Durham E-Theses Identity, nationalism and the state system : the case of Iraqi Kurdistan. Wanche, Sophia Isabella How to cite: Wanche, Sophia Isabella (2002) Identity, nationalism and the state system : the case of Iraqi Kurdistan., Durham theses, Durham University. Available at Durham E-Theses Online: http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/1722/ Use policy The full-text may be used and/or reproduced, and given to third parties in any format or medium, without prior permission or charge, for personal research or study, educational, or not-for-prot purposes provided that: • a full bibliographic reference is made to the original source • a link is made to the metadata record in Durham E-Theses • the full-text is not changed in any way The full-text must not be sold in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. Please consult the full Durham E-Theses policy for further details. Academic Support Oce, Durham University, University Oce, Old Elvet, Durham DH1 3HP e-mail: [email protected] Tel: +44 0191 334 6107 http://etheses.dur.ac.uk Sophia Isabella Wanche Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Institute for Middle Eastern and Islamic Studies, Durham University, 2002 Identity, Nationalism and the State System: The Case of Iraqi Kurdistan The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. No quotation from it should be published in any form, including Electronic and the Internet, without the author's prior written consent. All information derived from this thesis must be acknowledged appropriately. The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. No quotation from it should be published without their prior written consent and information derived from it should be acknowledged. This thesis is approximately 104,200 words in length. 11 JUN 2002 'Identity, Nationalism and the State System: the Case of Iraqi Kurdistan' Sophia I. Wanche, PhD Thesis, Durham University, 2002 Abstract This thesis looks at the internal and external dynamics of the politics of the self- ruling area of Iraqi Kurdistan, arguing that internal forces often carry equal, and sometimes greater weight than do external influences when it concerns Northern Iraq. Following a modern political history of Iraqi Kurdistan, which sets the context for the forthcoming analyses, the origins and development of the state system and its underlying key concepts are examined. The complex political phenomena of nation and nationalism are analysed and the latter classified as evaluations and classifications of Kurdish nationalism later follow. Whether or not the state system is a form of political organisation that is transitional in nature is highly relevant when anticipating the future of the Kurds. The view that globalisation could render the nation-state redundant is not endorsed, but the 'crisis of the state' clearly affects Kurdish aspirations towards statehood - issues that are accounted for when discussing the prospects for the establishment of a Kurdish state in the twenty-first century. The impact of Iraqi Kurdish socio-political identity on the political development is furthermore subject to analysis. The 'class-divided' society of Kurdistan is considered, as is the major issue of tribalism, together with religion and language as political factors. These components provide the machinery of identity-building, and significantly account for the multiplicity of Kurdish identity, which impacts heavily on the political development. An understanding of these processes is essential when placing Iraqi Kurdistan in regional and international contexts. On the regional level, policies by the major regional powers in order to prevent the Kurds from asserting themselves are set in the context of the previous analyses, as are the policies of powerful international actors such as the European Union, the USA and the United Nations. Finally, the main themes are revisited and future prospects of the Kurds of Northern Iraq discussed, concluding that only a solution to the wider question of Iraq can end the uncertainty currently surrounding the future of Iraqi Kurdistan. Table of Contents Title Page Abstract Table of Contents List of Figures vi List of Abbreviations vii Acknowledgements ix Part A: The Historical-Political Context 1 Introduction 2 Chapter 1: A Political History of Iraqi Kurdistan 14 1.1 Geopolitics 14 1.1.1 Kurdistan in a geopolitical perspective 14 1.1.2 Specific geographical features of Iraqi Kurdistan 17 1.2 The origins of problems between Iraqi Kurdistan and Baghdad 20 1.2.1 The post-World War I settlements 20 1.2.2 The formation of the state of Iraq 21 1.3 The eventful 1970s 23 1.3.1 Baath rule and Kurdish national aspirations 23 1.3.2 The peace agreement of 1970 and its implementation 27 1.3.3 Resumption of fighting leading to the Algiers Accords of 1975... 