Protection of Khasi Language Under the Indian Constitution: Need and Challenges

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PROTECTION OF KHASI LANGUAGE UNDER THE INDIAN CONSTITUTION: NEED AND CHALLENGES

Dissertation submitted in part fulfillment for the requirement of the Degree of LL. M.

Submitted by Supervisor

ANGELIS MARWEIN PROF. S. SACHIDANADAM

National Law University Delhi (India) 2014

DECLARATION BY THE CANDIDATE

I hereby declare that the dissertation entitled Protection of Khasi Language under the Indian Constitution: Need and Challenges submitted at National Law University, Delhi is the outcome of my own work carried out under the supervision of Prof. S. Sachidanadam.

I further declare that to the best of my knowledge the dissertation does not contain any part of work, which has not been submitted for the award of any degree either in this University or any other institutions without proper citation.

( )

Angelis Marwein

Roll No. 05 (five)

Place: National Law University Delhi National Law University, Delhi

Date:

i CERTIFICATE OF THE SUPERVISOR

This is to certify that the work reported in the LL.M. dissertation entitled “Protection of Khasi

Language under the Indian Constitution: Need and Challenges”, submitted by Angelis

Marwein at National Law University, Delhi is a bonafide record of her original work carried out under my supervision. To the best of my knowledge and belief, the dissertation: (i) embodied the work of the candidate herself; (ii) has duly been completed; and (iii) is up to the standard both in respect of contents and language for being referred to the examiner.

( )

Prf. S. Sachidanadam

Place: National Law University, Delhi

Date:

ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First of all I would like to express my gratitude to my respected supervisor Prof. S. Sachidanadam for his help, guidance, advice, support and above all his gentle admonishment, which helped me a lot in setting out the appropriate perspective to carry on the field work in the right direction. Without his constant support and encouragement this work would have been impossible.

I would like to thank those persons who have dedicated their valuable time in understanding the need of the subject-matter, and for giving their valuable suggestion for the improvement of the same. I would also like to thank Mr. S. S. Majaw, Mr. M. A. Chalan, Mr. G. Thyrniang, Mr. Macmillan Byrsat, Mr. A. K. Nongkynrih and the faculty member of the Departments of Linguistics, Khasi NEHU, Shillong for their valuable information which they shared with me for the purpose.

I would like to thank all those students as well as other people who have devoted their time to answer my questions and I also like to thank my friends for their utmost help, support and guidance.

Lastly, I am eternally grateful to my family for all the love, motivation and guidance they continually and unconditionally gave me. I am immensely indebted to them for the strong faith and belief they have bestowed on me.

iii LIST OF ACRONYMS &ABBREVATIONS

AIR All India Reporter

A.I.R All India Radio

C.I.I.L Central Institute of Indian Languages

C.P.I (M) Communist Party of India (Marxist)

D.M.K Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam

H.M Home Minister

H.S.S.L.C Higher Secondary School Leaving Certificate

I.C.S.E Central Board of Secondary Education

K.A.S Khasi Authors Society

Khasilit Khasi Literature

M.A Master of Arts

M.I.L Modern Indian Language

M.L.A Member of Legislative Assembly

M.P Member of Parliament

M. Phil Master of Philosophy

N.C.L.M National Commissioner Linguistic Minorities.

N.C.P Nationalist Congress Party

N.E.H.U North Eastern Hill University

Ph. D Doctor of Philosophy

iv P.L.S.I People Linguistic Survey of India

R.J.D Rashtriya Janata Dal

SC Supreme Court

S.P Samajwadi Party

S.S.L.C Secondary School Leaving Certificate

T. V Television

U. N United Nations

U.N.D.R.I.P United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples

U.N.E.S.C.O United Nation s Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

U.P.S.C Union Public Service Commission

v LISTS OF STATUTES

1. The Constitution of India, 1950. 2. The Constitution (Twenty-First Amendment) Act, 1967. 3. The Constitution (Seventy- First Amendment) Act, 1992. 4. The Constitution (Ninety- Second Amendment) Act, 2003. 5. The Official Languages Act, 1963. 6. The Meghalaya State Language Act, 2005. 7. The Meghalaya State Language Rules, 2008.

vi LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

Number Caption Number

1.1 Family- wise grouping of the 122 scheduled and non-scheduled languages- 10-11 2001 1.2 Comparative Speakers’ Strength of Scheduled Languages 1971, 1981, 12-13 1991 and 2001 1.3 Eighth Schedule languages and family language 14-15 1.4 Eighth Schedule language spoken in Million in 2001 15-16 1.5 Lists of the languages in the Eighth Scheduled with the regions where they 16-18 Used 1.6 Non- Schedule languages (Languages not Specified in the Eighth 18-21 Schedule) 1.7 Fourteen Languages Originally listed in the Eighth Schedule 31-32 1.8 Comparative Number Khasi speakers in the year 1971, 1981, 1992 and 41 2001

vii TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE

NUMBER

DECLARATION BY THE CANDIDATE i CERTIFICATE OF THE SUPERVISOR ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii LIST OF ACRONYMS & ABBREVIATIONS iv-v LISTOF STATUTES vi LIST OF TABLES vii

CHAPTER-I INTRODUCTION 1-9

1.1 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM 4 1.2 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES 4 1.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS 4 1.4 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 5 1.5 CHAPTERISATION 5- 6 1.5 REVIEW OF LITERATURE 5-9

CHAPTER-II LANGUAGES IN THE EIGHTH SCHEDULE 10-38

2.1 FOURTEEN LANGUAGES – 1950 22-32 22-23 2.1.1 MEETING OF THE CONGRESS PARTY IN AUGUST 1949 2.1.2 MAKE A DECISION NOT ON A PARTY BASIS 23 2.1.3 RAVI SHANKAR SHULA’S ON HINDI AND HIS OPPOSITION OF ENGLISH AND THE LISTING OF 23-24 REGIONAL LANGUAGE IN THE CONSTITUTION 2.1.4 N. GOPLASWAMY AYYARNGAR: AN INDIVIDUAL 24-25 RESOLUTION

2.1.5 IMPORTANT DATES AND DEBATES ON INDIAN 25 LANGUAGES

2.1.6 PROPOSED AMENDMENT OF GOPALASWAMI 25-27

AYYARNGAR SUPPORT BY JAWAHARLAL NEHRU 27 2.1.7 A STATEMENT MADE BY SHANKARRAO DEO FROM

STATE OF MAHARASHTRA

2.1.8 ENSURING A GREATEST POSITION FOR HINDI 27-28 2.1.9 DEVOTION OF HINDI AS A SIGN OF PATROTISM- 28-29 CULTURAL IDENTITY Vs. CONVINIENCE IN

COMMUNICATION

2.1.10 SANSKRIT BASED VISUALIZATION OF MUNSHI, 29-30 AYYAR AND AYYANGAR- IS LANGUAGE A PROBLEM

ONLY OR A PROBLEM OF PROVIDING JOBS FOR THE

NON- HINDI PEOPLE? 30-32 2.1.11 WORKING OUT A COMPROMISE

32-33 2.2 TWENTY-FIRST AMENDMENT (SINDHI) – 1967

2.3 SEVENTY-FIRST AMENDMENT (KONKANI, MANIPURI AND 33-34 NEPALI) – 1992

2.4 THE NINETY-SECOND AMENDMENT (BODO, DOGRI, SANTHALI 35-37

AND MAITHILI) – 2003 2.5 CRITERIA FOR THE INCLUSION OF LANGUAGE IN 37-38

THE EIGHTH SCHEDULE

CHAPTER-III ORIGIN OF THE LANGUAGE 39-51 3.1 LANGUAGE: CONCEPT AND ITS IMPORTANCE 39-42

3.2 ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF THE KHASI LANGUAGE 43-50 3.2.1 SCRIPT 47 48-49 3.2.2 THE LITERARY ASPECT 48 3.2.2.1 POETRY 48 3.2.2.2 FICTION

3.2.2.3 DRAMA 48 - 49

3.2.2.4 LITERARY CRITICISM 49

3.2.3 SOCIO- LINGUISTIC ASPECT 49 3.3 GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE KHASI LANGUAGE

49-51

CHAPTER-IV PRESENT POSITION 52-58 4.1 USE OF KHASI LANGUAGE 52-54 4.2 DECLINE IN THE LANGUAGE 54 -56 56 4.3 NEGLECTED IN EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS

4.5 KHASI LANGUAGE ON THE VERGE OF EXTINCTION 5 6 - 58

CHAPTER-V PROTECTION OF KHASI LANGUAGE 59 - 67 5.1 CASE FOR INCLUSION OF THE KHASI LANGUAGE IN THE 60 - 62 EIGHTH SCHEDULE OF THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA 5.2 ROLE OF THE STATE GOVERNMENT AND CENTRAL 63 - 64 GOVERNMENT IN THIS REGARD 5.3 THE OFFICIAL LANGUAGES ACT, 1963 AND ITS IMPACT ON THE 64-65 REGIONAL LANGUAGE 5.4 BENEFITS AND LOSSES 6 5 - 67

CHAPTER-VI REPORT OF THE STUDY 6 8 - 75 CHAPTER-VII CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS 7 6 - 83 BIBLIOGRAPHY 80-85 Books newspapers Reports

Magazines Journals Parliamentary Debate Press Release Websites ANNEXTURES

CHAPTER- I

INTRODUCTION

“Ka Ktien Khasi ka dei ka ktien don hukum don kular,ka ktien shong sbai bad ka ktien shong-blei” “Khasi language is a language with commandment and promise. It is a God‟s gift and a treasure” R. S. Lyngdoh1

India is one of the countries which have rich language and rich culture in the world. Indian languages belong to five language families i.e., the Indo- Aryan language, Dravidian language, Austro- Asiatic language, Tibeto-Burmese and Semito- Hamitic. Under the Indian Constitution the Language Policy is elucidated through implementation of various orders which from time to time have been issued and also through judicial pronouncements since 1950. The language policy in India deals with use of languages in judiciary, education, legislature, administration and mass media etc., and which are pluralistic in its scope. This language policy in India is both language survival oriented as well as language development oriented. In the Constitution of India the Eighth Schedule was included and it guaranteed Constitutional as well as formal recognition to regional languages which are dominant in all fields of education, administration, social status and economy. At present there are twenty two languages which are included in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution of India.

Khasi is the general name which is given to the various tribes and sub- tribes that live together as a family in Khasi and Jaintia Hills in the State of Meghalaya. Khasi includes Khynriam living in the middle ranges of Khasi Hills, the Syntengs or Pnars who live in the central plateau of Jaintia Hills, The wars who live in the Southern slopes of both the Khasi and Jaintia Hills, the Bhoi who live mainly in the northern part of Khasi and Jaintia Hills and the Lyngngams who live in the western side of the Khasi Hills. In addition to the fact that Khasi which refers to the various tribes and sub- tribes of Khasi and Jaintia Hills has special importance in their Culture, in the Khasi language „Kha‟ means born and „si‟ refers to the ancient primeval mother hence, in the

1 R. S. Lyngdoh, KA HISTORI KA THOH KA TAR BYNTA-I, SHILLONG, MEGHALAYA, MISS K. M. LYNGDOH NONGBRI th WAHINGDOH, 1 (7 edn, 2008).

1 literal translation would be “born of one Mother”. There is also a popular Khasi saying that “long jait ha ka kynthei” which means “from the mother sprang the Clan”. Khasi is a very different from other tribe because, it is a matrilineal society and “Khadduh” means the youngest daughter is the custodian of the family property and this is a very unique in its feature of the Khasi. Khasi have rich tradition in music and they also love to sing even though they do not have stylish musical instrument but, they are simple and good to express the melodies tunes of Khasi music. They have six types of drum, four types of string instruments, and two types of flutes and two types of pipes and they considered the Duitara (string instrument) as the queen of Khasi music. Apart from the above Khasi has their own Niam (Religion), festivals, Dances and their own Ktien (language) which is called Khasi language.2

Most of the people in Meghalaya felt it to be very important to protect the Khasi language since, it is the mother tongue of most people of Meghalaya and being a mother tongue or the first language of a child it is also a part of their personal, social and cultural identity. Bringing about the reflection and learning of successful patterns of acting and speaking is another impact of the first language or the mother tongue.

Mother tongue to every person is very important and it has powerful impact for the development of an individual persons and it has an important role in determining our thoughts and emotions. A child development both psychologically and personality it all depend upon what has been communicated through the mother tongue. Mother tongue is very important tool for the improvement of the intellectual, moral and physical portions of education and it also provides for the learning of other language in which it will be able to tackled, understood and communicated. Clarify of thought and expression is only possible when one has certain control over the mother tongue. Mother tongue is like a subject of idea that we learn and if there is weakness to learn the mother tongue it means that all thought and expression is paralysis.3 Even the Constitution of India recognized the importance of mother tongue and hence it was protected under Article 350- A and the Article read as:

2 J. F. Jyrwa, CHRISTIANITY IN KHASI CULTURE, SHILLONG, MEGHALAYA, MRS. M. B. JYRWA HA SHARING st IAWJYNRIEW, 16-21 (1 edn, 2011). 3 Hurrisa, Mother Tongue: The Language of Heart and mind, FOUNTAIN MAGAZINE (July- August 2010), at http://www.fountainmagazine.com/Issue/detail/Mother-Tongue-The-Language-of-Heart-and-Mind (Last visited on March 23, 2014).

“It shall be the endeavour of every State and of every local authority within the State to provide adequate facilities for instruction in the mother-tongue at the primary stage of education to children belonging to linguistic minority groups; and the President may issue such directions to any State as he considers necessary or proper for securing the provision of such facilities”.4

While going through the local news paper “The Shillong Times” on 14 August, 2011 reported that the Khasi Authors Society will continue to fight for the Khasi language to be well placed in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution and till today it has not decided yet whether Khasi language should be included in the Eighth Schedule or not.5 This develops the interest of the researcher in taking up this field for research. Being a Khasi I became interested in studying this field because I want to know whether Khasi language needs to be protected or not and if it does what are the challenges that are being faced by the various bodies and institutions that are involved in this issue.

This step is in line with the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, which states that:

“Indigenous peoples have the right to revitalize, use, develop and transmit to future generations their histories, languages, oral traditions, philosophies, writing systems and literatures”.6

Article 29(1) of the Constitution of India lays down an important provision in this regarding the conserving the language and it states as:

“Any section of the citizens residing in the territory of India or any part thereof having a distinct language, script or culture of its own shall have the right to conserve the same.”7

4 Art. 350-A, THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA, 1950. 5 Call to strive towards enriching of Khasi language, The Shillong Times, 1 (Shillong edn, August 14, 2011). 6 UNESCO, Indigenous People, UN Declaration on Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP) related to Education and Intergenerational Transmission, at http://www.unesco.org/new/en/indigenous-peoples/education-and- transmission/undrip-ed/ (Last Visited on March 23, 2014). 7 Art.29 (1), THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA, 1950.

1.1 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The dissertation is intended to understand the needs and challenges of protecting the Khasi language, the importance of this language in our day to day life and examine the status of Khasi language in the present contemporary world.

This dissertation also intended to examine the reasons behind the non- inclusion of Khasi language in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution of India and to understand the role of the various institutions working towards the protection of the Khasi language.

1.2 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

The broad objective of the dissertation is to understand the needs and challenges of protecting the Khasi language. The objectives of the study are as follows:

1. To examine the criteria for languages to be included in the Eighth Schedule. 2. To understand the importance of language in our day to day life. 3. To examine the status of Khasi language in the present contemporary world. 4. To examine the reasons behind the non-inclusion of Khasi language in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution of India; and 5. To understand the role of various institutions working towards the protection of the Khasi language.

1.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

1. How the languages are included in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution of India? 2. Are there any criteria to be followed for the inclusion of languages in the Eighth Schedule? 3. Whether Khasi language is more developed in the contemporary world? 4. Whether Khasi language should be included in the Eighth Schedule for its protection? 5. How Khasi language is dominant in Meghalaya?

1.4 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The research methodology requires gathering of relevant data from the specified documents and compiling databases in order to analyze the material and arrive at a more complete understanding of the importance of Khasi language and the need to protect it. Both primary and secondary sources of data in the form of books, journals and websites materials etc. have been used in this project.

The area of study includes the general public and the institutions working for this cause. Due to shortage of time, the researcher opted for conducting the field survey with the use of questionnaires as they are a less expensive way to reach more people, including people at some distance. Response quality is better because respondents may gather and consult sources needed to respond well. However, interview was conducted with the knowledgeable peoples of the society in this issue.

1.5 CHAPTERISATION

The dissertation has total Seven Chapters

CHAPTER-I: INTODUCTION

This chapter deals with brief introduction, statement of problem, research objectives, research questions, research methodology, chapterisation and review of literature.

CHAPTER-II: LANGUAGES IN THE EIGHTH SCHEDULE

This chapter deals with fourteen original languages of the Eighth Schedule, Twenty- First Amendment Act, 1967 of the Constitution for inclusion of Sindhi language, Seventy- First Amendment Act, 1992 for inclusion of Konkani, Manipuri and Nepali languages, Ninety- Second Amendment Act, 2003 for inclusion of Bodo, Dogri, Santhali and Maithili languages. This chapter also includes the criteria for the inclusion of language in the Eighth Schedule.

CHAPTER-III: ORIGIN OF THE LANGUAGE

This chapter deals with the concept and importance of language, origin and evolution of the Khasi language and the growth and development of the Khasi language.

CHAPTER-IV: PRESENT POSITION

This chapter deals with the use of Khasi language, decline in the language, neglected in educational institutions and the khasi language on the verge of extinction.

CHAPTER-V: PROTECTION OF KHASI LANGUAGE

This chapter deals with the case for inclusion of the Khasi language in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution of India, role of the State Government and the Central Government in this regard. It also includes the benefits for the inclusion of language in the Eighth Schedule and the loses for non- inclusion of language in the Eighth Schedule.

CHAPTER-VI: REPORT OF THE STUDY

This chapter deals with the report of the study which the researcher have analysed from the questionnaire which have been distributed for the study.

CHAPTER-V: CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS

This chapter has incorporated concluding remarks and few suggestions regarding the field research.

1.6 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

According to U. Nissor Singh (1906)8 that Khasi language is spoken mainly by the people who are living in the Sate of Meghalaya and it is an Austro- Asiatic family language that is quite connected with the Munda subdivision of Austro- Asiatic family which is spoken in the East- Central India. It was found that 865,000 people who speak Khasi are living in the State of Meghalaya. Besides, it was found that the language is spoken in Assam hill district which is bordering the State of Meghalaya and the language is also spoken by a large population in Bangladesh as well. Earlier Khasi language has no script of its own but, between 1813 and 1838 William Carey tried to write the language with the Assamese Script and one of the well known book which was written in Assamese Script is The Rule of Khasi or Ka Niyiom jong ki Khasi and

8 U. Nissor Singh, KHASI-ENGLISH DICTIONARY, SHILLONG, MEGHALAYA, EASTERN BENGAL AND ASSAM SECRETARIAT PRESS, 1-6 (19O6).

