WOMEN & CONFLICT

AN INTRODUCTORY GUIDE FOR PROGRAMMING

Key Issues

Lessons Learned

Program Options

Resources

WOMEN & CONFLICT, 2007   Conflict arises due to a complex set of variables coming together and reinforcing each other at multiple levels and at critical junctures of a country or region’s development. It leaves in its af- termath significant development and humanitarian challenges. USAID recognizes that conflict is an inherent and legitimate part of social and political life, and is often a precursor to positive change.Yet the consequences of conflict can also be alarmingly high. Therefore, USAID has adopted a new policy by which it will aggressively expand its development and implementation of programs mitigating the causes and consequences of conflict, instability, fragility and extremism. Since develop- FROM THE DIRECTOR ment and humanitarian assistance programs are increasingly implemented in situations of open or latent violence, USAID must explicitly incorporate sensi- tivity to the dynamics of conflict and instability in their design or execution.

The Office of Conflict Management and Mitigation in the Bureau for Democracy, Conflict, and Humanitarian Assistance (DCHA/CMM) of the United States Agency for International Develop- ment (USAID) was established to provide technical leadership on conflict, instability, extrem- ism and now terrorism and insurgency to Missions and our Washington bureaus.The vast majority of our field missions and staff are currently working in areas that are either in conflict, coming out of conflict, are at high-risk for violence and instability, or are facing growing extrem- ist threats. A central objective of the office is to integrate or “mainstream” best practices in conflict management and mitigation into more traditional development sectors such as agricul- ture, economic growth, democracy, education, and health. Increasingly, DCHA/CMM is also working with missions to help them understand how to work in countries experiencing growing fragility, instability and in some cases insurgencies. Where appropriate, DCHA/CMM will be an advocate for stable change.

As Director of DCHA/CMM, I am pleased to introduce this document on women and conflict. This guide identifies the key issues and methods for understanding the common impact of conflict on women and some of the creative ways that USAID can respond to address the most vital needs of those affected by conflict.

Elisabeth Kvitashvili Director Office of Conflict Management and Mitigation Bureau for Democracy, Conflict and Humanitarian Assistance U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID)

WOMEN & CONFLICT, 2007   women and conflict: An introductory guide to programming

While conflict inflicts suffering on everyone, women are particularly affected by its short- and long-term effects. Sexual assault and exploitation are frequently employed as tools of war; victimization leads to isolation, alienation, prolonged emotional trauma, and unwanted pregnancies that often result in abandoned children. As culturally- designated caregivers, women must struggle to support their families and keep their households together while the traditional bread- winners – husbands and sons – are caught up in the fighting and are unable to provide for their families. The new role as primary provider exposes many women to further abuse. Conflict shatters the comfort of predictable daily routines and expectations. Women and girls are equally affected in a fragile environment where social services they once depended on degrade or disappear. Although conflict may, in some key issues 3 cases, improve gender relations as a result of shifts in gender roles - some changes even improve women’s rights - by and large its impact on women is devastatingly negative. Lessons learned 11

Women are rarely mere passive victims of conflict and should not be treated as such. Women can play active roles in the events that lead program options 17 to fighting and instability, and even in combat itself - yet they have also served as the forerunners of peace movements that have ended conflict. However, the determined efforts of women to bring an end to fighting is resources 23 usually behind the scenes.

This introductory guide describes the ways in which conflict and fragility may increase gender inequities and suggests programming approaches that address these issues while building on the strengths of women. With this guide, DCHA/CMM aims to both raise awareness among USAID Mission employees of issues surrounding women and conflict, and to assist USAID by integrating conflict and gender concerns.

The project coordinators and the authors wish to thank Judy Benjamin for her early work on this guide, which has benefited from substantial discussions with Sahana Dharmapuri of the Office of Women in Development in the Bureau for Economic Growth, Agriculture, and Trade at USAID, and Brenda Opperman, former Gender Advisor for USAID/ Iraq, and from dialogues with development partners such as Inclusive Security: Women Waging Peace. This document follows their lead in shaping a guide with suggestions for USAID Mission staff.

WOMEN & CONFLICT, 2007  Defining Women in Conflict

This guide focuses on the following categories: particular roles, needs, and vulnerabilities of women in • Agents of change conflict settings so that the most • Active participants appropriate interventions can be (combatants) determined and initiated. The • Supporting participants or term “women” is purposefully shields (forced or voluntary used because the focus is on their camp followers, cooks, role in environments of instability, wives, slaves, etc.) fragility, and conflict, rather than on • Victims and spoils of war broader gender issues. “Gender” • Newly responsible care is used where appropriate providers to refer to social and cultural issues relating to female-male These roles will be addressed interactions and roles. By focusing throughout the guide and on the roles and lives of women, programmatic options will be the guide acknowledges that provided accordingly. New interventions are more effective programs are not always and lasting when they integrate necessary; these options may an understanding of women’s simply be incorporated into perspectives, while at the same existing programs. However, time fostering awareness that this is not always the case and crises of fragility and conflict can opportunities to address the role challenge and alter gender roles of women in conflict can be lost - often radically and rapidly. if the surrounding issues are not acknowledged and understood. Gender and development issues may overlap or be identical to those relating to women and conflict. Many of the key issues and best practices identified in these pages will in fact be the same as those that are useful in general development settings and/or in humanitarian/emergency responses. However, the focus here is on women’s roles in conflict situations, and the best practices for addressing them. Although women’s roles vary in every conflict, they generally fall into the

