namely, Anista- samyogaja, Ista-viyogaja, Vedana-janita, and Nidana-janita. Herein, the discomposure of mind results on account of the baneful association of disagreeable objects is called Anista-samyogaja; the parting with the agreeable objects that occasions discomposure of mind, Ista-viyogaja; the constant occupation of mind to remove the distressing state of mind resulting from the diseased condition of body, Vedana-janita; to yearn for agreeable pleasures and to contrive to defeat and slander the enemy is called Nidana-janitar '
The second one is raudra- dhyana, which also admits of your kinds.
To kill living beings, to seek ill of others, and to collect the implement of
Himsa etc. are called Hitiisanandi Raudra-Dhyana; the individual who desires to entangle the world in troubles by dint of propagating vicious doctrines, who takes pride and pleasure in cheating the simple and the ignorant through the fraudulent language etc. may be considered as
Mrsanandi Raudra-Dhyana. Dexterity in theft, zeal in the act of thieving, and the education for theft should be regarded as Cauryanandi Raudra-
Dhyana. The endeavour a man does to guard paraphernalia and a pleasure of the senses is called Visayunanandi Raudra-Dhyana.
6.2.1.2. Prasasta Dhyana (Virtuous Meditation)
Next in order comes the Prasasta Dhyana, which is conductive to Moksa of
Sarvaratha.Vol.9.p.34; Jnana.Vol.25.p.37; TatvarathaA.Vol.Q.p.30-32; Jnana.Vol.25.p.36; Jnana.Vol.26.p.4.9.10,11.13.15.16.17.18.20.22.24; .lriana.Vol.21.p.29. 287 final release. Before this Prususta Dhyana is directly embarked up, it is of primary and radical importance to delineate their pre-requisites. The necessary pre-requisites of Dhyana, in general, may be enumerated by saying that the subject must have the ardent desire for final liberation, be non-attached to worldly objects, posses unruffled and tranquil mind, and be self-controlled, stable, sense-controlled, patient and enduring. Besides, one should steer of (1) the worldly, (2) the philosophic ethical, (3) the mental distractions, and look to the suitability of (4) time, (5) place, (6) posture and (7) to the attainment of mental equilibrium, before one aspires to
Dhyana conductive to liberation." Practitioner can apply a number of meditation techniques known as pindastha-dhyana, padastha-dhyana, rupastha-dhyana, rupatita-dhyana, savirya-dhyana, etc.
In pindastha-dhyana one imagines oneself sitting all alone in the middle of a vast ocean of milk on a lotus flower, meditating on the soul.
There are no living beings around whatsoever. The lotus is identical to
Jambudvipa, with Mount Meru as its stalk. Next the meditator imagines a
16-petalled lotus at the level of his navel, and on each petal are printed the
(Sanskrit) letters "arham" and also an inverted lotus of 8 petals at the location of his heart. Suddenly the lotus on which one is seated flares up at the navel and flames gradually rise up to the inverted lotus, burning its petals with a rising golden flame which not only burns his or her body, but also the inverted lotus at the heart. The flames rise further up to the throat
-"•* Jnana. Vol.4.p.6. 288 whirling in the shape of a swastika and then reach the head, burning it entirely, while taking the form of a three-sided pyramid of golden flames above the head, piercing the skull sharp end straight up. The whole physical body is charred, and everything turns into glowing ashes. Thus the pinda or body is burnt off and the pure soul survives. Then suddenly a strong wind blows off all the ashes; and one imagines that a heavy rain shower washes all the ashes away, and the pure soul remains seated on the lotus. That pure Soul has infinite virtues, it is Myself. Why should I get polluted at all? One tries to remain in his purest nature. This is called pindastha dhyana, in which one ponders the reality of feeling and experiencing.
In padastha dhyana one focuses on some mantras, words or themes. Couple of important mantra examples are, OM - it signifies remembrance of the five classes of spiritual beings (the embodied and non-embodied Jinas, the ascetics, the monks and the nuns), pronouncing the word "Arham" makes one feel "I myself am the omniscient soul" and one tries to improve one's character accordingly. One may also pronounce the holy name of an arliat and concentrate on the universal richness of the soul.
In rupastha dhyana one reflects on the embodiments of arihants, the svayambhuva (the self-realized), the omniscients and other enlightened people and their attributes, such as three umbrellas and whiskers — as seen in many icons — unconcerned about one's own body, but almighty and benevolent to all living beings, destroyer of attachment, enmity, etc. Thus 289 the meditator as a human being concentrates his or her attention on the virtues of the omniscients to acquire the same virtues for himself.
Rupatita dhyana is a meditation in which one focuses on bodiless objects such as the liberated souls or siddhas, which stand individually and collectively for the infinite qualities that such souls have earned. That omniscient, potent, omnipresent, liberated and untainted soul is called a niraujana, and this stage can be achieved by right vision, right knowledge and right conduct only. Right vision, right knowledge and right conduct begin the fourth stage of the 14-fold path. The ultimate aim of such yoga and meditation is to pave the way for the spiritual elevation and salvation of the soul. Some yogis develop their own methods for meditation.
