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Timeline / Before 1800 to After 1930 / MUSIC, LITERATURE, DANCE AND FASHION

Date Country Theme

1769 - 1785 Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

The era of ( and Stress) in literature (i.e. the works of Goethe, Schiller, Hölderlin and Herder) is characterised by lyricism, fantasy, freedom, juvenility and idealism, which is felt most keenly in the dramatic writing of the period.

1786 United Kingdom Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Scotland’s most famous (b. Alloway, Scotland 1759; d. Dumfries, Scotland 1796) is set to immigrate to the West Indies when a collection of his poems, chiefly in the Scottish dialect, is published in the county town of Kilmarnock in 1786. The publication launches Burns’ career.

1786 - 1832 Germany Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

The Classical era in literature (i.e. the work of Goethe, Schiller, Wieland and Herder) is characterised by a will to preserve beauty, maintain goodness in order to gain harmony, and sees nature as an entity. The centre for this movement in literature is the city of Weimar.

About 1790 - About 1850 France Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

The Romantic movement develops at the beginning of the under the influence of such as François-René de Chateaubriand. The movement, inspired by imagination, individualism, a taste for the outrageous, and exoticism, is marked by the poetry of and and then extends to the theatre with Hugo’s masterpiece Battle of Hernani, and then to literature. Hugo was the uncontested leader of this literary movement. Music and dance were both influenced by ; in choreography and in costume design (the tutu and points) the feminine was accentuated.

Around 1800 Germany Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

"Disire for the orient" arises because of the breakovers around 1800, as the Enlightenment already had changed peoples life to a more rationalistic way of thinking and the scientification of the public. Also the sumless wars, especially the Napoleonic Wars, produced nostalgia and desire for the distance, the unknown, the paradise... Authors and philosophers from the era of romanticism bothered this topics (e.g. ) and they tried to escape into something magical- the orient seemed to be a imaginary world.

1795 - 1848 Germany Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

The era of Romanticism or Blaue Blume in literature (i.e. the works of Tieck, von Kleist, Hebel, Hoffmann, the and von Eichendorff) is characterised by the desire for far-away places, and imbued with irony, passion, nocturnal mystery and mythical creatures.

1800s - 1900s Germany Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion Date Country Theme

The era marks the genesis of some of the world’s most popular classical compositions, for example: in 1841 composes Frühlingssinfonie (Spring Symphony) and in 1859 finished the concerto Klavierkonzert Nr.1d-Moll op.15 (Piano Concerto No. 1 in D minor, Op.15). In 1889 ’s 1. Sinfonie D-Dur (Symphony No. 1 in D major) is premiered; followed in 1905 by his Kindertotenlieder (Songs on the Death of Children).

19th century France Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Dance (i.e. the waltz and quadrille), street song and cabaret (i.e. the sentimental and parody) and all caught the popular imagination. Popular (i.e. those by Dumas, Sue, du Terrail) enjoyed huge success too, due to serialisation. The fashion world was influenced by publications of specialist journals and department stores where different fashions mark each period (i.e. the crinoline, the corset and millinery fashions).

1809 Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Giacomo Leopardi (1798–1837), philosopher, scholar and one of the greatest Italian of all times, writes his first poem.

1810 - 1862 Republic of Macedonia Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion (FYROM)

One of the most prominent Macedonian poets, folklorists and educators, Dimitar Miladinov(1810–62) is born in Struga. He spends most of his life teaching in the Ohrid region. His greatest achievement is the collection of folk songs between 1854 and 1860.

1811 - 1886 Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Franz Liszt is born in Austria. He becomes one the leading composers and a piano virtuoso of the 19th century. He dies in Bayreuth.

1814 Republic of Macedonia Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion (FYROM)

The first book in Macedonian, History of the Frightening and Second Communion of Jesus, written by Joakim Krchovski (c.1750–1820) is published in Budim. Krchovski was a herald of the Macedonian cultural revival and went on to publish more books on religious matters. In the early 19th century in Macedonia only priests and other Christian dignitaries were educated enough to enlighten Macedonian people through literature in their mother tongue.

1815 - 1920 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Triumph of the (or melodrama), a form of theatre born in the 17th century, in which the characters express themselves by singing. In the 19th century, this form of art becomes very popular in Europe. In Italy, the opera becomes the most important musical genre and overshadows all other musical forms.

