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Home , Kriya, Kriya yoga, Pratyahara, Sutra, Vyasa, Vyasa (title)

ON THE "KRIYA-" IN THE YOUPI-

By Shingen TAKAGI

The Yogasutra (YS.) defines that yoga is suppression of the activity of mind in its beginning. The Yogabhasya (YBh.) by , the oldest (1) commentary on this sutra says "yoga is concentration ()". Now- here in the sutra itself yoga is not used as a synonym of samadhi. On the other hand, Nyayasutra (NS.) 4, 2, 38 says of "the practice of a spe- cial kind of concentration" in connection with realizing the cognition of truth, and also NS. 4, 2, 42 says that the practice of yoga should be done in a quiet places such as forest, a natural cave, or river side. According NS. 4, 2, 46, the can be purified through abstention (), obser- vance (), through yoga and the means of internal exercise. It can be surmised that the author of NS. also used the two terms samadhi and yoga as synonyms, since it speaks of a special kind of concentration on one hand, and practice of yoga on the other. In the Nyayabhasya (NBh. ed. NS. 4, 2, 46), the author says that the method of interior exercise should be understood by the Yogasastra, enumerating austerity (), regulation of breath (), withdrawal of the senses (), contem- plation (dhyana) and fixed-attention (dharana). He gives the practice of yoga (yogacara) as another method. It seems, through NS. 4, 2, 46 as mentioned above, that Vatsyayana regarded yama, niyama, tapas, - yama, pratyahara, dhyana, dharana and yogacara as the eight aids to the yoga. Probably, such was expounded in the Yogasastra referred to by him. These eight aids are, however, slightly different in their arran- gement and members from those given in YS.: dharana and dhyana are

(1) YBh. ad. YS. 1, 1 -451- ON THE "KRIYA-YOGA" IN THE YOGA-SUTRA (S. Takagi) (25) arranged in reverse order of YS., which has the same order as the six aids given in the Maitri-up. 6, 18. In YS. tapas being an item of niyama, (posture) is given instead of tapas. While the eighth aid is samadhi in YS., it is yogacara judging from NS. and NBh. Yoga, the other method is not minutely explained in NS. and its commentary, but the last aid is samadhi in YS. and some upanisads (for ex. Mait.-up. 6, 18; Amrtanada-up. 6) referring to the six aids. It seems not to be unnatural to identify yoga and samadhi. Were in fact yoga and samadhi exactly the same? Through the descriptor of Vacaspatimisra (cf. Yogatattvavaisaradi ad. YBh. 1, 1) and Madhava (cf. Sarvadarsanasamgraha) one can know that the identification of yoga and samadhi was doubtful. Vacaspatimisra, as well as Madhava and Nagojibhatta (Yogasutravrtti ad. YS. 1, 1) regards the term yoga as a derivation from the stem yuj-a, meaning concentration, but not from the stem yuj-i, meaning conjunction. This etymological ex- planation is an opinion based on Dhatupatha (4, 68) attributed to Panini. Suppose the authenticity of the work, then it follows that yoga was in- terpreted as samadhi about the second century B.C. Whether yoga as a practical system belonged originally to the same series as samadhi is an important problem for the study of the thought of yoga. For, yoga is described in order to obtain a mysterious power (bala) in the older part of the (MBh.), and the power had been ascribed to tapas. Attention should be paid to the fact that samadhi such as given in YS. is fully explained in the buddhist literature. It goes without saying that all the literature should be precisely examined in connection with yoga and samadhi in order to elucidate this question. The oldest existent source concerning yoga being the Yogasutra, I will approach this question mainly through the Yogasutra. The YS. consists of four chapters and 195 . The chapter I deals with samadhi by means of the suppression of the activity of mind, mak- ing the most important portion from the compiler's point of . The chapter II and a part of III treat about the practice of yoga and the eight aids of yoga which should be called -pada, means of realization. -450- (26) ON THE "KRIYA-YOGA" IN THE YOGA-SUTRA (S. Takagi) The chapter III is socalled vibhuti-pada, i.e. the book of supernatural po- wers, giving diverse results obtained by its practice. Finally, the chapter IV called kaivalya-pada, book of the isolation, is a later supplement pre- supposing the refutations by the buddhists and others. The practice of yoga (kriya-yoga) which is now taken up ais given in the beginning of chapter II: "austerity (tapas), recitation (svadhyaya) and the profound contemplation of the Supreme (isvara-pranidhana) is the practice of yoga". I am going to consider what position these pra- ctices take in YS. and what relation they have in regard to the samadhi through the suppression of the activity of mind, taking in my considera- tion the relation of yoga and samadhi, the standpoint of the compiler of these sutras. It is beyond dispute that YS. in the present form contains various (2) elements old and new. It is because the author collected and synthesized on his own thought's point of view various elements of yoga (3) that had existed before him. As to the structure of the sutras opinions (4) were expressed by P. Deussen, J. W. Hauer and H. Kishimoto. J. W. Hauer regarded YS. 2, 1-28 a complete composition, a text of kriya-yoga, in which he belived to recognize a tradition of theistic yoga. He ascribed (5) it to a yoga school which had peculiar technical terms. More than one opinion were published regarding the origin of yoga. It is not right to think that the origin of yoga has been elucidated by looking for the origin of each element, since YS. contains many elements. The term kriya-yoga is found in MBh. III, 2, 23. and XIII, 14, 22, what is designated here is not clear. As I have mentioned, it meant tapas,

