Laure Paquette Teaching Political Science to Undergraduates Active Pedagogy for the Microchip Mind

Laure Paquette Teaching Political Science to Undergraduates

Active Pedagogy for the Microchip Mind

Managing Editor: Magdalena Randall-Schab

Language Editor: Jeremy Busacca Published by De Gruyter Open Ltd, Warsaw/Berlin Part of Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Munich/Boston

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 license, which means that the text may be used for non-commercial purposes, provided credit is given to the author. For details go to http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/.

ISBN: 978-3-11-045054-5 e-ISBN: 978-3-11-045055-2

Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek. The Deutsche National bibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data are available in the Internet at http://dnb.dnb.de.

Managing Editor: Magdalena Randall-Schab Associate Editor: Jeremy Busacca www.degruyteropen.com

Cover illustration: © Laure Paquette To Tony, with love and appreciation for his support

Contents

Introduction viii Acknowledgments xiii

Part I: Case studies

Excursus: Overview and Instructions for Worksheets 2 1 Introductory Exercise – in the Decision-Maker’s Shoes 9 2 Case Study in Political Philosophy: the Allegory of the Cave 10 3 Case Studies in Comparative Politics 20 3.1 Bill Clinton’s Campaign for the Presidential Nomination 20 3.2 The Orange Revolution in Ukraine 29 4 Case Study in Public Policy and Administration 35 5 Case Studies in International Relations 42 5.1 Bush Administration’s New Doctrine and Iraq 42 5.2 The North Korean Nuclear Stand-Off 49

Part II: Simulations And Exercises

Excursus: The Overview Worksheet 61 1 Political Philosophy 64 1.1 What is Politics? 64 1.2 Ideologies: Families of Political Ideas 65 2 Role-Play Simulations for Comparative Politics 68 2.1 The Budget Simulation 68 2.2 The Election Campaign Simulation 72 2.3 Public Opinion Poll 76 3 Simulations for International Relations 84 3.1 The International Court of Justice Simulation 84 3.2 The IMF Simulation 95 3.3 The NATO Simulation 100 3.4 The UN Security Council Simulation 105 4 Public Policy and Administration Simulation 111 5 Conclusions and Limitations 119

List of Resources 121 Appendix: List of Blank Worksheets Used in Part I and Part II 122 Bibliography 147 Index 153 Introduction

Much has been written about the effect of the Internet on students, sometimes at con siderable length (Greenfield, 2014). At the time of this writing, the most recent research shows that having even one other student using the Internet in the room decreases the capacity to concentrate (Sana, 2013). But digital technologies are here to stay. It there fore behooves those working in higher education to make the best of their presence, and a good place to start would be to seek opportunities these technologies present. The capacity to concentrate is only one of the abilities that have evolved as a result of the electronic revolution. The advent of texting has, for example, provided the impetus for considerable evolution in several ways. For one thing, texting means that students no longer fear the blank page (Snellman, 2008). Texting means that students’ judgment forms later, because the proportion of direct social interaction and expe rience decreases. Access to much more information means that students are better informed generally. It also means they will notice if university instructors are not up to date. Digital technologies may mean that students give up much more quickly if they do not succeed immediately in getting information. But it also means that they live more in the moment: not in the past, not in some putative future. The popularity of texting also shows how much more students rely on social networks for information than on formal sources, to the despair of professors and university librarians every where. But it also means that students will pay more attention to what professors say, to the lectures which still dominate the teaching methods in many disciplines. Students’ reliance on social networks also shows how much they prize rela tionships. This primacy of affinity operates in the case of information as well as the message (Arnold, 2014). In addition, this primacy of network over structure means that anyone in a hierarchical relationship, such as a supervisor and employee or pro fessor and student, must earn the respect of the subordinate. This means that women or minorities, who historically and in some situations still, are disadvantaged at having to earn their credibility, now face a more level playing field. This decrease in automatic credibility also means that students will judge their professors much more perceptively, once their judgment develops. Their judgment may develop later, but when it does, it is better from the start. So the job of the professor is no longer to provide information; it is to give meaning to it. The professor can no longer only lecture, (s)he must model the behaviour which is trying to be instilled. In some ways, this is not new. In the liberal arts, at least, the university was always about how much it could get students to read, and to gather the information from the library. They now have access to much greater information. This frees students up for other, more demanding tasks. It means that the university faces a challenge, not different in nature from the challenge always presented by the thin king, well-read student, but different in some of its characteristics. The plain fact is that students now are more interested in networks than the message. But it also means that the professor has an opportunity to provide what the

information means – a more interesting role, and a dramatically more important one. What this also means is that university education will become even more important, even as it is judged more perceptively. It will not just be that employers will seek to recruit more selectively, and use universities in the process. It means that the poten tial contribution to students’ future has become even greater – so long as university instructors learn to use the classroom to teach what students cannot learn any other way. That is what this book is about. Marshall McLuhan once spoke of the Gutenberg mind, the impact of the printing press on how people think. At this point, there is no turning back, but there is also an opportunity – to have a permanent, long-lasting effect on the microchip mind. The writing of the present book really began with the advent of the Internet, about five years into my career as a university professor. The challenges that the Internet would present to the most common way of teaching political science, i.e. the lecture- essay-exam format, became almost immediately clear. The Internet now trains people to concentrate for much shorter periods than is required for the reading of a conven tional book. It trains people to give up if it is not possible to find in always shorter order the information necessary. It trains people to accept as truth what can be found on electronic sources. It trains people to enter and then stay in what might be called ‘the information cave’, a defence mechanism many now use to avoid sensory over load. It trains people to break tasks down into smaller and smaller units and creates the illusion of multi-tasking, when in fact there is only a rapid change in tasks. And, of course, it trains people to substitute keyboard or alpha pad capacity for social skills. The consequences for the university classroom were far from obvious at the start. Was this a qualitatively different form of information, and therefore required entirely new say of communicating, or was it simply the culmination of decades if not centu ries of atomism (Innis, 1972). It eventually became clear to me that the classroom had to henceforth engage students, and that the classic lecture format alone would not be enough to do so. And so the quest began, a quest to find out how to make students learn in the classroom what could not learned any other way. The option of labora tories in the sciences, performance in the lively arts, and studios in the visual arts are not open to political scientists. What was available, however, was the problem-solv ing and case studies from the professional schools and the simulation exercises from many other disciplines. Trial and error in developing and adapting these to political science was the only option. This book, meant to assist other instructors, is written in the hope that they, at least, will not repeat my mistakes. Instead, they can experiment for themselves. There is no consensus in the discipline to guide political scientists on how to teach. That much is obvious from the review of several introductory textbooks, of which there are six published in North America. The three Canadian texts with repeat editions all use the same format of basic concept and ideologies in the front half, domestic institutions and process in liberal democratic countries of the industrialised world in the second half. There are usually chapters on international relations, or x Introduction

conflict, or political economy, or development, or some other topic which cannot be addressed within the structure. They are all descriptive, and do not stress how to use the information to be a good citizen. Dickerson (2006) is primarily conceptual in content. Rais (2005) is also conceptual and/or philosophical in content. Jackson (2006), while primarily comparative, still has heavy emphasis on concepts. Other Canadian textbooks (Mintz, 2006; Chowdhari, 2004) also use the structure of half basic concepts, half domestic institutions and processes of liberal democracies in industrialised states. Beyond that structure, however, the textbooks vary widely in content. The same can be said of US textbooks with repeat editions, of which there are three. Shively (1996) is arranged in terms of the actions citizens or groups can take. The second half is about institutions and processes. Lawson (2003) has a structure that favours the actions of the citizen. Roskin (2003) has a slight emphasis in the descriptions on the actions of the citizen. Despite the lack of consensus, there are two textbooks which can serve as pre cedent for what will be attempted here. Alan Zuckerman (1991) focuses on the nature of the discipline instead of the basic ideas and the basic processes. The active peda gogy adopted by him will support the present text. Riemer (2003) is the only one to focus on the actions of the citizen while also using concepts and processes. The same can be said of Zuckerman’s, and the present text. Beyond these introductory texts, to find a book on teaching political science, it is necessary to go back over thirty years. The periodical literature on teaching political science is less sparse. The major journals in this area are: Society on Teaching and Learning in Higher Education; Radical Pedagogy; Faculty Focus; National Forum on Teaching and Learning; and PS Political Science & Politics. The bulk of articles on teaching political science in the last twenty years were published in PS, the discipline’s grande dame. For the most part, these articles cover various forms of active pedagogy: case studies, use of films, and use of role-play simulations. The only other topic explored for more than one chapter is inclusiveness (Githens, 1994; Tetreault, 1996). Many of these teaching methods go considerably beyond what is proposed below. ‘There are a variety of ways to present the material in a political science class. One that is not often considered is the use of play-acting. Creating a play to present the material is relatively simple…’ (Lonowski, 1993: 760). The reason for using such varied exercises is always the same: to release students’ unconscious levels to help with the material. Some of the methods proposed are more broadly used than others. ‘The case method is relatively new to much of political science. Historically, it has been used in business schools and public administration and policy programs. Recently, however, it has emerged as a popular method of instruction for those who teach International Relations (Taylor, 1994: 535). Indeed, the same author identifies cases in International Relations to be used, as other authors do American state tax regimes. The advantages for case studies are many. It accurately portrays political reality. Students are forced to engage themselves with the content. It prepares students for a standard methodology of the social sciences. Introduction xi

Active learning, an idea to be found in the literature beyond political science, became the answer. In this context, active pedagogy means learning that is problem- based or occurs through experience. The choice of active pedagogy in developing the present text is also consistent with the most recent and best-selling monographs on university teaching also focus on the how-to aspects of pedagogy include: Bain’s What the Best College Instructors Do, McKeachie’s Teaching Tips, Lang’s On Course, Barkley’s Student Engagement Techniques, Ambrose et al.’s How Learning Works, Nil son’s Teaching at Its Best, Hall’s University Teaching, Biggs and Tang’s Teaching for Quality Learning at University, and Royse’s Teaching Tips for College and University Instructors. Research shows that active learning improves students’ understanding and reten tion of information and can be very effective in developing higher order cognitive skills such as problem solving and critical thinking (Merlot, 2014). It involves putting students in situations which compel them to read critically, to speak authoritatively, to listen attentively, to think deeply, and to write effectively. In the traditional view, teaching is the transmission of information. In some ways, this model is so ingrained that using active learning requires requires an effort, a shift of philosophy and prac tice. But the plain fact is that most professors have been designing the lectures, tests, exams, and assignments throughout their careers. Active learning is really only giving the professor the creative license to design a greater variety of activities (Sparks, 2014). And there is an almost infinite range of activities: a Google search returns nearly two hundred million references for Active learning. Active learning is popular, as shown by Bonwell (2014). Students prefer active learning strategies to traditional lectures; active learning strategies do a better job of promoting the development of students’ thinking skills; active learners experience deeper and longer-lasting understanding because they cognitively engage with what ever they are studying. In a word, they learn by doing and thinking about what they are doing. At the university level, some of the major characteristics associated with active learning strategies include: –– Students are involved in more than passive listening; –– Students are engaged in activities (e.g. reading, discussing, writing); –– There is less emphasis placed on information transmission and greater emphasis placed on developing student skills; –– There is greater emphasis placed on the exploration of attitudes and values; –– Student motivation is increased (especially for adult learners); –– Students can receive immediate feedback from their instructor; –– Students are involved in higher order thinking (analysis, synthesis, and evalu ation).