After that, Prasasta Dhyana can be divided into two: Dharma Dhyana
(righteous meditation) and Sukla Dhyana (spiritual meditation). Among them, the first one, Dharma Dhyana is of four types of Dhyana:
(l)When the aspirant finds no one to preach, lacks subtle wit, is
obstructed by the rise of Karmas, is encountered with the
subtleness of objects and experienced the deficiency of evidence
and illustration in upholding and vindicating any doctrine, he
adheres to the exposition of the Arahanta after believing that the
-"Sarvarth;i.".p. 10: Yogasara.p.MS; .Inaiia.37.p.2.4-Q. 10-19.20-23.24-27.28-30.31.1.1-.8.42-43.16; www.Wikipodia.org/wiki/.com 290
Arahanta does not misrepresent things. The aspirant is said to
have performed AJna- vicaya Dharma Dhyana.
(2) To ponder over the adequate ways and means of emancipating
the souls from the worldly suffering caused by the perverted
belief, knowledge and conduct and to mediate on the means of
ascending the ladder of spiritual welfare, are designated as
Apaya-vicaya Dharma Dhyana.'
(3) Vipaka-vicaya Dharma Dhyana implies the reflection on the
effects which Karmas produce on the diverse empirical souls.'^^**
(4) The reflection on the nature and form of this universe constitutes
what is called Samsthana-vicaya Dharma Dhyana.^'^'^
The second one is Sukla-Dhyana which can be divided into the four types of Sukla-Dhyana:
(l)The first type (Prthaktvavitarka-vicara) is associated with
Prthaktva, Vitarka and Vicara, i.e., with many-ness, scriptural
knowledge, and transition from one aspect of entity to another,
for example, substance to modifications and vice versa, from one
verbal symbol to another, and from one kind of Yoga (activity)
to another."
-'" Saivartha,Vol.9.p.36. -•" Mula,p,400. -"^ Sarvarha,Vol.9.p.36. '"' Ibid. ^"''Jnana.l3.p.l3.15.17. 291
(2) In the second type {Ekatva-avicara) is absent, and consequently
oneness displaces many-ness. The mind shortens its field of
concentration to the effect that the Yogi meditates upon on
substance, an atom, or a modification of substance with
assistance of only one kind of Yoga. Hence the second type of
Dhyana is associated with Vitarka and ekatva, i.e., with scriptural
knowledge and oneness. With the performance of this second
type of Dhyana the Yogi reduces to ashes of the four types of
obscuring {ghatin) Karmas. In consequence the Yogi experiences
infinite intuition, knowledge, bliss and energy. Thus the state of
Jlvanmuki is attained.
(3) The omniscient occupies himself with the third type of Sukla-
Dhyana {Suksmakriyapratipatin), when an Antarmuhurta remains
in final emancipation. After establishing himself in the activity,
he makes the activities of mind and speech subtle. Then after
renouncing the bodily activity, he fixes himself in the activity of
mind and speech, and makes the gross bodily activity subtle.
After-wards mental and vocal activities are stopped and only
subtle activity of body is left. '
(4) In the last type of Sukia- Dhyana ( Vyuparakriyanivartin) even the
subtle activity of body is stopped. The soul now becomes devoid
of mental, vocal and physical vibrations, and immediately after
'"' Jnana.l.lp.lS. '"-Ibid. 13.19. 292
the time taken to pronounce five syllables it attains disembodied liberation. 303
6.3. The Comparisons of Buddhist meditation and Jain Dhyana
Buddhist Meditation Jain Dhyana
In Jain Dhyana there is no differ-
In Buddhism meditation there are rence between samatha meditation two types of meditation: Samatha and vipassana meditation. The way meditation and Vipussa meditation. how to practise Dhyana is as
Herein, the first one is of 40 types follows: of meditation and second one is of Prasasta < • Dharma and Sukla, four types of meditation. Dharma < • 4 types of Dhyana
Sukla -*—• 4 types of Dhyana
Dharma dhyana is the only way to
Mindfulness meditation is the only relieve oneself from Arta and way to get Nibbana. Raudra dhyanas. Sukla dhyana is the
only way to get liberation.
Dhyana is Jhana. This Jhana focused When the meditator practises Dhya the mind firmly on the meditation na and get the step of Samadhi, he subject and purifies the mind to be or she will take the soul to status of free from all defilements such as complete freedom from bondages. greed {lobha), hatred {dosa) and
'"•' Jnana. 13.p.20 Dalai. B.K. "Dhyana: A .Iain Perspeclive,"'p.l44-157 293 ignorance {motiu). So the mind is very calm, tranquil, peaceful and blissful. The mind becomes very powerful and radiates very bright and penetrative light. When one gets rupu-jhana and passed away, one will be in rupabhumi (the material world); when one get arupajhana and passed away, one will be in arupabhumi (the immaterial world), no more or no less.
There is no the idea of permanent There is the idea of soul. It is the soul. soul which is liberated.