6 it is an important manuscript of the Khasi indigenous religion. In the year 1841 the Khasi language was written in Latin script by the Welsh missionary Thomas Jones.

H. Bareh (1969)9 says that Khasi literature which still is in its embryonic stage should find out more fields to grow to its more perfect form. A model of some kind or other is needed to represent typical Khasi thoughts in keeping with cultural traits. Khasi literary enthusiasts should strive to provide a proper nucleus for creating a proper background of national consciousness which should help to build up and move the Khasi community to higher ideals and patriotism of the present generation; it will be a blessing if these patriotic impulses expressed in some forms of literature and are fully display pragmatically in the fields of social, moral, economic and political reconstructions. Hence, the author has divided this book into VIII chapters, chapters I and II, dealt with the origin of the Khasi language and the unwritten literature, whereas in the succeeding chapters dealt in as much as possible with the modern written literature in some details.

According to Papia Sengupta (2009)10 that India is one of the countries in the world which has biggest number of endangered languages based on the UNESCO report. The sharing of these languages which are endangered across to a number of speakers is a subject of concern. The languages which are under the threat do not include only the schedule and non- schedule languages but, it also includes the official languages of various States. The author concluded that for the protection of these endangered languages there is a need for urgent initiative of the policies. If the linguistic diversity of India is to be maintained it will be a revilizing and active encouragement for further progress of the languages which are endangered. A co- ordinate method is needed to be made to operate at the level for both the States and the Centre with clearly indicate the function of these two- tiers of government. The State government has to take initiative to evolve a target a helpful programmes that will promote better progress of the local governments in every state.

9 Hamlet Bareh, A SHORT HISTORY OF KHASI LITERATURE, SHILLONG, MEGHALAYA, DON BOSCO PRESS, 10-98 (1906). 10 Papia Sengupta, Endangered Languages: Some Concerns, XLIV (32), ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL WEEKLY, 17-19 (August 8, 2009).

According to Vanishree V. M. and others (2011) 11 that 1947 when India got Independence, the makers of the Indian Constitution had a terrific job to do. The framers of the Constitution placed together a Constitution not just for conservation of political unity but also recognized, encouraged and supported the linguistic diversity like the Eighth Schedule give official status for many languages in India. The early suggestion that Hindi will be the National language was dropped because it arose a quarrel in the nation and in which language differentiations frequently strengthen religious or racial separations. Education Policy was a mechanism to give for the connection languages that would help in the incorporation of language in the minority groups or minority language groups. Apart for this, to protect the linguistically different communities the states were re- organized on the basis of regional languages which are dominant. Nevertheless, the twenty two languages which are listed in the Eighth Schedule have got special position and which permit them to dominate over the other minority languages and all of this has bring into a difficult situation. Moreover the authors said that there are some of the languages which are majority language in one state but, in other state it is a minority language and this has leading to two important kinds of minority languages firstly, minorities languages that are a majority in some other state and secondly about the minority languages which are not dominant in any state. Moreover, the constitutional safeguards are only declaratory in nature and thus, it does not cause any trouble for the state to apply them.

According to the Hindu Newspaper,12 it was reported that with hundreds of unrecognized Indian languages with oral tradition fast disappearing, Mr. K.K. Chakravarty chairman of Lalit Kala Akademi he is on the mission to preserve these dialects he has also said that he will conduct a survey on People Linguistic Survey of India (PLSI) the objective of this survey is to identify various languages and make them available for the study in educational institutions. He also expressed his concern that the last speakers of the Great Andamese languages will die.

According to Blan K. Lyngdoh13 says even though Khasi language has been recognized as an Associate official language of Meghalaya, and the university raised this language up to doctoral level. But sad to say that the media TV, AIR and FM radio channels has made out a mishmash of

11 Vanishree V. M et al, Provision for Linguistic Diversity and Linguistic Minorities in India, 11 Languages in India Strength for Today and Bright Hope for Tomorrow (February 2, 2011), at www.languageinindia.com/feb2011/vanishreemastersfinal.pdf (Last visited on March 23, 2014) 12 Madhur Tankha, Globalization is Killing Local Languages, The Hindu, 1 (New Delhi edn, September 23, 2013). 13 Blan K. Lyngdoh, Khasi language, The Shillong Times, 6 (Shillong edn, March 26, 2014).

English and Khasi words like „thank you‟, „bye, I‟ll be back‟ etc. the word dedicated is used randomly. According to the author the media are supposed to educate the people instead of destroying the very essence of Khasi language.

Collin Wanniang 14 says that according to the Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution at present there are twenty two languages and among these twenty two languages before there were fourteen languages which had been included in the Eighth Schedule. Sindhi language included in 1967. Konkani, Manipuri and Nepali languages included in 1992. After that Bodo, Dogri, Maithili and Santhali languages included in 2004. Among the languages belong to the Austro- Asiatic family like the Khasi language only Santhali language included in the Eighth Schedule in 2004. According to the author the Census of the year 2001 which taken all the languages which have spoken by more than one million of peoples and among 29 languages which fall under the list Khasi language rank 27 followed after Bodo and Manipuri languages which have been recognized by the Eighth Schedule, the author also says that it is time for the Khasi language to be included in the Eighth Schedule and it is the time to choose an MP who can speak and fight for this.

14 Collin Wanniang, Ka Khyrnit baphra (8th Schedule), U Nongsain Hima, 4, Shillong edn, March 28, 2014.

CHAPTER- II LANGUAGES IN THE EIGHTH SCHEDULE

In India the languages belong to five families i.e., firstly, the Indo- Aryan with a total number of 21 languages and the total percentage population is 6.86 %, secondly, the Dravidian total number of languages is 17 and the total percentage population is 20. 82 %, thirdly, the Austro- Asiatic total number of languages is 14 and the total percentage population is 1.11 %, fourthly, the Tibeto- Burmese the total number of languages is 66 and the total percentage population is 1.00 % and lastly, the Semito- Hamitic with a total number of 1 language and the total percentage population is 0.01. According to the Census of India 2001 the balance of 1, 762, 388 (0.17 %) population out of total Indian population 1, 028, 610,328 comprises of 1, 635, 280 speakers of those languages and mother tongues which were not identifiable or returned by less than 10,000 speakers at all India level and the population (127,108 persons) of Manipur which was not included in language data since the Census results were cancelled in three sub-divisions of Senapati district of Manipur in 2001.15 The 2001 census shows that there is a total of 122 languages in India out of which 22 languages are spoken by over one million people and the remaining 100 languages are spoken by more than 10, 000 people (refer to Table – 1.1).

Table- 1.1

Family- wise grouping of the 122 scheduled and non-scheduled languages- 2001

No Language families Number of Person who returned Percentage to total languages the languages as population their mother tongue 1. Indo- European a) Indo- Aryan 21 790,627,060 76.86

b) Iranian 2 22, 774 0.00

15 Government of India, Ministry of Home Affairs, Census of India 2001, Statement 9, at http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/Census_Data_Online/Language/statement9.aspx (Last visited on March 23 , 2014), 47th Report of the Commissioner for Linguistic Minorities, 1, (July 2008- June 2010), at http://nclm.nic.in/shared/linkimages/NCLM47thReport.pdf (Last visited on March 23, 2014).

c) Germanic 1 226,449 0.02 2. Dravidian 17 214,172, 20.82

3. Austro- Asiatic 14 11, 442,029 1.11

4. Tibeto- Burmese 66 10,305,026 1.00

5. Semito- Hamitic 1 51,728 0.01

Total 12 1,926,847,940 99.82 (Source: Census of India 2001)

Article 344 (1) and 351 of the Constitution of India related to the Eighth Schedule and the Eighth Schedule was included in the Constitution in 1950 and it provides Constitutional recognition to regional languages which are dominant in the field of administration, education, economy and social status. In the beginning the Eighth Scheduled had listed 14 languages i.e., Assamese, Bengali, Gujarati, Kannada, Kashmiri, Malayalam, Marathi, Oriya, Punjabi, Sanskrit, Tamil, Telugu, Urdu and Hindi as the official languages of Indian States. Since, then it has been extended three times firstly, in 1967 to include Sindhi secondly, in 1992 to include Konkani, Manipuri and Nepali in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution of India and thirdly, in 2003 to include Bodo, Santali, Maithili and Dogri. 16

The following Table -1.2 shows the comparative speakers‟ strength of the Eighth Schedule languages of India in 1971, 1981, 1991 and 2001.17

16 M. Nigamba Singha, Manipuri Language in the Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution, 1 Pratidhwani- A Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 260 (2012), at http://www.thecho.in/files/Manipuri-Language-in-the- Eighth-Schedule-of-the-Indian-Constitution.pdf (Last visited on March 23, 20114). 17 Government of India Ministry of Home Affairs, Census of India 2001, Statement 5, at http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/Census_Data_Online/Language/Statement5.aspx (Last visited on March 23, 2014), M. Ningamba Singha et al, Language Policy of India: Dominance and Suppression to Manipuri Language, 1, Asian Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies, 143 (2013), at http://www.ajms.co.in/sites/ajms/index.php/ajms/article/viewFile/129/139 (Last visited on March 23, 2014).

Table-1.2

Comparative Speakers’ Strength of Scheduled Languages 1971, 1981, 1991 and 2001

Language Persons who returned the language as their mother tongue Percentage total Population in 2001

1971 1981 1991 2001 2001

India 548,159,652 665,287,849 838,583,988 1,028,610,328 96.56

1. Hindi 202, 767, 971 257,749,009 329,518,087 422,048642 41.03

2. Bengali 44, 792,312 51, 298, 391 69, 595, 738 83, 369,769 8.11

3. Telugu 44, 756,923 50, 624,611 66,017,615 74,002,856 7.19

4. Marathi 41, 765,190 49,452,922 62,481,681 71,936,894 6.99

5. Tamil 2 37,690,106 ** 53, 006,368 60,793,814 5.91

6. Urdu 28, 620,895 34,941,435 43,406,932 51,536,111 5.01

7. Gujarati 25, 865,012 33,063,267 40,673,814 46,091,617 4.48

8. Kannada 21, 710,649 25,697,146 32,753,676 37,924,011 3. 69

9. Malayalam 21,938,760 25,700,705 30,377,176 33,066,392 3.21

10. Oriya 19, 863,198 23,021,528 28,061,313 33,017,446 3.21

11. Punjabi 14,108,443 19,611,199 23,378,744 29,102,477 2.83

12. Assamese 2 8,959,558 ** 13,079,696 13,168,484 1.28

13. Maithili @ 6,130,026 7,522,265 7,766,921 12,179,122 1.18

14. Santhali 3,786,899 4,332,511 5,216,325 6,469,600 0.63

15. Kashmiri 2,45,487 3,176,975 # 5,527,698 0.54

16. Nepali 1,419,835 1,360,636 2,076,645 2,871,749 0.28

17. Sindhi 1, 676,875 2,044,389 2,122,848 2,535,485 0.25

18. Konkani 1,508,432 1,570,108 1,760,607 2,489,015 0.24

19. Dogri 1,299,143 1,530,616 # 2,282,589 0.22

20. Manipuri $ 791,714 901,407 1,270,216 1,466,705 0.14

21. Bodo 2 556,576 ** 1221,881 1,350,478 0.13

22. Sanskrit 2,212 6,106 49,736 14,135 N

[Source: Census of India 2001 & M. Ningamba Singha et al (2013)]

Note: ** Not available # Full figures of Kashmiri & Dogri language for 1991 are not available as census was not conducted in Jammu & Kashmir due to disturbed conditions. $ Excludes figures of Paomata, Mao-Maram and Purul sub-divisions of Senapati district of Manipur for 2001. N stand for Negligible

@ Maithili figure has been extracted from Hindi language from 1971 census since it was one of the mother tongues grouped under Hindi during the period. The above (Table- 1.2) shows the languages which have been included in the Eighth Schedule and it show the comparative speakers‟ strength of the Eighth Schedule languages of India in 1971, 1981, 1991 and 2001.

Following is the table (Table-1.3) which shows the Eighth Schedule language and their language family in which most of the languages in the Eighth schedule are Indo- Aryan language family. Three languages which belong to Dravidian family language, two languages which belong to Tibeto- Burmese family and only one language which belong to Austro – Asiatic family (Munda). This shows that at present only Indo- Aryan, Tibeto- Burmese, Dravidian and Austro- Asiatic (Munda) families‟ languages have been included in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution.

Table- 1.3

Eighth Schedule languages and family language18

Sl Language Family No. 1. Assamese Indo- Aryan 2. Bengali Indo- Aryan 3. Bodo Tibeto- Burmese 4. Dogri Indo- Aryan 5. Gujarati Indo- Aryan 6. Hindi Indo- Aryan 7. Kannada Dravidian 8. Kashmiri Indo- Aryan 9. Konkani Indo- Aryan 10. Maithili Indo- Aryan 11. Malayalam Dravidian

18 Surya Narayan Misra, Language and Language Policy in India, E-MAGAZINE ORISSA REVIEW, 15-16 (March, 2014), at http://orissa.gov.in/e-magazine/Orissareview/2014/mar/marreview.htm (Last Visited on March 23 2014).

12. Manipuri Tibeto-Burmese 13. Marathi Indo- Aryan 14. Nepali Indo- Aryan 15. Oriya Indo- Aryan 16. Punjabi Indo- Aryan 17. Sanskrit Indo- Aryan 18. Santhali Austro- Asiatic (Munda) 19. Sindhi Indo- Aryan 20. Tamil Dravidian 21. Telugu Dravidian 22. Urdu Indo- Aryan [Source: Sarya Narayan Misra (2014)]

Table -1.4

Eighth Schedule languages spoken in Million in 200119

Language Speaker in Million 2001 1 Assamese 13 2 Bengali 83 3 Bodo 1.4 4 Dogri 2.3 5 Gujarati 46 6 Hindi 258-422 7 Kannada 5.5 8 Kashmiri 2.5-7.6 9 Konkani 2.5-7.6 10 Maithili 12-32 11 Malayalam 33 12 Manipuri 1.5 13 Marathi 72

19 Supra, note 18.

14 Nepali 2.9 15 Oriya 33 16 Punjabi 34 17 Sanskrit 0.01 18 Santhali 6.5 19 Sindhi 2.5 20 Tamil 61 21 Telugu 74 22 Urdu 52 [Source: Sarya Narayan Misra (2014)]

The above Table- 1.4 shows that the languages which have been included in the Eighth schedule of the Constitution of India and the number of speakers is more than one million. This shows that at present most of the languages which have been included in the Eighth Schedule is spoken by more than one million.

Beside, the above Tables the following Table- 1.5 lists the languages set out in the Eighth Schedule, together with the regions where they are used:20

Table-1.5

Lists of the languages in the Eighth Scheduled with the regions where they used

No Language State(s)/ Union Territories

1. Assamese Assam.

2. Bengali Assam, West Bengal, Tripura, Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Jharkhand, Orissa.

3. Bodo Assam

4. Dogri Jammu & Kashmir

20 Supra, note 15 at 7-199, Supra, note 18.

5. Gujarati Gujarat, Dadra & Nagar Haveli, Daman & Dui

6. Hindi Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Arunachal Pradesh, Bihar, Chandigarh, National Capital Territory of Delhi, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand.

7. Kannada Karnataka

8. Kashmiri Jammu & Kashmir

9. Konkani Goa, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Kerala

10. Maithili Bihar

11. Malayalam Kerala, Punducheery, Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

12. Manipuri Manipur

13. Marathi Maharashtra, Goa, Dadra & Nagar Haveli, Daman and Dui, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka

14. Nepali Sikkim, West Bengal, Assam

15. Oriya Orissa

16. Punjabi Chandigarh, Delhi, Haryana, Punjab

17. Sanskrit Non- Regional language

18. Santhali Santhal tribals of the Chota Nagpur Plateau (Comprising the States of Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Orissa)

19. Sindhi Non- regional language

20. Tamil Tamil Nadu, Adaman & Nicobar Islands, Puducherry

21. Telugu Andaman & Nibobar Islands, Andhra Pradesh, Punducherry

22. Urdu Jammu & Kashmir, Telangana, National Capital Territory of Delhi,

Bihar, Uttar Pradesh

[Source: 47th Report of Commissioner for Linguistic Minorities (July 2008- June 2010) & Surya Narayan Misra (2014)]

Apart from the above languages which have been included in the Eighth Schedule, there are also Non- Scheduled languages which are spoken by the people in India and have not been included in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution of India. The following (Table-1.6) are the languages which are not specified in the Eighth Schedule:21

Table-1.6

Non- Schedule languages (Languages not Specified in the Eighth Schedule)

No Language Number of persons who returned the language as their mother tongue 1. Adi 198,462 2. Afghani/Kabuli/Pashto 11,086 3. Anal 23,191 4. Angami 132,225 5. Ao 261,387 6. Arabi/Arbi 51,728 7. Balti 20,053 8. Bhili/Bhilodi 9,582,957 9. Bhotia 81,012 10. Bhumij 47,443 11. Bishnupuriya 77,545 12. Chakhesang 11,415 13. Chakru/Chokri 83,560 14. Chang 62,408

21 Government of India Ministry of Home Affairs, Census of India 2001, Statement 1, Part- B, at http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/Census_Data_Online/Language/Statement1.aspx, (Last visited on March 23, 2014.