 KEY ISSUES Cultural Context & women’s position in society is Sensitivity - Status relatively strong, in other cases religion, tradition, legal status & Role of Women in or other issues may present Society substantial obstacles to program Union of the implementation. While the United Nations and many Committees of in the international community Women as Agents Soldiers’ Mothers recognize equal rights and status of Change and of Russia (USCMR) for women as a legitimate goal to pursue globally, the speed and Peacemakers Mothers of Russia is a human manner in which this goal can rights non-governmental be attained will vary according to Women must be involved in organization (NGO) founded by the cultural setting. Just as each conflict prevention, resolution the mothers of soldiers in 1989 country has its own unique culture and management efforts at to protect draftees, soldiers, and traditions, each society views all levels. When they are not and their families from human the role of women differently. This active participants, the views, rights abuses committed by will vary by country/region and can needs and interests of half of the the military. The NGO handles be influenced by such factors as population are not represented, individual complaints regarding education, religious and cultural and therefore interventions will human rights violations in the norms, the legal status of women, not be as appropriate or enduring. armed forces, provides human and the degree of exposure Because the consequences of rights education to draftees and to Western ideas and culture. war weigh so heavily on the lives their parents, and peacefully Program options will therefore of women, they naturally show advocates adherence to human need to be adapted to particular great interest in peace processes. rights in Russia. settings, even in emergency and In some cases, peace itself may humanitarian responses. come much later if women are not involved in the process. For Understanding the culture and example, the leadership and currently prescribed role of diligence of women as leaders women in a society is absolutely of human rights organizations necessary when working on has been critical in keeping the gender-specific programs. This international community aware of remains true during conflict and in the continuing conflict in Chechnya its aftermath. Women’s role and and growing instability in Russia’s status in society will determine other republics in the North best practices and the appropriate Caucasus. These groups have means of intervention in order to pressed the Russian authorities empower – rather than endanger to address the rampant violation – women. While in some cases of human rights across the region,

WOMEN & CONFLICT, 2007  KEY ISSUES

and the women-led Memorial, a Nevertheless, women are usually Russian NGO, has provided the left out of formal peacemaking world with documented information activities unless they exhibit on human rights violations from remarkable determination to seat the North Caucasus and especially themselves at the peace table.  Chechnya. Mothers of Russia , Despite notable progress for another Russian NGO, has women over the past decade, even pressed for peace and an end to when they manage to play a role the fighting, and the Mothers of in peace negotiations, women tend Beslan argued passionately for a to fade into the background when real accounting of the causes and it comes to rebuilding destroyed consequences of the tragic 2004 economies and reconstructing school hostage standoff, attempted war-torn societies. Their efforts rescue, and massacre. in rebuilding social networks are viewed as tangential to formal Betty Bigombe: Women often play decisive roles in negotiating the peace mechanisms, and women do not Seeking Peace in process. To do so effectively, they receive their deserved recognition. Northern Uganda must be empowered politically In most cases, women’s efforts and economically, and must towards peace go unrecognized Betty Bigombe has played a be adequately represented at and are under-reported, as data pivotal role in moving forward all levels of decision-making. collected on peace processes is the peace process between Despite the difficulties conflict- often not disaggregated by gender. the Lord’s Resistance Army affected women face, their role in and the Government of peacemaking has steadily grown The efforts women make are not Uganda. Negotiating directly over the past several years. In without many obstacles and risks. with rebel and government In the Democratic Republic of leaders, Bigombe has worked Liberia, the Women’s Peace Initiative made major strides Congo for example, the National tirelessly, mediating between Democratic Institute has developed the two entities, and has made towards a peaceful resolution of the 14-year conflict by pushing a women’s political party program a significant contribution to called “Win with Women” that bringing the country closer to for disarmament of the fighting allows women to partake in peace. factions before the signing of a peace accord. In some war-torn roundtable discussions, attend countries - Guatemala, Burundi, campaign skills training for female Cyprus, Bosnia, and South Africa, candidates and conduct meetings among others - women’s peace with political party leaders. The organizations and coalitions have program works to assist women played a crucial role in helping to to overcome the many difficulties bring about peace. they face when they try to join the political process due to the lack of a forum for discussion,  For more information on the Mothers of Russia NGO, see www.ucsmr. training, or buy-in from existing ru/english/

 political leaders. The roundtable Women as discussions give women a venue Combatants and to discuss the difficulties they encounter and identify possible Participants in solutions, and the consultative Disarmament, meetings allow women to Demobilization, and demonstrate to political leaders the Reintegration (DDR) importance of including women in the political process. An important dimension of the relationship between women and Because women do not have conflict is women’s involvement the same level of influence that with combatant forces. Women men do in most societies, they are found among combatants as are easily marginalized. Keeping forced participants (often as a the peace may be viewed as a result of abduction), as dependent ‘male’ role and women may be “followers” of fighters, in supporting left out of that important area of roles assisting fighters but not responsibility. However, when carrying weapons, as “shields” women organize themselves for for combatants, and as active peace efforts, they can significantly combatant soldiers. Women and impact the peace process. This girls may have multiple roles has been demonstrated by the among fighting forces—at times domestic servant, cook, sexual Mano River Women’s Peace partner, porter, guard, informant, Network, in which women in three and soldier. West African countries (Liberia, Sierra Leone, and Guinea) were Women who have been associated able to successfully participate in with fighting forces need and influence the outcome of the specialized assistance during peace process. The Mano River the process of disarmament, model needs to be supported by demobilization, and reintegration (DDR), but they are often international agencies, and women overlooked. This may be due need support to expand their roles in part to the fact that there are in reconstruction efforts. typically fewer female combatants than male, yet it is also the case that the number of women combatants or associates of combatant forces may be partially hidden because of long-standing attitudes that classify soldiers as male. Many female fighters do not present themselves at