But there are also obstacles to active learning, and these include: not being able to cover as much course content in the time available; large classes, which make it dif xii Introduction

ficult to implement active learning; the preparation required designing active learning strategies which takes up too much pre-class preparation; the fact that most instruc tors think of themselves as being good lecturers, and have invested a lot of thought into their design; and finally a lack of materials or equipment needed to support active learning. The present book intends to present ready-made strategies, either case studies for large classes, or role-play simulations for medium and small classes. The pedagogy proposed is suitable for large enrolment classes, the material already having been used for a class of at least 75 students. The material can also be used for an instructor working with teaching or grading assistants. For classes between 100 and 300 students, some exercises such as the budget simulation will allow for small group work under the supervision of teaching assistants after the instructor gives general information to the whole class. For other, multiple class exercises, such as the election simulation, whole class participation is possible. Assignments to be used in class can be done individually or in small groups, depending on the size of the class and the choice of students, and the amount of grading that the instructor, assisted or not, can countenance. Presentations by students or guests can occur in small groups or to the entire class. The exercises are chosen to include all the fields of political science. Faculty perceptions about these obstacles are, in general, accurate. Students commonly do not know how to do active learning, do not want to do active learning, and do not like active learning – at least initially. Many students arrive in university with little or no experience with active learning. But that does not mean students will not engage if invited to do so. The most serious concern of faculty is that there will be less control of an Active Learning environment (Michael, 2013). As the instructor gains in experience, it becomes possible to research answers and given them at a later date, and also to develop a roadmap describing where the class starts, its destination, and at least one path between the two. In other words, faculty still have control, but that control must be exercised differently. This book is proposing active learning specific to political science. There have been many books that propose them for other disciplines, but none so far devoted to political science. The present text advocates the use of several specific teaching methods: how to use online services and the Internet; how and why to use worksheets to assist in reading primary sources or real-life documents; case studies for each of the fields; a role-play simulation helping the analysis of brief field experiences; the use of films and television, plays, songs, and literature (Bowen 1994; Ball, 1995; Garson, 1998; Wilsfor, 2013; Frantzich, 1995; Appleton, 1995; Mooney, 1998; Young, 1996; Opheim, 1997; Freie, 1997; Connor, 1998). The present book has two parts. Part I of the book presents case studies for politi cal philosophy, comparative politics, public policy and administration, and interna tional relations. Part II presents role-play simulations or exercises for each of those fields. The German philosophical tradition of the excursus has been resurrected here in order to present worksheets or introductory exercises, of which there are three. Acknowledgments

It is usual in a book like this to thank those who have helped the author cross the finish line. And to the many colleagues and friends who have patiently listened to my inner debates about how to improve worksheets or simulations, or answered questions on whether to ban cell phones, I can only offer my private gratitude since there are now too many to list here. I would, however, like to thank the colleagues who came to observe me in class and provided advice as well as affirmation: Inderjit Nirdosh, Mary-Louise Hill, Don Kerr, and Jason Blahuta, all of Lakehead University. To the students who agreed to have their excellent work figure below, on the under standing they would remain anonymous, my private thanks must suffice. It is also to they and their classmates, a generation of them now, who have trooped through the classes, cursing the workload, suffering through the big ideas that failed, and adap ting to the ever changing expectations, to which most of my thanks go. Any errors of fact or judgment remain entirely my own.

Part I: Case studies Excursus: Overview and Instructions for Worksheets

The worksheet system makes a number of requirements of the instructor and the student. First, the instructor must understand and be able to articulate the structure of the analytical framework and be able to break it down into a step-by-step process. The instructor must also be able to increase or decrease the level of his or her own abstract thinking, and to do so transparently before the class. The instructor should also fill out the worksheet during the time of the class. If the worksheets are being used in more than one application, the instructor must be able to adapt them to these applications as necessary. The worksheets must be varied and they also must be varied in level of difficulty and complexity. Finally, students must have the capacity and the willingness to ask questions before the group. They must also not be con vinced that they already know everything they need to know. There are also structural requirements for the classroom. First, the learning that is expected of students must be structured, and the worksheet system must reflect that structure. There must be successive levels of learning, and successive levels of awareness of that learning. This means that students may start with information pro vided, but that must be followed with an immediate application, then the context of the learning can be broader, and so is the application. Ultimately, there must be an awareness of learning about learning, or a reflection of learning as a reflection on one’s practice. The worksheets are: 1. Strategy 2. Key Actors 3. An Actor’s Actions or Tactics 4. Key Resources 5. Key Rules 6. Factors Outside Your Control 7. Do-or-Die Moments 8. Tactics and Counter Tactics Blank worksheets can be found in the Appendix.

In Worksheet 1 the student is expected to identify the components of a strategy used by an actor to meet a particular challenge. As with the integration diary, the student should use point form and use no more than a single page. This will require students to be specific, and to choose among competing priorities. It also makes it possible to assess the judgment of the student as well as his or her capacity to think. The components of strategy are: the problem, to be described succinctly in the top box, ‘Issue’; the solution to that problem that suits the student best, again to be described succinctly in the middle box, ‘Goal’; and the steps that will have the student reach the goal, or the method s/he plans to use, of the collection of actions s/ he plans to use, in the bottom box, ‘Tactics’. As usual, the student must be detailed,

specific, succinct, and must stay at one level of generality or detail throughout the worksheet.

Worksheet 1: Strategy

Issue/Problem

Goal

Core Idea

Tactics (actions or headings) 1

Worksheet 2: Key Actors

All Actors Can this actor affect achieving the goal? (Yes/No)

Column 1: Give a comprehensive list of actors in the first column. The actors may be listed under various headings, such as civilian, military, domestic, foreign, etc. There is no reason to be concerned about putting people or groups in the correct categories. What matters is that every individual and/or group possible is listed. Ask whether the groups listed ought to be broken down further into smaller groups – for example, should a foreign national government be listed as such, or should it be broken down into ministry of the interior, ministry of defence, legislators, executive council or cabinet, local government, etc. If they can, then do so. Once the compre hensive list of actors is established, the next column helps differentiate between significant and insignificant actors. This differentiation will be repeated throughout the process. 4 Excursus: Overview and Instructions for Worksheets

Column 2: An actor can affect whether or not the tactic required can move the strategy toward the achievement of the goal. Ask whether this actor can affect achie ving the goal? Or are there actors who stand no chance of affecting the outcome? Answer with Yes or No. The next step in the tactical analysis of a situation focuses on the tactics, and sim ilarly differentiates significant from insignificant actions, using Worksheet 3. There are a number of actions on the part of each significant actor. Those actions may be tactics, i.e. relevant to the strategy, or not. In order to be tactics, they must directly or indirectly move the situation towards the goal being achieved. Tactics themselves may prevent the goal from being achieved or the strategy from being successful, i.e. they can be key tactics.

Worksheet 3: An Actor’s Actions and Tactics

Actor:

Time/Date Action Is this a tactic? (Yes/No)

Column 1: Give the date and time of the action being analysed. During the first draft, list actions that are obvious, but in later drafts, use research to complete the form. Eventually, list the actions chronologically. Only if more than one action takes place on a particular day is the time listed. Times and dates are not always known. Column 2: Include detailed description of the action being considered or which has occurred. Use point form rather than full sentences. This will help focus on the most important features of the action. Column 3: An action is a tactic if it is relevant to the achievement of the goal iden tified in the strategy. If the answer to the question: ‘Does this affect reaching my goal in any way?’ If the answer is yes, than the action is a tactic. The third step is the identification of resources, using Worksheet 4. Put at its broadest, resources which make tactics possible are generated by ‘the symbolic expe riences, mythic lore, and ritual practices of a group or society [that] create moods and motivations, ways of organizing experience and evaluating reality, modes of regulating conduct, and way of forming social bonds’ (Swindle, 1986: 273–286). The four general types of resources discussed below are: the right materials, the right people, time, and information. Worksheet 4 should be filled out listing as many of the resources as possible. Conventional wisdom usually finds that money is the most important resource, and it can certainly be a severely limiting factor. Much scarcer and harder to increase, however, is the attention and good will of people with power. It is as hard to get as it is easy to squander. Although more ink is spilled and meet Excursus: Overview and Instructions for Worksheets 5

ings held on money and money-related issues than anything else, the most important resource is human: skills, energy, and goodwill.

Worksheet 4: Key Resources

Goal or Actor:

Resource Is there enough? Is this a ‘nice to have’? Is this a ‘must have’? (Yes/No)

The first step is to establish what skills are useful, and then scan for them among the significant actors. Among the non-technical skills that may be needed are: command, writing, speaking, planning, research, tactical analysis, strategic analysis, forecast ing, calm under pressure, good judgment, integrity, courage. Column 1: List here all the materials, services, people (beyond the people who are carrying out the strategy), information, and funds that are needed to achieve the goal. The list should be comprehensive, i.e. it should include absolutely everything neces sary. In order to increase the chances of writing a comprehensive list, it is helpful to look at the categories of resources cited above. It is possible to develop categories that are specific to the situation being analysed. Column 2: Is there enough of this resource for reaching the goal? Is the resource being analysed limited? Is there a specific amount of it available, or is there plenty of it around? Whether the resource is limited or not is an important point for carrying out the strategy. The strategist needs to take into account the limited resources as the strategy unfolds. Column 3: Here, ask whether the resource being analysed is absolutely necessary for reaching the goal, i.e. the goal can be reached whether there is none of this par ticular resource left. If so, then write ‘Yes’ in this column. Column 4: Is the resource being analysed helpful to the goal being reached? Is it something that will move the strategy forward? If so, the answer is ‘Yes’. Only those resources for which the answer is ‘yes’ need to be analysed further. The fifth step in the tactical analysis requires an examination of the rules. Rules can be either formal or informal, and they may be incomplete in an adversarial or hostile situation these rules may not be obvious. Rules are enforced through sanc tions, so one way to spot informal systems of rules is to watch for behaviour changes among the actors, and then look for the reasons that led to the modification. If there were sanctions, then the analysis is correct. Sanctions tend to be more obvious than rules. 6 Excursus: Overview and Instructions for Worksheets

Worksheet 5: Key Rules

Goal or Actor:

Rule Does this rule help reach Does breaking this rule the goal? guarantee failure?