The final aim is Nibbana which is The aim is to take the soul to status free from suffering. of complete freedom from bond ages.
The concentration of mind is sama- The one pointedness of mind in dhi. If the meditator get samadhi, single object is Dhyana, meditation. the hindrances such as craving, If the meditator practises Dhyana, hatred etc. do not come to him. His he will realize the soul and attain mind is totally purified and calm at liberation. that moment. But he does not see the true nature of the arising and 294 disappearing of mind and matter.
And then, he cannot get Nibbana.
Only when he continue to practise meditation (insight meditation), he will see the true nature of arising and disappearing of mind and matter. Finally he will realize
Nibbana.
6.4. Introduction: Dhyana in Hinduism
Yoga is generally done to prepare one for meditation, and meditation is done to realize union of one's self, one's atman, with the omnipresent and non-dual Brahman. This experience is referred to as moksa by Hindus.
The earliest clear references to meditation in Hindu literature are in the middle Upanishads and the Mahabharata, which includes the Bhagavad
Gita. According to Gavin Flood, the earlier Brihadaranyaka Upanisad refers to meditation when it states that "having becoming calm and concentrated, one perceives the self {atman) within oneself."'"'^ Yoga was born on the intellectual soil of India. According to Yogatattva, it is divided into four forms— Mantrayoga, Hathayoga, Layayoga and Rajayoga.
Alezader Wynne, "The Origin of Buddhist Meditation,"p.52; The earliest reference is actually in the Moksha dharma, which dates to the early Buddhist Period. ' Flood Gavin (1996), "An Introduction to Hunduism", Cambridge; Cambridge University Press, p.94-95. 295
6.5. The Four Types of Yoga
Mantra is a sound, syllable, word, or group of words that is considered capable of "creating transformation" (spiritual transfor mation).'"'^' hs use and type varies according to the school and philosophy associated with the Mantra. Mantras originated in the Vedic tradition of
India, later becoming an essential part of the Hindu tradition.
Mantras were originally conceived in the Vedas. Most Mantras follow the written pattern of two line "slokas" although they are often found in single line or even single word form. The most basic Mantra is
Om, which in Hinduism is known as the "Pranava mantra," the source of all mantras. The Hindu philosophy behind this is the idea of nama-rupa
(mind-body), which supposes that all things, ideas or entities in existence, within the phenomenological cosmos, have name and form of some sort.
The most basic name and form is the primordial vibration Om, as it is the first manifested nama-rupa of Brahman, the unmanifest reality/unreality.
Essentially, before existence and beyond existence is only One reality,
Brahma, and the first manifestation of Brahma in existence is Om. For this reason, Om is considered to be the most fundamental and powerful Mantra, and thus is prefixed and suffixed to all Hindu prayers. While some Mantras may invoke individual Gods or principles, the most fundamental Mantras,
' ' F-cucislciii.Cl. "Tlic Deeper Dinienlmn ol Yoga". Sliambula Publication. Bostom.MA.ZOO.'?. htlp://riiipa wii
(l)Bhajana: spiritual songs,
{2)Kirtana: repetition of God's name in songs,
(3) Prayer: a way of communing with God,
(4) Healing Mantra,
(5) Guru mantra: first initiation given by the master to the disciple, 297
(6) Bija mantnv. a bija mnntra represents the essence of a Mantra (e.
g. Om) 308
Thus, Mantrayoga in general and Mantradhyana in particular have a great significance for the beginner of Sadhana.
Mantra japa was a concept of the Vedic sages that incorporates mantras as one of the main forms of puja, or worship, whose ultimate end is seen as inoksa liberation. Essentially, mantra japa means repetition of mantra, and it has become an established practice of all Hindu streams, from the various Yoga to Tantra. It involves repetition of a mantra over and over again, usually in cycles of auspicious numbers (in multiples of three), the most popular being 108. For this reason, Hindu malas (bead necklaces) developed, containing 108 beads and a head bead (sometimes referred to as the 'meru', or 'guru' bead). The devotee performing japa using his/her fingers counts each bead as he/she repeats the chosen mantra.
Having reached 108 repetitions, if he/she wishes to continue another cycle of mantras, the devotee must turn the mala around without crossing the head bead and repeat. To attain single-pointedness of mind, repetition of mantra's can be done in the following ways:
Manik Shrinanda Thakar Dr.Mrs/'Dhyana in Yoga Trandition", p.23-32. http:// www. nu;pa\viki. oru index.php?titlc Mantra"o7C; http://'www.meditationden.com; questions/ vvhal-is-a-manlra/ 298
(1) Mantra Yoga (chanting)
{TjJapa Yoga:
(1) Vaikharl Japa (speaking)
(2) Upariisu Japa (whispering or humming)
{3) Manasika Japa (mental repetition)
(4) Likhita Japa (writing)
It is said that through japa the devotee attains one-pointedness, or extreme focus, on the chosen deity or principal idea of the mantra. The vibrations and sounds of the mantra are considered extremely important, and thus reverberations of the sound are supposed to awaken the Kundalini or spiritual life force and even stimulate chakras according to many Hindu schools of thought. Any sloka from holy Hindu texts like the Vedas,
Upanisads, Bhagavad GltFt. Yoga Sutra, even the Mahabhrata, Ramayana,
Durga saptasati or Chandi are considered powerful enough to be repeated to great effect, and have therefore the status of mantra.