1815 - 1848 Germany Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion Date Country Theme

The era in literature (i.e. works by Mörike and von Droste-Hülshoff) is characterised by melancholia, a desire to escape to an idyll and to recapture religion and the homeland.

1816 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Gioachino Rossini (1795–1868), the young director of the San Carlo Theatre of , the most important opera house at the time, puts on stage in Rome the Barber of . The opera, thanks to its easy and passionate pacing, sets a new benchmark for the light operatic style, namely, the ().

1816 Republic of Macedonia Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion (FYROM)

The book titled Mirror by Kiril Pejchinovic (1771–1845) is published in Budim. This great Macedonian educator was born in Tearce near Tetovo. The first books in Macedonian published in the early 19th century were on religious subjects, which was understandable given that they were written by people of the Church.

1820s United Kingdom Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

British interest in classical Arabic culture including literature sometimes originates in India where the first printed Arabic version of One Thousand and One Nights is published.

1820 France Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Les Méditations Poétiques by the Romantic poet Alphonse de Lamartine.

1825 Austria Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Johann Strauss creates his Wiener Walzer Kapelle, an orchestra specialising in the Viennese Waltz.

1825 - 1827 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Alessandro Manzoni (1785–1873) publishes I promessi sposi (The Betrothed), one of the most widely read Italian novels. His use of the stands out as a model.

1825 Greece Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

The poets Alexandros and Panayotis Soutsos compile their first works, and introduce European Romanticism to a newly liberated Greece.

1825 - 1848 Germany Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

This era, one marked by the politician and statesman , a supporter of restoration politics and conditions prior to the French Revolution, is satirised by the Junges Deutschland, a movement in literature (i.e. the works of Büchner, Heine and Grabbe) that is characterised by a rejection of these beliefs in support of a free press and freedom of expression. Date Country Theme

1827 Austria Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Franz Schubert composes his Winterreise.

1828 Greece Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

The poem Hymn to Liberty by becomes the Greek National Anthem with music composed by Nikolaos Mantzaros.

1829 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Gioachino Rossini puts on stage in Paris his last opera, Guillaume Tell, featuring the fight of the Swiss people for freedom from Habsburg domination. He wrote 39 , characterised by a style aiming at pure musical beauty (). Great attention is paid to the sound of the voice and to technical virtuosity, with little emphasis on the different dramatic situations and to the personality of the different characters.

1830 France Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Battle of Hernani, a drama by Victor Hugo.

1831 - 1835 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Once Rossini has left the stage, his place is taken by (1797– 1848) and (1801–1835). They introduce the new romantic spirit into melodrama and establish a tighter link between words and music. Their style is characterised by greater attention to the psychology of the different characters.

1831 France Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

George Sand (Amantine Aurore Dupin) writes Indiana, a about a woman’s emotional journey.

1831 Turkey Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

11 November: The first newspaper in Ottoman Turkish, Takvim-I Vekayi, published by the state.

1832 Spain Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Publication of 's Tales of the Alhambra, a collection of , verbal sketches and stories that Irving began to write while he was staying in the Alhambra in Granada. The book is influenced by Romanticism and includes Spanish legends and .

1832 France Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

La Sylphide is a Romantic ballet by Fillippo Taglioni in which his daughter, Marie, danced en pointe in the title role.

1833 Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion Date Country Theme

The death of Luísa Todi (b. 1753), the most celebrated mezzo-soprano opera singer in Portugal. Luísa began her musical career when she was 14 years old. She performed in major European cities and was invited to perform in the courts of Catherine of Russia and Frederick William of Prussia.

1834 Republic of Macedonia Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion (FYROM)

The birth in Ohrid of Kuzman Shapkarev (1834–1909), eminent Macedonian folklorist, ethnographer, educator and author of textbooks. Owing to his collecting activities a great deal of Macedonian intangible heritage was spared from oblivion. He was a teacher in Ohrid, Bitola, Prilep and Kukush. Later he worked and lived in . Although his collections of oral folk literature were published as Bulgarian, most of his works originated from Macedonia.

1835 Spain Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

The premiere of Álvaro o la fuerza del sino by the Duke of Rivas marks the beginnings of Spanish Romanticism in the theatre, especially , further developed in Don Juan Tenorio by José Zorrilla. All the Romantic plays have elements from poetry and novels and some have a historical background.

