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15 the Arab Spring, Its Effects on the Kurds, and Th THE ARAB SPRING, ITS EFFECTS ON THE KURDS, AND THE APPROACHES OF TURKEY, IRAN, SYRIA, AND IRAQ ON THE KURDISH ISSUE By Aylin Ünver Noi* This article addresses the approaches of Turkey, Iran, Syria, and Iraq in dealing with the Kurdish issue, with a special focus on historical background. In addition, the article discusses how this issue affects relations among the aforementioned countries and whether cooperation on this issue is possible. The article also examines how the Arab Spring has impacted the Kurds and the attitudes of these countries toward the Kurdish issue. INTRODUCTION Minister Recep Tayyip Erdogan and Iraqi Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki. This article The Kurds, an Iranian ethno-linguistic evaluates the Arab Spring and its effects on group, living in the area where the borders of the Kurds and the approaches of these four Turkey, Iran, Iraq, and Syria converge, are the countries the Kurdish issue. It also addresses largest ethnic group without a state. 1 Since the whether in light of these circumstances, Justice and Development Party (JDP) or continued collaboration among these countries Adalet ve Kalkınma Partisi (AKP) came to on the Kurdish issue is possible. power in 2002, Turkey has embraced a “zero problems with neighbors” foreign policy TURKEY AND THE KURDISH ISSUE approach. This has coincided with a shift from confrontation to collaboration among Turkey, In 1984, the Kurdish separatist movement Syria, Iran, and Iraq on the Kurdish issue. Yet resurfaced, with the goal of establishing an the Arab Spring and the ensuing developments independent Kurdish state. The roots of the in the region have led to a deterioration in problem date back to the nineteenth century Turkey’s relations with Syria and Iran, and the “Eastern Question,” which involved bringing the validity of Turkey’s “zero competition between the great powers, Russia problems with neighbors” policy into and Britain, for influence over the Ottoman question. Empire. 2 A series of agreements intended to Turkey’s increasing pressure on the Syrian partition the Ottoman Empire were signed regime, its decision to host a NATO missile between 1915 and 1917. Accordingly, Kurdish defense system, and Turkey’s “rising-star” populated areas would come under the control status in the region have led to competition of Britain, France, and Russia. During the between Iran and Turkey and an exacerbation Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the allies of both Turkish-Iranian and Turkish-Syrian supported the idea of a future Kurdish state. relations. In addition, Turkish military The division of the empire and the final intervention in northern Iraq in response to settlement of the “Eastern Question” by intensified PKK (Kurdistan Workers’ Party) promising Kurds their own country were attacks since August to November 2011 have formalized in the Sèvres Treaty, which was strained Turkish-Iraqi relations, since such signed between the allies and the Ottoman attacks could potentially be perceived as a government in 1920. 3 The Sèvres Treaty was threat to Iraqi territorial integrity. In addition, never ratified by the signatories. A resistance Turkish-Iraqi relations deteriorated after the movement, which opposed the terms of Sèvres bitter exchange between Turkish Prime Treaty, emerged in Anatolia and ended with Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 16, No. 2 (June 2012) 15 Aylin Ünver Noi the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne and the Kurdish deputies, including Hatip Dicle, establishment of the Republic of Turkey. 4 Feridun Yazar, and Leyla Zana, formed the Following First World War I, the map of HEP (People’s Labor Party) with the goal of the Middle East was redrawn. Most Kurds campaigning within the National Assembly for found themselves living in Turkey, Iran, and laws guaranteeing equal rights for the Kurds. 8 two new Arab states--Syria and Iraq--which However, as of 1995, the use of Kurdish in were under French and British mandate after government institutions such as the courts and WWI. 5 The newly established Republic of schools still was prohibited. 9 Turkey designated a single nationality for all During the mid-1990s, the PKK began a Turks in its constitution, which did not series of suicide bombing attacks. In the late recognize ethnic group. After the 1990s, Turkey increased its pressure on the establishment of the Republic of Turkey, the PKK and its supporters. Both Iran and Syria, Kurds did not renounce their goal to establish Turkey’s neighbors, were among the an independent Kurdish state. supporters of the PKK. From 1979 to 1999, The Shaykh Said Rebellion of 1925 Syria provided support to PKK in the Beq’a emerged as a Kurdish separatist movement, Valley region. However, Syria placed some but was suppressed by the Republic of Turkey. restrictions on PKK activity within its territory Since the 1930s, the Kurds have resisted when an undeclared war between Turkey and government efforts to assimilate them, yet Syria emerged. Turkey threatened to invade uprisings have repeatedly