Hathayoga (Sanskrit: hathayoga, also called Hatha vidya , is a system of yoga described by Yogi Swatmarama, a Hindu sage of 15th century
India, and compiler of the Hathayoga Pradipika. The Sanskrit term Hatha refers to the use of persistence or force, and Hathayoga is translated by the
Monier-Williams dictionary as "a kind of forced Yoga or abstract meditation (forcing the mind to withdraw from external objects; treated of
'"A Diclioiiaiy o[ 1 liiulusiiii". Vhirgarcl and .lames Stutley (Mushiram Manoharlal Pblishers), 1981. P.57..'S8.66.126.156. Radha Swanii Sivananda. Mantra; "Words of Power", Timelesse Books. Canada.p.54. 299 in the Ha ha-pradpik by Sv tm r ma and performed with much self-torture, such as standing on one leg, holding up the arms, inhaling smoke with the head inverted &c.).""
Swatmarama introduces his system as preparatory stage of physical purification that the body practices for higher meditation or Yoga. It is based on asanas and pranayama (breathing techniques, also known as satkarma). Hatha- yoga became popular in the west beginning in the second half of the 20th century, and is often referred to simply as " Yoga" in the context of health and physical exercise.
Traditional Halhayoga is a holistic yogic path, including disciplines, postures (asana), purification procedures (satkriya), gestures {mudra), breathing {pranayama), and meditation. The Hathayoga predominantly practised in the West consists of mostly asanas understood as physical exercises. It is also recognized as a stress-reducing practice. Hathayoga is one of the two branches of yoga that focuses on the physical culture, the other one being Rajayoga. Both of these are commonly referred to as sadahgayoga, i.e., yoga of six parts {'sad meaning six and 'aiiga meaning limbs). The six limbs are described below in detail. Svatmarama emphasizes many times in his Hafhapradfpika text that there is no raja yoga without Halhayoga and no Halhayoga without Rajayoga. The main difference is that Rajayoga uses asanas mainly to get the body ready for prolonged meditation, and hence focuses more on the meditative asanas:
Ciaiuihari Diciionary Project. "'A Sankrii hnglish Dictionary-Moneir Moneir-Williams.201 l.p. 300
Lotus Posture (padmasanu). Accomplished Posture {siddhasana). Easy
Posture (sukhasana) and Pelvic Posture (vajrasana). Hatbayoga utilizes not only meditative postures but also cultural postures. Similarly, Rajayoga's use of pranayama is also devoid of extensive locks (bandha). Hatha represents opposing energies: iiot and cold (fire and water, following similar concept as yin-yang), male and female, positive and negative. Hatha yoga attempts to balance mind and body via physical postures or "asanas", purification practices, controlled breathing, and the calming of the mind through relaxation and meditation. Asanas teach poise, balance and strength and are practiced to improve the body's physical health and clear the mind in preparation for meditation. However if an individual has too much phlegm or fat then purification procedures are a necessity before undertaking pranayama. Asianga is the yoga of Patafijali, the compiler of the Yoga Sutras. It is composed of eight limbs: yama and niyama, which are ethical observations; asana; pranayama, which is breath control; pratyahara, which is sense withdrawal; dharana, which is concentration; dhyana, which is meditation; and samadhi, which is a high state of concentration, mastery of the mind. The eight limbs are more precisely viewed as eight levels of progress, each level providing benefits in and of itself and also laying the foundation for the higher levels. Frequently
Aslariga yoga of Pataiijali is being confused with raja yoga, Patafijali nowhere in his sutras uses the term Rajayoga. Hathayoga consists of six limbs focused on attaining samadhi. In this scheme, the six limbs of
Hathayoga are defined as asana, pranayama, pratyahara, dharana, dhyana 301
and samadhi. The basic text of Hathayoga is Hathapradipika by
Swatmarama, a grand disciple of Sahajananda (from the lineage of Sopana,
the younger brother of Dnyaneshwar Maharaj of Alandi near Pune). An
important part of Hatha practices is awakening of Kundalinl. The signs of
success in Hatha yoga are slenderness of the body, cheerful face, hearing
mystical sound, bright eyes, sense of well-being, control over the bindu,
increase in gastric fire and purification of the nadis.^"
Yogas combined focus on mindfulness, breathing and physical
movements brings health benefits with regular participation. Yoga
participants report better sleep, increased energy levels and muscle tone,
relief from muscle pain and stiffness, improved circulation and overall
better general health. The breathing aspect of yoga can benefit heart rate
and blood pressure. The 2008 " Yoga in America" survey, conducted by
Yoga Journal, shows that the number of adult practitioners in the US is
15.8 million, and 9.4 million people will definitely try yoga within the next
312 year.