1835 France Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Le Père Goriot by Honoré de Balzac tells the tragic story of a father’s love for his two daughters.

1840 Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Top hats begin to be worn in the United Principalities, where they were called joben, from the name of Jobin, the French merchant who first sold them in .

1840s United Kingdom Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Western penetrates the courtly circles of the . The imperial Ottoman family includes composers, such as Sultan ‘Abd al-‘Aziz who composes dance music. On a visit to London in 1867, the band of the Grenadier Guards plays one of the Sultan’s own compositions at a reception for him.

1840 Turkey Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

3 July: The first newspaper in Ottoman Turkish published by a private individual, Cerîde-I Havâdis (Journal of News), begins to appear in #stanbul as a weekly, published by an English journalist, William Churchill.

1841 France Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

The leading roles in , a ballet by are played by Carlotta Grisi and Lucien Petipa.

1842 Austria Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion Date Country Theme

The Wiener Philharmoniker is founded. It becomes one of the most famous orchestras in the world.

1842 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Triumph of Nabuccodonosor by (1831–1901) at Theatre (): it marks the appearance of a new operatic style, in which both voice and music show an entirely new heroic passion and strength.

1846 France Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Premiere of the opera La damnation de by .

1848 Romania Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

The premiere at the National Theatre in Ia#i of the first Romanian operetta, Baba Hârca, with a script by poet and music composed by Alexandru Flechtenmacher.

1848 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Donizetti dies and Verdi remains the only heir to the Italian melodrama, which is increasingly identified with the Risorgimento movement, becoming a “sound track” of the Italian fight for independence and unification.

About 1850 - About 1900 France Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

The Realist movement, which emerges as a reaction to Classicism, focuses on the faithful representation of daily life in both town and country and particularly affects literature and painting.

1848 - 1890 Germany Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

The era of Realism in literature (i.e. the works of Raabe, Fontane and Busch) is characterised by exact descriptions of reality, subjective narration and irony.

1850 Romania Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

January: the birth of , who is considered to be the most important Romanian poet of the 19th century.

1850s United Kingdom Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

The brings thousands of British soldiers to Constantinople. After the war, certain innovations can be traced back to it – such as beards! There is a craze for things all things Turkish; the Turkish commander even becomes something of a folk hero in Britain.

2nd half of the 19th century France Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Parnassism is a French literary style that grew up as a reaction to Romanticism. Advocating “Art for art's sake”, it rejected lyricism: Leconte de Lisle and José-Maria de Heredia are notable poets of this style. Date Country Theme

1850s - 1870s France Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

The crinoline underskirt increases the volume of women’s skirts.

1850 - 1870 Germany Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Surveillance, spying and so on, creates fear and leads to political persecution of musicians (e.g. both and Gottfried Semper are forced into exile). Music of this era falls under the label “late Romanticism” (i.e. when emotional expression and freedom of style are enhanced), and new genres are born; i.e. symphonic poetry (Franz List) and musical drama (Richard Wagner’s Tristan and Isolde, 1865).

1851 - 1853 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Verdi composes the so-called popular trilogy (, Il trovatore and La traviata), consolidating his fame and reaching full musical and dramatical maturity.

1853 France Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Publication of Victor Hugo’s Les Châtiments.

1855 Turkey Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Ahmed Cevdet Pa#a, historian, jurist and conservative Tanzimat reformer, completes the first volumes of Târih-I Cevdet (History of Cevdet), which deals with Ottoman history, 1774–1826.

1857 France Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Publication of Gustave Flaubert’s novel Madame Bovary.

1857 - 1812 France Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

A reaction to Naturalism and Parnassism, focuses on the imagination and spirituality. Inspired by , the aesthetic developed (i.e. Verlaine, Rimbaud and Mallarmé) and triumphed at the theatre, in music and in the fine arts.

1859 Turkey Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

#brahim #inasi completes his stage comedy #âir Evlenmesi (Marriage of a Poet), the first theatre play written by an Ottoman Turkish author.

1860 - 1921 Jordan Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Due to the very diverse composition of the Transjordanians with their different backgrounds – Arabs and non-Arabs, Muslims and Christians, settlers and nomads – Transjordan becomes the melting pot for different cultures. This is reflected in very diverse cultural artefacts (fashion and costumes, musical instruments and music, and dances) but more importantly in traditions and social behaviour.