Column 1: List here all the formal and informal rules about materials, services, people (excluding people involved in the strategy), information, and funds needed to achieve the goal. The list should be comprehensive, i.e. it should include absolutely every thing needed. In order to increase the chances of writing a comprehensive list, it is helpful to look at categories of rules. As with resources, categories include materials, services, people, information and funds. It is also possible to develop categories that are specific to the situation. Column 2: Is the rule being analysed helpful to the goal being reached? Is it something that will move the strategy forward? If so, the answer is yes. Only those resources with the answer ‘Yes’ need to be analysed further. Column 3: Rules constrain behaviour, but it is important to be aware of how and why each rule constrains which behaviour or action. If disregarding this rule ensures the failure of the strategy, then it is a must-have. If the rule is absolutely necessary for reaching the goal, answer ‘Yes’. If this rule is broken or ignored and the goal can still be reached, the answer is ‘No’.

The next Worksheet 6 analyses factors. Factors are events outside any actors’ control. The goals may be drawn from a variety of categories, and can be very simple. They should be listed according to whether they help or hinder reaching the goal.

Worksheet 6: Factors Outside Anyone’s Control

Goal:

Factors that help Factors that don’t help

→ ←

The next worksheet identifies the strategic pathway. The strategic pathway is the suc cession of steps which are likeliest to lead to the achievement of the goal, for a par ticular tactic. This pathway can be identified using a three-step process: first, identify Excursus: Overview and Instructions for Worksheets 7

all possible steps to the goal; second, identify the significant steps out of all the pos sible ones; third, identify the critical steps. The strategic pathway is made up of these critical steps, i.e. strategic nodes.

Worksheet 7: Do or Die Moments

Steps to Goal Problem 1 Problem 2

▾ ▾ ▾

What are the steps to achieving the goal? For each step, what are the alternative steps that can also lead to goal? What are the scenarios that will achieve the goal? Who decides? Who has the power to make the changes? What are the other possibilities? Are any of the alternatives more effective? Likely to succeed? What arguments are con vincing to those who decide? What factors affect the decisions of those who decide? If actors were to work backwards, how would they set the steps? Next, identify the critical steps by asking several more questions: What are the critical actors, actions, resources, rules? Where are they situated on in relationship to another? Once identified, change their font or colour. Then compare the tactics taken in chronological order to the sequence of critical steps. Is the actor focused on those steps? Is the actor concentrating efforts there? The strategic goal is the goal listed in Worksheet 1. In the first column, write out each of the steps necessary to reach the goal, in sequence. This first column is for reaching the goal with no surprises or problems. Fill in the steps until the goal is reached. Each step should represent a single tactic or action contributing to it. List all the steps necessary to reach the goal. Next, identify which steps are absolutely essential to reaching the goal. Consider each step in turn, and ask whether it would still be possible to reach the goal if the actor failed at this step. If the answer is ‘Yes’, then that step is circled. That is a strategic node that needs alternatives developed to ensure the strategy gets beyond it. In the middle column, write alternative steps to reach the goal for each of the problems that can be anticipated. If at any point the pathway starts to be the same as in column 1, then just draw an arrow returning to that step. Next, identify which steps are absolutely essential to reaching the goal. Consider each step in turn, and ask whether it would still be possible to reach the goal if the actor failed at this step. If the answer is ‘Yes’, then circle that step. Use as many columns or rows as necessary. When that task is completed, bold or circle each do-or-die moment. The next worksheet identifies tactics and counter tactics. In designing a response to a tactic, retrace the steps of tactical analysis, using the same sequence of work sheets and instructions as above. Some general rules apply: –– Choose the tactics which require a response; 8 Excursus: Overview and Instructions for Worksheets

–– Choose the earliest possible moment in the decision making process; –– Choose only key actors; –– Brainstorm the possible actions without prejudging ideas, but then assess them carefully; –– Initially choose only four possible actions, and assess the cost and benefits of each.

Once the analysis is complete, choose tactics for their economy and maximum benefit. If that is not apparent, it is possible to develop multiple scenarios for out comes, depending on how favourable various factors are to the tactic. Questions to ask include: Who decides? Who has the power to make the changes? What are the other possibilities? Are any of the alternatives more effective? Are they economical in terms of personnel, equipment, casualties? Who is likely to succeed? What arguments are convincing to those who decide? What factors affect the decisions of those who decide? Working backwards, what are the steps? For the next phase, start with steps, then actors, then factors, then resources, then actions/tactics, then at last rules for system analysis. The two columns represent the tactics of two actors. On the left, list tactics for one actor, and on the right, those of another. The goals need not be contradictory: they need only be different. Under the heading Tactics, on the left, list all the actions that move that actor towards the strategic goal chosen. Under the heading Countervailing Tactics, on the right, list all the actions that move that actor towards the other stra tegic goal chosen. The tactics and counter tactics do not have to match up, although many of them will. The list on each side needs to be complete, so that it may be useful to use categories of tactics.

Worksheet 8: Tactics and Countervailing Tactics

Goal, Actor 1: Goal, Actor 2 :

Tactics Tactics

→ ←

→ ← 1 Introductory Exercise – in the Decision-Maker’s Shoes

As an introduction to the case studies, the following exercise may stimulate student interest in the questions facing leaders at various levels of government. There are a great number of such questions: a mayor may have decisions to make with the city council on whether to close a swimming pool rather than repair it; the governor or premier of a state may have to decide about where to allocate some health care equip ment; a national leader may have to decide on election campaign strategy or whether to step away from politics entirely.

Description for preparatory session I: identify all players in the decision-making process, including everyone who has some influence; chart out the decision-making process for issue at hand; assign role-plays of each player to each student; for example, if the decision-making body is a board of directors, there will be a chair, a secretary, some staff, each director; there will be blocs and alliances within the board, some members more influential than others, some members with strong views and others with undecided points, etc. 1. Simulation I: the decision-making body meets and has a discussion about the issue, but does not make a decision. Everyone plays their role, and the students try to forecast what would be the most likely outcome in the meeting. 2. Simulation II: the decision-making body meets to make a decision on the issue of importance to the group or students. Everyone again plays their role and the students try to forecast what the most likely decision would be. If the simulation fails, then there are probably too many unknowns and the group needs to do more research.

Goal: gain some understanding of the decision-making dynamics; promote the use of strategic research into the decision-making process; identify the best sources of information, both formal and informal; develop advocacy skills. Time required: preparation: not counting research, 1 hour; simulation I: 1–2 hours; simulation II: 1–2 hours. Material required: none. Maximum: 20 participants; break larger class into groups (either their regular tutori als or mixing up students for this particular exercise). Planning notes: explain exercise and assign roles in advance, so that students can prepare; set dates for simulations well in advance. Accommodations: put less literate people in charge of informal information, which is by word of mouth; for people of backgrounds dissimilar to the decision-makers, put them in charge of formal information gathering; assign the role of certain important decision-makers to a team of two or even three persons to share.

The application par excellence for the worksheets in the field of political philoso phy is the analysis of text, and in particular foundational texts. The case study pro posed here is Plato’s allegory or parable of the cave. Students may analyse it using worksheets 1–8. A short introduction to the uses of and background of a worksheet is best given at the start of the class during which students will use that particular worksheet. Students may then take notes during reading or a discussion of the text, keeping them engaged. There are number of excellent translations either in the public domain or avail able on the Internet: –– MIT Internet Classics archive, at http://classics.mit.edu/Plato/republic.8.vii.html. –– Paul Brian, in Reading about the World, now at http://public.wsu.edu/~brians/ world_civ/worldcivreader/world_civ_reader_1/plato.html. –– Benjamin Jowett (used for the analysis below), at http://www.oswego. edu/~delancey/101_DIR/jowett_cave.html.

It is now possible to turn to the use of worksheets in order to analyse this text. The worksheet system is a polyvalent knowledge transfer system, the worksheet system of the title. A variety of settings allowed this system to be developed and used over a fifteen year period. Among other advantages, it promotes critical thinking. Since this is a novel approach that requires students to think for themselves, it is better to lead them gently into the format. For this purpose, questions for each worksheet for a discussion forum, online or as part of group study have been devel oped. Participation should be mandatory, but it should not be graded. There should only be a penalty if students fail to participate. In discussions, groups of students answer the questions listed below, by worksheet. When the time then comes for them to fill out the worksheets, they will have at their disposal the raw material. They can then focus not so much on the generation of content but on the analysis of it. An alternative to the worksheets is to have in class or online discussions about the text under analysis. It is possible, for example, to use the wiki format to great effect. The wiki is best used for developing and documenting a common knowledge base. The wiki encourages teamwork while making free-riders immediately obvious and therefore encouraging them to participate or engage. Sources should be required, to allow the instructor a better chance at judging research capacity and depth. The wiki can be used as a tool of collaboration or as a team assignment. If the wiki is to be graded, then there are two types of contributions which need to be considered. The first is the contribution of original material. The second is editing or revising informa tion already posted. The ratio of original material to editing need not be a criterion,

however. It is possible to assess the contribution of the original material according to its source and its contribution to the overall understanding of the project, its contri bution to the overall completeness of the information about the project, its value for space used, and its applicability. Editing can be assessed for the quality of its judg ment, the economy of space it allows, the understanding of the project it shows, and for the strategic analysis it reflects. Access to the wiki can be greater or lesser, depend ing on class size and whether group work is involved. In cooperative competitive role- play simulations, for example, the wikis can be shared only at the end, say, when the overview worksheet is assigned. Web CT, Moodle, Desire2Learn and other online learning platforms provide support to courses in a range of ways, including an internal discussion board, whose topics can be used to create private team groups for collaboration. The instructor should always have access to private discussions. The calendar function can be used to organise the coursework and to provide links to readings using automated biblio graphic tools such as Zotero. It is also possible to post course outline, supplementary information, assignment sheets and any other information as the course develops. The discussion forum questions are as follows:

Step 1 –– What is the issue or problem? –– What is the goal? –– Was there a metaphor used or applicable? –– What actions were taken? –– Which of these were tactics? –– Can these tactics be grouped under headings or placed in categories? –– If so, what are the categories? –– What tactics belong in which categories?