15. Coorgi/Kodagu 166,187 16. Deori 27,960 17. Dimasa 111,961 18. English 226,449 19. Gadaba 26,262 20. Gangte 14,500 21. Garo 889,479 22. Gondi 2,712,790 23. Halabi 593,443 24. Halam 38,275 25. Hmar 83,404 26. Ho 1,042,724 27. Jatapu 39,331 28. Juang 23,708 29. Kabui 94,758 30. Karbi/Mikir 419,534 31. Khandeshi 2,075,258 32. Kharia 239,608 33. Khasi 1,128,575 34. Khezha 40,768 35. Khiemnungan 37,755 36. Khond/Kondh 118,597 37. Kinnauri 65,097 38. Kisan 141,088 39. Koch 31,119 40. Koda/Kora 43,030 41. Kolami 121,855 42. Kom 14,673 43. Konda 56,262 44. Konyak 248,109

45. Korku 574,481 46. Korwa 34,586 47. Koya 362,070 48. Kui 916,222 49. Kuki 52,873 50. Kurukh/Oraon 1,751,489 51. Ladkhi 104,618 52. Lahauli 22,646 53. Lahnda 92,234 54. Lakher 34,751 55. Lalung 27,072 56. Lepcha 50,629 57. Liangmei 34,232 58. Limbu 37,265 59. Lotha 170,001 60. Lushai/Mizo 674,756 61. Malto 224,926 62. Maram 37,340 63. Maring 22,326 64. Miri/Mishing 551,224 65. Mishmi 33,955 66. Mogh 30,639 67. Monpa 55,876 68. Munda 469,357 69. Mundari 1,061,352 70. Nicobarese 28,784 71. Nissi/Dafla 211,485 72. Nocte 32,957 73. Paite 64,100 74. Parji 51,216

75. Pawiv 24,965 76. Persian 11,688 77. Phom 122,508 78. Pochury 16,744 79. Rabha 164,770 80. Rai 14,378 81. Rengma 61,345 82. Sangtam 84,273 83. Savara 252,519 84. Sema 103,529 85. Sherpa 18,342 86. Shina 34,390 87. Simte 10,225 88. Tamang 17,494 89. Tangkhul 142,035 90. Tangsa 40,086 91. Thado 190,595 92. Tibetan 85,278 93. Tripuri 854,023 94. Tulu 1,722,768 95. Vaiphei 39,673 96. Wancho 49,072 97. Yimchungre 92,144 98. Zeliang 61,547 99. Zemi 34,110 100. Zou 20,857 (Source: Census of India 2001 Statement 1 Part-B)

Till now 22 languages have been included in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution of India. Thus, for a detailed discussion regarding how these 22 languages have been included in the Eighth Schedule and the criteria for such inclusion are discussed here under.

2.1 FOURTEEN LANGUAGES – 1950

2.1.1 Meeting of the Congress Party in August 1949 There were disputes among the pro- Hindi and Anti- Hindi point of view. Hindi in Divanagari script was eventually to be the Official Language, according to the decision. To flatten out these differences the Congress party met on August 1949 in the Constituent Assembly.22

As the disputes on both pro- Hindi and Anti-Hindi point of view was still going on, generally regarding of English and Devanagari numerals not only this but, also regarding to the decision which have been made that Hindi only will be the official language, with a duty to frame a proper provision which was based on the Congress Party consensus and for the consideration of the Constituent Assembly a special Committee was formed, with members of the Drafting Committee as well as Abdul Kalam Azad, G. B Pant, P. D Tandon, Balakrishna, Syoma Prasad Mukherjee and K. Santhanam.23

Accordingly the Committee recommended that English would be the only official language for ten years and after that, it could be extended for another five years if, both Houses of Parliament decided by a two- third majority of the members present and voting and it was also suggested for the taking of international numerals. The party was not acknowledged these suggestions given by the Committee. The Drafting Committee has made more efforts to go ahead such for a formula and the search for general agreement are continued. The party again discussed the proposals made by the Committee and there is no agreement emerges. There was eager debate on a number of issues and mainly of the arrangements for the transition period. The difference was also evoked on the question of numerals.24

Munshi and Gopalaswami Ayyangar prepared detailed draft compromise provisions for inclusion in the Draft Constitution, at the end of August 1949. On 1 September, 1949, it was stoutly supported by Ravi Shankar Shukla, the Premier of the Central Provinces and Berar for the

22 M. S. Thirumalai and B. Malikarjun, Adopting a Constitution for a Nation- The Last Days of the Constituent Assembly of India and The Adoption of Language Provision, 6 Language in India Strength for Today and Bright Hope For Tomorrow, 3 ( April, 2006), at http://www.languageinindia.com/april2006/constituentassemblylastdays.pdf (Last visited on March 23, 2014). 23 Id. 24 Id.

22 substitute of English by Hindi as soon as possible in the letter to Chairman of the Drafting Committee. 25

2.1.2 Make a decision not on a Party basis

On September 2, 1949 the Munshi- Ayyangar draft again came up before the Congress Party. Votes were taken after a heated debate on the subject whether or not the draft should be moved in the Constituent Assembly as an official proposal on behalf of the Drafting Committee or not. Lastly it was decided that the question would not to make a decision on a party basis, in their personal capacities Ambedkar, Munshi and Gopalswamy had moved the draft and the members were free to move amendments and vote in the Assembly as they pleased. 26

2.1.3 Ravi Shankar Shula on Hindi and his opposition to English and the Listing of Regional languages in the Constitution

Premier of the Central Provinces and Berar Ravi Shankar Shukla wrote a letter to the Chairman of the Drafting Committee which is dated September 1, 1949, saying that:

“The use of international form of numerals in addition to but not in substitution of Devanagari form can be tolerated… The true center of the language difficulty is the approach to the question of progressively using Hindi in place of English language. There are only two ways of approaching this. One is to devise ways and means to substitute as soon as possible and to continue the use of English after fifteen years… The second is undeniably a wrong approach. Ravi Shankar Shukla says that if we really have the intention to substitute Hindi for English, we must take option to the first approach… If our Southern India friends desire to make use of the English language for fifteen years, one must have no argument with them. But let English not continue to be an imposition on the rest of India. He also says that he have a feeling that our Madras friends are playing into the hands of those who do not like Hindi to be the official language of the Union.”27

25 Supra, note 23. 26 Id at 4. 27 Supra, note 23 at 7.

R. S. Shukla was also against having a separate schedule listing the languages and in his letter he said that a schedule of languages in the Constitution is wholly unnecessary in view of the insecure in the Country. A Committee consisting of members representing so many languages can never solve the problem before us, it will delay and retard the progress and it is a reactionary provision intended to delay the introduction of Hindi as the official language of the Union.28

2.1.4 N. Goplaswamy Ayyarngar: An individual Resolution

N. Gopalaswamy Ayyangar in September 1949, a resolution was moved in the Constituent Assembly containing the proposals earlier put before the Congress Party by the Drafting Committee as an individual resolution. While proposing the resolution Gopalaswamy said that:

“…one thing we reach a fair conclusion that we should select one of the languages for the whole of India, the language that should be used for the official purposes of the Union. In selecting this language various considerations were taken into account. The final decision as all honourable Members know, on that particular question is that we should adopt Hindi as the language for all official purposes of Union under the new Constitution. That, of course, is an ultimate objective to be reached…. That decision to substitute Hindi in the long run for the English language having been taken, we had to take also the subsidiary decisions which were involved in that one decision. Now the subsidiary decisions were that we could not afford to give up the English language at once. We had to keep the English language going for a number of years. Until Hindi could establish for itself a place, not merely because it is an Indian language, but because as a language it would be an efficient instrument for all that we have to say and do in the future and until Hindi established itself in the position in which English stands today for Union purposes. So, we took the next decision, namely, that for a period of about fifteen years English should continue to be used for all the purposes for

28 Supra, note 23 at 7.

which it is being used today and will be used at the commencement of the Constitution…”29

Then, Sir, we had to consider the other aspects of the problem. We had to consider, for, instance, the question of the numerals… Then we have to consider the question of the language of the States and we took a decision that, as far as possible a language spoken in the State be recognized as the language used for official purposed in that State and Centre the English language should continue to be used, provided that where between two States there were an agreement that inter- communication should be in Hindi language, that should be permitted.”30

2.1.5 Important dates and debates on Indian Languages

From 12 to 14 of September in 1949 are the most important days for languages of India. The Draft provisions which were prepared by K. M. Munshi and Gopalswami were taken by the Constituent Assembly for discussion. To be noted as already pointed out that the draft provisions is the worked out by the above two eminent scholar-statesmen which were supported by the other members and Chairman of the Drafting Committee and not as a proposal neither from the Congress party nor of the Drafting Committee. A gentleman‟s compromise to be considered with all seriousness and to be voted upon by individual members as their own individual perceptions and inclinations led them. No one can inquire the faithfulness of his or her to India it must stand only on his or her preference which they are made.31

2.1.6 Proposed Amendment of Gopalaswami Ayyarngar Support by Jawaharlal Nehru

Proposed Amendment by Gopalaswami Ayyarngar was support by Jawaharlal Nehru, who said that

“Language is the most intimate theory. It is maybe the most significant thing which society has developed, out of which other thing have taken growth…. It makes us alert of ourselves. First, when, language is developed it makes us alert

29 Supra, note 23 at 8. 30 Id. 31 Id at 9-10.

of other societies also. It is a unifying feature and it is a disintegrating feature as between two languages, as between two countries…”32

Jawaharlal Nehru propounded the ideas of Mahatma Gandhi on language and listed the logic of Gandhi in the following manner:

“Mahatma Gandhi taught us that while English is a great language…no nation can become great on the basis of a foreign language can never be the language of the people. For you will have two strata or more- those who live in thought and action of a foreign tongue and those who live in another world. So he taught us that we must do our work more and more in our language. … Secondly, he laid stress on the fact that language of learned coterie…the last thing…was that this language should represent the composite culture of India… I am a small man and it is rather presumptuous of me to say that I agree with him or not agree with him, but for the last thirty years or so, in my own humble way, I stood by that creed in regard to language and it would be hard for me if this House asked me to reject that thing by which I have stood nearly all my political life… Now, we stand on the threshold of many things and this resolution itself is the beginning of what might be termed a linguistic revolution in India a very big revolution of far-reaching effects…we took to English obviously because it was the conqueror‟s language, not so much because it was very important even then- we took it simply because we are dominated by the British here… However good, however important, English may be, we cannot tolerate that there should be English- knowing elite and a large mass of our people not knowing English. Therefore we must have our own language. But English- whatever you call it official or whatever you please, it does not matter whatever you mention it in the legislation or not- but English must continue to be a most important language in India which large numbers of people learn and perhaps learn compulsorily… The fact remains that both from the point of view of convenience and from the point of view of utility, English is obviously the most important language for us and many of us know it. It is absurd for us to try

32 Supra, note 23 at 13.

to forget what we know or not to be inevitably a secondary language meant for a relatively restricted number of people.”33

2.1.7 A Statement made by Shankarrao Deo from State of Maharashtra

Shankarrao Deo from State of Maharashtra has made a beautiful statement who said that:

“As I have tried to understand Indian culture, Sanskritic, Indian religion and Indian Spiritual traditions, it is not uniformity but unity in diversity. It is vividhata that India stands for. That is our richness that is the contribution that India can make to the world-culture and world progress. I would like to maintain the variety of cultures, the different languages, each without obstructing, hindering or killing the unity of the country. Therefore when people use the term “national language”, my heart does not respond to it. I admit India is a nation and I am an Indian, but if you will ask me, „what is your language?‟ Sir, you will excuse me if I say, “My language is Marathi.” I am one of those who been insisting that this language, which will replace English, should not be called the national language. If you mean by national language one language for the whole country, than I am against it. I must make it quite clear. India is a nation and I am an Indian, but my language is Marathi.”34

2.1.8 Ensuring a Greatest position for Hindi

Different linguistic groups were permitted by the Congress leadership to convey their opinions in the Assembly whereas at the same point in time it ensured a greatest position for Hindi. The President of the Constituent Assembly has played a vital role he was of great help in efforts to ensure a greatest position for Hindi, which was sanctioned by the policy adopted long back by the Indian National Congress. His partiality and first choice for use of Hindi both within the

33 Supra, note 23 at 13-14. 34 Id at 14-15.

Constituent Assembly and beyond the life of the Constituent Assembly in the Republic of India could be recognized without any doubt.35

Dr. Rajendra Prasad all through the proceedings of the Assembly articulated his helplessness when it came to the non-use of English by English knowing members, an act which was intended in general as an affirmation of the greatest position that should be to Hindi. His attitude of haplessness was clearly to his wish that all groups those who were for or against Hindi, those who were for English and those who were for all languages should be treated on an equal footing. But, the truth is that it encourages Hindi speakers to continue to speak in Hindi only. Some Hindi speaking members who did not possess an adequate knowledge of English to communicated themselves in Hindi. Taking benefit of this supporter of Hindi continued in speaking in Hindi only. Besides, the President clearly conveyed himself in favour of using an Indian language as the National language, which was one time again an approved policy of the Congress during the freedom Struggle. Dr. Rajendra Prasad in almost all of his speeches he gave did not spell out any particular language as the National language; but no doubt all about which language he was referring to as likely choice for according the status of national language.36

2.1.9 Devotion of Hindi as a sign of Patriotism- Cultural Identity Vs. Convenience in Communication

Again and again the Pro- Hindi members of the Assembly resorted to display of language devotion as a sign of declaration of Patriotism. Cultural Identity in preference over convenience in communication was stated by some Hindi and non- Hindi members, when they persisted upon speaking in their own languages in Assembly. However, greater number of those who discussed the provision of the Draft Constitution in the Constituent Assembly prefers to agree to in favour of convenience in communication rather than in favour of the assertion of cultural identity.37

Jawaharlal Nehru and Rajendra Prasad made it a point out to use Hindi briefly prefacing their speeches. The linguistic difficulty of India was brought to everybody‟s conscious

35 Supra, note 23 at 15. 36 Id at 15-16. 37 Id at 16.

28 knowledge by the debates in the Constituent Assembly through the speeches in Tamil, Telugu, Kannada etc., and through the responses to such speeches by non- Tamil, non- Kannada and non- Telugu members.38

Whereas the linguistic difficulty of India was brought to light by such speeches, indulgence in such languages was never taken as a severe handicap, nor was it seem as harmful to the progress of discussions in the Constituent Assembly. Such speeches in languages, which were not understood by majority of the members, were also received in a spirit of accommodation and humor, whereas speeches exclusively in Hindi by Hindi- speaking members were taken as an insult to the others.39

Maybe, there were two grounds for this. Firstly, such speeches in Hindi were more regular and on substantive issues secondly, such speeches according to non- Hindi member, were persistently made to assert the assumed status of Hindi as the official language in India. It might also be noted that several senior leaders from the Hindi region, who had verified their capability in English on many occasions in the past, conveying speeches in Hindi.40

2.1.10 Sanskrit Based visualization of Munshi, Ayyar and Ayyangar- Is Language a Problem only or a Problem of providing Jobs for the Non- Hindi People?

K. M. Munshi, Alladi Krishnaswamy Aiyar and Gopalaswamy Ayyangar are Leaders and the men of great Knowledge and forethought, but they stand for a group of people whose vision of India usually run from the oneness and preeminence of Sanskrit-based culture. Their thinking it was disclosed that there is the existence of regional cultures but, it would always give priority to the standardized Sanskrit ethos. With the Sanskrit ethos accessible for every person who want to look for it and also considered as being ever the most suitable and important, communities who are looking for job and their representatives in the Constituent Assembly could observe the linguistic problem mostly is an issue of providing a fair opportunity for jobs for the non- Hindi peoples of India. That there could be sub- nationalities with linguistic and political ambitions of their own was recognized and even feared but, the provision for making a single Indian language

38 Supra, note 23 at 15. 39 Id. 40 Id.

29 as the official language was considered by these men of compromise as fundamental for the nation structure. 41

2.1.11 Working out a compromise

It must also be noted that with the passion running high and with the Congress Party already entrusted itself in favour of Hindustani as the national language for all in India, with the leadership at the top favourably disposed to apply the earlier Congress resolutions relating to official language and also with the confident stand of the Hindi speaking members, it became not possible to do something more rather than working out a compromise which would give superiority to Hindi while English will continue to have for a definite time.42

Clause by clause of the Draft Constitution was taken into consideration by the Constituent Assembly on 15 November, 1948 and completed on 17 October, 1949. With the amendments adopted by the Assembly in the Draft Constitution and again the Draft Constitution was then referred to the Drafting Committee with directions to take out such renumbering of the Articles, Clauses and Sub-clauses, revision and punctuation and review and completion of the marginal notes as might be essential and to recommend such formal or consequential or necessary amendments to the Constitution as may be needed.43

The draft Committee revised the Draft Constitution and it was submitted to Dr. Rajendra Prasad the President of the Constituent Assembly on 3 November, 1949, the draft Constitution contained 395 Articles and the Eighth Schedule. The Draft Committee consisted of the Chairman B. R. Ambedkar, N. Gopalaswamy Ayyangar, A. Krishnaswamy Ayyar, K. M. Munshi, Sayid Mohd. Saadulla and T. T. Krishnamachari as members. In the Draft, words were substituted or new words inserted, they were italicized and were words omitted it was indicated with asterisks. Apart from additions, deletions and amendments included in the revised draft, the Drafting Committee gave notice for further amendment. On November 14, 15 and 16 other members also gave notice of amendment and on November 16, 1949 these were put to vote.44

41 Supra, note 23 at 19. 42 Id at 20. 43 Id. 44 Id.

As the Draft was revised by the Drafting Committee and on 3 November, 1949 it was submitted to the President of the Assembly and English was deleted from the previous Draft and inserted Sanskrit in its place. Thus the second reading of the Schedule of languages was as the following Table- 1.7.45

Table- 1.7

Fourteen Languages originally listed in the Eighth Schedule

Eighth Schedule

(Articles 344 and 351)

Languages

1. Assamese

2. Bengali

3. Gujarati

4. Hindi

5. Kannada

6. Kashmiri

7. Malayalam

8. Marathi

9. Oriya

10. Punjabi

11. Sanskrit

45 Supra, note 23 at 20.

12. Tamil

13. Telugu

14 Urdu

[Source: M. S. Thirumalai & B. Malikarjun (2006)]

The above Table- 1.7 shows the fourteen languages originally listed in the Eighth Schedule in 1950 are Assamese, Bengali, Gujarati, Hindi, Kannada, Kashmiri, Malayalam, Marathi, Oriya, Punjabi, Sanskrit, Tamil, Telugu and Urdu.

2.2 TWENTY-FIRST AMENDMENT (SINDHI) - 1967

Constant demands from the Sindhi- speaking people and also upon the recommendation of the Commissioner for Linguistic Minorities of the Government, on November 4, 1966, announced its decision to include Sindhi language in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution.

The Twenty- First Amendment of the Constitution of India is also officially known as The Constitution (Twenty- first Amendment) Act, 1966. On 20 March, 1967 the Constitution (Twenty- first Amendment) Bill, 1967 was introduced in Rajya Sabha by Y. B. Chavan, the then Minister of Home Affairs sought to include Sindhi as one of the languages in the Eighth Schedule. Thereby the total number of languages in the Eighth Schedule was increased to fifteen.46

The Statement of objects and reasons appended to the bill is given below:47

“There have been persistent demands from Sindhi- speaking people for the inclusion of the Sindhi language in the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution. Although at present Sindhi is not a regional language in a well defined area, it used to be the language of the province of the undivided India and, but for partition, would have continued to be so. The Commissioner for Linguistic

46 R. C. Bhardwai, CONSTITUTION AMENDMENT IN INDIA, NEW DELHI, LOK SABHA SECRETARIAT, 179 (1995). 47 The Constitution (Twenty-First Amendment) Act, 1967, at http://indiacode.nic.in/coiweb/amend/amend21.htm (Last visited on March 23, 2014).

