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From Tents to Pavilions: Royal Mobility and Persian Palace Design by Bernard O'kane

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From Tents to Pavilions: Royal Mobility and Persian Palace Design by Bernard O'kane FROM TENTS TO PAVILIONS: ROYAL MOBILITY AND PERSIAN PALACE DESIGN BY BERNARD O'KANE FAZL ALLAH KHUNJI, THE LATE-FIFTEENTH-CENTURY Despite having built a new town at Sultaniyya, he biographer of the Aqqoyunlu sultan Ya'qub, gives spent only around forty percent of his time there, a list of the qualities which demonstrated the which puts it into perspective as his chief seasonal ruler's distinguished origin. One of them reads as residence, rather than a permanently occupied follows: "He was not a town dweller affected by capital. Unlike Tabriz, the plain around Sultaniyya dirty habits, as was the case with many rulers of was sufficiently large to accommodate the en- Khurasan, Fars and Kerman, but followed the campments of the Mongol hordes, which has led seasons wandering in open spaces going from to the suggestion that, far from becoming city summer quarters to winter quarters. " dwellers, Uljaytu deliberately picked Sultaniyya The rhythms of pastoral nomadism dominated to support their nomadic economy.6 court life in Iran until the twentieth century. One might hope that a compilation of geo- Seasonal migrations were not only a way to pro- chronologies for other sultans up to the Safavid vide the grazing lands essential to the nomads' period would help in determining, firstly, the flocks; they also served as a means to escape the inclination to nomadism or sedentarism of later extremes of heat and cold which characterize rulers, and secondly, whether this had any mea- most of the Iranian plateau. The basic necessity of surable effect on their policies regarding the fodder for the tens of thousands of horses, mules, building of or residence in palaces. However, the and camels which accompanied the royal armies movements of later rulers were more often dic- on campaigns was reflected in peacetime by the tated by military operations, whether combating choice of routes 2 and in war by the frequent outside forces or dealing with internal revolts. cessation of hostilities in winter, when snow cov- The influence of individual whim in royal patron- ered much of the ground and the armies were age also makes it difficult to assess the impor- obliged to retire to winter quarters for pasturage. tance of this factor versus sedentarism, although As an example of the military importance of we shall see in the case of Shah 'Abbas that, aswith fodder, one can cite the repeated Mongol with- Sultan Uljaytu, a semi-nomadic lifestyle could drawals from Mamluk territory, which have been coexist with the erection of palaces in new capi- ascribed to the inadequacy of the pasturelands, tals. especially in southern Syria.3 Various accounts exist of the ordu (imperial Apart from these movements which were dic- encampment) from the Mongol period onwards, tated by necessity, another motive was also impor- and it was clearly in many respects a mobile city.7 tant, that which was commended by Fazl Allah An elaborate ceremony accompanied the camp Khunji, the preference for life in tents in the every time it moved; a strict formation based on open countryside to that of towns. This also per- military rank was observed, with the drummers, mitted the ruler to indulge in the most favored of trumpeters, and pipers of each unit occupying nomadic recreations, hunting. Already in the prominent positions. 8 Mosques and bazaars were 1230s the movements of Ogedei, Chingiz Khan's to be found in each encampment, although son, were conditioned by pleasurable pursuits, prices were high because of the difficulties of including hunting, rather than by purely pastoral transport. The ruler and his household formed 4 considerations. Charles Melville has recently one camp and each of his wives had a camp of her examined in depth the geochronology (move- own, as did the amirs and viziers. The latter, ments over time) of Sultan Uljaytu.5 The very low together with their secretaries and officials of the number of military expeditions in his reign makes finance department, are described by Ibn it particularly valuable in determining how Battuta as presenting themselves for duty each much of his movements were due to nomad- afternoon.9 On some of the album leaves in the ism. He unfailingly moved each year between Topkapi Palace Museum, the signatures of summer and winter quarters, spending about Aqqoyunlu calligraphers suggest that they were one hundred days a year on the migrations. in the camp, indicating that at least part of the 250 BERNARD O'KANE royal ateliers accompanied the sultan on his was present, and his extremely detailed accounts travels.'0 can be verified and supplemented by those of The ruler's precinct, defined originally by rows Yazdi and Ibn 'Arabshah.' 