Step 2 –– Who are the actors? –– Which of these actors can affect other actors in achieving their goal?

Step 3 –– What actor needs to be analysed? –– What actions did that actor take? –– For each tactic, what time or date was it taken? –– Of these actions, which moved the actor towards the goal? –– Of these actions, which were tactics?

Step 4 –– What resources did the actor use in the strategy? –– Did that actor have enough of each? 12 Case Study in Political Philosophy: the Allegory of the Cave

–– Was a particular resource a nice-to-have? –– Was a particular resource a must-have?

Step 5 –– Are there any rules that state what an actor can or cannot do? –– Are these written? –– Are there any unwritten rules? –– Of these rules, are there any that help the actor reach the goal? –– Of these rules, are there any that would guarantee failure if the actor broke them?

Step 6 –– What were the factors outside a particular actor’s control? –– Of those factors, which helped that actor reach the goal? –– Of those factors, which didn’t help the actor reach the goal?

Step 7 –– What was the actor’s goal? –– What were the goals of the other actors?? –– What was done to reach the goal? –– What did the other actors do to reach their goals?

Step 8 –– What was an actor’s goal? –– What did one actor do to reach the goal? –– What did another actor do to prevent the first actor from reaching the goal?

A second method is to ask the same questions and have them answered by students, individually or in groups, on worksheets. There is one worksheet per step identified above. In the first, the student is expected to identify the components of a strategy used by an actor to meet a particular challenge. The student should use point form and use no more than a single page. This will require students to be specific, and to choose among competing priorities. It also makes it possible to assess the judgment of the student as well as his or her capacity to think. The components of strategy are: the problem, to be described succinctly in the top box, ‘Issue’; the solution to that problem that suits the student best, again to be described succinctly in the middle box, ‘Goal’; and the steps that will have the student reach the goal, or the method he plans to use, of the collection of actions s/ he plans to use, in the bottom box, ‘Tactics.’ As usual, the student must be detailed, specific, succinct, and must stay at one level of generality or detail throughout the Worksheet 2.1. Case Study in Political Philosophy: the Allegory of the Cave 13

Worksheet 2.1: Strategy

Issue/Problem Explaining abstract concept or idea

Goal Make Glaucon understand nature of knowledge

Core Idea (metaphor, slogan, etc.) The image of a prisoner in a cave will make Glaucon understand everything. Tactics (actions or bundles of 1 Shadows seen by prisoner actions) 2 Prisoner’s dazzled eyesight

3 Reasoning from cave to truth

4 Reasoning from truth to justice

In any strategy, there are a number of possible actors. Those actors can be individuals, groups, governments or even groups of governments. The actors can be involved in the planning of a strategy or its application. They may be helpful to strategy, neutral, or opposed to it. They may be conscious of a strategy or actions, or they may not. But most importantly, they may have an impact either on the tactics or the strategy being analysed, or designing or carrying out. The goal of this worksheet is to identify which ones may have an impact. It then becomes possible to set the others aside and focus energies on the actors who matter, or identify weak points. Column 1: Give a comprehensive list of actors in the first column. They may be listed under various headings, such as civilian, military, domestic, foreign, etc. There is no reason to be concerned about putting people or groups in the correct categories. What matters is that every individual and/or group possible is listed. Ask whether the groups listed ought to be broken down further into smaller groups – for example, should a foreign national government be listed as such, or should it be broken down into ministry of the interior, ministry of defence, legislators, executive council or cabinet, local government, etc. If they can, then do so. Once the comprehensive list of actors is established, the next column helps differentiate between significant and insignificant actors. This differentiation will be repeated throughout the process. Column 2: An actor can affect whether or not the tactic required can move the strategy toward the achievement of the goal. Ask whether this actor can affect achie ving the goal? Or are there actors who stand no chance of affecting the outcome? Answer with ‘Yes’ or ‘No’.

Worksheet 2.2: Key Actors

All Actors Can this actor affect achieving the goal? (Yes or No)

Glaucon Y

Socrates Y 14 Case Study in Political Philosophy: the Allegory of the Cave

The next step in the tactical analysis of a situation focuses on the tactics, and similarly differentiates significant from insignificant actions, using Worksheet 2.3. There are a number of actions on the part of each significant actor. Those actions may be tactics, i.e. relevant to the strategy, or not. In order to be tactics, they must directly or indirectly move the situation towards the goal being achieved. Tactics themselves may prevent the goal from being achieved or the strategy from being successful, i.e. they can be key tactics.

Worksheet 2.3: An Actor’s Actions and Tactics

Actor: Socrates

Time/Date Action Is this a tactic? (Yes/No)

Adopts allegory of cavern Y

Adopts allegory of light and shadow Y

Adopts allegory of sight Y

Draws analogy to fight in court N

Draws analogy to truth Y

Draws analogy to state Y

Column 1: Give the date and time of the action being analysed. During the first draft, list actions that are obvious, but in later drafts, use research to complete the form. Eventually, list the actions chronologically. Only if more than one action takes place on a particular day is the time listed. Times and dates are not always known. Column 2: Include detailed description of the action being considered or which has occurred. Use point form rather than full sentences. This will help focus on the most important features of the action. Column 3: An action is a tactic if it is relevant to the achievement of the goal iden tified in the strategy. If the answer to the question: ‘Does this affect reaching my goal in any way?’ If the answer is yes, than the action is a tactic. The third step is the identification of resources, using Worksheet 2.4. Put at its broadest, resources which make tactics possible are generated by ‘the symbolic expe riences, mythic lore, and ritual practices of a group or society [that] create moods and motivations, ways of organizing experience and evaluating reality, modes of regulat ing conduct, and way of forming social bonds’ (Swindler, 1986: 273). The four general types of resources discussed below are: the right equipment, the right people, time, and information. Worksheet 2.4 should be filled out listing as many of the resources as possible. Conventional wisdom usually finds that money is the most important resource, and it can certainly be a severely limiting factor. Much more scarce and harder to increase, however, is the attention and good will of people with power. It is Case Study in Political Philosophy: the Allegory of the Cave 15

as hard to get as it is easy to squander. Although more ink is spilled and meetings held on money and money-related issues than anything else, the most important resource is human: skills, energy, and good will. The first step for this worksheet is to establish what skills are useful, and then scan for them among the significant actors. Among the non-technical skills that may be needed are: writing, speaking, planning, research, tactical analysis, strategic anal ysis, forecasting, calm under pressure, good judgment, integrity. Column 1: List here all the materials, services, people (beyond the people who are carrying out the strategy), information, and funds that are needed to achieve the goal. The list should be comprehensive, i.e. it should include absolutely everything neces sary. In order to increase the chances of writing a comprehensive list, it is helpful to look at the categories of resources cited above. It is possible to develop categories that are specific to the situation being analysed. Column 2: Is there enough of this resource for reaching the goal? Is the resource being analysed limited? Is there a specific amount of it available, or is there plenty of it around? Whether the resource is limited or not is an important point for carrying out the strategy. The strategist needs to take into account the limited resources as the strategy unfolds. The analyst can identify a weak point. Column 3: Here, ask whether the resource being analysed is absolutely necessary for reaching the goal, i.e. the goal can be reached whether there is none of this par ticular resource left. If so, then write ‘Yes’ in this column. Column 4: Is the resource being analysed helpful to the goal being reached? Is it something that will move the strategy forward? If so, the answer is yes. Only those resources for which the answer is ‘Yes’ need to be analysed further.

Worksheet 2.4: Key Resources

Resource Is there enough? Is this a Is this a (Yes/No) ‘nice to have’? ‘must have’?

Allegory Y X

Analogy Y X

Reasoning Y X

Glaucon’s imagination Y X

Glaucon’s attention Y X

Glaucon’s time Y X

Glaucon’s intelligence Y X

Glaucon’s reasoning Y X 16 Case Study in Political Philosophy: the Allegory of the Cave

The fifth step in the tactical analysis requires an examination of the rules. Rules can be either formal or informal, and they may be incomplete in an adversarial or hostile situation these rules may not be obvious. Rules are enforced through sanctions, so one way to spot informal systems of rules is to watch for behaviour changes among the actors, and then look for the reasons that led to the modification. If there were sanctions, then the analysis is correct. Sanctions tend to be more obvious than rules.

Worksheet 2.5: Key Rules

Rule Does this rule help Does breaking this rule reach the goal? guarantee failure?