Layayoga from Sanskrit Laya means: dissolution merging; in Yoga,
absorption of breath and mind in the heart.""^ Also called Kundalinlyoga, is
the practice whereby the Kundalini energy is raised, and which is attainable
through deep meditation {Dhyana). Laya yoga helps the aspirant to attain
union with the supreme consciousness. If the body is not kept purified both
Dr. Mrs. Mitiiik Shriiiand Thiikar "Dhynna in Yoga Tradition", p.101-123; en.wikipedia. org/wiki/ laloha, "A Nursing Standartl". 201 lA'ol.Z.^.p 20-21. en.wikipedia. org/wiki/ According to yogic philosophy, Layayoga or kundalini is a spiritual energy or life force located at the base of the spine. It is conceptualized as a coiled up serpent. Literally, kundulini ov kundala is that which is coiled (Sanskrit kund, to burn; kunda, to coil or to spiral). It is believed that Kundalini yoga is that which arouses the sleeping kundalini Sakti from its coiled base through the 6 chakras, and penetrate the 7th chakra, or crown. This energy is said to travel along the ida (left), pingala (vighl) and central, or susbumnanadi - the main channels of pranic energy in the body. This process can be seen depicted even today in modern medical iconography as two snakes spiraling a central staff, and although the origin of this image is more directly derived from the Caduceus of the Greek god Hermes, it may express the same or a similar principle. As popularly taught in the under the system of Yogi Bhajan, the system is tailored as a comprehensive spiritual system for personal growth using kriya exercises, pranayama, and meditations along with mantras and dharmic teachings relating to Sikhism. A common mantra used in this form is that of "Sat Nam" - meaning "I am truth". The yoga form was originally shared as alternative and transformational technology for self-development, Jonn Mumford . " A Chkra and Kundaliiiy workbook: psycho-spiritaul technicques for health, rejuven ation. psychic powers and spiritual realization". Llewellyn Worldwide.1995.p.73. " Swarmi Shivanaiida. '"Kundalini ^oga". Di\ine Lite Society.2007.p.12. '"' A.K. Batlacharya. "Isolation Guidelines for Hospitals'", JIACM.2006.p.l08. 303 and to counter the drug abuse of the 60's, but has emerged as a • 317 comprehensive spiritual practice with global popularity. KundalinT energy is technically understood as being sparked during yogic breathing when prana and apana blends at the 3rd chakra (naval center) at which point it initially drops down to the 1st and 2nd chakras before traveling up to the spine to the higher centers of the brain to activate the golden cord- the connection between the pituitary and pineal glands - and penetrate the 7 chakras." Borrowing and integrating the highest forms from many different approaches, KundalinT Yoga can be understood as a tri-fold approach of Bhakti yoga for devotion, Sakti yoga for power, and Raja yoga for mental power and control. Its purpose through the daily practice of kriyas and meditation in sadhana are described a practical technology of human consciousness for humans to achieve their total creative potential."'"'^ According to one school of thought, there being four main forms of yoga, Mantrayoga, Halhayoga. Layayoga and Raja yoga; kundaliniyoga is really considered a Layayoga. Yogi Bhajan refers to kundaliniyoga as a Laya form of yoga and taught many Laya form practices in his compilation of kundaliniyoga. '"Mainstream traditions propose that kundalinT energy Yogi Bhajan. 75, "'Boss of Worlds ot' Spiritual Capitalistic", Douglas Martin, New York Times.October, 9.2004. iittii: \\ uw.yoizaioiiriiai.ciiin basics 13,Vi hltp: ihomas.loc.gov/'cgi-bin/querv/z'.'cl08:H.CON. RES.512 ''** Yogi Bhajan. The Aquarian Teacher. KRl International Teacher Training in Kundalini Yoga as Taught by Yogi Bhajan. Kundalini Rearch In.stute. 4"' Edition, 2007,p. 176-179. •''*' Ibid.p.20. '"" Swarmi Shi\ananda. ••Kundalini ^•oga•". Divine Life Society,2007.p.32. 304 can be awakened and enlightenment attained by practicing a combination of yogic techniques-idealiy following the guidance of a certified teacher- including the use of mantra, prana and breathing techniques, sadhana, asana practice, meditation, or purely through devotion and prayer. According to some Hindu traditions, kundalinlyoga is considered a highly developed spiritual awakening which relies upon a technique called saktipat to attain enlightenment under the guidance of a spiritual master. In the classical literature of Kashmir Saivism kundalinli^ described in three different manifestations. The first of these is as the universal energy or para-kundalinl. The second of these is as the energizing function of the body-mind complex or para-kundalini. The third of these is as consciousness or shakti-kundalini. which simultaneously subsumes and intermediates between these two. Ultimately these three forms are the same but understanding these three different forms will help to understand the different manifestations of kundalini. The path of kundalini is said to proceed from the Muladhara Cakra at the lower end of the spinal column up to the Sahasara Cakra at the top of the head. But its awakening is not thought to be a physical occurrence; it consists exclusively of a development in consciousness. According to some