WOMEN & CONFLICT, 2007  KEY ISSUES

DDR centers because they do of medical care, harsh living not believe they will be entitled conditions and psychological to benefits. Yet the number trauma require that those who of women who participate in have been conscripted into rebel fighting forces is increasing in forces - boys and girls alike - nearly all conflicts. Women have receive specialized attention in constituted significant proportions order to be reintegrated into civil of combatants and combat support society. operations in conflicts in Eritrea, Addressing the needs of women Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Vietnam, combatants presents particular Cambodia, Sri Lanka, Nepal, challenges. Female ex-combatants Sierra Leone, Liberia, Uganda, and may have experienced a newfound Rwanda. degree of autonomy and even Likewise, evidence shows an prestige within armed groups. increase in the forced recruitment Women combatants may have held of children of both sexes into the same responsibilities as male armed forces. Rural villages soldiers in terms of fighting, in provide the main recruitment addition to functioning as porters, base for most insurgent armed cooks, cleaners, nurses, and camp groups, and young rural women “wives.” However, they often face may voluntarily join fighting severe feelings of personal guilt groups to escape the drudgery and may be rejected by society, and hopelessness they may be depending on the extent of their experiencing in their communities. involvement and the circumstances In Sierra Leone, the Revolutionary under which they became part of United Front made a practice of the armed group. raiding villages and capturing adolescents and children and DDR programs should be based forcing them to join their rebel on a clear understanding of groups. The children were abused, gender roles, relations and the raped, starved, drugged, and specific gender inequalities forced to kill. Many of those in a given population. When abducted remained with the disarming involves exchanges rebels for several years under for agriculture projects, training deprived conditions. The method of or equipment, it is important that conscripting fighters by abduction decisions are based on a gendered and indoctrination is more common understanding of who does what than most people realize. The in a particular community. One same pattern has been found in way to achieve that objective Uganda, Mozambique, Liberia, is to increase the involvement and elsewhere. The deep- of women’s organizations and seated problems that result peace movements in disarmament from interrupted education, lack discussions. It is often useful

 to include female soldiers in protectors, and women in refugee consultative groups who plan DDR or IDP camps are often heads-of- programs. The agency responsible households. for setting up DDR programs in a given country should ensure War-induced migration and that program documentation and mobility put unaccompanied announcements include specific women and children at greater references to women and girl risk of violence during flight. They combatants, supporters, and frequently lack documentation to THE COST OF dependents for inclusion. Women prove their entitlement to food, SURVIVAL leaders are important stakeholders health services, and shelter, and in ending conflict, and as such consequently may be obligated to Lack of equal access to food in exchange sex for survival. Lack should be involved in drafting DDR emergency situations is one of of protection exposes women and plans and programs. the primary reasons that war- girls to sexual abuse - including affected women and girls adopt rape - and increases their risks Women’s Needs in of exposure to HIV/AIDS. The high risk behavior such as ex- Conflict Situations Women’s Commission for Refugee changing sex for food. In coun- Women and Children and other tries like Liberia, Burundi, Ivory Coast, East Timor, Congo, and Women are among the most non-governmental organizations Bosnia, UN Peacekeepers have vulnerable groups during conflict (NGOs) have on a number of been accused of exchanging for more reasons than just occasions urged the United sex for food with girls as young violence. Large flows of refugees Nations High Commission for as eight. A report conducted and internally displaced persons Refugees (UNHCR) to address problems arising from the fact that by Save the Children in Libe- (IDPs) are associated with female refugees and internally ria found that parents of these most conflicts, and providing displaced women often do not abused girls refused to complain proper protection for all is vital. have the right to hold their own because offering sex seemed to Emergency measures must be documentation and registration be their only option for acquiring taken to provide basic survival papers. Despite recent sexual food. (The Washington Times, requirements – physical security, abuse scandals in West Africa “The UN Sex-for-Food Scandal”) access to water, food, health - many incidents were reported of care and shelter – and certain women exchanging sex for food In Northern Uganda, girl “night vulnerable groups require they were entitled to, but unable commuters” are known to ex- protective measures to prevent to obtain for lack of documentation change sex for money in order to exploitation and abuse in these - the problem has persisted. pay for their school fees. (World situations. Reports from human Vision, “Pawns of Politics: Chil- rights advocacy groups document dren, Conflict and Peace in many examples of the exploitation Northern Uganda”) and abuse of women and children affected by conflict. Women in refugee and IDP camps face  Issues of Power and Gender in Complex Emergencies” in Emergency Re- sexual exploitation and a lack of lief Operations edited by Kevin M. Cahill, physical security. This is especially M.D. ; Fordham University Press, NY, 2003 true in households without male [ISBN 0-8232-2240-3]