Glaucon must listen Y Y

Glaucon must be respectful Y N

Socrates must be clear Y Y

Socrates must be creative Y N

Column 1: List here all the formal and informal rules about materials, services, people (excluding people involved in the strategy), information, and funds needed to achieve the goal. The list should be comprehensive, i.e. it should include absolutely every thing needed. In order to increase the chances of writing a comprehensive list, it is helpful to look at categories of rules. As with resources, categories include materials, services, people, information and funds. It is also possible to develop categories that are specific to the situation. Column 2: Is the rule being analysed helpful to the goal being reached? Is it something that will move the strategy forward? If so, the answer is ‘Yes’. Only those resources with the answer ‘Yes’ need to be analysed further. Column 3: Rules constrain behaviour, but it is important to be aware of how and why each rule constrains which behaviour or action. If disregarding this rule ensures the failure of the strategy, then it is a must-have. If the rule is absolutely necessary for reaching the goal, answer ‘Yes’. If this rule is broken or ignored and the goal can still be reached, the answer is ‘No’. Worksheet 2.6 analyses factors. Factors are events outside any actor’s control. The goals may be drawn from a variety of categories, or can be very simple. They should be listed according to whether they help or hinder reaching the goal. Case Study in Political Philosophy: the Allegory of the Cave 17

Worksheet 2.6: Factors Outside Anyone’s Control

Goal: Glaucon understands concept of truth

Factors that help Factors that don’t help

Glaucon’s great intelligence → ← Anything that interrupts dialogue: weather, accident, fire → ← Glaucon’s limited intelligence

Worksheet 2.6 identifies the strategic pathway. The strategic pathway is the succes sion of steps which are likeliest to lead to the achievement of the goal, for a particular tactic. This pathway can be identified using a three-step process: first, identify all possible steps to the goal; second, identify the significant steps out of all the possible ones; third, identify the critical steps. The strategic pathway is made up of these criti cal steps, i.e. strategic nodes. What are the steps to achieving the goal? For each step, what are the alternative steps that can also lead to goal? What are the scenarios that will achieve the goal? Who decides? Who has the power to make the changes? What are the other possibili ties? Are any of the alternatives more effective? Likely to succeed? What arguments are convincing to those who decide? What factors affect the decisions of those who decide? If actors were to work backwards, how would they set the steps? Next, identify the critical steps by asking several more questions: What are the critical actors, actions, resources, rules? Where are they situated on in relationship to another? Once identified, change their font or colour. Then compare the tactics taken in chronological order to the sequence of critical steps. Is the actor focused on those steps? Is the actor concentrating efforts there? The strategic goal is the goal that is given in the strategy from Worksheet 1. In the first column, write out each of the steps necessary to reach the goal, in sequence. This first column is for reaching the goal with no surprises or problems. Fill in the steps until the goal is reached. Each step should represent a single tactic or action contributing to it. List all the steps necessary to reach the goal. Next, identify which steps are absolutely essential to reaching the goal. Consider each step in turn, and ask whether it would still be possible to reach the goal if the actor failed at this step. If the answer is ‘Yes’, then circle that step. That is a strategic node, and alternatives are needed to make sure the strategy gets beyond that step. In the middle column, write alternative steps to reach the goal for each of the problems that can be anticipated. If at any point the pathway starts to be the same as in column 1, then just draw an arrow returning to that step. Next, identify which steps are absolutely essential to reaching the goal. Consider each step in turn, and ask whether it would still be possible to reach the goal if the actor failed at this step. If the answer is ‘Yes’, then circle that step. Use as many columns or rows as necessary. On completion of that task, bold or circle each do-or-die moment. 18 Case Study in Political Philosophy: the Allegory of the Cave

Worksheet 2.7: Do-or-Die Moments

Steps to Goal Problem 1 Problem 2

Adopts allegory of cave

Adopts allegory of light

Adopts allegory of sight Adopts court allegory Draws analogy to truth

Draws analogy to state

Worksheet 2.8 identifies tactics and counter tactics. In designing a response to a tactic, retrace the steps of tactical analysis, using the same sequence of worksheets and instructions as above. Some general rules apply: –– Choose the tactics which require a response; –– Choose the earliest possible moment in the decision making process; –– Choose only key actors; –– Brainstorm the possible actions without prejudging ideas, but then assess them carefully; –– Initially choose only four possible actions, and assess the cost and benefits of each.

Once the analysis is complete, choose tactics for their economy and maximum benefit. If that is not apparent, it is possible to develop multiple scenarios for out comes, depending on how favourable various factors are to the tactic. Questions to ask include: Who decides? Who has the power to make the changes? What are the other possibilities? Are any of the alternatives more effective? Are they economical in terms of personnel, equipment, casualties? Who is likely to succeed? What arguments are convincing to those who decide? What factors affect the decisions of those who decide? Working backwards, what would be the steps? For the next phase, start with steps, then actors, then factors, then resources, then actions/tactics, then at last rules for system analysis. The two columns represent the tactics of two actors. On the left, list tactics for one actor, and on the right, those of another. The goals need not be contradictory: they need only be different. Under the heading ‘Tactics’ on the left, list all the actions that move that actor towards the strategic goal chosen. Under the heading Countervailing Tactics, on the right, list all the actions that move that actor towards the other stra tegic goal chosen. The tactics and counter tactics do not have to match up, although many of them will. The list on each side needs to be complete, so that it may be useful to use categories of tactics. Case Study in Political Philosophy: the Allegory of the Cave 19

Worksheet 2.8: Tactics, Countervailing Tactics

Goal, Actor 1: Goal, Actor 2:

Tactics Tactics

Adopts allegory of cavern → ← Glaucon replies

Adopts allegory of light and shadow → ← Glaucon says he understands

Adopts allegory of sight → ←

Draws analogy to fight in court → ←

Draws analogy to truth → ←

Draws analogy to state → ←

Other Applications The worksheet method has been successfully applied to the analysis of classical texts in political science, including: The Leviathan, The Prince, the Second Sex, The Com- munist Manifesto, Utilitarianism, Utopia, De Cive, Sun Tzu’s Art of War, The Social Con- tract, and Strauss’s City and Man.

The next chapter presents case studies in Comparative Politics, but the discussion questions or worksheets can apply as well. 3 Case Studies in Comparative Politics

Chapter 3 showed how to use the worksheets for political philosophy. It is also possi ble the use the worksheet method with case studies in the domestic politics of indus trialised countries. There are two case studies presented here: the campaign for the nomination for Bill Clinton and the Orange Revolution in Ukraine in 2004. These case studies were prepared on the basis of the referenced primary materials.

3.1 Bill Clinton’s Campaign for the Presidential Nomination

Born in 1946, in Arkansas, Bill Clinton grew up in a troubled home. His father died in an automobile accident three months before his birth. His mother was later forced to leave him with his grandparents while she studied nursing. Eventually, she remarried and Bill took his stepfather’s name. As a young man, Bill was determined to succeed and frequently earned academic honours. At sixteen, he was a delegate to the Ameri can Legion Boys Nation program in Washington, D.C., where he met President John F. Kennedy. Clinton later credited that meeting with his determination to embark on a political career. While attending Georgetown University to study international affairs, Clinton served as an intern for Senator J. William Fulbright of Arkansas. After winning a Rhodes scholarship to Oxford University, Clinton enrolled at Yale Law School. In 1972, he helped to manage presidential candidate George McGovern’s Texas cam paign. After graduating from law school in 1973, Clinton returned to Arkansas to teach and to plan his own political career. In 1975, he married Hillary Rodham, a fellow law student he had met at Yale. Clinton was a populist throughout his career (New York Times, 1979). In addi tion, the changing political climate in Arkansas had led to the ascendancy of liberal politicians. ‘There was political muscle and folksy personality’ at the Democratic Leadership Conference (DLC). His populism could not have been entirely genuine: he was described during this period as a voracious reader by his friends, although he retained that ‘edge’ (Hamilton, 1991: 1A). He also traded on his charm, his ‘innately Southern gift of gab’ (Farney, 1990: A20). A political boy wonder, he became the youngest governor in the US in forty years, defying expectations which were admit tedly sometimes very low. He repeatedly experienced defeat: he was a year out of law school when he ran unsuccessfully for Congress; he was bounced out of office at forty. Clinton had been elected attorney general of Arkansas in 1976. Earlier, he lost a 1974 race for a US House seat. He was elected governor of Arkansas in 1978 for a two-year term. In 1980, Clinton lost a re-election bid. ‘His defeat in 1980 taught him lessons few ever have the opportunity or the will to learn’ (Hamilton, 1991: 1A). He did, however, return to the governor’s mansion in an upset victory after shortening his hair, having his wife campaign under her married name, and promising not to

‘lead without listening’ (Schwarts, 1987: A6) After the election, the real Clinton resur faced with ‘the same old egotism and arrogance’ (ibid). He was re-elected to another two-year term in 1984. The governor’s term was extended to four years with the 1986 election, which he won (Associated Press, 1987). Clinton was first mentioned in the polls as a potential Democratic presidential contender in 1986 (Dallas Morning News, 1987). At the 1988 Super Tuesday regional primaries, there were calls for a galvanizing candidate, an ‘exciting, charismatic mes senger,’ but also someone with something to say (West, 1991: 16A). Clinton’s message to his own party was that they had to pay attention to the needs, interests and values of the ordinary citizen and the ordinary family. He then went on to chair the National Governors’ Association (Herbers, 1987). Using that pulpit, Clinton criticised President Ronald Reagan on the inadequacies of his welfare reform plan, arguing in favour of welfare recipients going to work. He advocated for states and welfare recipients entering into contracts that would move the recipients toward self-sufficiency. He urged investing in education, job training, and day care efforts to dramatically reduce welfare rolls (San Diego Union-Tribune, 1987: A2). Clinton also made education the cornerstone of his platform. His state education reforms took effect June 1, 1987 in Arkansas (Byrd, 1990). His plan allowing parents to use vouchers if necessary was endorsed by President Reagan and top educators around the country and adopted by 118 school districts (Dallas Morning News, 1990). In May 1988, US News & World Report acknowledged the Clinton’s endorsement of Dukakis. In Little Rock, Clinton said the race was about ‘character, record and message’, and Dukakis had all three. Asked if he would formally endorse Dukakis, Clinton said his remarks spoke ‘for themselves.’ (Nichols, 1988: 4A). When peppered with questions about whether he would enter the 1988 race, Clinton danced around the issue but would not say no. Privately, Clinton had told political friends that when the heat was off, he planned to travel to the primaries (Schwarts, 1987). In 1989, Lee Atwater, Chairman of the Republican National Committee, dismissed Arkansas’ governor as a serious possibility for 1992. Atwater’s was the kind of remark that would bring out the worst in Clinton. As governor in 1989, Bill Clinton had rejected a call for an independent investigation into Arkla Inc.’s buy-back deal with Dallas Cowboys owner Jerry Jones for lucrative gas leases. The then-governor said the state Public Service Commission was capable of investigating whether customers would foot the bill for what eventually amounted to a $US146 million bill (Dallas Morning News, 1989). When asked about his plans for the presidency during the Gulf crisis in 1990, however, he was indignant. ‘I don’t think any politician should even discuss that, I think it’s totally inappropriate’ (Rothberg, 1991: A21). As chairman of the DLC, making the rounds at a reception during a national meeting, he was buttonholed by a handful of black delegates who had recently joined the organisation. For nearly thirty minutes, the black delegates asked Clinton sceptical questions about the direction of the DLC and whether its effort to attract middle-class voters meant the abandon ment of minority voters who are the party’s most loyal constituency. Clinton begged 22 Case Studies in Comparative Politics