30 1.4 The decade of major regional unrest 34 1.4.1 Iraqi-Kurdish activities during the Iran-Iraq war 34 1.4.2 Depopulation and genocide in Iraqi Kurdistan 37 1.5 A turning-point in Kurdish history 45 1.5.1 The Kurdish Uprising and the establishment of 'Free Kurdistan' 45 1.5.2 The first free Kurdish elections 50 1.5.3 The outbreak of civil war 54 1.5.4 Developments after 1998 .. 58 Part B: Nation, Nationalism, Identity and the Kurds 60 Chapter 2: Notions of Nation, State and Nationalism 61 2.1 Nation, state, nation-state? 61 2.1.1 The nation: a multifaceted phenomenon 61 2.1.2 To build a nation into a state - the idea of the nation-state 66 2.2 Nationalism 71 2.2.1 The nationalist doctrine 71 2.2.2 Classification of nationalisms 78 2.2.2.1 State nationalism 79 2.2.2.2 Unification nationalism 80 2.2.2.3 Separation nationalism 80 2.2.2.4 Liberation/Anti-colonial/Anti-imperialist nationalism • 81 2.2.2.5 Renewal nationalism 82 2.2.2.6 Ethnic nationalism 82 2.2.2.7 Civic nationalism 84 2.2.2.8 Liberal nationalism 84 2.2.2.9 Minority nationalism 85 2.3 The paradoxical force of nationalism; benign or malign ? 87 Chapter 3: The Components of Kurdish Socio-political Identity 93 3.1 Class 93 3.1.1 Classical paradigms 93 3.1.2 Class formation in the Middle East 95 3.1.3 The 'class-divided' society of Kurdistan 97 3.1.4 Summary 100 3.2 Tribe 102 3.2.1 Comparative perspectives on tribalism 102 3.2.2 Tribes and stateformation 106 3.2.3 Tribalism and Kurdistan 112 3.2.4 Summary 116 11 3.3 Religion 119 3.3.1 The religious plurality of Kurdistan 119 3.3.2 The development of 'Kurdish Islam' and the political role of shayks 121 3.3.3 Religion as a mobilising force in Iraqi Kurdistan 124 3.3.4 Summary 128 3.4 Language 130 3.4.1 Language as a political factor 130 3.4.2 The linguistic diversity of Kurdistan — language and boundaries 135 3.4.3 Language shift vs language maintenance 141 3.4.4 Summary 144 Chapter 4: Kurdish Identity Formation .... 146 4.1 Identity-building on national, collective and individual levels 146 4.1.1 The construction of a national identity 148 4.1.2 Individual vs. collective identity 151 4.2 The identity dimension of politics 153 4.2.1 Identification with the state 153 4.2.2 Globalisation and the politicisation of identity 155 4.2.3 Ethnicity as an ethno-political identity 157 4.3 The multiplicity of Kurdish identity 160 Part C: Iraqi Kurdistan in the Regional and International State System .. 167 Chapter 5: The Kurds and the State System 168 5.1 The principle of self-determination 168 5.2 The state system and its origins 171 5.3 Threats to the Westphalian order; is the nation-state becoming redundant? 174 5.3.1 Beyond Westphalia 179 5.4 Is the Nation-State still a potent force? 184 5.4.1 Devaluation of the nation-state concept 185 111 5.4.2 Globalisation re-examined 186 5.5 State and nationalism in a Kurdish context 189 5.5.1 Origins and development of Kurdish nationalism 189 5.5.2 Evaluating Kurdish nationalism 198 5.5.3 Kurdish nationalism classified 206 Chapter 6: Iraqi Kurdistan on the Regional Scene . 214 6.1 Co-operation and rivalry on the Middle Eastern scene 214 6.1.1 Iranian-Turkish-Syrian co-operation 216 6.1.2 Regional competition for influence in 'Free Kurdistan' 218 6.2 The major regional powers 221 6.2.1 Iran 221 6.2.1.1 Iranian unilateral activities in Iraqi Kurdistan 224 6.2.1.2 Iran's regional policies in transformation: its effects on Northern Iraq 227 6.2.2 Turkey 232 6.2.2.1 Turkish-Kurdish politics in the aftermath of the Kuwait War 233 6.2.2.2 Turkish unilateral activities in Iraqi Kurdistan 236 6.2.3 Iranian-Turkish relations concerning Northern Iraq 240 6.3 Other important actors 245 6.3.1 Iraq 245 6.3.2 Syria 249 6.3.3 Israel 250 6.3.4 Russia 253 6.3.5 The main non-Iraqi Kurdish political groups 255 Chapter 7: Iraqi Kurdistan in the Global Arena 259 7.1 The dynamics of relations 259 7.2 The remaining superpower 262 7.2.1 American policies regarding Northern Iraq 262 iv 7.2.2 The policy of 'dual containment' and the Iraqi Kurds 266 7.3 The European Union 269 7.3.1 Toward a common foreign policy — conflict and compromise 269 7.3.2 The EU in the Middle East 273 7.3.3 Different approach and potential: the EU vs.