been suppressed by Syria if it continued harboring PKK leader the Turkish army. During the 1960s and mid- Abdallah Ocalan. Damascus quickly expelled 1970s, Kurdish intellectuals attempted to him. After Ocalan’s arrest in Kenya, Syria establish Kurdish-language journals and expelled many PKK terrorists, many of whom newspapers. However, the publications were relocated to northern Iraq. According to a soon shut down. detailed report by the Turkish parliament's Kurdish opposition to the government’s Border Security Research emphasis on linguistic homogeneity was Committee, Iran allowed the PKK to train and spurred by agitation in neighboring Iran and maintain logistical support camps on its Iraq on behalf of an autonomous Kurdistan territory as well as cross the border into that some proposed would include all the Turkey in order to launch attacks and lay Kurds in Turkey, Syria, Iran, and Iraq. Since mines. However, once the PKK began 1984, the PKK, an organization officially operations on its own territory, Iran listed the classified as “terrorist” by Turkey, the United group as a terrorist organization. 10 States, and the European Union (EU), has Despite the frequency and intensity of their carried out a violent armed struggle to obtain a operations, Turkey could not achieve its goal Kurdish state. Prior to 1991, the majority of of wiping out the PKK from northern Iraq due Kurds, however, continued to participate in to the support of the Iranian and Syrian Turkish political parties, in particular the governments. 11 In September 1996, the Social Democratic People's Party or the SHP, Turkish authorities announced that they would the party most sympathetic to their goal of intervene in northern Iraq to establish a equality for all citizens of Turkey and security zone extending several miles into assimilating them into Turkish society. 6 Iraqi territory. Iran called on Turkey to abort Turgut Ozal, who became prime minister in the plan. By the end of October 1996, the PUK 1983 and president in 1989, not only broke the (Patriotic Union of Kurdistan) had regained official taboo by using the term “Kurd,” but practically all its lost territory with Iranian also called for a more liberal policy toward support, and the danger of an immediate Kurds and supported a bill that revoked the Turkish-Iranian clash receded. 12 ban on the use of the Kurdish language and Turkish military interventions in northern possession of materials in Kurdish. 7 Following Iraq again took place in May and October the parliamentary elections of 1991, several 1997. Along with these interventions, Turkish 16 Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 16, No. 2 (June 2012) The Arab Spring, Its Effects on the Kurds, and the Approaches of Turkey, Iran, Syria, and Iraq on the Kurdish Issue forces escalated their support for the KDP made by France and Britain were forgotten. 17 (Kurdish Democratic Party) by bombing PUK The Syrian Kurds were expected to be easily and PKK positions and actually approached assimilated into an Arab majority. This seems the cities of Irbil and Kirkuk. The largest more plausible, since demands for a Kurdish Turkish military intervention into the northern identity came only from leading land-owning Iraq took place on May 14, 1997, by a families responding to their loss of traditional reported 50,000 Turkish troops. The purpose power in the new state. 18 of this incursion was: to destroy PKK units, During the 1920s, the Kurdish political strengthen Massoud Barzani's KDP (hoping he movement faced the scrutiny of the French would prevent future PKK raids), and balance Mandatory authorities. The newly established Iran’s relationship with the PUK. With this Republic of Turkey was also keeping an eye act, Turkey also sought to counter Iran’s on Kurdish developments in Syria. The failure growing role in northern Iraq as a step toward of the Shaykh Said rebellion in Turkey in preventing Iranian domination of the region. 13 1925 led to the exodus of a substantial number In 1999, Ocalan, leader of the PKK-- of Kurdish rebels to Kurdish regions in Syria. officially classified as a terrorist organization The Kurdish exiles from Turkey continued to responsible for the deaths of an estimated retaliate against the Turkish government. The 30,000 people to create an independent first such attempt against the Turks was the Kurdish state in the Southeastern Turkey--was founding of the pan-Kurdish Xoybun captured in Nairobi, Kenya. He was extradited (Independence) League on October 5, 1927, in to Turkey to stand trial. He was prosecuted Bhamdoun, Lebanon. The league’s political and sentenced to death. He was, however, branch was headed by Celadet Bedirxan. commuted to life imprisonment in Imrali Syrian Kurds joined Xoybun and its branches, Island Prison, since the death penalty is offering a space for Syrian-Kurdish forbidden in EU member states and Turkey, in intellectuals to gain experience speaking about the process of trying to gain EU membership, issues of nationalism, self-determination, and had removed the death penalty from its legal oppression, and providing a foundation for the code.
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