WOMEN & CONFLICT, 2007  KEY ISSUES

Women and Conflict- Trafficking of Women Related Social and Girls Dislocation Trafficking involves the abduction In addition to food and shelter, of women and girls (in some women affected by war also need cases boys) for the purpose of means of generating incomes. transporting them across borders Widows are often unable to to locations where they are forced provide for themselves and their to work in brothels or as domestic families in traditional societies, or industrial “slaves.” Conflict such as in parts of Afghanistan. and post-conflict environments Due to cultural and religious provide favorable conditions for restraints, lack of education or trafficking because of the poverty child-care responsibilities, women that war causes. Traffickers who are not always able to obtain promise families they will look meaningful employment and are after their daughters, by providing therefore unable to provide for their employment as domestic workers families. Given their isolation and in another country, take advantage seclusion, it is difficult for NGOs of the destitute circumstances to assist them, and governments of war-affected households. A may be either unwilling or unable small sum of money may be paid to provide the necessary social to the family to make up for the services. While it is vital to present loss of labor to the household economic opportunities to women, (in Afghanistan, the sum was it is imperative to undertake this between $50 and $100). Once with sensitivity to the current the women leave their homes, social climate in order to avoid traffickers take away the women’s exacerbating the problem. travel documents, restrict their freedom and do not permit them to Legal and political processes contact their families. The chaotic often fail to recognize the role of conditions associated with conflict women in maintaining social order also make it easier for traffickers to during conflict and post-conflict operate because of the confusion reconstruction. They also fail to and lack of police enforcement. adequately recognize the particular harm suffered by women. Women’s Prevention of human trafficking is lack of awareness of matters such well served by the promotion of as property and inheritance rights public awareness of the problem. - also culturally determined - may The challenge of responding to lead to further disempowerment. this grave violation of human In general, conflicts exacerbate rights is compounded by its covert gender disparities, both in society and underground character. at large and in families. Women’s groups and networks are

 effective channels through which health. In order for reconstruction to disseminate information about efforts to be successful, and trafficking. for civil societies to become rehabilitated, implementers of Lingering Effects health programs in post-conflict situations should include funds Even after hostilities cease, a for mental health components. It variety of conflict-related health is important to bear in mind that issues persist, such as post- women are likely to have suffered traumatic stress, malnutrition, psychologically in different ways war-related injuries, and the than men as a result of personal scars of sexual abuse. The lack loss, separation from family, rape of reproductive health services or other physical abuse. Rape in particular has harmful long- in particular affects not only the term ramifications for women and female victim, but also her family their children. Maternal and child and community who are forced to mortality rates soar when services witness it. are absent. Women are often forced to give birth away from their Violence against women in traditional medical practitioners. the context of conflict has a The risk for contracting broader effect on the viability and communicable diseases also rises sustainability of other development during conflict, as heightened programs and dimensions of population mobility, increased social welfare. The trauma, presence of soldiers, relaxed social adverse health impact, and loss behavior controls, and widespread of educational opportunities and poverty are common in conflict productivity suffered by women situations, leading to high-risk has an effect both through the behavior and increased exposure additional burden on social to HIV and other diseases. Another institutions and the loss of the lasting consequence of conflict for full social contribution of women, women is the impact on children. whose critical role in overall In cases where rape has been a development is now axiomatic. weapon, unwanted pregnancies often lead to the abandonment of Competing Interests the resulting children. Given the nature of post-conflict Despite extensive documentation assistance, it is easy to overlook on the detrimental effects of the specific role that women may trauma on reconstruction, a very have played during the conflict small percentage of post-conflict or the ways in which they may reconstruction funding covers have helped mitigate conflict. The programs to address mental general needs of the population

WOMEN & CONFLICT, 2007  KEY ISSUES

are overwhelming in countries As in the case of Rwanda, emerging from conflict, and changes in demographics (more priorities for aid organizations women may survive the conflict providing emergency assistance than men) can mean that there are humanitarian in nature. As are more positions available aid organizations grapple with for women in government and where to even begin in such commercial posts. This allows situations, the temptation to avoid women to advance their rights in gender issues is great, especially post-conflict, newly-established given the immediate needs of governments through constitutional reconstruction and enabling a revisions and new policies. fledgling government. It is during Programming interventions should this transition from emergency endeavor to build on these positive response to stabilization efforts aspects by supporting initiatives that the opportunity to include that take advantage of the shifts women in conflict programming in gender power relationships, can be seized or lost. while remaining aware of potential resentment from men because Positive Effects of of women’s positive gains in status. Positive changes for Conflict on Women women must be sustained by supportive programming that builds While the negative consequences skills, provides education and of conflict are widely accepted, promotes leadership so that the the disturbance of established advancements women achieved norms can also have unintended will remain when the conflict ends. positive effects on the status and role of women in their societies, The argument that conflict may and therefore on their role in bring net positive changes for development. For example, women, however, is strongly women’s social and economic contested by some scholars who responsibilities may increase when point to the huge price women pay women are obliged to take over in pain, suffering, and loss for the the responsibility of supporting newfound gains. Regardless of the their households. Often that debate, assistance to war-affected requires learning new skills that communities should recognize enable women to perform jobs the positive and negative ways in previously held by men or that which conflict may affect women, prepare them for entrepreneurial and programs should capitalize income-generating activities. This on positive changes by providing can help women achieve greater support where needed. financial independence and lead to long-term changes in the gendered division of labor.

10 Lessons Learned

Support Women’s training, literacy and education Networks courses, and income-generating activities. Women’s networks are often the most effective means Because of issues of diminished of disseminating information to individual social status in many The Mano River communities, and they are likewise countries, women alone are often Women’s Peace the most efficient means to find not empowered to effect change. Network out about women’s interests and Collective action by them mitigates needs. These networks also this powerlessness to a degree. The power of women’s networks provide donors with ready access Women’s networks may begin with was evident in the Mano River to women who can be involved a few women seeking solidarity by Women’s Peace Network - a in assistance programs. Such uniting; sometimes their only goal formidable linkage of women in network linkages need recognition is to find better ways to survive the three countries with the common and support; the important role social upheaval of war. Yet over purpose of bringing peace to the they play in conflict mitigation is time they may grow to have real West African region. The Mano too often overlooked. Programming influence. Networks can expand River network grew out of the interventions by international outside borders and across both intense desires of a few strong donors and NGOs can tap into political and economic boundaries, women to put an end to the such networks to increase program and when donors support fighting and suffering caused by effectiveness and coverage. women’s networks the potential conflict. to empower women expands substantially. Women leaders Address Gender- and entrepreneurs emerge from Based Violence and networks and provide role models Conflict for other women. Such institutional infrastructure also provides a The fact that gender-based basis for women’s involvement in violence increases in conflict- the broader socio-economic and affected communities is well political infrastructure of long-term established, though the specific sustainable development. roots of the problem remain unclear. The increased occurrence Women’s organizations can take of gender-based violence may be many forms – from local NGOs attributed to general climates of to religious groups or common violence in conflict environments; purpose units, such as women the lack of social order, police farmers’ unions. These groups enforcement, and unemployment provide assistance to women in can also contribute to this problem. the form of services like childcare, shelters for battered women, skills