claims, awakening of kundalini brings with it pure joy, pure knowledge and pure love. The word kundalini can be traced to the Sanskrit word 'kundala', which means 'coiled'. Kundalini can therefore be used by believers to refer to the latent 321 htlp://www.cccs.berkeley.eclu/rikcut/.cr/kundalini/kundalini-yoga.html#4 305 energy within the human body which is constantly trying to manifest as our insight, power and bUss. According to one author, the word kundalini literally means "the curl of the lock of hair of the beloved." It is a metaphor, a poetic way of describing the flow of energy and consciousness which already is said to exist within each person. The practices are said to enable the person to merge with or "yoke" the universal self. This merging of individual consciousness with the universal consciousness is said to create a "divine union" called "yoga". ~~ Rajayoga ("royal yoga", "royal union", also known as Classical Yoga and Aslaiiga Yoga) is concerned principally with the cultivation of the mind using meditation (dhyana) to further one's acquaintance with reality and finally achieve liberation. Rajayoga was first described in the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, and is part of the Samkhya tradition.^^^ In the context of Hindu philosophy Rajayoga is known simply as yoga. Yoga is one of the six orthodox (astika) schools of Hindu philosophy and forms an integral part of the spiritual practices of many Hindu traditions. The term is also used as the title of an entirely unrelated practice "'^^ Dr.Mrs.Sharinand Thakar. "Dhyana in Yoga Tradition",p.l25-150; Paramhans Swa- miMaheshwarananda. " The hidden power in humans, Ibera Verlag", p.47-48. Swami Sivananda Radha. "KundaJi/n Yoga for the West, timeless", 2004, pages 13, 15. hltp://cn.wikipcclia.ori:/ wiki/ kuuc/u/i/if Yozd K.A.Jacobscn& G J Larson " Theory ^inl Practice of Yosa" in Honour of Gerald James Larson, p. 4. 306 by the Brahma Kumarls and Prajapita Brahma.^^'^ The term Rajayoga is a retronym, introduced in the 15th-century Halhayoga PradipikS to distinguish the school based on the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali from the more current school of Hathayoga expounded by Yogi Swatmarama. Currently (2011 C.E.) the term is also used to describe the meditation practice of the Brahma. Rajayoga is traditionally referred to as Astaiiga (eight-limbed) yoga because there are eight aspects to the path to which one must attend. Patanjali uses the expression 'Kriya- yoga' in his first sutra of the second chapter: Tapas svadyaya Jshvarapranidhanani kriyayogah (2:1), "Discipline, insight, and devotion are the pillars of Kriyayoga". This is not to be confused with the Ashtanga Vinyasayoga of K. Pattabhi Jois. The Kriya yoga propounded by Paramahansa Yogananda is closely related. Rajayoga is so-called because it is primarily concerned with the mind. The mind is traditionally conceived as the "king" of the psycho physical structure which does its bidding (whether or not one has realized this). Because of the relationship between the mind and the body, the body must be first "tamed" through self-discipline and purified by various means (see Hathayoga). A good level of overall health and psychological integration must be attained before the deeper aspects of yoga can be pursued. Humans have all sorts of addictions and obsessions and these 324 The Yoga Sutras of Maharishi Patanjali - A Translation and commentary by Yogacharya Shivaji Mizner" 307 preclude the attainment of tranquil abiding (meditation). Through restraint iyamn) such as celibacy, abstaining from intoxicants, and careful attention to one's actions of body, speech and mind, the human being becomes fit to practice meditation. This yoke that one puts upon oneself (discipline) is another meaning of the word yoga. Every thought, feeling, perception, or memory you may have causes a modification, or ripple, in the mind. It distorts and colors the mental mirror. If you can restrain the mind from forming into modifications, there will be no distortion, and you will experience your true Self. -Swami Satchidananda Pataiijall's Yoga Sutras begin with the statement " Yoga limits the oscillations of the mind". They go on to detail the ways in which mind can create false ideations, and advocate meditation on real objects. This process, it is said, will lead to a spontaneous state of quiet mind, the "NirbTja" or "seedless state", in which there is no mental object of focus. Practices that serve to maintain for the individual the ability to access this state may be considered Rajayoga practices. Thus Rajayoga encompasses and differentiates itself from other forms of Yoga by encouraging the mind to avoid the sort of absorption in ob.sessional practice (including other traditional yogic practices) that can create false mental objects. In this sense Rajayoga is called the "king among yogas": all yogic practices are seen as potential tools for obtaining the seedless state, itself considered to be the starting point in the quest to cleanse Karma and obtain moksa or Nirvana. Historically, schools of yoga that label themselves "Raja' offer students a mix of yogic practices and (hopefully or 308 students a mix of yogic practices and (hopefully or ideally) this philosophical