(2) P. Deussen, Allgemeine Geschichte der Philosophie; E. Frauwallner, Geschichte der indische Philosophie, Bd. 1, p. 439; E. W. Hauer, Der Yoga. (3) This might be agreed by the passage given by the author in the be- ginning of the text: "atha yoganusasanam" (Now a revised text of yoga (is to made)). (4) P. Deussen, op. cit.; J. W. Hauer, op. cit.; H. Kishimoto, Shukyo-shinpi- shugi, Tokyo. (5) J. W. Hauer, op. cit., p. 96 -449- ON THE "KRIYA-YOGA" IN THE YOGA-SUTRA (S. Takagi) (27) svadhyaya and Isvarapranidhana in YS. Tapas is socalled austerity. YS. 2, 43 reads: "Because the impurity is destroyed by tapas, there is the perfect (of supernatural powers) in the body and the organs" The word tapas appears also in YS,4, 1 and 2, 32. But this sutra is important for us to know the relation of tapas and yoga. Vyasa says in his commentary on YS. 2, 43, "Austerity in the very act of completing itself destroys the defilement from the covering of impurity. As a result of the removal of the defilement of the covering of this im- purity there is perfection of the body, such as atomization (levitation, magnification, extension, efficacy, mastery, sovereignty and the capacity of determining things according to desire); likewise perfection of the organs, such as hearing and seeing at a distance." The word tapas appeared so early in -the Rgveda. We can read in the literature of Brahmanical culture the description how to get super- natural powers by tapas, accounts on Diksa (consecration), supernatural activity of brahmacarins, and actions in trance of Munis with long hair and in brown garments. In many myths, for example Aitareya-Br. it is from tapas that makes up creatures out of himself. He himself is a product of tapas. The primeval meaning of tapas was in the acqui- (7) sition of supernatural powers. Such tapas came to be more and more important in the period of upanisads, taking the place of sacrifice by the orthodox . We can not disregard the existence of group of non-orthodox people, for example, Munis and Vratyas who practised such tapas. We must remember that this kind of tapas developed in the non-orthodox domain, such as . It was through tapas that the supernatural power was acquired in the beginning in the period of MBh. (I, 99, 7; 34; I, 175, 47; etc.). Gradually it happened that the powers of tapas and yoga were no longer disting- uished (III, 106, 11, III, 164, 12; 163, 24; 129, 7; 182, 90). Thus we can disti- nctly read the traces of yoga taking the place of tapas in the mediaeval