WOMEN & CONFLICT, 2007 11 LESSONS LEARNED

During times of conflict, rape and Although most international other forms of sexual violence are attention is focused on rape, common. Sexual violence is used women and young girls in conflict in war to shame and humiliate areas - like Darfur, in western the enemy, as a reward to the Sudan, for example - risk daily conquering side, and as a means physical attacks of all kinds to spread terror and to weaken when they leave refugee camps morale. It may also be used to to collect essential supplies undermine women’s ability to like firewood and water. Post- sustain their communities during conflict Afghanistan and Iraq also times of conflict. Where community experienced a significant increase support structures have been in violence against women eroded by displacement, violence because of breakdowns in security. occurs within the community as Indeed, in Afghanistan, Mullah well. Normal cultural controls over Omar cited the lack of security for behavior tend to be weakened citizens – especially rape, torture, during times of conflict and and murder of women and children violence becomes more prevalent. – as one of the main reasons For example, women in Sierra the Taliban emerged in the mid- Leone and Liberia described the 1990s. Whenever social protection situation in their countries – where systems for communities break rebel fighters used rape, torture, down, gender-based violence and amputations as strategic intensifies, leading to further tactics – as “cultures of violence.” deterioration of women’s status. Cambodian women assert that the The far-reaching consequences brutal Pol Pot regime and conflict of rape linger not only with the significantly influenced men in their victims, but also with their families society, causing them to become and society long after the conflict more violent and to lose respect for ends. Consequently, both the women and family life. rape survivor and relatives feel shamed and humiliated. During Develop Cultural the Rwanda genocide of Hutus against Tutsis, an estimated 50% Understanding of women were raped. Babies As discussed in the Key Issues born as a result of the rapes were section, having a firm cultural unwanted reminders of a period understanding is essential to any of horror. The rapes of more than programmatic response to women 20,000 women during conflicts in and conflict. Programming must the countries of former-Yugoslavia be sensitive to cultural practices, brought rape to the fore as a war and both women and men must be crime. consulted and actively engaged in planning and implementing

12 programs designed to assist incorporated into all programming them. International assistance from the earliest interventions. agencies have not given adequate attention to the potential for An example of the need for a solid “gender backlash.” In post- cultural understanding comes from conflict Afghanistan, for example, the Rwandan refugee camps. some well-intentioned programs Following the Rwanda genocide implemented by NGOs targeted that began in early April 1994, women for primary assistance, when Hutu militants launched a such as handicraft training or massive campaign to eliminate poultry farming. While in many Tutsis and moderate Hutus, instances households benefited, masses of people (mostly Hutus) some women complained that fled the country to Tanzania and domestic violence increased in to the Democratic Republic of their households. This is because Congo (DRC) to seek refuge from their husbands resented foreign the newly organized Tutsi army. NGOs ignoring the cultural practice In the Rwandan refugee camps, that male honor is linked to their food distribution agencies made responsibilities to care for their serious mistakes in the beginning families. This type of backlash by giving men total control over is not uncommon in conflict- food distribution. The male leaders affected countries and illustrates compiled the lists of names of the importance of understanding families entitled to food and cultural and traditional practices. other items. Corruption surfaced, It also shows the importance of leaders hoarded sacks of grain to involving men in programming sell in the market, and deprived activities even when the target women heads of households of beneficiaries are women. their rations of food. Many women resorted to exchanging sex for When social practices and culture food in order to survive; those restrict the participation of women, without male family members program implementers must being the most vulnerable. After a make special efforts to include the few disastrous months and several women in decision-making roles. riots at the food distribution sites, Such an approach entails more agencies changed the system. than simply adding women to the They identified women leaders in ‘mix.’ It requires an analysis of the community of refugees and past and existing gender roles in appointed them as food monitors, particular settings and situations, checkers, servers, and supervisors and making special arrangements to work along side the men. This for women to contribute their case illustrates that making an feedback and opinions. A balanced assumption about male community gender perspective should be leaders protecting women’s

WOMEN & CONFLICT, 2007 13 LESSONS LEARNED

access to food can be a major Increase Women’s miscalculation and can open the Participation in door to harmful practices against women. On the other hand, the Decision-Making converse can also be dangerous to women. In some areas of southern Bringing women into the decision- Sudan where family food rations making process can be a daunting were distributed only to women, task given cultural, political, and some of the recipients were often practical constraints (such as attacked and their rations stolen lack of a pool of women with formal as soon as the women walked education). However, in countries outside the sight of the World Food around the world, it has been Programme food monitors. shown that when women have a voice in the decision-making process, they can often assist in Promote Community- mitigating conflict even before it Based Participation starts. Program options in this area can be cross-cutting and easily Community-based participation fit into larger objectives, including is the key to successful program targeting information campaigns interventions, as it draws on on voter education for women, those best informed about what promoting community-based is needed and what will work. It and/or grassroots organizations also addresses the vital issue of that include roles for women, cultural understanding by involving working with state lawmakers to both men and women from the draft laws that guarantee women’s community to explain their needs participation in parliaments or and capacities. Local men and other decision-making bodies, women must be identified to etc. These and other activities participate in program design and can be incorporated into overall implementation; those lacking programs, empowering women experience in these areas can without diverting USAID Mission be guided through the process resources. and taught management and monitoring techniques. Strong In Colombia, pressure from community participation makes the women’s groups during the difference between success and 1980s and 1990s was pivotal failure. in pressuring the Colombian Government and the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC) to engage in peace talks in 1999. Even after the collapse of the peace talks in 2002, women’s groups remained steadfast in their