Minorities has also recommended the inclusion of Sindhi in the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution. The Bill seek to give effect to this decision”

On 4 April, 1967 the Bill was considered by the Rajya Sabha and passed in the original form on the same day. On 7 April, 1967 the Lok Sabha passed the Bill, the Bill received the assent from the then President Zakir Hussain on 10 April, 1967 and it was notified in the Gazette of India and came into force on the same date.48

2.3 SEVENTY-FIRST AMENDMENT (KONKANI, MANIPURI AND NEPALI) – 1992

The Constitution (Seventy-first Amendment) Act, 1992, amended the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution so as to include Konkani, Manipuri and Nepali languages and thus, the total number of languages listed the Eighth Schedule came to eighteen.

On 20 August, 1992 the Constitution (Seventy- First Amendment) Act, 1992 as a Bill was introduced in Lok Sabha by S. B. Chavan the then Minister of Home Affairs, this Bill sought to include the above three languages i.e., Konkani, Manipuri and Nepali in the Eighth Schedule. The Statement of objects and reasons of the Bill was as follows:49

1. There have been demands for inclusion of certain languages in the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution. It proposed to include Konkani, Manipuri and Nepali languages in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution. The Bill seeks to give effect to this decision. 2. The Nepali language is also known in some areas as “Gorkha Bhasa”. In the Census Operations, other nomenclatures such as “Gorkhali”, “Gorkdhi”, “Gurkhiya”, “Khaskura” or “Naipali” have also been used.

48 The Constitution (Seventy-first amendment) Act, 1967, at http://indiacode.nic.in/coiweb/amend/amend71.htm (Last visited on March 23, 2014). 49 National Portal of India, The Constitution (Seventy- first Amendment) Act, 1992, at http://india.gov.in/my- government/constitution-india/amendments/constitution-india-seventy-first-amendment-act-1992 (Last visited on March 23, 2014).

On 20 August the Bill was debated in the Lok Sabha and the Amendment Act was also passed on the same date. The Bill was adopted by the Lok Sabha with a formal amendment replacing the word “Seventy- Eighth” by the word “Seventy-First”. The Bill was considered by the Rajya Sabha and passed on 20 August, 1992. On 31 August, 1992 the Bill received the assent from the then President Shankar Dayal Sharma and came into force on the same date. On 1 September it was notified in the Gazette of India.50

In the case of Kanhaiya Lal and another v. Union of India and another,51 the Constitution (Seventy- First Amendment) Act of 1992 the inclusion of three languages under the Eighth Schedule was challenged as violation of the basic structure of the Constitution and it was also prayed for the inclusion of Rajasthani language.

The Supreme Court held that for the inclusion of any language in the Eighth Schedule the Court cannot direct the Government or the Parliament to include any language. Further the Court held that for inclusion of any language in the Eighth Schedule like the Constitution (Seventy- First Amendment) Act, 1992 cannot violate the basic structure of the Constitution.

Under the above circumstances it is for the Government and Parliament to take a decision and to comply with Article 29 (1) of the Constitution to preserve the indigenous culture and language to include Khasi language in the Eighth Schedule and it is for the State Government to amend the State Official Language Act declaring Khasi language as a primary language and English as a secondary language.

50 Sonam Wangdi, Nepali Language in the Eighth Schedule (The Darjeeling Times, Darjeeling edn, October 13, 2009) at http://www.darjeelingtimes.com/news/news/Opinions/Nepali-Language-in-the--Eighth-Schedule-of-- Constitution-.html (Last Visited on March 24 , 2014), B.B. Chetri Chumukkedima, Nepali Language Recognition Day- August 20 (The Morung Express, Nagaland edn) at http://www.morungexpress.com/Perspective/84729.html (Last visited on March 24, 2014). 51 AIR 1998 SC 365.

2.4THE NINETY-SECOND AMENDMENT (BODO, DOGRI, SANTHALI AND MAITHILI) – 2003

The Constitution (Ninety- second Amendment) Act, 2003, this Act seek to amended the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution to include Bodo, Dogri, Santhali and Maithili languages thus, the total number of languages listed in the Eighth Schedule has increased to 22.

On 18 August, 2003 this Bill was introduced in the Lok Sabha by the then Deputy Prime Minister L. K. Advani as the Constitution (One- hundred Amendment) Bill, 2003. The Statement of objects and Reasons appended to the Bill was as follow:52

 “There have been demands for inclusion for certain languages in the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution. It is proposed to include Bodo language in the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution.  The Bill seeks to achieve the above object.”

As the Bill was introduced, it was referred to the Standing Committee on Home Affairs and in which its report was presented to the Rajya Sabha, it was recommended that the Bill be passed in the present form. On 5 December, 2003 the report was laid down on the table of the Lok Sabha. On 22 December, 2003 the Bill was debated in the Lok Sabha and it was passed on the same day including with a formal amendment by changing the short title from “One- hundred” to “Ninety- second”. At the time for the consideration of the Bill in the House the amendment was moved by L. K. Advani to include three other languages in the Eighth Schedule namely Santhali, Maithili and Dogri. The House adopted the Amendment and Section 2 a newly substituted for the inclusion as Entry No. 3 of Bodo, Entry No. 4 of Dogri, Entry No. 10 of Maithili, Entry No. 18 of Santhali and also for consequential renumbering of the existing entries, accordingly. On 23December, 2003 as the Bill was passed by the Lok Sabha, it was considered and passed by the Rajya Sabha.53

52 The Constitution (Ninety- Second Amendment) Act, 2003, 7 January, 2004, at http://indiacode.nic.in/coiweb/amend/amend92.htm (Last Visited on March 24, 2014). 53 M. S Thirumalai, Language in India, Language in India Strength for Today and Bright Hope for Tomorrow, 4 (January 1, 2004) at http://www.languageinindia.com/jan2004/langnewsjan2004.html (Last Visited on March 24, 2014).

On 22 December, 2003 speaking in the Lok Sabha L. K. Advani stated that, the Constitutional Amendment to include Bodo was in pursuance of a very valuable Memorandum of Settlement arrived between the Bodo Community representatives, the Assam Government and the Government. Beside, the settlement the Government of India would consider inclusion of Bodo language in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution of India.54 Janeshwar Mishra, Samajwadi Party and Rajya Sabha MP stated that the Indian language could not flourish as long as the recognition is given to English remained. L. K. Advani reacting to the demand for substituting of English with any other Indian language he stated that, it was necessary that both English and Hindi co- exist for the unity of the Country, stating, “National unity is more important than language issue”. He also further stated that, de- linking from English was not a good thing, because he felt that knowledge to English gave India an advantage over China in the Information Technology sector. BJP Rajya Sabha MP Laxmi Mall states that, the intention of the Legislation for the inclusion of more language in the Eighth Schedule was not to reduce the impact or acceptability of Hindi.55

Pranad Mukherjee, a Congress member, stated that he had no objection to any language being included in the Eighth Schedule; the Government should have consulted the Standing Committee to bring a comprehensive and well thought out legislation. Chandrakala Pandey CPI (M) member named more than a dozen languages that she believed should be included in the Eighth Schedule. Rama Shankar Kaushik SP member felt that the government should differentiate between language and dialect stated that if language and dialect is ceased to differentiate, will end up reducing the status of Hindi as the official language and that will create tension on the basis of language. Lalu Prasad Yadav RJD Chief felt that for the inclusion of language or dialect in the Eighth Schedule it should be carefully and comprehensively to ensure that there was no dispute on the language medium of examinations, finding teachers and programmes on radio and television.56

S. Viduthalai Virumbi, a DMK member, stated that Hindi was not a majority language and he demanded that the official language of a State be included as official language of the Country. It

54 L.K. Advani, LOK SABHA DEBATE (December 22, 2003) at http://www.allindiaaseca.org/lsdebate-22.12.03.html (Last visited on March 24, 2014). 55 Supra, note 53. 56 Government to bring Comprehensive legislation on languages, The Hindu (New Delhi edn, December 24, 2004) at http://www.hindu.com/2003/12/24/stories/2003122406841100.htm (Last visited on March 24, 2014).

36 was interrupted by Amar Singh, an SP member who objected to opposition of Hindi and he says that he respect Tamil but, to oppose Hindi is not correct.57

On 7 January 2004 the Bill received the assent from the then President A. P. J Abdul Kalam and it came into force on the same day. On 8 January, 2004 it was notified in the Gazette of India.58

2.5 CRITERIA FOR THE INCLUSION OF LANGUAGE IN THE EIGHTH SCHEDULE

Articles 344(1) and 351 of the Constitution of India are the Constitutional provisions relating to the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution. Article 344 (1) provides for the Constitution of a Commission by the President on expiration of five years after the commencement of the Constitution and thereafter at the expiration of ten years from such commencement, which shall consist of a Chairman and such other members representing the different languages specified in the Eighth Schedule to make recommendations to the President for the progressive use of Hindi for official purposes of the Union. While Article 351 of the Constitution provides that it shall be the duty of the Union to promote the spread of the Hindi language to develop it so that it may serve as a medium of expression for all the element of the composite culture of India and to secure its enrichment by assimilating without interfering with its genius, the forms, style and expressions used in Hindustani and in the other languages of India which has been specified in the Eighth Schedule, and by drawing, wherever necessary or desirable, for its vocabulary, primarily, on Sanskrit and secondarily on other languages. Thus, it appears that the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution of India was intended to promote the progressive use of Hindi and for the enrichment and promotion of that language.59

57 Supra, note 57. 58 The Constitution (Ninety- Second amendment) Act, 1967, at http://indiacode.nic.in/coiweb/amend/amend92.htm (Last visited on March 24, 2014).

59 Durga Das Basu, INTRODUCTION TO THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA, NAGPUR, LEXIS NEXIS BUTTERWORTHS th WADHWA, 408-413 (20 edn, 2001).

37 was set up under the Chairmanship of Shri. Sitakant Mohopatra to go forward for setting objective criteria for the inclusion of more languages in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution of India. The Committee in 2004 submitted its report and the report of the Committee is under the consideration with the concerned Ministries or Departments of the Central Government. A decision is pending on the demand for the inclusion of languages in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution will be taken in the light of the recommendation of the Committee and Government decision. On the other hand, there is no time frame can be fixed for consideration of the demands for inclusion of more languages in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution of India.60

But, analyzing the languages which have been included in the Eighth Schedule, we can assume the following criteria for the inclusion of a language in the Eighth Schedule is necessary:61

1. Literary Tradition and script of their own. 2. Spoken by largest number of people in large contiguous zones as dominant language of certain regions. 3. Political concessions (Nepal, Sindhi) 4. Being recognized as official languages by the State (Konkani, Manipuri). 5. Being a classical language of culture and heritage and also resource language in modernizing the major literary languages (Sanskrit). 6. Being recognized by Sahitya Akademi. 7. Being spoken by large population, geographically distributed and dispersed, but its own Script and literature (Urdu). 8. Being spoken by more than one million of people as their mother tongue. 9. Pursuance of a very valuable Memorandum of Settlement arrived (Bodo).

60 Home Minister‟s Office, HM‟s Statement on Inclusion of Bhojpuri and Rajasthani Languages in the Eighth Schedule, Ministry of Home Affairs (August 30, 2010) at http://www.pib.nic.in/newsite/erelease.aspx?relid=65435 (Last visited on March 26, 2014). 61Supra, note 16 at 262, Supra, note 53.

CHAPTER- III ORIGIN OF THE LANGUAGE

3.1 LANGUAGE: CONCEPT AND ITS IMPORTANCE

Language for speaking and writing has in every part of the world and there are also places where there are different languages for different regions exist. When we come to the term „language‟ in common sense it can be said that language is language which a person speaks by using his tongue without which it is not possible even to think about speaking a language. According to Oxford Dictionary, Language means:62

1. The method of human communication, either spoken or written, consisting of the use of words in a structured and conventional way. 2. The system of communication used by a particular community or country. 3. The style of a piece of writing or speech.

Thus, for better understanding of the term „language‟ we have to understand the views of the various learned scholars in this particular field.

According to Ferdinand de Saussure a Swiss linguist defined language as:

"A language can be compared to a sheet of paper. Thought is one side of the sheet and sound the reverse side. Just as it is impossible to take a pair of scissors and cut one side of the paper without at the same time cutting the other, so it is impossible in a language to isolate sound from thought, or thought from sound."63

Language has always attracted the strong attention and interest of a man because, it is a medium by which he can communicate with others in his community. Perhaps, this may be the reason

62 Oxford Dictionaries language matters, at http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/language?q=language, (Last visited on March 27, 2014). 63 Richard Nordquist, what is language? at http://grammar.about.com/od/grammarfaq/f/whatislang.htm (Last visited on March 27, 2014).

39 why the conjecture about the origin of the language is concern in the past by the philosophers and social thinkers, as is reflected in folklore of many communities. Turn back to the past history of the study of language, one can notice how Darwin in his Theory of Evolution of Species has influenced the 19 century linguists to think language in term of the evolution process, August Schleicher, a German historical linguist was of the of the opinion that language as types, grow and mature in the process of development.64 This is based upon the fact that languages are traditionally classified in three types: (a) isolating languages b) agglutinating languages and c) flexional languages. 65 This typological classification has been upon the morphological complexity of a language. These days linguists do not take seriously firstly, the typological characteristics of a language determine the way it grows and develops as need may arise for it to develop and grow. Secondly, language does not remain static if they are living languages, i.e., to say if a language is a mother tongue of certain speakers which is a dynamic phenomenon. It is dynamic in the sense that it has to change and modify itself to suit the needs of its speakers. Changes in the society will bring, particularly with regard to interaction with speakers of other languages to develop, in order to accommodate these changes.

Thus, here it is rightly to be noted that though language is a way to convey a message to a person but, this is not the only way since, there are also other ways like signs by nodding our head, hand gestures etc. but, the only difficulty with regard to these kind of signs or gestures is that majority of the people they do not understand it as better than language. However some signs are very widely used and understood among the Khasis for e.g., if we nod our head, it means that we are saying yes and we convey a no when we move our head sideways. These signs can be understood vice versa in other parts of the world.

In Meghalaya State Khasi and Garo are the dominant languages in the hill state which comprising the former Khasi and Jaintain Hills and Garo Hills District of Assam. On 21 January the State of Meghalaya was officially inaugurated by the then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi. According to the Ethnologue Khasi spoken by 950000 together with the languages of the Nicobar Islands, belongs to the Mon- Khmer language family which is the sub-group of Austro-

64 E.F. K Koerner, STUDIES IN THE HISTORY OF THE LANGUAGE SCIENCES PROFESSING LINGUISTIC HISTORIOGRAPHY, NETHERLANDS, JOHN BENJAMINS PUBLISHING COMPANY, 62-63 (1995). 65 Matthias Dorries, EXPERIMENTING IN TONGUES: STUDIES IN SCIENCE AND LANGUAGE, CALIFORNIA, STANFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS, 33 (2002).

Asiatic.66 Another subgroup of Austro- Asiatic which is solely spoken in India is the Munda languages.67 According to the 2001 Census of India over 1.1 million Khasi lived in Meghalaya, in the districts East and West Khasi Hills, Ri- Bhoi and Jaintia. The Census of Bangladesh enumerated 12, 280 Khasi for the whole country in 1991.68 Khasi is recognized language of the Sixth Schedule of the Constitution of India according to Macmillan Byrsat,69 Sixth Schedule of the Constitution expert and also the Lyngdoh (Priest or Minister) of the Hima Nongstion (Nongstion Syiemship/ Kingship) said that Khasi language has been used for proceeding in the Autonomous District Council in Shillong.

Here under is a Table- 1.8 which shows the Khasi language and the number of Khasi speakers in the year 1971, 1981, 1992 and 2001:70

Table- 1.8

Comparative Number Khasi speakers in the year 1971, 1981, 1992 and 2001

Year Khasi Speakers 1971 497, 028 1981 628, 846 1991 912, 283 2001 1,128,575 [Source: census of India 2001 & Raja Devasish Roy (2012)]

66 TH Salil Gewali, KHASI LANGUAGE OF NORTH EAST INDIA FROM AN UNWRITTEN TO A WRITTEN LANGUAGE, 18 EUROPEAN CONFERENCE ON MODERN SOUTH ASIAN, AT LUND, SWEDEN, 1, 6 TO 9 JULY 2004, GRUESSNER, KARL- HEINZ UNIVERSITY LIBRARY, TUEBINGEN, GERMANY, at http://www.ebookdae.org/view_601171.php#.U4cw8yi5_IU (Last visited on March 27, 2014). 67 A sub-family of the Austro-Asiatic language family that includes Mon, Khmer, and other languages of Southeast Asia. 68 Raja Devasish Roy, Country Technical Note, People‟s Republic of Bangladesh 21 (2012) at http://www.ifad.org/english/indigenous/pub/documents/tnotes/bangladesh.pdf (Last visited March 27, 2014). 69 Annexure III. 70 Supra, note 22, 70.

0 1971 1981 1991 2001

From the above Table 1.8 and Chart it shows that the number of Khasi speaker is increasing in each decade i.e., 1971, 1981, 1992 and 2001.

3.2 ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF THE KHASI LANGUAGE

Unlike other tribal languages of the country Khasi language has its own history and evolution. It may appear for many that the Khasi language begins only after Thomas Jones introduced a script for it in 1841. Earlier to that, the growth of the Khasi language can be attributed mainly to the admixture of common words and vocabulary of Hindi, Assamese, Bengali, Urdu, Sanskrit, Arabic and Persian which greatly enriched the language. This proved that the Khasis previously had great flexibility and were not at all conservative.71

There is no other dialect of the region whether they belong to different groups of Arunachalees, Naga or Mizo has loan even a portion of words during the present-day. This is indeed the Khasi literature has a unique history of evolution.72

71 Sumar Sing Sawian, GOLDEN VINE OF RI HYNNIEWTREP THE KHASI HERITAGE, GUWAHATI, VIVEKANANDA st KENDRA INSTITUTE OF CULTURE, 34 (1 edn, 2011). 72 Supra, note 73.