(6) cf. also YBh. ad. YS. 2, 43 & 3, 45. (7) L. A. Basham, The Wonder that was , p. 244 -448- (28) ON THE "KRIYA-YOGA" IN THE YOGA-SUTRA (S. Takagi) upanisads. The practice of such tapas is found in the present yoga-sutra as one of the kriya-yoga and as one item of niyama. The third item of kriya-yoga is the profound contemplation of the Supreme God. It is defined in YS. 2, 45 "for the completion of the con- centration." Vyasa interpreted this word isvarapranidhana "Dedicating all the actions to the Supreme-teacher without expecting the merits. (YBh. ad. YS, II, 1), but elsewhere he interprets as abhidhyana (profound contemplation, ad. YS, I, 23), just betraying that he succeeded to this opi- nion. Besides, isvara-pranidhana is given as a means of realizing the concentration with consciousness of objects (samprajnata-samadhi, YS. 1, 23). In this case a profound contemplation of the Supreme-god is explained together with the whispering (japes) of the sacred syllable (pranava) symbolizing the god and the reflection of its meaning (YS. 1, 27; 28) on which I shall mention later on. Isvarapranidhana was thus interpreted both in YS. and its commentary as, a profound contemplation, thereby having a connection with samadhi. Vyasa regarded this term as a special kind of devotion (-visesa, YBh. ad. YS. 1, 23) in other words, "Dedi- cating all the action to the Supreme-teacher withont expecting the merits" (YBh. ad. YS. 2, 1). I can read here the thought of -yoga or bhakti in the Bhagavadgita "Let thy interest be only in thy actions, but not in their merits." Vyasa mentions here the mutual approach of the god and- man: while a yogin contemplates isvara profoundly, isvara accepts him. The isvara is a special kind of self (purusavisesa) according to YS. 1, 24. It is called metaphysically a single entity (ekatattva, YS. 1, 32), which has no participation in the creation, but has only a part as a means for the realization of concentration. Because isvara has no position in the, metaphysics of Yoga which is based on the evolution theory that explains the evolution of everything from pr akrti, the primeval cause. According to YS. and YBh., the isvara is not the ruler of prakrti. Later, commenta- tors, for example, Vacasptimisra says, however, "The operation of faculty of isvara should be understood to be removal of the obstruction (of the (8) evolution of prakrti) in order to establish the " in his Yogatat- -447- ON THE "KRIYA-YOGA" IN THE YOGA-SUTRA (S. Takagi) (29) tvavaisaradi, ascribing the role of removing the obstruction of the evolu- tion of prakrti to this isvara. Bhojaraja mentions that conjunction (sam- yoga) and separation (viyoga) of prakrti and purusa can not happen without the volition of the isvara (I, 24). We can not, however, find such character of isvara in YS. and YBh. Dr. Johnston wanted to find the pre- (9) eceeding idea of pranidhana of YS. in the Svetasvatara-up. 1, 10-11. The passage found there runs as follows: "All the bondage (pasa) is anni- hilated by knowing the god (). When affliction (klesa) is destroyed, there is cessation of birth and . Threefold condition is obtained by profoundly contemplating (abhidhyana) the unique god: when the body is annihilated, then are every kind of freedom (aisvarya), isolation (kevala) and the attainment of all desire (apta-)." By contemplat- ing that supreme god profoundly one can destroy the bondage, the afflictions become attenuated, and the isolation is attained. This agrees with the standpoint of YS. 2, 2 that the end of the kriya-yoga consists in attenuating the afflictions and practising the concentration. It is only in YS. among the basic text of the six darsanas that the word klesa appears. Attention must be paid to the fact that this word is a technical term, specially important and often used in Buddhism. Now a interpretation on isvara by Vyasa must be examined carefully. He mentions that isvara is above all feelings of self-gratification, but has with a motive of gratification for living beings and gives favour on the yogins. He quotes a fragmentary passages ascribed to Pan- casikha. "The first knower, the exalted one, the Supreme sage expounded with compassion and transformed mind, to Asuri who was eager to look for. Vyasa identifies isvara with by quoting this passage. YS. itself says, "isvara was the teacher of primeval sages" (1, 26). Vyasa recognized this Supreme-teacher, Supreme-sage in the person of Kapila, because he was a commentator with the tendency of idea. This attitude of his that looked for the prototype of yogin or Mahayogin in (8) Bombay ed., p. 184 (9) E. H. Johnston, Some Samkhya and Yoga Conceptions of Svetasvatara Upanisad, JRAS (1930) -446- (30) ON THE "KRIYA-YOGA" IN THE YOGA-SUTRA (S. Takagi) Kapila was succeeded by the later commentators of samkhya school, suchh as Mathara and the author of Yuktidipika. It was not wrong that they found the prototype of yogin in Kapila, for the dialogue between Kapila and Syumarasmi in MBh. XII, 269-271 proves it. Yudhisthira poses a question which is more excellent, Garhasthya-dharma (i. e. the religionn of veda) or Yoga-dharma, to which Bhisma answers quoting an old story "a dialogue of Kapila and a co w". Kapila is called a yati "one who mor- tifies himself" and is regarded as a representative person of the yoga- dharma, an opposite to the vedic religion. In fact no samkhya theory is, found here, but such items as constraint (), withdrawal of the senses, fasting and continence are given. We Know, thus, since old time Kapila was regarded a yogin, a representative character of yoga. Vyasa took such a view, too. Varsaganya and Vindhyavasin who exerted a great influence on him were participants of such a view as I have mentioned. (10) eleswhere. Let us see the self-recitation (svadhyaya), the second item of kriya- yoga. This item appears in YS. 2, 1 and as an item of niyama in YS. 2, 32. In YS. 2. 44 we read "As a result of self-recitation there is commu- nion with the chosen deity." Originally the connection with the god seems. to have meant to master the divine power by connecting with the god, thereby controlling the nature. Be that as it may, Vyasa defines the self- recitation "whispering the sacred syllable and formulas and reading, sacred text concerning deliberation" (YBh. ad. YS. 2. 1; cf. also YBh. ad. YS. 2, 32). According to Vacaspatimisra it meant Purusasukta, Rudraman- dala in Rgveda X, 90, belonging to vedic literature and Brah- maparayana belonging to puranic literature. I will pay attention that Vyasa regarded svadhyaya as . It is true that YS. itself mentions the whispering of sacred syllabll that symbolizes isvara. MBh. XII, 196- 200 give a special consideration on japa, which is very important allow- ing us to know of the relation between japa and yoga. There Yudhisthira.