14 cause to encourage a peaceful Mothers for Peace” that urges the resolution to the conflict. They government and the LTTE to stop continue to organize peaceful the violence and conducts other demonstrations and vigils for the peace-building activities. “disappeared” and victims of the conflict, and continue to promote Livelihoods awareness of the civilian costs of war. Women’s groups have also When women become the primary worked regionally to promote breadwinners in their families, peace by engaging FARC, ELN, due to forced displacement, the and paramilitary leaders in informal death of their husbands or other dialogue, acting as mediators to reasons, they are assuming new resolve local conflicts, and working economic and political roles. This to establish “peace zones” where shift in responsibilities may cause community members can work and increased tension within families live in safety. and communities. Attention must be paid to the challenges to In Nepal, the woman’s group livelihoods that women encounter Shantimalika has provided an during conflict. alternative voice to that of the violent demonstrators who flooded These new roles also hold new the streets of Nepal in early opportunities. In Somalia, women 2006. Shantimalika organized who had traditionally helped peaceful demonstrations that support their families through called for peace and reconciliation. the sale of agricultural products Thousands of women and some expanded their sales to include men took part in these marches livestock and khaat while the illustrating that violence is not men were away fighting in the needed to voice opinions and be conflict. When the men returned, heard. In Sri Lanka, women like the women continued to work in Visaka Dharmadasa continue these new areas because many to work relentlessly on peace of the men were unable to work activities. Ms. Dharmadasa, who due to disabilities or the institutions has worked to convey messages that used to employ them had from the Liberation Tigers of Tamil collapsed during the conflict. Eelam (LTTE) to the government of Sri Lanka during peace talks Women’s involvement in when the LTTE refused to speak livelihood protection means they directly with government officials, need to be involved in recovery has initiated dialogues among strategies. Assistance should help community leaders from different women maximize their livelihood sides of the conflict. She organized efforts while also creating new a group called “Mobilizing employment opportunities for men

WOMEN & CONFLICT, 2007 15 LESSONS LEARNED

to assist their households. There during the conflict. They should should be a balance between also consider the ways in which maintaining the new roles of the women are working, both formally women and meeting the needs of and informally, in different sectors. the returning men. When developing a livelihoods program, it is important to consider In looking at the livelihoods the time and other employment component, donors should constraints on the target consider how traditional roles beneficiaries. and responsibilities have shifted

Below: Widow’s Bakery: This bakery in west Kabul employs 12 women. They earn a reliable income weighting dough and kneading, rolling and shapping it into flatbread. Providing employment opportunities for single women in post-conflict situations lowers their risk of victimization. Photo credit: Alejandro Chicheri, World Alejandro Chicheri, World Photo credit: Food Program

16 Program Options The level of awareness about promoting greater gender equality, the impact of conflict on women and for the pragmatic benefits of has steadily risen over the past enlisting the distinct knowledge, decade, though much remains to networks, and resources that be explored about the complex women offer. Women’s inclusion issues surrounding this subject. also increases programmatic Programmatic responses aimed viability through broader social at improving the lives of conflict- buy-in. affected women may involve overlapping and complementary 1. protection approaches. The following programs are examples of • In Western Darfur, an innovative initiatives that have estimated 80% of the IDP camp helped to mitigate the negative residents are women and children, consequences of conflict on many of whom have been targets women. Often the impact of these of gender-based violence. programs is not easily measured. One activity that has proved Yet many of the following have to be successful has been the shown promise in alleviating organization of joint patrols by the the burden placed on women in Sudanese police and the African conflict, and new tools are being Union, which accompany women developed for assessing their outside IDP camps when they benefits. look for firewood. Alternatively, another strategy that has worked In order to be effective, all is the development of fuel-efficient development programming must stoves that reduce the amount of incorporate an understanding of firewood women need to burn for the myriad of ways that gender household needs, decreasing the shapes various determinants and number of trips needed outside the dimensions of conflict. Certainly, to camp. the extent possible, development • Implementers should programming should have design programs to include among its principal objectives awareness-raising campaigns, the mitigation of the negative both for women to be aware that consequences of conflict. It is help is available to them and to equally clear that women’s roles educate communities that gender- in the prevention and resolution based violence is unacceptable of conflict should be promoted, to and in violation of human rights. improve their health and well-being Providing Crisis Intervention and for the normative purpose of Teams, as done in the Rwandan