In the early period the Khasi language and Khasi literature its origin and development cannot be separated from the history of the Christian Missions in the Khasi and Jaintia hills. With the early contact of some Khasi and Krishna Chandra Pal in 1+12 at Bhologanj in Syllhet district of the present day Bangladesh (the East Bengal in India), the Serampore Baptist Mission started evangelism in the hills.73 Though Chandra Pal worked only for a few moths among the Khasis but, Carey was eager to translate the New Testament of the Bible into Khasi. This was in 1813- 1814. Since, literacy was then in Bengali, translation was use of the Bengali script. Around 1816, a few translated versions of the Gospel of Matthew were printed and distributed among some Khasis who could read the Bengal script.74 The years later, a landmark was made when the Khashsee New Testament was printed by the Serampore Mission though a branch of the Mission was set up in Sohra (Cherrapunjee) in 1833, along with the first school for Khasis. By 1838 the Mission was close down because of some problem.75

Welsh Calvinistic Methodist Mission saw the beginning of a remarkable interaction with faraway, oriental Khasis. Thomas Jones and his Wife arrived at Sohra (Cherranpunjee) on 22 June 1841 and they set about the work of educating the Khasis and translating the scripts which was also help out by few literate Khasis especially u Laithat. In the same year the first Khasi boo, “Ka Kot Pule Nyngkong” (Khasi First Reader) was written along with “Ka Kitab Nyngkong” (A, B). It was in these two elementary textbook that the 21 alphabets in the Roman Script were found. There are five vowel sound i.e., a, e, i, o, u and sixteen consonant i.e., b, k, d, g, ng, h, j, l, m, n, p, r, s, t, w, y. afterward, in the year 1896, that two more sounds were added, Ї which was pronounced as 'yii' and ñ which was pronounced as 'eiñ'.76 The reason for the decision to change the script from Bengali to Roman because, it was found that the latter was match with the sound system of the Khasi like for e.g., the Khasi language in Bengali Script rendering of the Lord‟s Prayer is approximately perplexing to most Khasis “Ho ujunga bandra ubasyong ha bneng u kpa, kajungphi kakartteng babha unmane long” the same was write down

73 O. L. Snaitang, A DICTIONARY OF KHASI LITERATURE, SHILLONG, MEGHALAYA, MR. P. KONGMEN WOLLEY PRESS, 1 (2011). 74 Supra, note 1 at 24. 75 Hamlet Bareh, Collision with modernity- A perspective on life and letters of the Khasi, 16(¾), India International Centre Quarterly 98 (1989) at http://www.jstor.org/stable/23002073 (Last visited on March 27, 2014). 76 rd H. W. Sten, SHAPHANG KA KTIEN KHASI, SHILLONG, GRATUS PUBLICATION NEW KENCH‟S TRACE, 4-5 (3 edn, 2000).

43 in Roman script translate “ko Kypa jong ngi uba ha byneng, long ka bakhuid ka kyrteng jong me”.77

Thomas Jones was known as the father of the Khasi alphabet, architect of the modern Khasi literature. His far sight vision and well co-ordinated application of his literary and education plan, the Khasi language and literature would not have been today. The following list is a list of his contribution to the Khasi literacy, education and Khasi writings:78

i. Ka Kitab Nyngkong (AB or First Book) in 1841; ii. Ka Kot Pule Banyngkong ( Khasi First Reader) in 1841; iii. Ka Kot Shaphang ka jingkoit jngkhiah (Health Book) in 1841; iv. Ka jingai I Mei (translation of Rhood Mam) in 1841; v. Ka jingduwai U Trai (Christian Catechism) in 1842; vi. Ka Testament Bathymmai (Portions of the New Testament) in 1843; vii. Ka Kot Nongialam (Lessons on Christ Teachings) in 1843; viii. Hymns from the Cottage Hymn Book by Thomas Jones in 1845; ix. Ka Jingduwai u Trai (Revised Version of the Lord‟s Prayer) in 1846; x. Bengali Translation of James 3:12-27 in 1846; xi. Ka Kospel U Mathaios (Gospel of Matthew) in 1846 and xii. Translation of the Ten Commandments by W Lewis in 1848.

Thomas Jones even though laid down the foundation for written Khasi but, it was left to other missionaries, particularly John Roberts to go on and improves the work of translation and writing of religious and other writings in Khasi particularly for those writings to be for school and church. Hereunder is a list of a list of books which have been written by Missionaries and others:79

i. Ka Kot Laiphew by Griffith Hughes in 1855; ii. Ka Scriptures History (History of the Scriptures) by Robert Perry in 1857; iii. Ka Jingiaid U Pilgrim (Pilgrim‟s Progress) by Mrs. W. Lewis in 1857;

77 Supra, note1 at 32-33. 78 th Alvareen D. Dkhar, KA LITERATURE BAD KA ART, JAIAW, SHILLONG MRS. C. R. DKHAR, 2-4 (4 edn. 2010). 79 Id at 4-5.

iv. Ka Kot Jingrwai (Khasi Hymnal consisting of 243 hymns translated or composed by Hugh Roberts and Jerman Jones also to be the first book of Khasi poetry) in 1876; v. Ka Mary Jones (Bibliography of Mary Jones) by Huh Roberts in 1879; vi. Ka Jingiaid U Pilgrim (revised version) by John Robert in 1882; vii. Ka Histori u Jisu Krist ( History of Jesus Christ) by John Roberts in 1883; viii. Ka Testament Barim (Five Books of the Old Testament) by John Roberts in 1884; ix. U Nongkitkhubor (ed.) William in 1889; x. Ka Kot Pule Ba-ar (Second Reader) by John Roberts in 1891; xi. Ka Kot Pule Balai (Third Reader) by John Roberts in 1891; xii. Ka Testament Barim II ( Old Testament II) by John Roberts in 1891; xiii. Ka Testament Barim III( Old Testament III) by John Roberts in 1891; xiv. Ka Kot Bah (Khasi Bible) by John Roberts in 1891; xv. Ka Niam Khasi by R. S. Berry in 1893; xvi. Ka Niam Khein Ki Khasi by R. S. Berry in 1893; xvii. Ka Kitab Jingphawar (Khasi Chants) by R. S. Berry in 1983; xviii. Ka Niam Khasi (Khasi Religion) by Jeebon Roy in 1893; xix. Ka Kitab Shaphang uwei u Blei (Book about one God) by Jeebon Roy in 1893; xx. Khasi premier by C. L. Stephen in 1895; xxi. Ka Kot Pule Ba-saw ( Fourth Reader) by John Roberts in 1895 and xxii. U Khasi Mynta (Khasi Now) by Hormu Rai Diengdoh in 1896.

By the publication of the Khasi Readers to use in the school between 1841- 1895 opened the way for literacy and education, the Khasi Readers include stories, fables, tables, folktales, fairytales, Poems, Songs including the very popular anthem Ri Khasi and the six verses of which were composed by John Roberts. The Fourth Reader also has some Khasi “Phwar” means Rhyming, “ki ktien kynnoh” means akin words, imitative and echo words, “ki jingsneng tymmen” means ancient wise sayings, and “ki ktien ia hap” means synonyms, incorporating many elements of Khasi language and literary forms. Thus, the beginning of writing was shown in the

Readers; maybe it is for this reason that John Roberts was known as “U Kpa Ka Khasi Literashor” which means that he was known as Father of Khasi Literature.80

1891 is also an important milestone in the development of the written Khasi language and literature because of the publication of Khasi Bible or Kot Bah Khasi. It is a source book of countless stories, documented records, history songs and many other literary and non- literary forms of writing and it provides the language of the idioms, vocabulary of coined words and the diction of standard Khasi.81

1889 is an important year for the budding Khasi writers like Radon Sing Berry, Joel Gatphoh, Morkha Joseph and others who wrote articles for U Nongkitkhubor and it was the first Khasi newspaper.82 By 1893 R. S. Berry and Jeebon Roy had published their own works which was written in Khasi which was contributing to an understanding Khasi thinking rituals religion and culture and it providing the basis for the golden enormous works “The Khasis”. During this period a few works in English appeared, such as William Pyrse “Introduction to the Khasi Language” 1855 and Hugh Roberts “Khasi Grammar” 1867.83

Following are books and other publication which came out in the early 20 century:84

i. 1903 U Nongap Phira by Sib Charan Roy; ii. 1903 U Lurshai by Soso Tham; iii. 1906 Khasi English Dictionary by Nissor Singh Lyndoh; iv. 1915 Kausik ( a Novel by Hari Chandra Roy); v. 1918 English Dictionary; vi. 1920 U Phawer Aesop (translation of Aesop‟s Fables) by Soso Tham; vii. 1924 U Tipsngi by Dino Nath; viii. 1925 ki Peotry Khasi by Edrenel Chyne; ix. 1925 Ki poetry Khasi by Soso Tham;

80 T.B. Subha, JOSEPH PUTHENPURAKAI & SHAJI JOSEPH PUYKUNNEL, CHRISTIANITY AND CHANGE IN NORTHEAST INDIA, NEW DELHI, ASHOK KUMAR MITTAL CONCEPT PUBLISHING COMPANY, 182-183 (2009). 81 Supra, note 75 at 20. 82 J. P. Singh, D. R. SYIEMLIEH, PHILOSOPHY OF HISTORY: SOME REFLECTIONS ON NORTH-EAST INDIA, NEW DELHI, REGENCY PUBLICATION, 72 (2000). 83 H. G. Joshi, MEGHALAYA PAST AND PRESENT, NEW DELHI, KRISHNA MITTAL PUBLICATIONS, 123 (2004). 84 Supra, note 75 at 129-158, Supra, note 80 at 8-11.

x. 1931- 32 Ka Jngshai jong ka ri Khasi by M. Bareh; xi. 1936-37 Ka Riti Jong Ki Ri Ka Laiphew Syiem by G. Costa; xii. 1937 Ka Pangsngiat Ksiar by H. Elias; xiii. 1937 Ka Kot Niam Khasi by H. Lyngdoh; xiv. 1938 Ki Syiem Khasi bad Synteng by H. Lyngdoh; xv. 1939 Translation of Cantlie‟s notes on Khasi Law by T Cajee; xvi. 1941 Ki Umjer Ksiar and xvii. 1941 Ki Sngi Barim U Hynniew trep by Soso Tham.

Cherrapunjee dialect is taken as a standard Khasi language since, it is the purest because, as it is commonly recognized by the natives and besides as being more adaptable to systematical understanding than the language of the smaller villages. Dialectal variations such as sngoi for sngi (sun), massoi for massi now spell as masi (cow), lom for lum (hill), iam for em (cry) and others should be keep away. It was said that Khasis got their written language with the arrival of the Christian Missionaries so, it is believed that Khasi written language was born in the lap of Christianity.85

3.2.1 Script

Earlier Khasi language has no script of its own. Between 1813 and 1838 William Carey who attempted to write the Khasi language with the Eastern Nagari Script. When this Eastern Nagari was used a large numbers of Khasi books were written in the Eastern Nagari Script which was including the most important manuscript of the Seng Khasi religion i.e., Ka Niyiom Jong Ka Khasi or The Rule of the Khasis. In 1841 the Welsh Missionary, Thomas Jones wrote the Khasi language in the Roman Script. As the result, orthography of the Khasi language in Roman Script has bit similarities to the Welsh orthography. The adoption of Roman Script for the Khasi language was made because it was more easily adapted to the Khasi language.86

85 C.R. Marak and J.S. Shangpliang, GROWTH OF KHASI AND GARO LANGUAGE, SHILLONG, SAHITYA ACADEMI, 99 (2008).

86 Supra, note 1 at 31-33.

3.2.2 The Literary Aspect

The Khasi Literature began with the publication of the first primer in the language by Thomas Jones in 1841. From that humble beginning, it manifests itself today in various branches, to name few, such as Poetry, Fiction, Drama and Literary criticism etc.

3.2.2.1 Poetry Written Khasi Poetry made its beginning in the hymns used by Christian Missionaries in Church and in the schools managed by the Christian Missions in the 19th century. The early Khasi Poetry was written with a purpose to educate the readers of the value of hard work, cleanliness and of education. Christian poetry aimed at winning more souls for Christ. But there are hymns and poems in the Khasi Hymnal which have high poetic quality, and those paved the way for the development of secular poetry. Comparatively, poetry is the most cultivated art among the Khasis.87 3.2.2.2 Fiction Khasi Fiction could be divided into:-88 i) Novel as a means of storytelling and, ii) Novel of art.

There are novels which take rural life as the setting; and there are also those which take the urban setting. Khasi Fiction is both a criticism and an interpretation of life.

3.2.2.3 Drama The first full length of Khasi drama came out in 1910 with the publication of Khasi drama came out in 1910 with the publication of “Ka Savitri” by Hari Charan Roy. This followed by “Ka Srommotimai” in 1912.89 Khasi drama has drawn out ancient life and modern life as its background. Most of the playwrights pay attention to plot, character and action. We have tragedy, comedy,

87 H. W. Sten, KHASI POETRY ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT, NEW DELHI, MITTAL PUBLICATION, 64 (1990).

88 The Memorandum of the Khasi Authors‟ Society, Shillong, Meghalaya, inclusion of Khasi language in the Eighth Schedule to the constitution of India (June 2010), [unpublished, archieved at Khasi Authors‟ Society office]. 89 Supra, note 90 at 5.

tragicomedy and force in Khasi drama. The Standard attained by a few playwrights is very high.90

3.2.2.4 Literary Criticism Stray critical writings appeared first in 1915 with the remark made by Sib Charan Roy on the Bible and Quran. Criticism is found mostly in the prefaces and introduction to books. A systematic study of this subject began in 1976 when Khasi Literature was raised up to the honours level. Even since then quite a good number of books have published.91 3.2.3 Socio- Linguistic Aspect

The Khasi Language is a language having a standardized form; and it has a continuous literary tradition and history. The language is being used as „lingua franca‟ of the Khasis in these hills (Khasi and Jaintia Hills) and also in part of Asom (Assam) as well as in the Bangladesh.92

3.3 GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE KHASI LANGUAGE

The term development can have more meanings than one meaning it might be taken as to enhance in number of the languages out of Khasi. Dialectal variation depends to great extend on geographical condition and human plan for survival. Like in terms of dialects the Khasi and Jaintia Hills have developed so much so, that if a person from Lyngam area insists for using his dialect while talking with another from Nongtalang village he will reach nowhere without signs with their hands and other limbs of their bodies, they need a common language such a language is a written Khasi i.e., the literary language. Revolving to the genealogical classification of languages no doubt at all that a number of languages are genealogically related to some others that is why the relationship of languages within a language family was taking into account by this particular classification of languages. As the Khasi language claimed that it is a Mon- Khmer language which belongs to the Austro- Asiatic family, however, detailed and cautious phonological, morphological and syntactic is needed to rebuilding to show whether language of this family is connected or related. According to the Linguists in a poetic manner pointed to the

90 Id. 91 Id. 92 Id at 5-6.

49 fact that Khasi an Austro- Asiatic language is like an island in the sea of languages belonging to Tibet- Burman and Indo- Aryan language families. This distance of its close relative and nearness with the languages families has affected the growth and development of Khasi language and particularly in the last two centuries.93

Tracing the growth and development of other language is not an easy job. To undertake this job Historical Linguists have usually taken two approaches firstly, by making a diachronic study of one particular language in order to examine how it has developed through the passage of time like in the case of English it is easier to trace the changes that have taken place because, a language has been documented for a long time and secondly, in order to examine the development the Historical Linguist have turned to comparative linguistic they can do this by comparing related languages or related dialects to understand they have developed throughout the centuries.94

A living language cannot be remain static it should develop itself according to the speaker‟s needs. Spoken language of any community is as old as the community itself but, the written structure of that language may come out at later step. This happens in the case of Khasi language where before the arrival of the Missionaries to these hills (Khasi and Jaintian Hills) where different varieties of Khasi were of the spoken form only. The present written form of the language based on Sohra (Cherrapunjee) dialect came into existence in 1841 when Thomas Jones a Welsh Calvinistic Missionary started his mission in Cherrapunjee (Sohra). From that time onward, this variety was standardized through the process of selection, codification, elaboration of acceptance and function.95

Like many other languages Standard Khasi has adopted certain strategies in order to enrich itself and in order to meet the needs imposed upon it like borrowing of vocabulary items from other languages to enlarge its own inventory, coinage of new words, productivity of derivational morphemes.96

93 Supra, note 87 at 18. 94 Id at 19. 95 Supra, note 87 at 19-20. 96 Id at 20-22.

No doubt, at all that a study of the growth and development of a language such as Khasi will enable scholars to understand how dynamic this language is. It will also give a proper understanding of how it fulfills with the demands that the society has made upon it.97

When Meghalaya became a State the languages of a dominant tribe‟s i.e., the Khasi and Garo received greater importance. Though, Meghalaya choosed English as its common language in the administrative sphere but, the Khasi language is used in Khasi speaking areas and Garo in Garo speaking areas and it has been used extensively. In education Khasi is a medium of instruction up to class IV and afterwards a compulsory subject in Khasi schools. Khasi language is also permitted in the lower Courts and also in the Khasi District Council. When the North Eastern Hill University was founded, the department of Khasi was also established and also the researchers are allowed to write their M. Phil in Khasi. In the present day, there are lots of daily newspapers as U Mawphor (the Landmark) or weeklies as Dongmusa (the Torch) etc., published in Khasi. Khasi language is also used in radio programmes of All India Radio and in television there are two channels Ri Khasi Channel and Peitngoor Cable News. And for cultural promotion of language a very few active societies exist, as the Seng Khasi (The Khasi Foundation) or the Hynniew Trep Cultural Welfare Organization which organizes its Khasi Competition Festival (Hynniew Trep means the mythical Seven Hut synonym for Khasi). All these activities are done in standard Khasi. Other dialect are not used but, except the Pnar or Jaintian dialect which have their own radio programme and in which irregularly books are published.

When Thomas Jones the great pioneer Missionary introduced the script there arose immediately many gifted writers who brought out poetry, prose and other compositions in expressed forms which contributed hugely to shape literature for the future. It also mentioned that in early 1903, the language was recognized in the Entrance Examination of Calcutta University when there was no other tribal language was developed to claim for such homoured acceptance. In less than two decades it made another significant achievement when the same University gave recognition for the language in degree Course.98 Today Khasi language is taught up to M. Phil and Ph. D courses in the North Eastern Hill University. It may happen that it is the first language of the hill people which enjoyed that position and it means that the Khasi language has developed considerably.

97 Supra, note 87 at 20. 98 Claurence Maloney, LANGUAGE AND CIVILIZATION CHANGE IN SOUTH ASIA, NETHERLANDS, E. J. BRILL- LEIDEN, 174 (1978).

CHAPTER- IV PRESENT POSITION

The Meghalaya Language Act, 2005 99 was passed, the Khasi and Garo languages became associate languages of the State. For the implementation of this Act, the State Government through the Political Department has made certain Rules100 to practice Khasi language in the District Sub- divisional Block level.