them to give the DLC time to prove it. ‘We’re sort of making it up as we go along,’ he protested, saying the organisation had no desire to turn its back on the Democrats’ historical commitment to civil rights and affirmative action. He promised that as the organisation developed a larger, grass-roots base of support, their voices would be heard (Balz, 1991: A7). In November 1990, he announced for the first time his focus on the middle class: ‘Republicans have taken away the middle class by saying we only care about the poor and about government workers’ (McDonough, 1990: A1). The net effect of all this was that the DLC under Clinton became a symbol of division among Democrats. Nonetheless, Democrats also saw him as one of the few people considering a run for President equipped to bridge those differences (Balz, 1991: A7). This was in contrast with the peace-making personality he showed on other occasions, garnering ‘enthusiastic reviews before disparate groups of Democrats’ (Balz, 1991: A7). In 1990, he won the nomination for a fifth term (Orange County Register, 1990). Clinton’s commitment to becoming President of the United States was clear as early as April 1987, when he confirmed his intentions in an interview to the Arkansas Gazette. At the time, he thought that Arkansas was a microcosm of the nation, that his efforts to improve education and child health care, reform welfare programs and make the economy more competitive should be replicated nationwide. As governor, he was part of the demands for a new commitment to improve the health and education of chil dren, citing statistics on teen-age pregnancy, infant mortality and science test scores (Bowman, 1989). His resilience was proverbial. For example, he almost sank into obscurity after giving one of the worst speeches in US political history, when nominating Michael Dukakis for President in 1988. He had been selected as sole nominating speaker after drawing rave reviews as a featured banquet speaker during the state party’s conven tion (Charton, 1988). It took him years to live down the long-winded speech that, ‘like some runaway wagon, rolled right over frantic attempts by convention officials to bring it to a close’ (Farney, 1990: A20). As he concluded, delegates erupted in applause and he became a laughing stock overnight. In an early example of his other trademark, using his astute wife to control damage, Hillary Rodham Clinton defended the speech before the Arkansas delegation. Clinton himself made light of the political damage: he appeared on The Tonight Show, where he cheerfully endured the savage wit of Johnny Carson, and going from ‘the dog house to darling’ in a week (Associated Press, 1988). Although he said he sought a fifth term as governor of Arkansas in order to con solidate his state reforms, he also used the time to burnish a faded national image (Farney, 1990). The Democratic Leadership Council, the voice of the party’s moderate- to-conservative wing, was his next springboard. As chair, he worked hard to launch new chapters of the organisation in Kentucky, the Carolinas, Alabama, Mississippi and Texas. He built ‘a network of people who might not have been involved in Democratic primaries’ in 1992 (Ifill, 1991: 21). At the same time, Clinton maintained friendships Bill Clinton’s Campaign for the Presidential Nomination 23

across the party spectrum. He steered the DLC toward redefining the party whenever there were signs of growing tensions with more traditional party members. He rou tinely warned that voters must be offered new choices, but without being offended. His campaigns were nonetheless pursued by the whiff of scandal. In February 1990, when Clinton was finally ready to make a decision on seeking re-election, he said he would not announce any campaign plans until ‘after the Steve Clark mess is cleared up’ (Schwarts and Taylor, 1990: A20). Clark, the state attorney general and a candidate for the Democratic gubernatorial nomination, had withdrawn from the race when the authorities started looking into his expense accounts. These problems sometimes led Clinton to use his family as a convenient shield for his own politically motivated decisions. In March 1990, he sought the governor ship rather than enter national politics. With tears in his eyes and promising the best four years the state ever had, Clinton said ‘[t]he reason this is a hard decision for me is because I owe Hillary a lot, I owe Chelsea a lot’ (Farney, 1990:A20). After his announcement, Clinton put his arm around his wife, saying his only reason for running is to further gains that the state has made during his terms. ‘Hope I will have another opportunity to seek the presidency when I can do it and be faithful to my family, my state and my sense of what is right,’ he said (Byrd, 1990: 1c). By 1991 the scandal press was having ‘a giddy romp dropping stink bombs’ onto his presidential campaign: nearly every day, a new allegation about adultery surfaced (Chicago Sun- Times, 1991). In the 1990 run-up to the governor’s election, his opponent, Sheffield Nelson, said ‘Bill Clinton would rather climb a tree to tell you a lie than stand on the ground and tell you the truth…’ (Farney, id.). His earliest challenge in national politics was going from dark-horse candidate to presidential nominee for the Democratic Party in 1991. His presidential bid was successful, and Bill Clinton became the 42nd President of the United States. His two terms in office were marked by efforts to create or expand domestic social programs, by attempts to resolve several major crises overseas, and by various scandals of both a political and personal nature. But his greatest triumph over the odds came when he first stepped onto the national stage.

Worksheet 3.1.1: Strategy

Issue/Problem Credibility given flaws

Goal Win democratic nomination for President

Core Idea (metaphor, slogan, etc.) The come-back kid

Tactics (actions or bundles of 1 Democratic Leadership Council chairmanship actions) 2 Recover from bad speech in 1988 by going on Johnny Carson

3 Obscure moral failings with charm

4 Obscure moral failings with family 24 Case Studies in Comparative Politics

Worksheet 3.1.2: Key Actors

All Actors Can this actor affect achieving the goal? (Yes/No)

Hillary Clinton Y

Bill Clinton Y

John Fitzgerald Kennedy N

Winner of house race, 1974 N

US News and world report Y

Michael Dukakis Y

Sheffield Nelson N

Lee Atwater Y

Arkla Inc. N

Jerry Jones N

Arkansas Public Service Commission N

Scandal press Y

Reporters Y

Democratic Leadership Council Y

Steve Clark, Arkansas Attorney General N

Chelsea Clinton Y

Arkansas Gazette N

Sam Nunn Y

Lloyd Bentsen Y

Mario Cuomo Y

Douglas Wilder Y

Al Gore Y

Bill Bradley Y

Paul Simon Y

Dick Gephart Y

George Mitchell Y

Bob Kerrey Y

Jesse Jackson Y

National Governors’ Association Y Bill Clinton’s Campaign for the Presidential Nomination 25

continued Worksheet 3.1.2: Key Actors

All Actors Can this actor affect achieving the goal? (Yes/No)

President Reagan Y

President Bush Y

Senator Tom Harkin Y

Chuck Robb Y

Worksheet 3.1.3: An Actor’s Actions and Tactics

Actor: Hilary Rodham Clinton

Time/Date Action Is this a tactic? (Yes/No)

Builds up legal credentials N

Becomes family’s major breadwinner Y

Maintained first priority was ‘Bill and Chelsea’ Y

Maintained equanimity Y

Worksheet 3.1.4: Key Resources

Goal or Actor:

Resource Is there enough? Is this a ‘nice Is this a ‘must (Yes/No) to have’? have’?

Hillary’s goodwill Y N Y

Hillary’s maturity Y N Y

Press’s goodwill N N Y

Endorsement of National Governors’ Association Y Y N

DLC chair’s power Y Y N

Bill Clinton’s charm Y Y N

Bill Clinton’s credibility N N Y

Chelsea Clinton’s goodwill Y N Y 26 Case Studies in Comparative Politics

Worksheet 3.1.5: Key Rules

Goal or Actor:

Rule Does this rule help Does breaking this rule reach the goal? guarantee failure?

Have your daughter express hatred Y Y of you publicly

Have wife criticize you publicly for infidelity Y Y

Worksheet 3.1.6: Factors Outside Anyone’s Control

Goal: the Democratic nomination for President

Factors that help Factors that don’t help

Standards of proof for mainstream press → ← Scandal press checking into infidelities

Worksheet 3.1.7: Do-or-Die Moments

Steps to Goal Problem 1 Problem 2 Problem 3

Elected Attorney General of Arkansas ▾

Elected Governor of Arkansas ▾

Re-elected Governor of Arkansas ▾

Loses re-election as Governor ▾

Wins re-election as Governor of Arkansas ▾

Burnishes image with state reforms ▾ Bill Clinton’s Campaign for the Presidential Nomination 27

continued Worksheet 3.1.7: Do-or-Die Moments

Steps to Goal Problem 1 Problem 2 Problem 3

Wins ‘almost endorsement’ ▾

Becomes Chair of DLC ▾

DLC becomes symbol of division ▾

Acts as peacemaker in party Makes bad speech at ▾ convention ▾

Appears on Johnny Carson to mitigate effects ▾

Enters race for nomination ▾

Appeals to moderates and to conservatives ▾

Builds organisation in Kentucky, North and South Carolina, Alabama, Mississippi, Texas ▾

Conducts expert fundraising ▾

Bills himself as a big-tent democrat ▾

Populism, appeal to More news of women infidelities ▾ ▾

Uses family as shield ▾

Wins nomination ▾

Use as many columns or rows as necessary. When done, bold or circle each do-or-die moment. 28 Case Studies in Comparative Politics

Worksheet 3.1.8: Tactics, Countervailing Tactics

Goal, Actor 1 (Clinton): win Democratic Goal, Actor 2 (Republicans): damage any Nomination for President Democratic candidate

Tactics Tactics

Elected Attorney General of Arkansas → ← Defeat Governor in 1980

Elected Governor of Arkansas → ← Nelson says that Clinton would ‘climb a tree to tell you a lie…’

Re-elected Governor of Arkansas → ← Chair of Republican National Commit- tee dismisses Clinton as candidate in 1992

Loses re-election as Governor → ←

Wins re-election as Governor of Arkansas → ←

Burnishes image with state reforms → ←

Wins ‘almost endorsement’ → ←

Becomes Chair of DLC → ←

DLC becomes symbol of division → ←

Acts as peacemaker in party → ←

Appeals to moderates and to conservatives → ←

Builds organisation in Kentucky, North → ← and South Carolina, Alabama, Mississippi, Texas