(10) S. Takagi, Fragments from Varsaganya and his followers (Mikkyoa Bunka, vol. 62, 1963, Koyasan). -445- ON THE "KRIYA-YOGA" IN THE YOGA-SUTRA (S. Takagi). (31) asks Bhisma whether japa belongs to Samkhya 'or to the practice of yoga, or else to the tradition of vedic (sacrifice) (XII. 196,3-5). (11) This question itself shows that the japa was used both in the practice of yoga and vedic sacrifice, that is to say, in the orthodox school as well as in heterodox schools. In reply to the question Bhisma answers that japa is a whispering of veda-, belonging essentially to the vedic tradition. But japa which is regarded to be an independent practice belonging to vedic tradition is in fact connected closely with yoga there. Those who practise japa are expected also to carry on yogic practices such as concentration of central organ (manah-samadhi), control of the senses (indriyajaya), pursuit of truth (), worship of fire (agnipa- ricara), residence in solitude (viviktanam sevana), contemplation (dhyana), austerity (tapas), selfcontrol (dama), quiescence (santi), benevolence (), moderation in food (mitasana), withdrawal from the objects of sense (visaya pratisamhara), absence of garrulousness (mitajalpa) and tranquility (). Unlike YS., MBh. gives to japa a superior position. One who practises japa for the completion of sacrifice should carry on concentration and contemplation. This is a reverse position of that of YS. The importance given to the practice of yoga can be guessed from the mention that the sphere reached by the japaka is equivalent to that of the yogin (XII, 200, 19-22; 26-27). As I have seen above, YS. itself re- gards japa or svadhyaya as a means of compleeiog the concentration. Expl- aining the japa of the sacred syllable and the reflection on its meaning, Vyasa says that the singleness of intent of mind is obtainable through the reflection of the isvara and the whispering. He quotes the passage from the Visnu-purana 6, 6., 2: "Let him be in yoga through the recitation, and let him recite through the yoga. The supreme soul will appear by the accomplishment of recitation." Thus we can recognized through the. literatures mentioned above the process how japa came to be a means