1860 - 1874 Greece Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion Date Country Theme

Konstantinos Paparrigopoulos writes a five-volume History of the Greek Nation, a highly influential historiographical work about the continuity of Greek history since antiquity.

1860 Republic of Macedonia Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion (FYROM)

The birth in Prilep of the first Macedonian composer Atanas Badev (d. 1908). He studied music in Russia and was conductor of several school and of the first city in Prilep.

1860 - 1870 Republic of Macedonia Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion (FYROM)

Marko K. Cepenkov (1829–1920) was born in Prilep. Among the greatest collectors of Macedonian oral folk literature, during the 1860s he was prolific in recording folklore creations. The importance of his collecting activities lies not only in the volume but also in the diversity of folklore traditions recorded, including proverbs, sayings, tales, songs, riddles, charms, beliefs, dreams and interpretation, and children's games.

1860 Republic of Macedonia Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion (FYROM)

Grigor Prlichev's epic poem "The Serdar", written in Greek, wins first prize at the annual poetry competition held in Athens. Prlichev (1830–93) was born in Ohrid. This prolific Macedonian poet and translator was a dedicated advocate of introducing the native spoken language in Macedonian schools. He was referred to as a second Homer, having translated the "Iliad" into the Macedonian language.

1860 Turkey Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

October: Journalists #brahim #inasi and Agah Efendi publish the first private Muslim newspaper Tercümân-# Ahvâl (Interpreter of Events).

1861 Republic of Macedonia Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion (FYROM)

Collection of Macedonian poems compiled by the Miladinov brothers is published in Zagreb. Konstantin Miladinov (1830–62), a prominent Macedonian poet, folklorist and educator is a major contributor. Despite a reference to Bulgarian songs in the title, the folk literature recorded by the Miladinovs originated mostly from the areas of Struga, Ohrid, Prilep, Kukush and Bitola.

1863 Romania Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

The literary society , which had an important role in promoting , is founded in Ia#i. In 1867 it begins publishing a periodical in which the works of Romanian writers appear and also translations from worldwide literature.

1863 Austria Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Bedrich Smetana's (1824–1884) opera Verkaufte Braut (The Bartered Bride) had its first performance in . Date Country Theme

1863 Portugal Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Publication of the novel Amor de Perdição (Fatal Love) by Camilo Castelo-Branco (1825–90). Written very quickly, this romance has everything to be a major work of passion: tragic intensity, speed of action, balance of characters and simplicity of style.

1865 Portugal Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Bom-senso e Bom-gosto (Good Sense and Good Taste) by Antero de Quental (1842–91) is an open letter published as pamphlet, replying to and ridiculing the poetry of António Feliciano de Castilho (1800–75) and urging young writers to take a revolutionary position instead. This controversy became known as the "Questão Coimbrã” (the Question).

Circa 1865 - Circa 1900 France Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Naturalism, a literary movement that draws inspiration from descriptions of life, science and documentary observation, and which on occasion makes use of crude vocabulary to give it greater veracity, causes widespread offence. The movement was led by Émile Zola, with his Rougon-Macquart cycle.

1866 Greece Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

The poet Kostis Palamas publishes his first collection of verse entitled the Songs of My Fatherland. A major figure on the Greek literary scene, Palamas writes the Olympic Anthem and is nominated for the Nobel Prize for Literature.

1866 Greece Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Emmanuel Roidis, one of Greece’s most influential authors, publishes his novel Pope Joan, which is translated into a number of languages.

1867 Portugal Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Birth of the poet António Nobre (1867–1900). Só, written during his exile in Paris (1892), is the only work published in his lifetime. The nostalgia of this work, a landmark of the symbolist movement, is tempered by a certain self- irony, alternating a symbolist refined vocabulary with a more colloquial one. He influenced the work of the main Portuguese modernists.

1867 France Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Premiere of the opera Roméo et Juliet by Charles-François Gounod.

1868 Romania Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

29 April: the Romanian Philharmonic Society is founded by conductor Eduard Wachmann with the aim of organising a permanent symphony orchestra. The inaugural concert takes place in the same year on 15 December.