Conducts expert fundraising → ←

Bills himself as a big-tent democrat → ←

Populism → ←

More news of infidelities, uses family as → ← shield

Appeal to women → ← The Orange Revolution in Ukraine 29

3.2 The Orange Revolution in Ukraine

On October 31, 2004, the Presidential election campaign in Ukraine ended, with Vicktor Yushchenko in a lead over Yanukovych of only 0.5%.1 However, since there were complaints by poll observers that the voting was not up to the standards nor mally held for a Western election, on November 21, a runoff vote was held: since neither of the main candidates had a clear majority, and Yanukovych was declared the winner. Yushchenko and his supporters opposed this decision, however, claim ing that: the voting was rigged; bands of Yanukovych supporters had travelled to different regions in order to vote multiple times; government employees, prisoners, members of the army, students, and other groups dependent on government funding were intimidated; and, in some regions, there was more than 100% voter turnout. They started demonstrating in the capital, Kiev. Yushchenko warned that security forces would try to dismantle the protest and that they should be resisted. Several municipal governments also refused to recognise the results. On November 23, Yushchenko took the oaths of the president before parliament, but this was symbolic as parliament did not have the power to make the action legal. When the results of the poll were published, Yanukovych came out with 49% of the vote and Yushchenko with 46%. On November 25, the Ukrainian Supreme Court sus pended the publication of these results as they investigated the opposition’s claims. On November 26, the two candidates met with the outgoing president Leonid Kuchma and agreed to try resolve the situation peacefully. However Yushchenko wanted a complete new runoff vote and his supporters were protesting outside of gov ernment building. Delegates from the European Union (EU), and Russia were also present to mediate. On November 27 parliament passed a motion declaring the vote invalid and ordering Yanukovych and his government to disband, although it did not have means to enforce the motion, which rested with the Supreme Court. In response to protests by Yushchenko supporters, Yanukovych supporters staged opposing protests. On November 28, as a response to the allegations some eastern regions, the Russian speaking parts of Ukraine, threatened to secede if Yushchenko was declared president. The mayor of Moscow, Yuriy Luzhdov, gave a speech where he called the Yushchenko opposition witches. The Communist newspaper Pravda claimed that NATO troops in Hungary and Poland were preparing to mobilise, and that Romanian and Slovakian military units were on alert. On November 29, the Supreme Court began proceedings regarding the possibility of electoral abuse. On December 1, a second motion of non-confidence was passed through Parlia ment. On December 2, Russian President Vladimir Putin and outgoing Ukrainian

1 Sources include: Westcott, 2004; Denysenko, 2004; BBC News, 2004; Keesing’s Record of World Events, 2004: Keesing’s Record of world Events, 2005. 30 Case Studies in Comparative Politics

President Kuchma met in Moscow and discussed the election. Together they called for an entirely new election. Yushchenko rejected this option as it would mean Kuchma would be in power for months longer. On December 3, the Supreme Court invalidated the second round of voting. Russian President Putin then issued a statement warning against foreign interfer ence in Ukraine, specifically accusing the West of trying to impose their preference of democracy on the country. On December 8, parliament passed a reform bill making important constitutional changes, moving away from a Soviet-style strong president to the more Western legislature-centred system. It also set the stage for a second runoff, set for December 26. Government employees then returned to work and protests died down. On December 11, Austrian doctors confirmed that Yushchenko had been poi soned. Later that month, in a live televised debate both men accused each other of rigging the election, but the runoff occurred and results showed Yushchenko’s majo rity victory. Yanukovych claimed fraud. On December 30, both the Supreme Court and the Central Election Commission rejected appeals by Yanukovych. The next day, Yanukovych resigned as Prime Minister in protest, saying he would not work with anyone loyal to Yushchenko. On January 6, the Supreme Court rejected another appeal by Yanukovych against the electoral commission’s handling of the poll. On January 11, the electoral com mission confirmed Yushchenko’s victory with a 52% of the vote and Yanukovych’s loss by 44%. On January 16, thousands protest in Yanukovych’s hometown, with the Supreme Court agreeing to hear one of his appeals the next day. The Supreme Court rejected it, and parliament voted to have the inauguration three days later. Yanu kovych conceded but did not validate the election. Finally, on January 24, 2005, a new prime minister was appointed, Yulia Timoshenko, to serve as an interim leader due to Yanukovych’s resignation.

Worksheet 3.2.1: Strategy

Issue/Problem Who is Ukraine’s President?

Goal Prevent Yanukovych from taking office

Core Idea (metaphor, slogan, etc.) Orange revolution

Tactics (actions or bundles of actions) 1 Election campaign

2 Protests

3 Election monitoring and validation by Supreme Court, Central Election Commission, EU and Polish delegates, and Mayors The Orange Revolution in Ukraine 31

Worksheet 3.2.2: Key Actors

All Actors Can this actor affect achieving the goal? (Yes/No)

Yuschenko Y

Yanukovych supporters Y

Yuschenko supporters Y

Government employees Y

Prisoners Y

Members of armed forces Y

Students Y

Other groups Y

Kuchma N

Polish Delegates N

EU delegates N

Russian delegates N

Luzhkov N

Pravda N

Supreme Court Y

Putin N

Parliament Y

Austrian doctors N

Central Election Commission Y

Timoshenko N

Citizens Y

Yanukovych Y 32 Case Studies in Comparative Politics

Worksheet 3.2.3: An Actor’s Actions and Tactics

Actor: Yuschenko

Time/Date Action Is this a tactic? (Yes/No)

October 31, 2004 Wins 1st round of election Y

November 21, 2004 Opposes Yanukovych win Y

Accuses Yanukovych of intimidation Y

Orchestrates protests Y

November 23, 2004 Takes oath before parliament Y

November 26, 2004 Meets with Kuchma and Yanukovych Y

November 27, 2004 Orchestrates protests Y

December 2, 2004 Rejects 2nd election Y

Worksheet 3.2.4: Key Resources

Resource Is there enough? Is this a ‘nice Is this a ‘must (Yes/No) to have’? have’?

Supporters N X

Money for both rounds of campaign Not known X

Doctors confirming poisoning Y X

Parliament Y X

Delegates Y X

Worksheet 3.2.5: Key Rules

Goal or Actor

Rule Does this rule help reach Does breaking this rule the goal? guarantee failure?

Election law Y Y

Constitution Y Y The Orange Revolution in Ukraine 33

Worksheet 3.2.6: Factors Outside Anyone’s Control

Goal: Prevent Yanukovych from taking office

Factors that help Factors that don’t help

International attention to election → ← Sudden natural death of opponents

→ ← Sudden natural collapse in health of opponent

Worksheet 3.2.7: Do-or-Die Moments

Goal: Become Prime Minister

Steps to Goal Problem 1 Problem 2

Wins 1st round of election

Wins 2nd round of election

Opposes Yanukovych win

Accuses Yanukovych of intimidation

Orchestrates protests

Takes oath before parliament

Meets with Kuchma and Yanukovych

Orchestrates protests

Rejects 2nd election

Use as many columns or rows as necessary. When the task is completed, bold or circle each do-or-die moment. 34 Case Studies in Comparative Politics

Worksheet 3.2.8: Tactics, Countervailing Tactics

Goal, Actor 1: Prevent Yanukovych from taking office Goal, Actor 2: Get Yanukovych in office

Tactics Tactics

Wins 1st round of election → ← Loses 1st round

Opposes Yanukovych win → ← Loses 2nd round

Accuses Yanukovych of intimidation → ← Intimidates voters

Orchestrates protests → ← Meets with Kuchma and Yuschenko

Takes oath before Parliament → ← Ignores Parliament

Meets with Kuchma and Yanukovych → ← Claims fraud

Orchestrates protests → ← Resigns as Prime Minister

Rejects 2nd election → ← 4 Case Study in Public Policy and Administration

Chapters 2 and 3 provide examples of the worksheets being applied to the analysis of foundational texts in political philosophy and of particular situations in compara tive politics in the US and Ukraine. But as shall be seen, it is also possible to use the worksheet method with case studies in public policy and administration. The chapter therefore expands the range of application of the worksheet method in politi cal science. The present case study examines the introduction of new funding mecha nisms in a public health care system in Ontario, Canada. After a long history of solo family practice, many Canadian family physicians moved are moving towards working in groups (Devlin et al., 2013). About half of all of these now work in groups with other family physicians settings (Canadian Medical Association and Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada, 2004). Increases in the prevalence of group practices have been linked to demographic shifts in the workforce and to governmental primary care reforms (Schultz, Tepper, and Guttman, 2009). The Ontario government supported group practice models and alternative payment plans in order to address undersupply of physicians and mal- distribution of services across the province (McKendry, 1999). Ontario began a pilot project in reforming primary health care services after a 1999 review by the Ministry of Health and Long Term Care (MOHLTC) (Health Services Restructuring Commission, 1999). That review, guided by the Primary Care Reform Steering Committee listed the following goals: improved access, improved quality and continuity of care; increased patient and provider satisfaction; and increased cost-effectiveness of health care ser vices (Price Waterhouse Coopers, 2001). In response to a mailed questionnaire, family physicians spoke of demoralisation, cynicism, and a lack of trust in government. Overall, the respondents favoured use of practice guidelines and community care centres and said that the introduction of nurse practitioners had little impact. Family physicians considered early hospital discharge and consolidated hospital services as having an adverse impact (Brunk, 1999). There were seven sites and thirteen groupings in the pilot study for a model based on a Primary Care Network (PCN) of physicians and other health care providers, who enrol patients for the provision and co-ordination of primary care services, includ ing a telephone triage service and financial incentives for preventative interventions. There were two mechanisms tested to pay physicians: the capitation model, using by all but one, based the number of patients enrolled with the practice; and a reformed fee-for-service model, where they are paid based on the amount and type of service provided to patients. The pilot study included thirteen groupings, often formed around larger groups of physicians who shared office space and/or after-hours call groups; and a shared bank account for Ministry funding. They varied considerably in size and degree of collaboration. One of the key findings of the report was that in all groupings there was greater interaction among health care providers than prior to the pilot study (Price Waterhouse Coopers, 2001).