As early as 1903, Khasi language was recognized by the Calcutta University up to the entrance examination standard and up to degree standard in 1919 in this same year that the Assamese was recognized by the same university. It is also noted that the Guahati University, Dibrugarh University, North Eastern Hill University (N.E.H.U) and Council for the Indian School Certificate, New Delhi (formerly Cambridge University) have accorded similar recognition to the Khasi language.101 Mr. A. K. Nongkynrih 102 Professor in the North Eastern Hill University has told the researcher that Khasi language has been taught in North Eastern Hill University up to doctorate level. And while speaking with Mr. S. S Majaw 103 the former President of Khasi Author Society and Khasi author has told that Khasi language is now studied in the primary level, upper primary level, secondary and higher secondary level as M.I.L, graduate level as M.I.L (Modern Indian Language), elective and Honors and at the M.A., M.Phil and Ph.D level as a subject. So, written language has a high status in the literary sphere.

4.1 USE OF KHASI LANGUAGE

The technical factor for consideration is whether the number of the Khasi language users is large enough on population basis. It may be mentioned that the Standard Khasi language is spoken by 75 % of the total population in the above four districts of Meghalaya. In addition to these, there are over a lakh users of Khasi language living in neighbouring States of Asom (Assam) and Bangladesh.104

99 Annexure I. 100 Annexure II. 101 Supra, note 100. 102 Supra, note 71. 103 Id. 104 Supra, note 90 at 4.

It may be mentioned that the Khasi language is the only Mon-Khmer-Austro- Asiatic Language spoken in the four districts of Meghalaya. It has a long history of developing language and literature.105

The Standard Khasi Language has been used for different context. J. B Pride, a writer, once wrote:-

“Language might be characterized in such term as power, solidarity, individuality, qualities of leadership or responsibility or maturity or inscrutability and so forth…”106

The Standard Khasi Language meets all these criteria. The Khasi Language is a unifying force which binds together the Khasis wherever they are. As such it has been used extensively in the domain of education, administration and also in the print and electronic media.

The local Newspapers are written mostly in Khasi language while, a few is written in English, some of these local newspapers which is written in Khasi are Mawphor, Nongsain Hima, Peitngor, Dongmusa, Rupang etc., newspapers which is written in English are Shillong Times, Meghalaya Times etc. and regarding to Electronic Media, there are four private Channels catering news to local viewers, out of which only two used English as a Media language. The Channels which cater Khasi news are Ri Khasi Channel and Peitngor Cable News. Doordarshan Kendra, Shillong has programmes ranging from news to dramas to songs to documentaries that are telecast in Khasi. The All India Radio, Shillong broadcasts programmes in Khasi. Media production which include short tele films, music and films, big and small movies are found to make use of Khasi, English and even regional dialect i.e., Pnar. Besides, all these there are also magazines and journals which are written in Khasi.

As the researcher already mentioned above that for administration at State level, English is recognized as an official language while, Khasi is an associate official language. However, for administrative functions, English is used in District level and in Block level, English and Khasi are used. While spoken with Mr. Macmillian Byrsat 107 Lyngdoh (Priest or Minister) of the

105 Supra, note 90 at 4. 106 Id. 107 Supra, note 71.

Nongstoin Syiemship and also an expert in Sixth Schedule of the Constitution he said that at local levels like village durbars which include meetings, discussion and debates about the village welfare Khasi is used. Even though, Khasi is used together with English nevertheless, minutes, reports, rules and regulations are recorded and documented in English. He also added that the traditional rulers like the Syiem, the Sordar, the Wahadadar and the Dolois conducted their administrative and judicial affairs in Khasi language.

When speaking with Mr. M. A. Chalan108 Extra Assistant Commissioner, West Khasi Hills District Nongstoin Meghalaya he said that the use of Khasi language in official matters is limited but is rather widespread in trade and commerce. And he also added that as with all languages a process of development is still going on. Unfortunately the lack of use among elite circles is bringing about the so called „Khalish‟ which has no identity either as Khasi or as English. Mr. G. Thyrnniang109 retired Officer of Education of Meghalaya said that Khasi language is not decreasing day by day but, it keeps on increasing in the form of literature and he showed the concern that it may tend to decrease if it is not recognized at National level.

However, some faculty member of the Departments of Linguistics, Khasi N.E.H.U (name withheld) and the former President of the Khasi Authors Society, Mr. S. S Majaw,110 have said that the use of Khasi language in the administration, specially at the State level is decreasing day by day and they also added that to some extent English, being always a „killer language‟ of smaller language all the world over. The Faculty member of the Departments of Linguistics, Khasi N.E.H.U. also said that “at the elite level, it is right to say that the language is endangered”.

4.2 DECLINE IN THE LANGUAGE

Regarding the question of decline Khasi language is experiencing a huge of decline as unconcerned attitude towards nourishing generations by uncalculating reading habits among children by elders are not taking up seriously. This was felt in the discussion which was organized by the National Book Trust and it was held at the Art and Culture Hall in Shillong this discussion was attended by Prof. Pascal Malngiang and Dr. Julius L. Marak and also besides

108 Supra, note 71. 109 Id. 110 Id.

54 that the students of University and College. Ethnicity and language are always proud by any region or state. Prof. Malngiang said that is on the wane especially in terms of producing literature for children. He also added that even though Khasi literature has grown but, it has limitation and problems like publishing, readership and lack of marketing.111

Regarding the problem of literature, Dr. Marak said that the books of children are always written in English language and the people of the State always discard the books which are written on their own mother tongue and go for English books due to which they have failed to cultivate their own language used by their ancestors from time immemorial. To conclude the discussion, the co-coordinator of the discussion and also a State representative of Sahitya Academia Dr. Sylvanus Lamare said that if book like Harry Potter can be include science, fiction and mythology and obtain maximum readership from children, Khasi literatures can also be written in such a ways it would cover mythology of Khasi culture and tradition. He also called ahead children to put into writing the folktales told to them by their grandparents.112

While spoken with Mr. G. Thyrniang113 retired Officer of Education of Meghalaya said that there are sign of decline due to the absence of scholars who can enrich the language by collection of words phrases and synonyms of sub- dialects and combine them with the present treasure. And Mr. M. A. Chalan 114 Extra Assistant Commissioner, West Khasi Hills District Nongstoin Meghalaya said that there are changes for the better and for the worse. The study of Khasi grammar and usage is widely beneficial while the use of foreign words in place of existing Khasi words create a bad version of Khasi.

While asking about the majors factors that contribute to the decline of Khasi language Mr. M. A. Chalan115 Extra Assistant Commissioner, West Khasi Hills District Nongstoin Meghalaya said that the question of Khasi language is debatable. However, if there is, it is because of the younger generation‟s perception of Khasi being „uncool‟. In other efforts to make it „cool‟ English or Hindi words are being used in Khasi sentences which actually defile the language‟s

111 Debate held on Khasi, Garo Literature, The Meghalaya Times, 1 (Shillong edn, September 14, 2011). 112 Id. 113 Supra, note 71. 114 Id. 115 Id.

55 integrity and he also added that however, Khasi literature continues to grow and develop albeit in elite, erudite, academic circles.

4.3 NEGLECTED IN EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS

To some extent the Khasi language has been used in educational institutions either as a medium of instruction or as a subject. At Primary level Khasi medium school use Khasi as a medium of instruction but, English is being taught as a subject. In English medium school English was use as a medium of instruction and Khasi is being taught as a subject.116

No doubt in the contemporary world Khasi has always been a language at home and daily communication but, there seemed to be partiality to neglect it in education and every community willing to establish a primary school in favour of English Medium School but, for now there is obviously a feeling that the native language is important as a common state language and great emphasis is laid on education in it. English is of course a necessary language in its right place but, native language should also get some importance.

While speaking with Mr. M. A. Chalan117 Extra Assistant Commissioner, West Khasi Hills District Nongstoin Meghalaya said that all schools provide for second language and often, Khasi is the primary choice as a second language in English medium schools. Mr. G. Thyrnniang118 retired officer of Education in Meghalaya said that notwithstanding the Khasi language does not get recognition from centre but, this language is surviving as an area of study at doctorate level in the North Eastern Hill University which is a Central University. He further added that though there has been neglect by the Government for its recognition, the University should have to take the initiative to encourage the students to do the researches and dissertation on Khasi language.

4.4 KHASI LANGUAGE ON THE VERGE OF EXTINCTION

According to UNESCO release in The „UNESCO Atlas of the World‟s Languages in Danger‟ on 7 March, 2009, India has 196 languages which fall under the UNESCO Language in Danger list out of which Khasi is also one of the language under the list and it might be possible that this

116 Sylvanus Lamare, Khasi Language as a Medium of Instruction and Examination at Primary and Upper Primary at http://www.khasilit.org/language.html (Last visited on March 25, 2014). 117 Supra, note 71. 118 Id.

Khasi language will disappear as no speaker left., However, out of 196 languages in India 84 fall in the unsafe category where children speak the language but it is restricted to certain domain, 103 are endangered as they are only spoken by grandparents and the older generations sometimes partially and frequently and the remaining 9 are fully extinct as there are no speakers left. 119

The following are the classification system provided by the UNESCO how in trouble the language is:120

 Vulnerable- the language which fall under this category is that most children speak the language but, it may be restricted to certain domains for e.g., home.  Definitely endangered – the language which fall under this category is that the language is no longer learn the language as a mother tongue in the home.  Severely endangered- the language which fall under this category is that the language is spoken by grandparents and older generations while the parent generation may understand it but, they do not speak it to children or among themselves.  Critically endangered- the language which fall under this category is that the youngest speakers are grandparents and older but, they speak the language partially and infrequently.  Extinct- the language which falls under this category is that there are no speakers left.

Among the above category Khasi was listed in the vulnerable category with 912000 speakers left. But, on 7th April 2012 UNESCO has removed Khasi from its Atlas of the World‟s Languages in Danger, by adding that Khasi is spoken by some 900,000 in the region of Jaintia and Khasi Hills. The status of the of the Khasi language was reassessed by the editorial board of the Atlas, which concluded that Khasi may be classified as safe in which khasi was widely used in primary and secondary education, television, radio and religion and it also recognized as an associate official language in the Meghalaya State since 2005. 121

119 Supra, note 10 at 1- 19. 120 Id. 121 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, The Khasi language is no longer in danger, at http://www.unesco.org/new/en/media-services/single- view/news/the_khasi_language_is_no_longer_in_danger/#.U4gz8Si5_IU (Last Visited on March 28, 2014).

While speaking to Mr. M. A. Chalan122 Extra Assistant Commissioner, West Khasi Hills District Nongstoin Meghalaya said that any language with almost one million speakers cannot be considered to be on the verge of extinction. Mr. S. S. Majaw123 former president of Khasi Author Society, Khasi Author and expert in Khasi Language said that as it is today, the question of extinction does not arise. Through the ages, it has been passing all along with hard currents in time.

122 Supra, note 71. 123 Id.

CHAPTER- V PROTECTION OF KHASI LANGUAGE

The best way to show love to a Community is by respecting the native language and literature of that community and one should have to preserve the language and literature of the community. Hence, the Khasi Author‟s Society has played an important role for the protection of the Khasi language.

While speaking to Mr. S. S. Majaw124 the former President of the Khasi Author‟s Society and a Khasi Author about the role of the Khasi Author‟s Society for the protection of the Khasi language he said that apart from its struggle for the inclusion of the Khasi language in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution, the Khasi Author‟s Society organizes various seminars in and around the city as a way to make people aware of the importance of the Khasi language and also to make people aware of various initiatives made by the government in this regard. Through the Seminars, the Khasi Author‟s Society encourages the Khasi people to speak in their own mother tongue while they are at home or at school or at work places. For the protection of Khasi language, the Khasi Author‟s Society also encourages the students by giving award to those who secures the highest percentage in the Khasi Subject at S.S.L.C, H.S.S.L.C and I.C.S.E level. However, he further added that the first successful attempt made by the Khasi Author‟s Society for the protection of the Khasi language was the declaration of Khasi as an associate official language of the State at the time when the Meghalaya State Language Act, 2005 was passed.

Article 29 (1) of the Indian Constitution of India is an important provision in this regard and this Article provides that any section of the citizens residing in the territory of India or any part thereof having a distinct language, script or culture of its own shall have the right to conserve the same. Thus, it is a constitutional right or a fundamental right to preserves the mother tongue and it is a protection of the interest of the minorities like the Khasi Community. It is their right to preserve their own identity through the speaking as well as in writing in their own language. And it is expected from the State official that they will provide a full support and to co- operate in the preservation of Khasi language otherwise it will be a humiliation to their ancestral language and

124 Supra, note 71.

59 it will disappear from the surface of the earth and the younger generation will have to study the history of the Khasi language as what is Khasi language?.

5.1 CASE FOR INCLUSION OF THE KHASI LANGUAGE IN THE EIGHTH SCHEDULE OF THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA

There are thirty eight languages which are still pending with the Government which demands by various Organizations and State government to include in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution. The Home Ministry has received a number of requests from different organizations and State governments for the inclusion of more languages in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution of India and the Minister of the State for Home affair Ajay Maken, informed that in Lok Sabha there is demand for inclusion of thirty eight languages in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution of India but, it is still pending and nothing has been decided yet. 125

The languages which are pending for approval are 1) Angika,2) Banjara, 3) Bazika, 4) Bhojpuri, 5) Bhoti, 6) Bhotia, 7) Bundelkhandi, 8) Chattisgarhi, 10) Dhatki, 11) English 12) Garhwali (Pahari) 13) Gondi 14) Gujjar or Gujjari 15) Ho 16) Kaachachhi 17) Kamtapuri 18) Karbi 19) Khasi 20) Kodava or Coorg 21) Kok Barak 22) Kumaoni or Pahari 24) Kurak 25) Lepcha 26) Limbu 27) Mizo or Lushai 28) Magahi 29) Mundari 30) Nagapuri 31) Nicobarese 32) Pahari or Himachali 33) Pali 34) Rajasthani 35) Sambalpuri or Kosali 36) Shaurseni or Prakrit 37) Siraiki 38) tenyidi and Tulu. The Minister of State for Home affair Mr. Ajay Maken said that the decision for the inclusion of more language including Tulu in the Eighth Schedule is pending and it will take sometime in the light of the recommendation by the Committee under the Chairmanship of Sitakant Mohapatra and also of the government. He has also stated that there is no time frame which can be fixed for the consideration of the demands for inclusion of more languages in the Eighth Schedule. 126

Forty- two year back when the State of Meghalaya was carved out of Assam as a full State in 1972 and in the same year R.S. Lyngdoh was nominated as the State representative of the Sahiya Akademi and he was the first person who took step in this regard, on 16 February 1973 in

125 Requests to include 38 languages in Constitution pending: Government, The Hindu (New Delhi edn, December 1st, 2009) at http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/requests-to-include-38-languages-in-constitution-pending- govt/article58221.ece (Last Visited on March 28, 2014). 126 Id.

60 the General Council of the Akademi moved an individual resolution stating that as early as 1919, Khasi language was recognized by the Calcutta University up to Degree standard and on the same year the Assamese language was recognized by the same university, the Dibrugarh University and the Cambridge University have accorded similar recognition to that language, Khasi literature has reached more or less the same level of development as other Indian languages, richest in its literature among the Austro- Asiatic group of languages and it is spoken by one- half of the people in Meghalaya, Khasi language has produced great men of literature whose literary stature compares favourably with the great writers of the Country and the basic aim of the National Academy of Letters is to work actively for the development of Indian letters and set a high standard to foster and co-ordinate literary activities in all the Indian languages which are not enumerated in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution of India.127

The resolution could not be passed by the General Council and in the letter the Secretary of the Sahitya Akademi has circulated it will recalled the Executive Board at its meeting held on 3 December, 1974 has resolved that Khasi did not fulfill all criteria laid down by the Akademi and regretted its inability to recognize it for the present. The matters was again considered by the General Council at its meeting which was held on 26 February, 1975 and the General Council resolved that the question of recognition of Khasi be deferred for the present.128

In the year 1994 H. W. Sten was nominated as the member of the Sahitya Akademi and on 23 February, 1996 the meeting of the General Council was held H. W. Sten again voiced his concern about recognition of the Khasi language which was overdue. In September 1997 there was a discontinuity due to the sudden and untimely demise of H. W. Sten.129

However, it‟s a different scenario altogether now as it was informed by S. S. Majaw 130 the former President of the Khasi Author‟s Society and a Khasi Author that so far we can say that all the criteria for the inclusion in the Eighth Schedule have been fulfilled now. He also added that judged by the standard and literary richness, it is high time and long overdue to be included in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution of India. So far, as to say there is lack of political will.

127 Supra, note 87 at 82-83. 128 Id. 129 Id. 130 Supra, note 71.

Here it can be noted that the Khasi Author‟s Society since its inception in 1979, has bounden duty for the protection of the Khasi language; thereby striving hard all these years to develop and enrich all the branches of the Khasi Literature and has been demanding recognition of the language by Sahitya Akademi and still continuing to fight for this demand. The Khasi Author‟ s Society in its General Council meeting held on 29 June, 1991, expressed its grave concern at the delay in conferring recognition to Khasi language and resolved to reiterate its demand and urged the Sahitya Akademi to recognize Khasi as literary language of India at the earliest. This demand has nothing to do with the political will. To be recognized a language as such was the duty of the Sahitya Akademi (National Academy of Letters) according to the Resolution adopted by Parliament which was notified by the Ministry of Education on the 15 December, 1952.131

The Khasi Author‟s Society (K.A.S) will not rest until the Khasi language will be placed in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution of India. The former General Secretary Mr. Phrikshong Kharshiing said that the Khasi Author‟s Society has been involved in attempts to introduce Khasi language in the Eighth Schedule for the last few years. At present Khasi language has been recognized as an Associate official language under the Meghalaya State Language Act, 2005. Under this Act, Khasi language has been used up to District level even though English is still recognized as the official language. Mr. Phrikshong Kharshiing also said that recognition of Khasi language would be an advantage to the people as all official work including college, university and competitive examination could be written in Khasi. He also added that Khasi language as an Associate official language is the first step because if a language is not much prominent in one‟s own state how can the others recognize it. There is an impact but not so much prominent as still needs to implement in all government and Non- Government organizations whether it is official or non- official even if they need translators for that purpose.132

131 H. W. Sten, A case for Khasi and Garo, IX (3), Khasi Studies 35 (March 1995). 132 Supra, note 5.

5.2 ROLE OF THE STATE GOVERNMENT AND CENTRAL GOVERNMENT IN THIS REGARD

On June 24, 2004 Meghalaya said that it will go all out to make sure that the Khasi and Garo languages were included in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution of India. D. D. Lapang the then Chief Minister of Meghalaya, while replying to a resolution which has been introduced by opposition MLA Ardhendhu Chaudhuri in the Assembly has said that nothing much can be done in this regard until the Union Government represent a high powered Committee to go forward for setting out the criteria for the inclusion of more languages in the Eighth Schedule. Nationalist Congress Party (N.C.P) Chaudhuri observed that Khasi language is an ancient language in which it is structurally independent and it is one of the richest in the Mon- Khmer group of languages. 133

The then Meghalaya Chief Secretary W. M. S. Pariat has informed that in 2005 the State Government of Meghalaya had declared Khasi language as an Associate language but, the State Government does not have the ability to insert the Khasi language in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution of India. He also said that they will find out the way out to solve these problems and they will not let down their efforts and hard work of the concerned individual. Mr. W. S. Pariat also informed that 2000 languages are there in the world and out of these 2000 languages only 1000 of them are in reality are spoken.134

While asking about the non- inclusion of the Khasi language in the Eighth Schedule Mr. M. A. Chalan 135 said that when the Constitution was written, Khasi as a written language was fledgling. No significant body of literary work existed. Mr. S. S. Majaw136 the former President of the Khasi Author‟s Society and a Khasi author said that this is a political matter and even the Khasi Author‟s Society has made its effort for more than Twenty five years and still are fighting for this. All this needs a push at the MPs level that can be placed in the Lok Sabha but, what they can do if the MPs are not willing to co- operate for the cause of their land. He also added that the

133 Efforts on to Include Khasi in Eighth Schedule, The Telegraph, 1(Calcutta edn, June 25, 2004). 134Supra, note 5. 135 Supra, note 71. 136 Id.