1868 Spain Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion Date Country Theme

The “Generation of ‘68” writers begin to publish after the 1868 revolution; the group is named by one of its members, Leopoldo Alas, known as Clarín. Their characteristics are middle-class consciousness and a realist style. Authors in this group include Pedro Antonio de Alarcón, José María Pereda, Benito Pérez Galdós and Emilia Pardo Bazán.

1868 Portugal Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

The birth of José Viana da Motta (d. 1948). Pianist, composer, conductor and pedagogue, he studied piano and composition in and performed in concerts around the world. He was professor of Piano at the Conservatory of and Director of the Conservatório Nacional de Lisboa, maintaining his concert career alongside teaching.

1868 Turkey Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

29 June: Nam#k Kemal and Ziya Pa#a publish oppositional weekly newspaper in London, where they had fled to.

1870s - 1900s France Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

The corset introduces the fashion for a more slender figure.

1870 Turkey Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Ahmed Mithat Efendi (1844–1912), who introduced the novel from the Ottoman community begins to publish Letaif-I Rivayat (Finest Stories), which includes long stories and novellas.

1871 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

24 December: first world performance of the new opera by Verdi, , set in ancient Egypt, at the Khedivial Opera House in Cairo.

1871 Greece Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Nikolaos Politis publishes the first volume of his pioneering work on Greek folklore, Study of the Life of Modern Greeks: Modern Greek Mythology.

1871 Egypt Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Giuseppe Verdi’s Egyptian-themed Aida premiers in Cairo on 24 December.

1872 United Kingdom Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

The Italian composer Verdi is commissioned by the Egyptian Khedive to compose the opera Aida for celebrations to mark the opening of the Suez Canal. Later Verdi is also commissioned to compose the Egyptian National Anthem.

1873 Germany Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Levi Strauss, a German citizen in exile in America, requests the patent for blue Jeans. Date Country Theme

1874 Austria Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Joseph Strauss composes the opera Die Fledermaus.

1874 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

The first Emirati historian Abdullah Saleh al-Mutawa’ is born in Sharjah.

1874 Republic of Macedonia Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion (FYROM)

Beginnings of the Macedonian amateur theatre in Veles initiated by educator and playwright Jordan Hadzi Konstantinov-Dzinot (1821–82). Professional theatres open in the late 19th century. Vojadan Chernodrinski (1875–1951) is considered one of the founders of the Macedonian theatre. The premiere for his best-known play, the tragedy Macedonian Bloody Wedding was held in Sofia, Bulgaria, on 7 November 1900.

1875 France Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Opening of the .

1875 Turkey Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Publication of the novel Taa##uk-u Talat ve Fitnat (The Romance of Talat and Fitnat) by #emseddin Sami (1850–1904). This book is considered to be the starting point of the Ottoman novel.

1877 Egypt Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Yaqub Sanu‘ founds the satirical magazine Abu Naddara early in this year. It has immediate and wide appeal to both the literate and the illiterate, who find someone to read it to them.

1877 Portugal Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Birth of Teixeira de Pascoaes (d. 1952). This poet was the main representative of the aesthetic and doctrinal movement called “saudosismo”, a form of existentialism, and a leader of the movement Renascença Portuguesa. In 1910 he launched in the magazine A Águia, the main resource of the “saudosismo” movement .

1879 Romania Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

18–20 January: the National Theatre of Bucharest premieres the comedy A Stormy Night by , the greatest Romanian playwright. It is Caragiale’s first staged play and is a great public success.

1880 - 1910 Spain Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

The emergence of musical . Various musicians and composers, such as Isaac Albéniz, Enrique Granados and Manuel de Falla, develop musical styles identified with Spanish traditions and folklore, including flamenco. Date Country Theme

1880 Portugal Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Publication of the novella O Mandarim (The Mandarin) by Eça de Queirós (Queiroz) (1845–1900).

1880 France Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

The Soirées de Médan, a collection of short stories by Guy de Maupassant, Émile Zola, etc., is considered to be the Naturalist manifesto.

1880 - 1900 Germany Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

The era of “Naturalism” in literature (i.e. the works of Hauptmann, Holz and Schlaf) is characterised by a reality without embellishment or subjective insight (the radicalisation of realism).

1881 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

At La Scala Theatre in Milan, premiere of Excelsior, mimic ballet by Luigi Manzotti, music by Romualdo Marenco. Through 11 allegorical scenes glorifying 19th- century scientific and industrial progress (steam-engine, electric light, telegraph, Suez Canal, Fréjus Rail Tunnel, etc.), it celebrates the triumph of Light over Obscurantism.

