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An Interpretation of the Underrepresentation of Women In The Pennsylvania State University The Graduate School LEARNING TO RUN: THE GENDER CHALLENGES OF WOMEN IN ELECTED OFFICE A Dissertation in Adult Education by Shelly L. Capozzi © 2020 Shelly L. Capozzi Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Education May 2020 The dissertation of Shelly L. Capozzi was reviewed and approved* by the following: Karin Sprow-Fortè Assistant Teaching Professor of Teacher Education and Lifelong Learning and Adult Education, School of Behavioral Sciences and Education Professor-in charge, English as a Second Language (ESL) Program Specialist and Leadership Certificate Program Chair of Committee Dissertation Advisor Robin Redmon Wright Assistant Professor of Lifelong Learning and Adult Education, School of Behavioral Sciences and Education Elizabeth J. Tisdell Professor of Lifelong Learning and Adult Education, School of Behavioral Sciences and Education Professor-in Charge, Lifelong Learning and Adult Education, Chair of Lifelong Learning and Adult Education Charity Fox Assistant Professor of American Studies and Gender Studies, School of Humanities iii ABSTRACT The purpose of this qualitative research study was twofold: (1) to explore how elected women officials construct their identity as political leaders and the factors that influenced their decision to run for office; and (2) to understand their perceptions of popular culture in the process of constructing their political identity. This research focused on internal and external forces that influenced women to run for public office, and, more specifically, the public perceptions of women in politics, the role of popular culture in their decisions to run for office, and the role of women in society and politics was examined. Critical feminist theory incorporated gendered perspectives of women’s leadership and their acceptance into a male- dominated profession, and public pedagogy informed how women were and were not influenced by popular culture. The design of the study utilized a basic interpretive approach to examine what influenced women to run for political office in the U.S., as well as their formative life experiences related to popular culture and experiences upon entering and achieving elected positions. Data collection consisted of semi-structured, in-depth interviews of 11 participants, all elected women officials in a mid-Atlantic state. The findings of the study focused on four main themes concerning the experiences of the participants: (1) the persistence of gender barriers to women entering politics, (2) gender discrimination and influence, (3) their identification as politicians, and (4) popular culture influences on their development into politicians. This study is significant in adult education, women in politics, and especially for women learners. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Tables…………………………………………………………………………..………...vi Acknowledgments………………………………………………………………………………viii Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION……………………………...………………………………………1 A Personal Story: Contextualizing the Problem……………………………………………….1 Background to the Problem……………………………………………………………………3 Gender Differences in Perceptions of Women as Leaders………………………………….4 Popular Culture and Adult Learning………………………………………………………..5 Identity Development in Women Leaders………………………………………………….8 Structural Barriers and Gains……………………………………………………………….9 Purpose and Questions………………………………………………………………………..10 Theoretical and Conceptual Framework……………………………………………………...11 Critical Feminist Theory……………………………………………………………...……11 Feminism and Public Pedagogy……………………………………………………………12 Overview of Research…………………………………………………………………………15 Significance of the Study……………………………………………………………………...18 Assumptions, Limitations, and Strengths……………………………………………………..19 Definition of Terms…………………………………….……………………………………...21 Chapter 2. LITERATURE REVIEW………...………………………………………………….24 Women in Politics…………………………………………………………………………….24 Women in Elected Positions in America………………………………………………….25 Gender and Political Decision Making……………………………………………………27 Perceptions of Women in Political Roles in the U.S…...…………………………………28 The Development of Feminism………………………………………………………………30 Disempowering Women…………………………………………………………………..31 A Woman’s Voice… ……………………………………………………………………33 History of Feminism………………………………………………………………………34 Women’s Movements……………………………………………………………………..34 First Wave………………………………………………………………………..…….36 Second Wave………………………………………………………………..…………38 Third Wave…………………………………………………………………….………40 Current Wave…………………………………………………………..………………43 Cultural History of Women’s Issues………………………………………………………44 The Pill…………...…………………………………………………………………….46 Motherhood…………………………………………………………………...………..49 Selections of Writing on Power and Politics……………………...