63 major reason behind for the non- inclusion Khasi language in the Eighth Schedule is due to the lack of political will on the part of their leaders.

According to S. S. Majaw137 the former President of the Khasi Author‟s Society and a Khasi author also said that it is not right to say that no efforts have been made by the MPs to include the Khasi language in the Eighth Schedule. Mr. P. G. Marbaniang in 1989 and also Mr. P. R. Kyndiah in 2003 in the discussion for the inclusion of Bodo in the Eighth Schedule he requested the Government to consider Khasi language to be included in the Eighth Schedule as well. But, after them no one has taken any efforts for the inclusion of Khasi language in the Eighth Schedule. Mr. S. S. Majaw also said that in the year 2003, Mr. L. K. Advani had promised that the Khasi language will be included in the Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution if the BJP wins the elections but Congress became the ruling party.

Therefore, we can see that the State Government is doing what it can for the purpose but, all this depends in the hands of the MP to push this forward and place it as one of the important agendas that needs to be discussed in the Lok Sabha

.5.3 THE OFFICIAL LANGUAGES ACT, 1963 AND ITS IMPACT ON THE REGIONAL LANGUAGE

In 1963, the official Languages Act was enacted providing for the continued use of English even after 1965. The Act also provided that the use of English for correspondence by the Central Government with the States may be discontinued only after the legislatures of all non- Hindi speaking States passed resolutions for such discontinuance and after considering these resolutions, the two Houses of Parliament passed similar resolutions. The Act was further provided that in the interregnum, for certain specified purposes Hindi alone may be used and for some other purposes both English and Hindi can be used. The said Act inter alia provide for the setting up of a Committee on Official Language to review the progress made in the use of Hindi for the official purpose of the Union. It is the duty of the Committee to review the progress made in the use of Hindi for official purposes of the Union and submit a report to the President

137 Supra, note 71.

64 making recommendations thereon and the President shall cause the report to be laid before each House of Parliament and sent it to all the State Governments.138

The Official Languages Act, 1963 gives importance to Hindi and English languages only because, it declared Hindi as official language and English will be used for the purpose of communication between the Union and in a State which has not adopted Hindi as its Official Language. This will affect the regional language because, it is no where mentioned in the Act about the importance of regional language and it also affects the existence and growth of regional language. Therefore, if Khasi language will be included in the Eighth Schedule it will have a status. This will enable the State of Meghalaya to recognize Khasi will be the official language of the State and English will be use as a secondary language for communication with the Centre and other States.

5.4 BENEFITS AND LOSSES

There are lots of benefits if any language is included in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution. The following are the benefits if the any language is included in the Eighth Schedule:139

1) The member of MP who belong to any language which are in the Eighth Schedule can give speech and speak in their own mother tongue; 2) According to Article 344 (1) of the Indian Constitution, member of MP who belongs to any language of the Eighth Schedule able to take part in Language Commission and Committee; 3) Able to broadcast their language in T. V and AIR in Delhi; 4) Allowed the Candidate who belongs to any language in the Eighth schedule to give their answer in their own mother tongue in the UPSC examination for its Civil Service Examination; 5) Ministry of Human Resource Development, New Delhi established CIIL (Central Institute of Indian Languages) headquarter at Mysore and four other regional centers at Mysore, Pune, Patiala and Bhubaneswar for the development of the Indian languages;

138 Annexure IV. 139 Supra, note 16 at 266- 268.

6) Only Eighth Schedule language can get the chance for the preparation of syllabus and teaching aid in National Council of Education Research and Training in New Delhi; 7) For the National and International films award competition only the films which belong to the Eighth Schedule language can take part; 8) Able to implement their language as compulsory subject for the respective States which belong to the Eighth Schedule language; 9) For the development of the language which belong to the Eighth Schedule the Central Government gives one core rupees; 10) Official language department, Training Institutes and Translation Bureau offices in their own States can be established by the States which belong to any language in the Eighth Schedule; 11) Financial Assistance was given by the Ministry of Human Resource Development, Education Department and Language Division for the Eighth Schedule language for the translation of their language into English and other different languages of India.

Above are the benefits for languages enter in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution besides, there are also two most important benefits if any languages enter in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution of India. They are as under:

1) One of the major benefit is that a languages needs to be listed in the Eighth Schedule to get the Sahitya Akademi award which is one of the precious literary award in the country and; 2) the most important benefit of all being recognized as one of the official language of India.

Unfortunately, the above benefits are not available to the Khasi language because, it has not been included in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution of India. While speaking with Mr. M. A. Chalan 140 Extra Assistant Commissioner, West Khasi Hills District Nongstoin Meghalaya regarding the loss if Khasi language is not included in the Eighth Schedule he said that apart from a sense of lack of identity, such exclusion may perhaps foster apathy towards regional language. Any works of translation will seem insignificant and worthless thereby affecting the

140 Supra, note 71.

66 growth of literature. Mr. S. S Majaw 141the former President of the Khasi Author‟s Society said that financially and socially, there is a great loss of benefits.

Mr. G. Thyrniang142 retired officer of Education in Meghalaya observed that if Khasi language is included in the Eighth Schedule it will be a benefits because, it has close link with major languages of the Asian races like the Mongolian, the Thais, the Cambodian and Myans (Burmese). He also added that the precious heritage and customs culture which is unique in the world can be preserved for e.g., matrilineal system, religious system and social system in relation with monoliths and sanctuaries. While asking about the loss if it is not included in the Eighth Schedule he said that there is a great loss if Khasi language is not included in the Eighth Schedule because, it will lead to the extinction of the Khasi tribe (race) altogether.

141 Supra, note 71. 142 Id.

CHAPTER- VI REPORT OF THE STUDY

Questionnaire was given to a total of 50 people. The results of the study according to the questions asked may be summed up as follows:143

1. Question No.1: Do you think that Khasi as a language is threatened? 31 people which calculates to about 62 % of the total sample population answered in the affirmative, 18 % are of the view that Khasi as a language is not threatened and 20 % are can‟t say whether Khasi as a language is threatened or not therefore, we can conclude that majority of the people feel that Khasi as a language is threatened.

62%

20%

18%

2. For Question No. 2 :Do you notice any decline in the number of people who:

 Speak Khasi  Write Khasi

40 % of the total population felt that there has been a decline in the number of people who speak Khasi and 20 % felt that there has been a decline in the number of people who write Khasi. There are some people who felt that there has been a decline in the number of people who speak and write Khasi with a total population of 20% and only 8 % who are of the view that there is no decline for the number of people who speak and write Khasi. Whereas, 12 %

143 Annexure V.

of the total population could not say regarding the decline in the number of people who speak and write Khasi and one of the respondent noted that no specific data are available to authenticate these two aspects (write and speak Khasi).

40%

20%

12%

3. With regard to Question No. 3: Are you aware of Article 29 (1) (Right to conserve their own language, script or culture) of the Constitution of India? 68 % of the total population are aware of Article 29 (1) of the Constitution of India and 22 % of the total population are not aware of Article 29 (1) of the Constitution of India. Whereas 10 % of the total population can‟t say whether they are aware of Article 21 (1) or not.

0 68% 10% 22%

4. With regard to Question No. 4: Is there a need to protect Khasi language? Majority of the people which accounts to 96 % of the total population is of the view that there is an urgent

need to protect the Khasi language. Whereas only 4 % of the total population are of the view that there is no need to protect the Khasi language.

96%

5. For Question No. 5: Do people realize the importance of Khasi language?

64 % of the total population thinks that people nowadays do realize the importance of Khasi language and 28 % do not realize the importance of Khasi language. Whereas, 8 % of the total population can‟t say anything whether people realize or not the importance of Khasi language and one of the respondent noted that approximately 20 % of the population did not realize especially people living in Shillong city.

64%

28%

6. Question No. 6 relates to the role played by the Khasi language. The respondents respond that Khasi language play an important role because: i. The language provides an insight to culture, custom and history as a whole.

ii. To preserve and conserve the Khasi Culture (3), custom and traditions of the Khasi people. iii. It makes the society more developed by officially speaking the Khasi language. iv. As a mean of communication and everyone resides in Khasi, Jaintia knows and understand only Khasi language. v. Creating the nationalism feeling among the Khasis. vi. Strengthen the bonding and richness in Khasi culture and heritage. vii. It shows the unique of the Khasi community. viii. It acts as main source of culture of the Khasi community. ix. As an index of identity of the Khasis as a Tribe x. As a mean of communication in variety areas of life: social, political, economic, religious, academic, etc. xi. The bond of love and unite between the Khasis people in Meghalaya. xii. Preserve the specialty of Khasi language and custom. xiii. Medium of communication and in preserving its originality, its styles and its realness in its uniqueness. xiv. Khasi is an Austro- Asiatic language spoken mainly in Meghalaya state in India by the Khasi people and mostly 865, 000 of the Khasi speakers are found in Meghalaya state, Khasi the language is also spoken by a number of people in the hill districts of Assam bordering with Meghalaya and by a sizable population living in Bangladesh, close to the Indian border. xv. Pointing out the origin, the nature, the culture and custom xvi. Communication among Khasi people. xvii. It helps to set identity for Khasi people. xviii. It helps to preserve the custom and tradition. xix. Communication, identification. xx. Preserve the traditions of Khasi Tribe, culture. xxi. It improves and encourages the people in the field of Khasi literature. xxii. It contribute the Indian Culture, xxiii. Equal role as all language. xxiv. Easy to read and write.

xxv. Easy in pronunciations. xxvi. Easy to understand. xxvii. Recognized that we belong to Khasi community. xxviii. As a medium of instruction at different categories and as a common language in Khasi hills. xxix. Easy communicating with other tribes e.g., Garo and even non-tribal for it is easy to learn and speak. xxx. Medium to enhance education and literacy. xxxi. Represent Khasi culture xxxii. In the society of the Meghalaya State. xxxiii. Protect the unity and internity of the Khasi peoples. xxxiv. It protect the Khasi tribes/ peoples xxxv. Medium of communication as a regional language. xxxvi. Unites the Khasi tribes Khyriam, Pnar, Bhoi, War and Lyngngam.

7. For Question No. 7: What factors play an important role in ignoring the usage of Khasi language?

(a) Modernization (b) Westernization (c) Medium of instructions (d) Any other (please specify)

10 respondents (20%), 17 respondents (34%) and 6 respondents (12%) of the total population holds modernization, westernization and medium of instructions respectively responsible in ignoring the usage of the Khasi language. Whereas, 17 respondents (34 %) holds all the three i.e., modernization, westernization and medium of instruction are the factors which play an important role in ignoring the usage of Khasi language and beside of these three some of the respondent specify some of the major factors in ignoring the usage of Khasi language like a) the people of the society do not feel its importance especially people living in town and city b) supersession of other language, foolishly follow what they see on T.V c) print media, electronic media, socialization d) not realize the importance,

value and unique of their own mother tongue and e) count foreign language superior to their own language (also refer to question no.11).

34%

20%

12%

8. Question No. 8, 46 % of the total population are having knowledge that there are institutions that are helping to protect the Khasi language and 22 % of the total population are not having any knowledge regarding this matter. Whereas, 32 % of the total population they can‟t say whether they are having any knowledge or not for any institutions that are helping for the protection of Khasi language.

46%

32%

22%

9. Question No. 9, 50 % of the total population they are of the view that the State government play a minor role in the development of the Khasi language and 26 % are giving their view that the State Government has play no role at all for the development of the Khasi language. Whereas, 20 % of the total population are of the view that the State Government play an insignificant role and only 4 % they feel that the State Government play a major role in the development of the Khasi language.

50%

26%

20%

10. For Question No. 10, majority (96 %) feel that it is necessary for the school students to be made to learn Khasi language; while 2 % of the total population they feel that it is not necessary and 2 % they can‟t say whether it is necessary or not.

96%

11. Question No. 11, 52 % of the total population are of the view that the decline of the Khasi language is due to the use of mobiles, computers etc. while, 28 % they do not relate the decline of the Khasi language to the use of mobiles, computers etc. and 20 % of the total population they are can‟t say regarding this matter.

52%

28%

20%

12. For question No. 12, 92 % of the total population is of the view that Khasi language should be included in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution of India; while a meager 6 % feel that there is no need for its inclusion and 2 % they can‟t say whether it should be included or not.(Question No. 12)

92%

13. For Question No. 13, majority with 98 % of the total population feel that if Khasi language is included in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution of India it will help to protect Khasi language and for the development of the State while only 2 % of the total population they can‟t say whether it will help to protect Khasi language and for the development of the State or not.

98%

CHAPTER- VII CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS

Eighth Schedule was included in the Constitution of India and it guaranteed Constitutional as well as formal recognition to regional languages which are dominant in all fields of education, administration, social status and economy. Originally there were fourteen languages which had been included at the time when the Constitution of India was framed and the other remaining languages of the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution were included by Amendment of the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution. Thus, at present there are 22 languages which have been included in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution of India and the fourteen original languages are Assamese, Bengali, Gujarati, Kannada, Kashmiri, Malayalam, Marathi, Oriya, Punjabi, Sanskrit, Tamil, Telugu, Urdu and Hindi as the official languages of Indian States. Since, then it has been extended into three times firstly, in 1967 to include Sindhi, Secondly, in 1992 to include Konkani, Manipuri and Nepali in lastly, in 2003 to include Bodo, Santhali, Maithili and Dogri.

Regarding the criteria for the inclusion of language in the Eighth Schedule, there is no set of criteria specified for the inclusion of language in the Eighth Schedule. In absence of objective criteria for the inclusion of language in the Eighth Schedule, on September in 2003 a Committee was set up under the Chairmanship of Shri. Sitakant Mohopatra to go forward for setting objective criteria for the inclusion of more languages in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution of India. The Committee in 2004 submitted its report and the report of the Committee is under the consideration with the concerned Ministries or Departments of the Central Government. A decision is still pending regarding the demand for the inclusion of languages in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution and it will be taken in the light of the recommendation of the Committee and Government decision. On the other hand, there is no time frame that can be fixed for consideration of the demands for inclusion of more languages in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution of India.

Khasi language is more developed in the present contemporary world and Khasi language has been recognized under the Meghalaya Language Act in 2005 and it has been used at district level. Khasi language is also used as a debates and discussion in district Court as well as in the Village durbar and now Khasi language has been studied in the primary level, upper primary

76 level, secondary and higher secondary level as M.I.L, graduate level as M.I.L, elective and Honors and at the M.A., M.Phil and Ph.D level as a subject. The Khasi language has found a place in mass communication media. The All India Radio and Doordarshan Kendra, Shillong have regular programmes in Khasi language. From the literary point of view Khasi language is more developed when compared with the other tribal languages.

Khasi language play an important role because, it helps to unite the Khasi community i.e., Khynriam, Pnar, Bhoi, War, Lyngngam and it is a dominant language in Khasi and Jaintia hills in the State of Meghalaya and it is the mother tongue of most people who live in the State of Meghalaya. Khasi language is dominant especially in rural areas because, they understand and speak only in Khasi but, in Shillong being a metropolitan in nature they speak a number of foreign languages. Protection of mother tongue is a Constitutional right which was guaranteed under the Indian Constitution. Article 29 (1) of the Indian Constitution of India is an important provision in this regard and this Article provides that any section of the citizens residing in the territory of India or any part thereof having a distinct language, script or culture of its own shall have the right to conserve the same. Thus, it is a constitutional right or a fundamental right to preserves their own mother tongue and it is a protection of the interest of the minorities like the Khasi Community. We have the right to preserve our own identity through the speaking as well as in writing in our own language. Khasi language is needed to protect because, it is the mother tongue of the Khasi community in the State of Meghalaya and it is a challenge because, it needs to put in the Eight Schedule for its protection and for the development of the State of Meghalaya.

Therefore, the researcher come to the conclusion that Khasi language is very much threatened as there has been a decline in its usage (both speaking and writing) for which modernization, westernization, uses of mobiles, computers etc. may be held responsible. However, there are a lot of other factors as well which contribute to the decline of the usage of Khasi language like materialism, indifferent attitude of the elders in checking the young ones, sense of pride etc. The State Government must do whatever they can for the protection of the Khasi language. In order to protect the language it is also necessary for it to be included in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution of India.

SUGGESTIONS

The research has unfolded many aspects of the Khasi language. The KAS has been struggling for the past 25 years and more for the purpose of including Khasi language in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution of India. The researcher has analyzed some of the problems relating to this issue and the reasons as to why it has not been included even after a lot of efforts by various organizations and associations. Following are some of the suggestions that if applied may be helpful for achieving this purpose:

1. Creating awareness among the majority of the people about the KAS‟s movement or strive to include Khasi language in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution of India. 2. Encouraging the budding authors to publish books in the Khasi language. 3. Khasi Authors Society they need to encourage people to preserve their language through writing books in Khasi as much as they can. 4. Khasi Authors Society they have done their job and they need to put more pressure to the political class to achieve inclusion into Eighth Schedule. 5. Khasi Authors Society they need to encourage inclusion of sub-dialects into the Khasi dictionary because mainstreaming of sub- dialects is very important and necessary 6. Urging the Member of Parliament representing the State to push forward this agenda in the Lok Sabha. 7. Families and society should also play a major role in teaching their children the importance of their mother tongue and encourage speaking and respecting Khasi language. 8. The people should count Khasi language important rather than foreign language. 9. The state government should take initiative step for the protection of the Khasi language.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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NETHERLANDS, E. J. BRILL- LEIDEN (1978).

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BENGAL AND ASSAM SECRETARIAT PRESS (19O6).