1881 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Giovanni Verga (1840–1922) publishes the novel I malavoglia (published in English as The House by the Medlar-Tree), which describes the life of a family of Sicilian fishermen. Verga was the most important author of the Italian realist school known as .

1881 Portugal Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Publication of Portugal Contemporâneo, by Joaquim Pedro de Oliveira Martins (1845–94). Detailed analysis of the events between 1826 and 1868, it is considered the most clear-sighted study of Portugal in the 19th century. The author makes a general criticism of Portuguese , presented as a historical account.

1883 Romania Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

6 June: the death of Romanian composer Ciprian Porumbescu, at the age of only 29. One of the melodies he composed will be adopted for Albania’s national anthem in 1912.

1883 - 1914 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Sheikh Saqr II bin Khalid bin Sultan al-Qasimi, ruler of Sharjah, is also acknowledged as one of the greatest poets of his time. He is the grandfather of the current Sheikh of Sharjah (Sheikh Sultan bin Mohammad al-Qasimi).

1883 Austria Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion Date Country Theme

The Czech Frank Kafka is born in Prague; he dies in Klosterneuburg, Austria, in 1924.

1885 Romania Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

8 May: The renowned Romanian soprano Hariclea Darclée makes her debut at the Paris Opéra, as Marguerite in ’s Faust.

1885 - 1889 Egypt Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

The singer Salama Hijazi turns to acting with the Kirdahi and al-Haddad troupes. Through his contributions, many musical theatre troupes emerge such as Aziz Eed, Naguib al-Rihani and ‘Ali al-Kassar. As one of the first artists to travel abroad, Hijazi achieves worldwide acclaim for his musical and theatrical works. Warmly welcomed in Italy, Syria and Tunisia, he is granted awards of appreciation by many international governments. Hijazi’s statue stands at the Museum of Napoli.

1885 Portugal Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

The birth of Guilhermina Suggia (d. 1950). This great Portuguese cellist was a pupil of Pablo Casals, with whom she lived for some years. The two were considered the world’s greatest cellists. She played as a soloist with prestigious orchestras. She devoted the last years of her life to teaching but continued to give concerts.

1886 Portugal Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Augusto Hilário (1864–96), the quintessential fado singer of Coimbra, enrols at the University of Coimbra and became a symbol of “Coimbra Serenade”. "Fado Hilário" is his best known work as a composer and writer.

1887 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

After long silence, Verdi composes a new opera on a text by Arrigo Boito: , based on Shakespeare’s tragedy. In Othello, Verdi adopts a more fluent narrative structure that goes beyond the traditional division into separate units (, , concertatos, choirs).

1887 Portugal Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Publication of A Relíquia (The Relic) by Eça de Queirós. The novel criticises the hypocrisy of the Portuguese society.

1888 Portugal Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Publication of Os Maias by Eça de Queirós. A mature romance and perhaps his best known. Focused on the saga of the Maia family through three generations, it debates the issue of the country’s destiny, in the context of the Constitutionalist ennobled bourgeoisie, whose good intentions end up capsizing.

1888 Portugal Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Birth of Fernando Pessoa (d. 1935) is the classic author of Portuguese modernism. His books are published under different names, which he called heteronyms (not Date Country Theme pseudonyms), each one corresponding to a cycle of experimental attitudes, which unfold in contradictions.

1890 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

The Cavalleria rusticana by Pietro Mascagni (1863–1945) has a great success, marking the beginning of verismo (Italian realism) in music, which intends to portray the world of peasants and the poor through strong and passionate drama. The singing style changes radically, leaving behind the aesthetics of bel canto and turning to reciting, even shouting, and spoken parts in the most exciting dramatic moments.

1890 - 1920 Spain Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

“Alhambrismo” in music. From 1890 many composers produce pieces showing the influence of the Alhambra, e.g.Chapi's Los Gnomos de la Alhambra (1889), Debussy’s Lindaraja (composed in 1901) and La puerta del vino (1912–13). The most important piece is the first movement of Noches en los Jardines de España (1909–15) by Manuel de Falla, titled "En los Jardines del Generalife".