WOMEN & CONFLICT, 2007 17 PROGRAM OPTIONS

refugee camps, will offer a range • The Women’s Commission of services, such as legal, medical, for Refugee Women and Children counseling, food, and clothing, to implements a global program survivors of rape and other forms to increase the participation of of violence. refugee and internally displaced women in decision-making 2. Increase women’s activities. Funded by the U.S. Department of State, this program participation promotes women’s participation in decision-making by empowering women’s groups to take leading roles in refugee • The Association of Female and IDP camp management Lawyers of Liberia (AFELL) was and assistance programs and established in 1994 as a non-profit, addressing such issues as unequal nongovernmental organization access to food, supplies and other to advocate for the rights and necessities. The focus on camp promote the advancement of management has helped bring women and children. AFELL about major changes in how basic is a membership organization items and services are allocated of resident and non-resident in conflict-affected settings. The attorneys and is funded by dues program has also addressed and donations. The group has led reproductive health, maternal/child successful campaigns to pass health, income generation and the national Inheritance Bill and skills training activities, education, to create the first Juvenile Court. and literacy programming for AFELL has also led a sensitization women. and awareness campaign to strengthen the Magisterial Courts 3. Women’s Roles in and its members have participated in reconciliation and peace-building Conflict Resolution initiatives. and Peace • The STAR Network in the Balkans supports women working • In 2000, the Mano River for democratic change and Union Women Peace Network women’s equitable participation (MARWOPNET) was founded by in the political decision-making women from Guinea, Sierra Leone, process. Through programs and Liberia, who recognized implemented in Bosnia- that there would be no peace Herzegovina, Croatia, Kosovo, in Liberia without peace in the Macedonia and Serbia, Network region. MARWOPNET put forth members are trained in public an initiative to mediate the conflict policy advocacy skills and work and disagreement between with the media to educate the Guinea and Liberia and dispatched public and policy makers.

18 a delegation to appeal to the 4. Job Training and feuding heads of states in the region. MARWOPNET has issued Employment statements urging ECOWAS and the UN to intervene in the • The USAID-funded skills Liberian crisis. MARWOPNET’s training program for women efforts were commended by the in Azerbaijan focused on UN Security Council in Resolution providing practical training in 1408 on the situation in Liberia. In skills for employment, such as 2000, women spoke out against office procedures, clerical work, war as the Women in Peace- computer and secretarial skills. building Network staged sit-ins By increasing women’s skills and in Monrovia, also protesting the allowing them better access to severe economic conditions the job market, women heads of affecting the country. households are better equipped • Seven Afghan women to support themselves and their participants of the United Nations families. Fourth World Conference on • In Iraq, USAID-funded Women in Beijing, China, along vocational training and with other Afghan women, employment service programs established the Afghan Women’s seek to have 30 percent of their Network (AWN) in 1996. Today participants be women. This is there are 72 NGOs and 3,000 an ambitious goal given security individuals who have membership constraints and conservative in AWN. Members work to create practices among some groups. an Afghan community which Programming approaches to values, respects, and encourages address these problems have the tremendous capacities of included networking with women’s women and their contributions to groups, a community outreach Afghan culture and society through component, and cooperation capacity building, networking and with the Ministry of Labor and advocacy. Social Affairs and the Ministry of • In Sierra Leone, grassroots Education. women’s organizations organized • In post-conflict Mozambique, public demonstrations and made women expressed interest in radio broadcasts to express their vocational training in such non- desire for an end to fighting. traditional skills as carpentry, International NGOs have masonry and metalworking - areas supported the women’s groups by in which they felt they had better providing meeting places, training, chances of finding employment. and funding. The international implementing NGOs trained women in building trade skills and were able to assist them in securing jobs. As this

WOMEN & CONFLICT, 2007 19 PROGRAM OPTIONS

case illustrates, it is important microenterprise activities in the to learn what women want as homes (e.g. mat-weaving) and well as to assess potential enabling children to study at night employment opportunities. Women while reducing monthly lighting in many cultures are willing to costs by about 70 percent. learn new skills, but in many instances, foreign agencies make 5. State Policy and assumptions that don’t accurately represent the views of their target Women’s Legal populations. Rights • The Afghanistan Women’s Business Federation (AWBF) • In Afghanistan, USAID and was created by a core group the U.S. Department of State- of 18 women’s business funded initiatives provide training associations and aims to empower to women lawyers and judges Afghanistan’s women to more to enable professional women effectively participate in its market to resume careers cut short by economy by enhancing business conflict and the Taliban regime. development skills and increasing Courses and study tours give earning potential. The associations participants opportunities to update formed AWBF in order to ensure their professional knowledge, to synergy among associations, as observe the legal system of other well as to serve as a capacity countries, and to learn new skills, building network for women’s including the use of computers. organizations. Funded by USAID, • In Cambodia, USAID and this network of associations, which other donors have provided will eventually include national, support to women-run local NGOs provincial and local organizations, that focused on teaching women will provide Afghanistan’s women how to participate in government entrepreneurs with the support processes, including running for they need to achieve success. elected offices. The program also AWBF focuses on technical promoted the use of the media to assistance, economic development advance women’s participation in initiatives, mentorship, and political processes. The campaign membership services in order to resulted in positive outcomes. address the changing needs of After a campaign to train women women in business. to run for public office and to • In Mindanao, women’s participate in electoral processes, employment is supported using the percentage of women renewable solar energy. USAID holding elected offices increased provides lighting for households in dramatically. For the first time, remote, former rebel communities Cambodian women began to have in Mindanao, allowing women’s a voice in civil society. • Following conflict, governments