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KONGMEN WOLLEY PRESS (2011).

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KUMAR MITTAL CONCEPT PUBLISHING COMPANY (2009).

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NORTH-EAST INDIA, NEW DELHI, REGENCY PUBLICATION (2000).

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PUBLICATION (1990). NEWSPAPERS 1. Call to strive towards enriching of Khasi language, The Shillong Times (Shillong edn, August 14, 2011).

2. Chumukkedima, B.B Chetri, Nepali Language Recognition Day- August 20 (The Morung Express, Nagaland edn) at http://www.morungexpress.com/Perspective/84729.html. 3. Debate held on Khasi, Garo Literature, The Meghalaya Times (Shillong edn, September 14, 2011). 4. Efforts on to Include Khasi in Eighth Schedule, The Telegraph (Calcutta edn, June 25, 2004). 5. Government To bring Comprehensive legislation on languages, The Hindu (New Delhi edn, December 24, 2004), at http://www.hindu.com/2003/12/24/stories/2003122406841100.htm. 6. Lyngdoh, Blan K., Khasi language, The Shillong Times (Shillong edn, March 26, 2014. 7. Requests to include 38 languages in Constitution pending: Government, The Hindu (New Delhi edn, December 1, 2009) at http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/requests-to- include-38-languages-in-constitution-pending-govt/article58221.ece.

8. Tankha, Madhur, Globalization is Killing Local Languages, The Hindu (New Delhi edn, September 23, 2013). 9. Wanniang, Collin, Ka Khyrnit baphra (8th Schedule), U Nongsain Hima (Shillong edn, March 28, 2014). 10. Wangdi, Sonam, Nepali Language in the Eighth Schedule, The Darjeeling Times, (Darjeeling edn, October 13 , 2009), at http://www.darjeelingtimes.com/news/news/Opinions/Nepali-Language-in-the--Eighth- Schedule-of--Constitution-.html.

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1. 47th Report of the Commissioner for Linguistic Minorities, (July 2008- June 2010), at http://nclm.nic.in/shared/linkimages/NCLM47thReport.pdf. 2. Government of India, Ministry of Home Affairs, Census of India 2001, at http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/Census_Data_Online/Language/state ment9.aspx. 3. The Memorandum of the Khasi Authors‟ Society, Shillong, Meghalaya, Inclusion of Khasi language in the Eighth Schedule to the constitution of India (June 2010), [unpublished, archived at Khasi Authors‟ Society office].

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1. Hurrisa, Mother Tongue: The Language of Heart and mind, FOUNTAIN MAGAZINE (July- August 2010), at http://www.fountainmagazine.com/Issue/detail/Mother-Tongue-The- Language-of-Heart-and-Mind.

2. Misra, Surya Narayan, Language and Language Policy in India, E-MAGAZINE ORISSA

REVIEW (March, 2014), at http://orissa.gov.in/e- magazine/Orissareview/2014/mar/marreview.htm.

3. Sengupta, Papia, Endangered Languages: Some Concerns, XLIV (32), ECONOMIC AND

POLITICAL WEEKLY (August 8, 2009).

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1. Bareh, Hamlet, Collision with modernity- A perspective on life and letters of the Khasi, 16 (¾) India International Centre Quarterly (1989), at http://www.jstor.org/stable/23002073. 2. Singha, M. Nigamba, Manipuri Language in the Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution, 1 Pratidhwani- A Journal of Humanities and Social Science (2012) at http://www.thecho.in/files/Manipuri-Language-in-the-Eighth-Schedule-of-the-Indian- Constitution.pdf. 3. Singh, M. Ningamba et al, Language Policy of India: Dominance and Suppression to Manipuri Language, 1 Asian Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies (2013) at http://www.ajms.co.in/sites/ajms/index.php/ajms/article/viewFile/129/139. 4. Sten, H. W, A case for Khasi and Garo, IX (3) Khasi Studies (March, 1995).

5. Thirumalai, M.S. and Malikarjun, B, Adopting a Constitution for a Nation- The Last Days of the Constituent Assembly of India and The Adoption of Language Provision, 6 Language in India Strength for Today and Bright Hope for Tomorrow ( April, 2006) at http://www.languageinindia.com/april2006/constituentassemblylastdays.pdf. 6. Thirumalai, M. S, Language in India, 4 Language in India Strength for Today and Bright Hope for Tomorrow (January 1, 2004) at http://www.languageinindia.com/jan2004/langnewsjan2004.html. 7. V.M., Vanishree et al, Provision for Linguistic Diversity and Linguistic Minorities in India, 11 Languages in India Strength for Today and Bright Hope for Tomorrow (February 2, 2011) at http://www.languageinindia.com/feb2011/vanishreemastersfinal.pdf.

PARLIAMENTARY DEBATE

Advani, L.K., LOK SABHA DEBATE (December 22, 2003) at http://www.allindiaaseca.org/lsdebate-22.12.03.html.

PRESS RELEASE

1. Home Minister‟s Office, HM‟s Statement on Inclusion of Bhojpuri and Rajasthani Languages in the Eighth Schedule, Ministry of Home Affairs (August 30, 2010) at http://www.pib.nic.in/newsite/erelease.aspx?relid=65435.

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1. http://www.unesco.org 2. http://indiacode.nic.in 3. http://india.gov.in 4. http://www.oxforddictionaries.com 5. http://grammar.about.com 6. http://www.ifad.org 7. http://www.khasilit.org 8. http://www.pib.nic.in 9. http://www.allindiaaseca.org 10. http://www.languageinindia.com 11. http://www.jstor.org 12. http://www.thecho.in 13. http://www.fountainmagazine.com 14. http://orissa.gov.in 15. http://www.censusindia.gov.in 16. http://nclm.nic.in 17. http://www.morungexpress.com 18. http://www.thehindu.com 19. http://www.darjeelingtimes.com 20. http://www.ajms.co.in

ANNEXURE-I

THE MEGHALAYA STATE LANGUAGE ACT, 2005

ANNEXTURE-II

THE MEGHALAYA STATE LANGUAGE RULES, 2008

ANNEXTURE-III

CERTIFICATES OF INTERVIEW

ANNEXTURE-IV

THE OFFICIAL LANGUAGES ACT, 1963

ANNEXTURE- V

QUESTIONNAIRE

2. The Official Languages Act, 1963 (Act Provided further that where Hindi is used for purposes of communication between one State which lias No. 19 of 1963) adopted Hindi as its official language and another State which has not adopted Hindi as its official language, such (10th May, 1963) communication in Hindi shall be accompanied by a trans- An Act to provide for the languages which may be lation of the same in the English language : used for the official purposes of the Union, for transac- Provided also that nothing in this sub-section shall be tion of business in Parliament, for Central and State construed as preventing a State which has not adopted

Acts and for certain purposes in High Courts. Hindi as its official language from using Hindi for purposes of Be it enacted by Parliament in the fourteenth year of communication with the Union or with a State which has the Republic of India as follows: adopted Hindi as its official language, or by agreement with any other State, and in such a case, it shall not be 1. Short title and commencement. (1) This Act obligatory to use the English language for purposes of may be called the Official Languages Act, 1963. communication with that State.

(2) Section 3 shall come into force on the 26th day (2) Notwithstanding anything contained in sub- of January, 1965 and the remaining provisions of this Act section (1), where Hindi or the English language is used for shall come into force on such date* as the Central Govern- purposes of communication :— ment may, by notification in the Official Gazette, appoint v and different dates may be appointed for different provi- (i) between one Ministry or Department or office sions of this Act. of the Central Government and another;

2. Definitions.—In this Act, unless the context oth- (ii) between one Ministry or Department or office erwise requires.— of the Central Government and any corporation or company owned or controlled by the Central (a) "appointed day" in relation to section 3, means the Government or any office thereof; 26th day of January, 1965 and in relation to any other provision of this Act, means the day on (iii) between any corporation or company owned or which that provision comes into force; controlled by the Central Government or any office thereof and another; (b) "Hindi" means Hindi in Devanagari Script. A translation of such communication in the English 3. Continuance of English language for official language or, as the case may be, in Hindi shall also be purposes of the Union and for use in Parliament.-(l) provided till such date as the staff of the concerned Ministry, Notwithstanding the expiration of the period of fifteen Department, office or corporation or company aforesaid years from the commencement of the Constitution the have acquired a working knowledge of Hindi. English language may, as from the appointed day, continue to be used, in addition to Hindi: - (3) Notwithstanding anything contained in sub section (1) both Hindi and the English languages shall be (a) for all official purposes of the Union for which it used for:- . . , was being used immediately before that day, and (i) resolutions, general orders, rules, notifications, administrative or other reports or press com- (b) for the transaction of business in Parliament; muniques issued or made by the Central Gov- Provided that the English language shall be used ernment or by a Ministry, Department or office for purposes of communication between the Union and a thereof or by a corporation or company owned State which has not adopted Hindi as its Official or controlled by the Central Government or by Language: any office of such corporation or company;

*S.5(1) comes into force on the 10th January, 1965, vide notification No. S.O. 94, dated the 4th January, 1965, Gazette of India, Pt, JJ, Sec. 3(ii), p. 128. 5.6 comes into force on the 19th May, 1969, vide notification No. S.O. 1945, dated the 14th May, 1969, Gazette of India, Pt. JJ, Sec. 3(ii) p. 2024. 5.7 comes into force on the 7th March, 1970, vide Notification No. S.O. 841 dated the 26th February, 1970 Gazette of India, Pt. E, Sec. 3(ii). S.5(2) comes into force on the 1st Oct., 1976 vide Notification No. S.O. 655(E) dated the 5th October, 1976, Gazette of India, Pt. U, Sec. 3(ii) p. 1901. (ii) administrative and other reports and official (3) It shall be the duty of the Committee to review papers laid before a House or the Houses of the progress made in the use of Hindi for the official Parliament; purpose of the Union and submit a report to the President making recommendations thereon and the President shall (iii) Contracts and agreements executed and li- cause the report to be laid before each House of Parliament, cences, permits, notices and forms for tender and sent to all the State Governments. issued, by or on behalf of the Central Govern- (4) The President may, after consideration of the ment or any Ministry, Department or office report referred to in sub-section (3), and the views, if any, thereof or by a corporation or company owned expressed by the State Government thereon, issue direc- or controlled by the Central Government or by tions in accordance with the whole orany partof the report: any office of such corporation or company. ***(Provided that the directions so issued shall not (4) Without prejudice to the provisions of sub- be inconsistent with the provisions of section 3.) section (1) or sub-section (2) or sub-section (3) the Central- Government may, by rules made under Section 8, provide 5. Authorised Hindi translation of Central Acts, for the language or languages to be used for the official etc.-(l) A translation in Hindi published under the authority purpose of the Union, including the working of any Min- of the President in the Official Gazette on and after the’ istry, Department, section or office, and in making such appointed day- rutcs, due consideration shall be given to the quick and (a) of any Central Act or of any Ordinance promul- efficient disposal of the official business and the interests of gated by the President, or the general public and in particular, the rules so made shall ensure that persons serving in connection with the affairs (b) of any order, rule, regulation or by-law issued of the Union and having proficiency either in Hindi or in the under the Constiution or under any Central Act; English language may function effectively and that they Shall be deemed to be the authoritative text are not placed at a disadvantage on the ground that they do thereof in Hindi. not have proficiency in both the languages,** (2) As from the appointed day, the authoritative (5) The provisions of clause (a) of sub-section (I), text in the English language of all Bills to be introduced or and the provisions of sub-section (2), sub-section (3) and amendments ihereto to be moved in either House of sub-section (4) shall remain in force until resolutions for Parliament shall be accompanied by a translation of the the discontinuance of the use of the English language for same in Hindi authorised in such manner as may be the purposes mentioned therein have been passed by the prescribed by rules made under this Act. Legislatures of all the States which have not adopted Hindi as their Official language and until after considering the 6. Authorised Hindi translation of State Acts in resolutions aforesaid, a resolution for such discontinuance certain cases.— Where the Legislature of a State has pre- has been passed by each House of Parliament. scribed any language other than Hindi for use in Acts passed by the Legislature of the State on Ordinances 4. Committee on Official Language.—(1) After the promulgated by the Governor of the State a translation of expiration of ten years from the date on which section 3 the same in Hindi, in addition to a translation thereof in the comes into force, there shall be constituted a Committee on English language as required b*y clause (3) of article 348 of Official Language, on a resolution to that effect being the Constitution may be published on or after the appointed moved in either House of Parliament with the previous day under the authority of the Governor of the State in the sanction of the President and Passed by both Houses. Official Gazette of that State and in such a case, the (2) The Committee shall consist of thirty members, translation in Hindi or any such Act or Ordinance shall be of whome twenty shall be members of the House of the deemed to be the authoritative text thereof in the Hindi People and ten shall be members of the Council of language. States, to be elected respectively by the members of the 7. Optional use of Hindi or other official lan- House of the People and the members of the Council of States in accordance with the system of proportional rep- guage in judgements etc. of High Courts.— As from the resentation by means of the single transferable vote. appointed day or any day thereafter the Governor of aState

**Substituted by Act 1 of 1968, section 2 for section 3. ***Inserted by Act 1 of 1968, section 3. 8 may, with the previous consent of the President, authorise and it is necessary in the interest of the educational the use of Hindi or the official language of the State, in and cultural advancement of the country that con- addition to the English language, for the purposes of any certed measures should be taken for the full develop- judgement, decree or order passed or made by the High ment of these languages; Court for that State and where any judgement, decree or This House resolves that a programme shall be prepared order is passed or made in any such language (other than and implemented by the Government of India, in the English language), it shall be accompanied by a trans- collaboration with the State Governments for the lation of the same in the English language issued under the co-ordinated development of all these languages, authority of the High Court. alongside Hindi so that they grow rapidly in richness and become effective means of communicating 8. Power to made rules.— (1) The Central Gov- modern knowladge. ernment may, by notification in the Official Gazette, make rules for carrying out the purposes of this Act. 3. WHEREAS it is necessary for promoting the sense of unity and facilitating communication between people (2) Every rule made under this section shall be in different parts of the country that effective steps laid, as soon as may be, after it is made, before each House of should be taken for implementing fully in all States Parliament while it is in session for a total period of thirty days the three-language formula evolved by the Govern- which may be comprised in one session or in two ment of India in consultation with the State Govern- successive sessions, and if before the expiry of the session in ments. which it is so laid or the session immediately following, both . v Houses agree in making any modification in the rule or This House resolves that arrangements should be made in both Houses agree that the rule should not be made, the rale accordance with the formula for the study of a shall thereafter have effect only in such modified form or be modern Indian language, preferably one of the of no effect, as the case may be, so however that any such Southern languages, apart from Hindi and English in modification or annulment shall be without prejudice to the the Hindi speaking areas and of Hindi alongwith the validity of anything previously done under that rule. regional languages and English in the non-Hindi speaking areas. 9. Certain provisions not to apply to Jammu and Kashmir.- The provisions of section 6 and section 7 4. AND, WHEREAS itis necessary toensure that the just shall not apply to the State of Jammu and Kashmir. claims and interest of people belonging to different parts of the country in regard to the public services of RESOLUTION the Union are fully safeguarded;

No.F.5/8/65-O.L,- The following Government Resolution, This House resolves— • . as adopted by both Houses of Parliament, is hereby published for general information: - (a) that compulsory knowledge of either Hindi or English shall be required at the state of selection RESOLUTION of candidates for recruitment to the Union services or posts except in respect of any special "WHEREAS under article 343 of the Constitution Hindi services or posts for which a high standard of shall be the official language of the Uni on, and under knowledge of English alone or Hindi alone, or article 351 thereof it is the duty of the Union to both as the case may be, is considered promote the spread of the Hindi language and to essential for the satisfactory performance of the develop it so that it may serve as a medium of duties of any such service or post; and expression for all the elements'of the composite culture of India. (b) that all the languages included in the English Schedule to the Consliution and English shall This House resolves that a more intensive and comprehen- be permitted as alternative media for the AH sive programme shall be prepared and implemented India and higher Central Services examina- by the Government of India for accelerating the tions after ascertaining the views of the Union spread and development of Hindi, and its progressive Public Service Commission on the future use for the various official purposes of the Union and an scheme of the examinations, the procedural annual assessment report giving details of the aspects and the timing." measures taken and the progress achieved shall be laid on the Table of both Houses of Parliament and sent to all Slate Governments; Sd.1-R.D. 2. WHEREAS the English Schedule to the Constitution THAPAR specifies 14 major languages of India besides Hindi, Joint Secretary to the Government of India

Questionnaire

“Protection of Khasi language under the Indian Constitution: Need and Challenges” ______

Sir/ Madam

I Angelis Marwein a final semester student of the National Law University Delhi, am doing a research work on the topic mentioned above under the guidance of Prf. S. Sachidanadam as a part of my Curriculum. In this connection I kindly request your co-operation and help for eliciting information. The findings of this research in my paper will be for a successful outcome. Your answer and name will be kept strictly confidential and will be used solely for the purpose of my research. I kindly request you to give your free and frank opinion to the questions that I had prepared for you. Your active cooperation and participation will give substantial progress to my research.

Kindly spare some of your valuable time to fill in the questionnaire that I have enclosed with this letter.

Thanking you

Yours sincerely

Angelis Marwein

LL. M.

IVth Semester

National Law University, Delhi

To be filled by the respondent:-

Name: ......

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Age: ......

Sex (male/female): ......

Designation: ......

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Qualification: ......

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Address: ......

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Questions

1. Do you think that Khasi as a language is threatened? a) Yes b) No c) Can’t say

2. Do you notice any decline in the number of people who:

 Speak Khasi  Write Khasi

a) Yes b) No c) Can’t say

3. Are you aware of Article 29 (1) (Right to conserve their own language, script or culture) of the Constitution of India?

a) Yes b) No c) Can’t say

4. Is there a need to protect Khasi language?

a) Yes b) No c) Can’t say

5. Do people realize the importance of Khasi language?

a) Yes b) No c) Can’t say

6. What role does Khasi language play?

7. What factors play an important role in ignoring the usage of Khasi language?

(a) Modernization (b) Westernization (c) Medium of instructions (d) Any other (please specify)

8. Are there any institutions in your knowledge that are helping to protect the Khasi language? a) Yes b) No c) Can’t say

9. What role does the State Government play in the development of the Khasi language?

(a) Major (b) Minor (c) Insignificant (d) Nil

10. Should students be made to learn Khasi language? a) Yes b) No c) Can’t say

11. Do you relate the decline of the Khasi language to the use of mobiles, computers etc.? a) Yes b) No c) Can’t say

12. Khasi as a language has not been included in the Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution. Should it have been included? a) Yes b) No c) Can’t say

13. If Khasi Language is included in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution of India it will help to protect khasi language? a) Yes b) No c) Can’t say