(11) cf V. M. Bedekar, The place of Japa in the Moksadharmaparvan and the Yogasutra (Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institiute, vol. 44, 1964). -444- (32) ON THE "KRIYA-YOGA" IN THE YOGA-SUTRA (S. Takagi) for the accomplishment of concentration in YS. Japa in MBh. is recitation of veda-samhita. The commentator such as Vacaspatimisra had the same opinion as we have seen already. Though it is not mentioned in YS. 2, 1 concretely, it is the sacred syllable , symbol of the isvara. Originally the study and recitation were important routine for the Brahmanas (Taitt- up. 1, 11; Satapatha Br., 2, 5, 7, 2; MBh. V, 40, 23; V, 30, 8). The word and the mystic formulas of the veda have, irrespective of the meaning of the word, a mystic power, which if recited correctly will surely enable the (12) reciter to have a supernatural power. Rgvidhana (3, 35, 1), -text declares that Purusasukta and Visnu's sukta will surely lead us to the (13) celestial world, which is identified with the highest of yoga. We have seen each of the three practices constituting the kr.iya-yoga. But we could not know when and where the three were unite as a pra- ctical system. We know, however, that there were, a group of yogins who practised these three ways with a view to get a supernatural power. According to Svetasvatara-up. 6, 21 "By dint of the austerity (tapers) and (14) the grace (prasada) of God, the wise Svetasvatara in proper manner preached i. e. , the highest-purification to atyasramins (those non-vedic tapasvins who worshipped Siva and devoted themselves in the meditation on atman), what is pleasing to the company of seers." We have a minute inquirey by Mr. M. Hara on the interpretation of this (15) verse. According to him the word brahman here symbolizes Siva and means mantra (a sacred formula). He says there were a group of adepts who believed in the unique god Siva and recited their original to obtain a supernatural power. The austerity (taws), whispering of the formula, belief in the unique god and the meditation thereof were pra- ctised, at the same time they practised exercises for the integration of

(12) M. Eliade, Yoga, p. 136 (13) ibid., p. 138 (14) Monier-Williams gives a means of meditation for the word prasada. (15) M. Hara, Svetasvatara Upanisad VI-21 (Journal of Religious Studies, vol. 35-1, No. 168, 1961) -443- ON THE "KRIYA-YOGA" IN THE YOGA-SUTRA (S. Takagi) (33) mind and organs. If we know the existence of the group of people who carried on the threefold practice, we can assume that the kriya-yoga given in, YS. 2, 1 was not a mere arrangement on the part of the author, but that such had existed as an independent form of religious practice. We could know the process in which it was connected with the unification of mind and the control of organs in the MBh. We can find the trace of the indepen- dent practice in the Svetasvatara-up. 6, 21. We can well surmise how this way of religious practice was widespread and how important it was, since the, practice did retain its trace in the YS. For the compiler of the existent YS. esteems, above all, the samadhi through the suppression of the activity of mind. That is way he regards the kriyayoga a yoga for the beginner whose mind is still turbulent, a preliminary method for the accomplishment of the concentration. It is evident, however, that the samadhi through the suppression of the mental activity belongs to quite (16) different series from the kriya-yoga. It may be understood from the fact that the Yogasastra attributed to consists of two Yogo- samhita i. e. Nirodhasamhita and Karmasamhita, and that the latter contain the item of kriyamayi. Patanjali, the compiler of the sutras, takes much account of the , but adopted the kriya-yoga belonging to another series by connecting it with the concentration through the nirodha. He also connected the two with the medium of isvara thereby subordi- nating the latter to the former. Patanjali's stand point of thought is, understood in this way.

(16) cf. E. Frauwallner, op. cit., p. 437

昭和41年 度 文 部 省 科 學 研 究 費 (綜 合研 究 代 表 酒 井 眞 典) に よ る分 捲 課 題 の研 究成 果 の 一 部

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