7 of tents and carts, gradually gained importance as Clavijo first notes that all of the private tents the number of the guard was increased for pres- belonging to the royal family were placed within tige. The surrounding military camp was well enclosures (saraiparda);only the great reception regulated. An enclosure, probably with two or pavilions and awnings were left outside. The en- three entrances, had gatekeepers controlling closures had crenellations on top, were decor- access. This in turn was surrounded by a forbid- ated as if made of tilework, had windows and den zone, an arrangement which reflected earli- gateways with towers, and were made of silk.'8 er practice in Qaraqorum, the Mongol capital.ll Yazdi mentions that four of these enclosureswere The camp permitted the ruler to have the best of for Timur's wives, each containing a tent of state both worlds: the freedom of movement and open (bargaih), a guyed tent (khayma), a circular trellis spaces of the countryside, together with the facil- tent (khargah), and awnings (sayab7an).'9 ities of urban civilization. A mobile seat of govern- Clavijo describes in detail the trellis tent of ment has obvious advantages in maintaining au- Saray Mulk Khanum, Timur's principal wife, thority in conquered territories, although Sultan mentioning costly materials such as colored ap- Uljaytu's reasons for movement were usually the plique work and a lining of sable. Its height was less ambitious ones of going hunting or simply equivalent to three war lances which, thanks to setting out for winter or summer quarters. Peter Andrews's research, can be shown to be Just as the camps were mobile cities, the tents equivalent to 10 m. 20 Yazdi mentions that one of which the rulers occupied could be considered these tents had two hundred heads, that is, struts, mobile palaces. Rashid al-Din mentions a tent of and in comparison with modern examples this state with a thousand gold pegs and a trellis tent enabled Andrews to estimate the diameter of with royal appurtenances which Arghun had or- these largest trellis tents as ca. 11 to 13 m, a dered and which were made especially light for princely size indeed.2 1The inner doors had imag- travel.1 2 One of Ogedei's trellis tents' s was large es of saints in enamel on gold and were booty enough to accommodate a thousand people and from the treasury of the Ottoman sultan Baye- was decorated with gold brocade on the inside zid I. The custom of displaying trophies as sym- and gold studs outside;' 4 however, this was so bolic affirmation of conquest has a long history; 22 large that it was a permanent fixture at one of his Ibn 'Arabshah reports that a figural textile from camping grounds in the mountains.'5 An early Bayezid's treasury was also on display.2 3 indication of the association of the tent with The furniture inside the tent included a gold palatial structures is given by Rashid al-Din in an cabinet set with jewels and pearls, containing six account of a garden erected in 1302 by Ghazan goldjewel-encrusted flasks and cups. In front of Khan at Ujan near Tabriz. A partitioned garden it was a golden table displaying a large emerald, (chaharbiigh) was provided with pavilions, towers, while to one side was a golden tree with bejeweled and a bath, while its center was occupied by a fruit and golden birds on its branches.2 4 The golden trellis tent (khargah) adjoining a tent of furnishings were thus appurtenances of royalty state (bargah) with awnings (sayabain). The tent, which are unlikely to have been surpassed in any together with a golden throne inlaid with rubies urban palaces of the period. That Clavijo and his and other jewels, was three years in the making retinue-and presumably other ambassadorial and took one month to erect.'6 parties-were taken on a tour of these quarters shows a blurring of their ostensibly private na- ture, and indicates how they were calculated to Timur's Quriltay impress. The trellis tents are representative of the no- The best evidence thatwe have of the impor- madic heritage of the Timurids. Court tentage at tance, the variety, and the magnificence of the festival was represented outside the enclo- princely tentage comes from the descriptions sures by two great tents with guy ropes of silk, in of the quriltay, the assembly of Chaghatai tribes the form of pavilions in which Timur presided convened by Timur in Samarqand in 1404, to over banquets. The largest was square, one hun- celebrate the marriages of six of his grandsons. dred feet 25 per side, and again about three Clavijo, the ambassador of the king of Castille, lances or 10 m high. Twelve poles supported FROM TENTS TO PAVILIONS 251 the interior, and arcades on the exterior were Darvish 'Ali, was persuaded to submit to Husayn supported by a further twenty-four poles.
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