1890 - 1910 Germany Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

The era of Modern literature (i.e. the works of Hesse, Hauptmann, Mann and Zweig) is characterised by pluralism, the merging of Art Nouveau, Symbolism, Impressionism, etc.

1891 Turkey Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Ahmed Vefik Pa#a dies. Besides his administrative positions, he is regarded as a precursor of Turkish cultural nationalism and remembered also for contributing to the development of Western theatre in the empire by translating French plays.

1892 Turkey Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Fatma Âliye (1862–1939), female novelist and publisher, publishes Muhâdarât (Reminiscence). Her feminist attitude was apparent in her rejection of marriage for economic reasons, believing in the need for women to join the workforce.

1893 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

At the age of 80, Verdi composes his last opera, , an opera buffa that opens new avenues towards the theatre of the 20th century. The music underscores all the subtle nuances of the psychology of the different characters.

1893 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Manon Lescaut by (1858–1924) has a great success in Turin and Puccini becomes the most promising opera composer of the new generation.

1894 - 1900 Egypt Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Qasim Amin publishes his book Les Egyptiens in French in 1894. In it he rejects the negative claims against the traditions of Oriental society made by Duke Drocom in his book, L’Egypte et les Egyptiens. In defence of Islam, Amin compares the Date Country Theme rights of women according to Islam with those of civilized European women. In 1899, he then publishes The Emancipation of Women, which is severely criticized. In 1900, Amin refutes the arguments of his critics with The New Woman, a work that provides fresh fuel to his ardent battle for the emancipation of women.

1896 Austria Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Austrian composer dies.

1896 Turkey Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Recaîzâde Mahmud Ekrem publishes the novel Araba Sevdas# (A Carriage Affair). He was prominent in literary circles and promoted the Westernisation of Ottoman Turkish literature.

1898 Turkey Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Ay#e S#d#ka (d.1903), the first female Ottoman pedagogue, publishes Usûl-i Talim ve Terbiye Dersleri (Lectures on Methods of Teaching and Education). She was the instructor for courses in geography, ethics and handicrafts at the Female Teachers’ Seminary in #stanbul.

1900s United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

British records note that an industry of weaving fine sheep’s-wool ‘aba’ (cloaks) had been developed in Sharjah but, as insufficient quantities were being made to meet local demand, they were also imported from Bahrain and al-Ahsa. Most of the cloth used in the Trucial States at the time was imported from India and elsewhere.

1900 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Birth of the celebrated poet Mubarak bin Saif al-Nakhi in Sharjah.

1901 - 1910 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Giacomo Puccini consolidates his reputation. He develops a very personal language that is deeply rooted in the Italian melodic , despite his attention to international trends and his choice of exotic subjects (Madama Butterfly, La fanciulla del West, Turandot).

1901 Portugal Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Posthumous publication of the Livro de Cesário Verde, a compilation of the poetry of Cesário Verde (1855–86) by his friend, Silva Pinto, author of the Preface. An original poet who described a world previously unknown to poetry, Cesário Verde completely modernised the traditional style of the Portuguese lyricism.

1902 Republic of Macedonia Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion (FYROM)

Birth of writer Stale Popov in Melnca, Mariovo Region. He began writing early immortalising tales from Macedonian folk tradition about Itar Pejo (Smart Pejo). He achieved eminence after publication of his first novel Patchwork Life. His talent Date Country Theme lay in introducing themes from social life. His other well-known novels are Kalesh Angja and Tole Pasha.

1902 Turkey Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Naz#m Hikmet Ran, famous Turkish poet, playwright and novelist, is born.

1904 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Luigi Pirandello (1867–1936), Italian dramatist, novelist, poet and short story writer, publishes the novel Il fu Mattia Pascal. In 1934, he will be awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature.

1904 Austria Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

First performance of Leoš Janá#ek’s (1854–1928) opera Janufa.

1906 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Italian poet Giosuè Carducci (1835–1907) is awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature.

1906 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Sibilla Aleramo (pseudonym of Rina Faccio, 1876–1960) publishes Una donna (A woman), a fictionalised memoir that describes a woman’s desperate struggle to assert her individuality in a male-dominated society. The book is considered a feminist manifesto.