………………………53 Enlightened Sexism……………………………………………………………………….58 Feminist Theory…………………………………………………………………………...59 Liberal Feminism………………………………………………………………………….61 Poststructural Feminism…………………………………………………………………...61 Socialist Feminism……..…………………………………………………….……………65 Radical Feminism……………...………………………………………………………….66 v Feminism and Adult Education………………………………………………………………67 Feminist Pedagogy………………………………………………………….……………..68 Critical Perspectives……………………………………………………………….………….71 Critical Theory and Adult Education……………………………………………….……..72 Critical Feminist Theory and Adult Education………….………..……………………….74 Popular Culture and Public Pedagogy……….……………………………………………….76 Public Pedagogy and Adult Education…...………………………………………………77 Empirical Research in Popular Culture, Public Pedagogy, and Adult Education..………83 Perceptions of Women in Politics…………..……………………………………….……….86 Methodology of the Review……….……………………………….…………………….…..89 Empirical Research in Women in Politics………..………………………………………….89 The Influence of Power on Public Perceptions of Female Leaders………………………90 Media Coverage of Women in Politics…………...………………………………………93 Issues Covered and Time Allotted….………...…………………………………………101 Factors that May Increase or Decrease Women’s Representation………...…………….106 Summary of Literature Review…...……………..…………………………………………113 Chapter 3 METHODOLOGY………...………………………………..………………...……..114 Qualitative Research Methodologies…….………………………………………………….114 Critical Feminist Research and Researcher Background…………….……………………...117 Participant Selection……….………………………………………………………………..122 Introduction of the Participants…………………………………………………………..124 Synopsis of the Participants…………………………………………………………..….128 Data Collection and Analysis Methods……………………………………………………..129 Interviews…………………………………………………………………..……………129 Data Analysis…………………………………………………………………………….131 Verification Strategies………………….…………………………………………………..132 Chapter Summary………...…………...……………………………………………………136 Chapter 4 FINDINGS………………………………………..…………………………………137 Data Display……………..…………………………………………………………………139 Barriers for Women……..…………………… ……………...…………………………….140 The Good Old Boys………………………………..…………………………………….140 Family Responsibilities………………………….………………………………………144 Lack of Female Role Models…………………………………...……………………….147 Future Barriers…………………………………………………………………..………152 Gender Discrimination and Influence…...…………………………………………………154 Gender Discrimination Prior to Running………………………………………………..155 Finding Her Voice…………………...………………………………….………………162 Lack of Voice…………………………..……………………………………………165 Finding Voice………………………………………………………………………..167 Leadership Skills………………………………………………………………………..169 Listening: Focus on Service vs Entitled Career…………….……………………….170 Collaboration and Compromise: Directive vs Consensus………………….……….171 vi Identification as Politicians………….……………………………………………………175 Others Suggested They Run for Office………………………..………………………176 Understood Their Role as Helping…………...………………………………………..178 The Influence of Popular Culture…………………………………...…………………….181 Women Characters in Books and Television………………………………………….181 Inspirational People……………………………………………..……………………185 Chapter Summary………………………………………………………………………..187 Chapter 5 DISCUSSIONS, CONCLUSIONS, AND IMPLICATIONS…………...…………..190 Findings Summary in Light of the Theoretical Framework………………………………..191 The Persistence of Gender Barriers to Women in Politics……………………………..194 Systemic Barriers………………………………………………….……………….194 Family Responsibilities…………………………………………………………….196 Lack of Female Role Models………………………………………………………198 Found Strength and Fortitude………………………………………………………….199 Developed Ways to Navigate Gender Issues………………………………………200 Understood Their Role as Helping…………………………………………...……200 Discovered Voice…………………………………………………………….……202 Popular Culture Influences and Public Pedagogy………………………….………….204 Lack of Influential Characters………………………………………….………….205 Themes of Overcoming Sexism……………………………………………………205 Overcoming Adversity and Discrimination from Famous Leaders………………..207 Influences on Women’s Decisions to Run…………………………………………………208 Impediments to Women’s Political Success…………………………………………….....210 Popular Culture Influences…………………………………………………………...……213 Implications for Theory and Practice………………………………………………………215 Critical Feminist Theory……………………………………………………….………216 Public Pedagogy and Gendered Identities……………………………………………..217 Implications for Practice……………………………………………………………….218 Increase Role Models for Women Politicians…………......……………………..219 Organize to Support Women Political Campaigns……………….………………219 Appointments and Further Research…………………………….……………….220 Limitations and Recommendations for Further Research………………...……………….221 Final Reflections………………………………………………………….………………..223 REFERENCES…………….………………………………………………….………….…….226 vii LIST OF TABLES Table 1-1. Percentages of Women in Elected Office……………………………………………26 Table 1-2. Participant
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