20 need assistance in addressing 6. Additional gender appropriately and in instituting gender-balanced Programming policies and laws. In Afghanistan, Considerations USAID funded a gender advisor to work closely with the Ministry of • Programming to benefit and Women’s Affairs and the Ministry involve women in reconstruction of Rehabilitation and Rural might span many sectors, Development to help mainstream including rebuilding damaged gender in all sectors and build infrastructure, revamping the capacities of the ministries. water and sanitation systems, The advisor helped orient the telecommunications, and power ministries toward policy formation grids. Women want opportunities on issues that affect women such to work in non-traditional as well as legal rights, employment rights, as traditional sectors. Gender marriage and inheritance laws, and balance should be the objective addressing gender violence. for interventions. Donors can • USAID funded, NGO- play pivotal roles by employing implemented programs in Rwanda gender analysis, through that have helped women sort coordination and collaboration on out the legal issues surrounding gender issues, and by exerting access to land and property in the appropriate pressure on peacetime post-genocide society. governments to adopt gender • In Afghanistan, an NGO equity in all sectors. organized gender-sensitizing • Human rights training, legal training for Ministry of Refugees’ literacy, gender-based violence employees. These government awareness, and trauma response workers came into daily contact programming are extremely with women and girls who were important elements - all of which returning to Afghanistan. Male provide solid building blocks employees had not previously for establishing more peaceful been included in any gender- societies. related training, and the training • Programming to assist women proved extremely useful in in conflict situations should not assisting female refugees and be undertaken in isolation from returnees. Through this training, men. Their consultation and employees began to understand inputs are needed. Engaging the additional difficulties faced men in pre-program planning by females in Afghanistan and greatly enhances the chances of were therefore better able to treat full community participation and them with appropriate levels of acceptance of program activities. assistance. Both women and men from the affected community should be

WOMEN & CONFLICT, 2007 21 PROGRAM OPTIONS

involved in the implementation, monitoring, and analysis of program interventions wherever possible. • Comprehensive situational analyses help identify the most important gender issues in conflict-affected communities, and therefore the most appropriate programmatic approaches. One method for situational analysis, which has been used by UNHCR and was developed by Mary Anderson, is called People Oriented Planning (POP). POP uses simple matrixes to diagram the evolution of gender roles in a community as a result of conflict or displacement. Using such analytical techniques to understand the gender dynamics in a particular population helps programmers to plan appropriate interventions compatible with cultural norms. Photo credit: M. Lueders/USAID

Above: Afghan woman in burqa with her child waiting outside a clinic. USAID is funding programs that educate women about vaccinations to combat the high rate of child mortality in Afghanistan.

22 Resources Women’s Commission for Refugee Women and Children The Women’s Commission for Refugee Women and Children is the only advocacy organization with the mandate to support refugee and IDP women and children. It advocates for the inclusion of refugee and IDP women, children and adolescents in humanitarian assistance and protection programs, and tries to ensure that their voices are heard at every level of government. www.womenscommission.org

Inclusive Security: Women Waging Peace Women Waging Peace connects women addressing conflict around the world in the belief that they have a role to play “in preventing violent conflict, stopping war, reconstructing ravaged societies, and sustaining peace in fragile areas around the world.” Women Waging Peace advocates for the full participation of women in formal and informal peace processes. The initiative is run by the Women and Public Policy Program at Harvard’s Kennedy School of Government and Hunt Alternatives. www.womenwagingpeace.net

Sexual Violence and Armed Conflict: United Nations Response This issue of Women2000 provides extensive information on sexual violence and armed conflict. It addresses the history of sexual violence during conflict and discusses the international community’s response to sexual violence. It was published by the UN Division for the Advancement of Women in April 1998. http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/public/w2apr98.htm

Guidelines for Gender Analysis and Assessment An inter-agency workshop on “Integration of Gender in Needs Assessment and Planning of Humanitarian Assistance” resulted in summary guidelines and a checklist for integrating gender analysis and assessment www.reliefweb.int/library/GHARkit/files/ workshoponintegrationofgenterintoneeds.pdf

WOMEN & CONFLICT, 2007 23 RESOURCES

Women and War In a 2000 article, Charlotte Lindsey of the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) discusses the varying ways women experience armed conflict. This article addresses the different roles women play during conflict, including combatant, victim of sexual violence, and IDP. It also provides an overview of the ICRC’s work to assist and protect women. www.icrc.ch/Web/Eng/siteeng0.nsf/iwpList179/ 5BD0956E8C9593CFC1256B66005EFEE9

Human Rights Watch Extensive information on women’s human rights developments around the world is provided on Human Rights Watch’s web site. The Women’s Rights section offers several reports about violence against women. www.hrw.org

The International Committee of the Red Cross A section of the International Committee of the Red Cross’ web site is dedicated to the issues women face during wartime. The site includes useful reports and statements on the issue. Information is also available about women and international humanitarian law. www.icrc.org/eng/women

United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees’ Refworld database includes refugee country of origin and legal information. It contains many publications on women and conflict. www.unhcr.org/rsd.html

United Nations Development Fund for Women The United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM) provides financial and technical assistance to programs that support women’s empowerment and gender equity. UNIFEM focuses on ending violence against women, reversing the spread of HIV/AIDS among women and girls, achieving gender equality in democratic governance, and reducing feminized poverty. www.unifem.org

24 U.S. State Department’s Office of International Women’s Issues The U.S. State Department’s Office of International Women’s Issues provides information and fact sheets on women’s situation in several countries on its web site. The office is responsible for coordinating the integration of women’s issues into the broader U.S. strategic, economic and diplomatic goals. www.state.gov/g/wi

United Nations’ Division for the Advancement of Women Through its web site, the U.N.’s Division for the Advancement of Women provides analyses of women’s rights issues in a global context, promoting awareness of such issues and advocating for gender equality. Also addressed are everyday issues faced by women who are living in conflict situations. The site promotes women’s contribution to fostering a culture of peace. www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/index.html The 1995 Beijing Conference on Women This United Nations web site offers information on the Fourth World Conference on Women, held in Beijing, China, in September 1995. It covers the many issues faced by women who are living in conflict situations. www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/beijing/index.html

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