1909 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Filippo Tommaso Marinetti (b. Alexandria, Egypt, 1876, d. Bellagio, Italy, 1944) publishes the Futurist Manifesto. The Futurist artistic movement emphasised speed, energy, vitality, and the power of machine and technology. Marinetti also glorified violence and war, which he considered “the world’s only hygiene”.

1910 - 1925 Germany Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

The era of Expressionism in literature (i.e. the works of Benn, Kafka, Lasker- Schüler, Mann and Döblin) is influenced by the human experience of and other influences such as Darwinism, Friedrich Nietzsche’s “despair of civilisation” and Freud’s Psychoanalytic theory.

1911 Greece Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

The Alexandrian poet Constantine P. Cavafy publishes his poem Ithaca.

1911 - 1930 Spain Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Mariano Fortuny y Madrazo designs dresses, cloaks and tunics influenced by Arab and North African garments such as the abas or the bournous. He is best known for his dresses inspired by the garments of Antiquity such as his Delphos dresses, or in the orientalist style. Date Country Theme

1912 Austria Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

The Italian writer Scipio Slataper publishes his autobiography in which he describes the multinational character of the Littoral (the countryside around his home in ).

1912 Austria Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Jaroslav Hašek (1883–1923) publishes his parody on the Austrian army, The Good Soldier Švejk.

1912 Egypt Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Muhammad Husayn Haykal publishes the first volume of Jean-Jacques Rousseau. He intended the book to create a cultural intermarriage between the East and West and hoped it would lead to a new intellectual revolution by providing an example to the West.

1912 France Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Paul Claudel's de L'Annonce faite à Marie opens at the Théâtre de l'Œuvre, a Symbolist theatre set up as a reaction to André Antoine’s “Naturalist” Théâtre Libre.

1913 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Grazia Deledda (1871–1936) publishes the novel Canne al vento. Thirteen years later, she will be awarded the Nobel Prize (the second woman to be Nobel laureate in literature).

1913 France Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Publication of Marcel Proust’s Du côté de chez Swann.

1914 Austria Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

The Austrian expressionist writer Georg Trakl commits suicide following his experiences in battle during World War I.

1914 United Kingdom Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

The Welsh poet and writer Dylan Marlais Thomas is born in Swansea on 27 October 1914. His best known works include the poem “Do not go gentle into that good night” (1951) and the play for voices Under Milk Wood (written 1951, first broadcast 1954). In later life, Thomas encouraged his reputation as a “roistering, drunken and doomed poet”; dying prematurely in New York in 1953.

1914 Turkey Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

A school for theatre (Dârülbedayi) is founded.

1915 Portugal Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion Date Country Theme

Publication of the only two issues of Orpheu magazine, thanks to the contribution of the most gifted figures of the modernist group. Without anything specifically programmatic, the magazine shows an iconoclastic irreverence, seeking notoriety by scandalising those holding traditional attitudes and customs.

1917 Egypt Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Strong cultural pressure at this time puts constraints on female performers. When the singer Munira al-Mahdiyya begins her career, she is the first female Muslim performer to appear onstage.

1917 Turkey Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

The conservatoire (Dârülelhân) is founded.

1918 Egypt Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Najib al-Rihani introduces a new type of theatre known as Musical Theatre or Operette. Cooperating with the famous Egyptian singer and composer Sayyid Darwish and the actor and writer Badi‘ Khayri, together, they produce several successful Operettes.

1919 Egypt Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Taha Husayn is appointed Professor of History at Fuad I University, where, through his own will and craving for knowledge, he becomes the leader of the Arab cultural renaissance.

1922 Egypt Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Mrs Dawlat Abyad writes a play to address the various problems experienced by Egyptian women in the early 20th century.

1922 United Kingdom Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Irish writer and poet James Augustine Aloysius Joyce’s (1822–1941) best-known work Ulysses is published in this year.

1926 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Puccini’s last opera Turandot, which he left unfinished, is performed at La Scala in Milan under the direction of .

1938 Egypt Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Abbas Mahmud al-Akkad writes his only novel Sarah in which he relates a personal experience with the only woman he loved. According to al-Akkad’s view women were to be respected and admired, and this appreciation for women is expressed in three books he wrote where he demands the full participation of women in building Egyptian society.

1939 Egypt Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion Date Country Theme

Zaki Najib Mahmud receives a Literary Distinction Award.

1960 Egypt Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Egyptian television begins to broadcast six hours daily on 21 July 1960.