viewpoint. Lord Krishna describes the yogi as follows: "A yogi is greater than the ascetic, greater than the empiricist, and greater than the fruitive worker. Therefore, O Arjuna, in all circumstances be a yogi . Rajayoga aims at controlling all thought-waves or mental modify- cations. While a Halhayogi starts his Sadhana, or spiritual practice, with Asanas (postures) and Pranayama, a Rajayogi starts his Sadhana with the mind as well as a certain minimum of asanas and Pranayama usually included as a preparation for the meditation and concentration. In Samadhi Pada I, 27 it is stated that the word of Ishvara is OM, the Pranava. Through the sounding of the Word and through reflection upon its meaning, the Way is found. In the Jangama dhyana technique of Rajayoga, the yogi concentrates the mind and sight between the eyebrows. According to Patafijali, this is one method of achieving the initial concentration {dharana: Yoga Sutras, III: 1) necessary for the mind to go introverted in meditation {dhyana: Yoga Sutras, III: 2). In deeper practice of the Jangama Dhyana technique, the mind concentrated between the eyebrows begins to automatically lose all location and focus on the watching itself. Eventually, the meditator experiences only the consciousness of existence and achieves Self Realization. In his classic Rajayoga, Swami Vivekananda describes the process in the following way: When the mind has been trained to remain fixed on a certain internal or external location, there comes to it the power "' Bhagava gita,Vol.6.p.46. 309 of flowing in an unbroken current, as it were, towards that point. This state is called dhyana. When one has so intensified the power of dhyana as to be able to reject the external part of perception and remain meditating only on the internal part, the meaning, that state is called Samadhi. 6.6. Astanga Yoga Patafijali's yoga as the name suggests has eight limbs leading to moksa. These are: Sanskrit Enghsh Yama Moral code, Niyama Personal disciplines, Asana Physical posture, Priinayama Breath control Pratyahara Withdrawal from the senses, Dharana One-pointedness of mind, Dhyana Meditation Samadhi Salvation. "'' Swarmi Vivekenanda "Dhyana and 5c/;);a//;/"".Vol.1.Chapter.VII. Dr.Mrs.Manik Shrinand Thakar "Dhyana in Yoga Tradition". 151-177: hup:;'/cii.\vikipcdia.org/ wiki/ Raja Yoga 310 Yama is the first stage of Astangn yoga. It means restraining, controlling.^ It consists of five part: Ahimsa (non-violence), Satya (truth fulness), Asteya (non-stealing), Bralmmclmrya (sexual abstinence), and Aparigrraha (con-covetousness). " The practice of Yama-^ basically is meant for a psychological restraining, for pacifying the mind and making it ready for the further spiritual developments of Yoga which lead to Samadhi. ' Niyama is restraining. As to dictionary 'Nf means 'Moksa\ Ya means-restrain and "Ma means-binding. ' In Yoga Sutras Niyamas are stated as follows: Cleanliness, contentment, religious zeal, self-study and surrender of the self to the supreme sefl or God. The meditator who wants -2-3 1 to attain the state of Samadhi will accurately have to practise this stage. Asana is the third stage of Astanga Yoga. It means posture, the position of the body as a whole with the involvement of the mind and soul." The word Asana is derived from the root Msa'and that means to be present, or to exist, or to inhabit, to sit, tosit down etc. Pranayama is the fourth stage of Aslaiiga Yoga. The word Prana- yama is formed by combining two words- "Prana' and 'Ayama' which means controlling of vital air. The word 'Prana' is to breathe in, or to "'"^ Anuradha Oak. Dr., "Yoga of the Millenium", p.60. •'-* YogastJtra. Vol.3. p.30. '•' Anuradha Oak. i3r. "Yoga of Ihe Millenium". p.6(). "'" Ibid. p.84. '•'' Yogas|Dtra,Vol.2.p.32 "- Ibid.p.29. '•'' Anuradha Oak. Dr. "Yoga of the Millenium", p. 105. ^'"'M.M. Williams. "Sanskiit-English Dielionary.p. 159. "'Yogastjlra, Vol.2.p.29. 311 inhale, to blow ( as the wind respirantion etc.). The term 'A/a/77^" derived from the root Ayam, means to stretch or lengthen out. So Ayama means stretching, extending. Thus one can understand the meaning the term Pran- ayama as breathing control through various types of breathing exercise. Pratyahara is the fifth stage of Astaiiga Yoga and the position of the term is appropriate and essential.^^^ At that stage when the meditator is on the urge of going towards higher steps of Yoga, controlling the mind is very important. And before that attainment of last stage of Pranayama i.e. keval kumbhaka is also essential, which is control over Pram.' So for Dharann, Dhyana and Samacihi, Pratyahara is the prerequisite. Then only mind will be able to stay at the given object and the steadiness of mind helps the meditator in the process of Dharana. Dharana means collection or concentration of the mind joined with the retention of breath.' " Moreover, Yoga cudamanipanjsaddescribes it as: By Dharana i.e. firmly fixing the mind, he attains mental fortitude. The seer further says: "With twice six Pratyahara is generated auspicious Dharana": " Here one observes, that the seer describes Dharana, which is based on Pratyahara. so it is clear that for the attainment of Dharana one has to withdraw one's senseorgans from the objects, then only mind will """M.M. Williams. "Sanskrit-English Dictionary.p.7()l.705.148.706. ''"Yogas|Dtra,Vol.2.p.29. ""ibid. Vol.3.p.]. "'ibid.Vol. 1.53. M.M. Williams, •'Sanskril-English L)ic-lionaiT.p.515. •^'' Yogacudamani Upamshad. \'.No.-]l(). .Anuradha Oak. Dr -Yoga o/ the Millenium" n lOS Ibid. Vss.l 11. . / • . . 312 turn towards themself. Therefore, through the practise of Pratyahara one attains control of mind which estabhshes the state of Dharana/"^'^ The word Dhyana is derived from the root: Dhya Dhyaiyati and meaning of the term is meditation or mental representation of the personal 'I A A attributes of a deity. It is perfect contemplation. It involves concentration upon a point of focus with the intention of knowing the truth about it. The concept holds that when one focuses their mind in concentration on an object the mind is transformed into the shape of the object. Hence, when one focuses on the divine they become more reflective of it and they know their true nature. "His body, breath, senses, mind, reason and ego are all integrated in the object of his contemplation — the Universal Spirit."'^"^^ During dhyana, the consciousness is further unified by combining clear insights into distinctions between objects and between the subtle layers of perception. "We learn to differentiate between the minds of the perceiver, the means of perception, and the objects perceived, between words, their meanings, and ideas, and between all the levels of evolution of 1.346 nature. As we fine-tune our concentration and become more aware of the nature of reality we perceive that the world is unreal. "The only reality is the universal self, or God, which is veiled by Maya (the illusory power). •^''•' Yogacudamani Upanishad. V.N0.-IO8. '"'"' M.M. Williams. -Sanskrit-English Diclionary.p.209. ' ' lycnger B.K.S. "Light on Yoga", p.^1. ' William.Dr.,I.D. Doran. "The Core o,''^'oga".p.7-S. 313 As the veils are lifted, the mind becomes clearer. Unhappiness and fear — even the fear of death — vanishes. This state of freedom, or Moksa, is the goal of Yoga. It can be reached by constant enquiry into the nature of ., • M347 thmgs. Samadhi is the final step in the eight-fold path of Yoga?^^ Samadhi means complete absorption and Yoga means Union of body, mind and soul with God, So Yoga and Samadhi are one and same. ^'^ Yoga Upanisads explain Samadhi differently; still the end result is similar to Yoga SQtra?^^^ Patanjaii defines Samadhi thus: "When the attentive flow of consciousness merges with the object of meditation, the Citta of the meditator i.e. the subject appears to be dissolved in the object. This union of subject and object becomes Samadhi. Here object can be anything and oneness with that object of the subject, through the meditation is the state of Samadhi. Therefore there are various types of object from gross to subtle and various types and levels of Samadhi also. When the object is gross, the level of that state of Samadhi is primary and when the subtleness in the object increases, there is the advancement in the level of Samadhi, which leads to liberation. "' lyengcr R.K.S. "Light on Yoga" p.48. .148 Yogasfjlra, Vol 2.p,29. .W? Anuradha Oak. Dr. "Yoga of the Millenium", p.225. ''° Sandilya Upanishads. Chap. Vol.1.p. 11. "' Yogas|3tra ,Vol 3.p.3. 314 6.7. The Comparisons of Buddhist meditation and Hindu Dhyana Buddhist Meditation Hindu Meditation There are three kinds of step: There are four kinds of step, namely {\)Danu (giving), (2) Slla (moral (l)Mantra yoga, (2) Hatha yoga, (3) conduct), (3) 5/7ara/7a (meditation). Layayoga and (4) Rajayoga. The final one is divided into two: The eight limbs of Ashtangayoga {{)Samatha bhavanai concentration are included in the final one. The meditation) and Vipassana bhavana meditator who wishes to unite his (insight meditation). The meditator soul with Brahman's soul or get who wants to realize Nibbana final liberation should practise the should follow the three kinds of step aforesaid four ways. Thus, he will above. Thus, he will attain Nibbana. get the final liberation. There is no idea of soul or God There is Soul and God. The final goal of Buddhism is The final goal of Hinduism is the Nibbana. union of one's soul with the Supreme Brahman. Buddhism emphasis on Vipassana Hinduism emphasis on Samadhi. meditation (Insight meditation). Samadhi can make the impurities Samadhi can make the impurities (KiJesa) calm momentary but Vipas calm totally. sana can make them tranquilized totally. 315 The meditator should practise The meditator should practise Samatha bhavana (concentration Mantrayoga to get the calmness of meditation) to get the concentration mind. Since the mind wanders so of mind. much, the music of a mantra easily rescues the mind and brings it back to the object of one's meditation. Buddhism defines Samadhi as one- Hinduism explains Dharana as one- pointedness of mind. pointedness of mind. There is no strict steps. There are Eight Steps in order of Superiority. There is no concept of Pranayana Pranayana plays an important role. (breath control) but awareness of It is identified with the God. breathing in and breathing out. There is no concept of Nadi There establish on the process of Sodhana but purified mind. NadlSodhana There are four types of asana. There are various types of asana.