The pilot study specified that, to become a Family Health Network (FHN), at least five physicians collectively carrying at least 4000 patients would provide the Ministry with a completed application, agreements on governance between physicians, and the identity of the lead physician. Patients in a FHN had to: at the time of enrolment, an insured person by the province and reside within 100 kilometres of the location of the FHN. Patients could not be required to enrol, or be denied enrolment. Each phy sician received a payment on starting the enrolment process and a second payment within sixty days of the start date. Lead physicians provided information on insur ance, signed agreements from all physicians with contact information, and on-call arrangements. Physicians were expected to provide and coordinate FHN services to the patient, including evenings and week-ends. The province arranged the provision of advice and referral information without charge to physicians or patients (Price Waterhouse Coopers, 2001). In order to participate, physicians had to negotiate a contract that predictably took much more time to negotiate than they anticipated (Vogel 2012). Most physicians found enrolling patients for the capitation model to be the biggest challenge, because of the level of English required to complete the forms; the complexity of the consent forms; and the lack of understanding on the part of the patient with regard to the patient’s responsibility as an enrolled patient. On the other hand, there were funds for nurse practitioners, nurses, information technology, and administrative staff. There were a number of issues raised with the capitation funding mechanism: roster limits, particularly in underserviced areas of the province; rates for elderly, rate increases and on-call rates; and exclusion of services or procedures in the capitation rate (Price Waterhouse Coopers, 2001). The Ministry required budgets for the administration of the enrolment process, staff and information technology, but physicians were frus trated by delays in approval of funding and payment. The physicians participating cited their desire to improve quality of care for their patients and the offer of financial support for the acquisition of new information technology as reasons for participat ing. There occurred a strikingly higher proportion of physicians who had formerly practiced in health service organisations (30% in the study, provincial average 2.2%) (Donskov et al., 2010). One of the striking outcomes of the pilot study was the high volume of calls for teletriage, over 200% of the planning estimate, with two thirds avoiding emergency care. Information technology was probably the most significant financial benefit to physicians, with a cost-sharing arrangement in place for the Ministry to pay two thirds. But this was also the second biggest challenge for physicians, who were not well prepared to assess their needs and choose systems. Integration of information technology varied from network to network and from physician to physician (Price Waterhouse Coopers, 2001). One of the key functions of capitation had been to trans fer a type of risk from the payer (the province) to the primary care practice/physician (Sweetman, & Buckley, 2014). Case Study in Public Policy and Administration 37

There were a number of observations made in the pilot phase which contributed to the four primary care reform goals (Health Services Restructuring Commission, 1999). These observations were: improved access, improved quality and continuity of care, increased patient and provider satisfaction, and increased cost-effectiveness of health care services. In terms of improved access, all groupings provided extended hours and shared calls to ensure after-hours coverage; where available, nurse prac titioners were sharing the patient load and reducing the burden on physicians; and the increased enrolment provided access to patients who previously did not have a family doctor (Price Waterhouse Coopers, 2001). With respect to improved quality and continuity of care, some physicians were using electronic medical records to identify trends or specific patient groups, templates for specific disease groups, electronic reminders of when patients were due for preventive interventions, etc. With respect to increased patient satisfaction, almost 90% of teletriage callers, reported they agreed with the advice provided by the nurse, and very few patients have had to de-enrol patients because of dissatisfaction. However, patients noticed little change in access, waiting time or quality of care. With respect to increased physician satisfaction, few have left groupings since they were introduced, and sat isfaction has increased after the start-up phase. With respect to increased cost effec tiveness, practice management software improved office efficiency, as did the use of electronic medical records (Price Waterhouse Coopers, 2001). Later evaluation of characteristics and patterns of care under both models showed that with similar demographic characteristics, patients in capitation practices had lower morbidity and morbidity indices (Sibbald, McPherson, & Kothari 2013). Comprehensiveness and continuity of care were similar between the two groups. Compared with patients in enhanced fee-for-service practices, those in capitation practices had less after- hours care and more visits to emergency departments. Overall, physicians in the capitation group enrolled fewer new patients than did physicians in the enhanced fee-for-service group. The same was true of new graduates (Glazier et al., 2009). Ontario’s doctors argued that they themselves are leaders in primary care reform, with more than 7500 doctors in collaborative care models in Ontario (Strasberg, 2010). But groupings did not develop quickly as hoped. The barriers to greater progress included: implementation barriers like delays in various technological components or insufficient patient and public education; fundamental problems with the model such as the physician-centric approach and insufficient feedback to physicians on outside use; and barriers in the structure and nature of the health care system like physician shortages, and gaps in service (Price Waterhouse Coopers, 2001). However, Ontario’s move toward physicians paid through capitation or salaries might have been more financially rewarding for physicians but did not necessarily improve health out comes, in comparison with community health centres with salaried doctors (Kondro, 2012). 38 Case Study in Public Policy and Administration

Worksheet 4.1: Strategy

Issue/Problem Physician wants different working conditions

Goal Form FHN

Core Idea (metaphor, slogan, etc.) None

Tactics (actions or bundles of actions) 1 Recruit physicians

2 Roster patients

3 Negotiate contract

4 Hire staff

Worksheet 4.2: Key Actors

All Actors Can this actor affect achieving the goal? (Yes/No)

MOHLTC Y

Other PCNs‘ N

HSOs N

Other physicians in Ontario Y

Staff Y

Potential staff Y

Patients Y

Potential patients Y Case Study in Public Policy and Administration 39

Worksheet 4.3: An Actor’s Actions and Tactics

Actor: Physician initiating FHN

Time/Date Action Is this a tactic? (Yes/No)

Negotiate contract with MOHLTC Y

Enrol patients Y

Hire extra staff N

Call advice lines N

Accept capitation method Y

Complete budgets for enrolment of patients Y

Complete budget for IT Y

Complete budget for nurse practitioners Y

Organise extended hours’ coverage Y

Organise on call coverage N

Organise tele triage N

Organise IT N

Recruit physicians Y

Meet large number of requirements by MOHLTC N

Worksheet 4.4: Key Resources

Goal or Actor: physician initiating FHN

Resource Is there enough? Is this a ‘nice to Is this a ‘must (Yes/No) have’? have’?

Funds for staff Y N Y

Funds for IT Y N Y

Information for MOHLTC Y Y N

Time to negotiate N N Y

Willingness of other physicians to join N N Y

Expertise on budget N Y N 40 Case Study in Public Policy and Administration

Worksheet 4.5: Key Rules

Goal or Actor: Physician initiating FHN

Rule Does this rule help Does breaking this reach the goal? rule guarantee failure?

Use funds for purposes other than dictated by MOHLTC N Y

Disregard terms of contract N Y

Ask for changes in remuneration during contract N N

Worksheet 4.6: Factors Outside Anyone’s Control

Goal: PCN

Factors that help Factors that don’t help

High average age of physicians → ← High concentration of complex patient situations

Worksheet 4.7: Do or Die Moments

Steps to Goal Problem 1 Problem 2

Negotiate contract with MOHLTC ▾

Enrol patients ▾

Accept capitation method Hire extra staff ▾ ▾

Recruit physicians Call advice lines ▾ ▾

Complete budgets for enrolment of patients ▾

▾ Complete budget for IT ▾

▾ Complete budget for nurse practitioners ▾

Organise extended hours coverage ▾ Case Study in Public Policy and Administration 41

continued Worksheet 4.7: Do-or-Die Moments

Steps to Goal Problem 1 Problem 2

Organise on call coverage ▾

Organise teletriage ▾

Organise IT ▾

Meet large number of requirements by MOHLTC ▾

Use as many columns or rows as necessary. When the task is completed, bold or circle each do-or-die moment.

Worksheet 4.8: Tactics, Countervailing Tactics

Goal, actor 1: Create PCN Goal, Actor 2: MOHLTC Controls Costs

Tactics Tactics

Negotiate contract with MOHLTC → ← Require budgets

Enrol patients → ← Offer alternative remuneration

Hire extra staff → ← Set standards of service

Call advice lines → ← Make new requirements for teletriage

Accept capitation method → ← Make new requirements for extended hours

Complete budgets for enrolment of patients → ←

Complete budget for IT → ←

Complete budget for nurse practitioners → ←

Organise extended hours coverage → ←

Organise on call coverage → ←

Organise teletriage → ←

Organise IT → ←

Recruit physicians → ←

Meet large number of requirements by → ← MOHLTC 5 Case Studies in International Relations

It is also possible the use the worksheet method with case studies in International Relations, and this possibility greatly expands the range of application of the work sheet method in political science. The present chapter gives some case studies which can be used as illustration or exercise in various fields of political science. These are historical, i.e. they only use information available at the time decisions were made, without the benefit of hindsight. These are the 1999–2003 Bush doctrine and the 1994–2007 North Korean nuclear standoff.

5.1 Bush Administration’s New Doctrine and Iraq

When, in March 1999, George W. Bush was considering running for President, his tutors included both neo-conservative hawks, such as Paul Wolfowitz and Donald Rumsfeld, and pragmatic realists, including Colin Powell and Condoleezza Rice.2 During the campaign, neither side knew where it stood with the candidate. In the new Bush administration, however, both camps were represented. The neo-conservatives numbered Vice-President Dick Cheney, Rumsfeld as Secretary of Defence, and Wol fowitz as his Deputy Secretary. The pragmatic realists numbered Powell as Secretary of State, a formidable counterweight. The two groups expressed varying views on how to deal with Saddam Hussein. The hawks developed a military option and push for increased aid to the Iraqi opposition. Powell advocated more targeted sanctions that would allow more humanitarian goods into Iraq, while tightening controls on items that could have military applications. In summary, the new national security strategy stated that the United States pos sessed unprecedented strength and influence in the world. Ostensibly building on the principles of freedom and the value of a free society, this position also came with responsibilities, obligations, and opportunity. The strength of the nation was to be used to promote a balance of power that favoured freedom. To achieve these goals, the United States would: –– champion aspirations for human dignity; –– strengthen alliances to defeat global terrorism and work to prevent attacks against us and our friends; –– work with others to defuse regional conflicts; –– prevent our enemies from threatening us, our allies, and our friends, with weapons of mass destruction; –– ignite a new era of global economic growth through free markets and free trade.

2 Sources include Keesing’s Record of World Events 2002, 2003, 2004, 2014.

Following the September 11, 2001 terror attacks on World Trade Towers, US President Bush declared a War on Terror, targeting Iraq as a major player in an ‘Axis of Evil’. Evidence for Iraqi involvement in the attacks was sketchy, but included a probable contact between hijacker Mohamed Atta and an Iraq official in Czechoslovakia, as well as evidence of defectors that prospective hijackers were trained at Salman Pak base. From March to May 2002, the UN Secretary General Kofi Annan was unable to persuade Iraqi representatives to allow inspectors return. A second attempt at talks in Vienna with Iraq’s foreign minister, Naji Sabri, also failed – Sabri said any agree ment should have included route towards lifting sanctions, ending threats of regime change, and ending no-flight zones. In August 2002, Iraq invited chief weapons inspector to Baghdad for talks on resuming inspections. In September 2002, US Presi dent George W. Bush addressed a special session of the UN, and called for multilat eral action against Iraq. Iraq responded by announcing it would allow inspections unconditionally, but quickly retracted the offer, making it conditional on no new US resolutions. British Prime Minister Tony Blair released a dossier showing Iraq has sig nificant WMD (Weapons of Mass Destruction) capabilities, in an effort to gain support for British role in projected US invasion. On November 8, 2002, UN Security Council Resolution 1441 called on Iraq to cooperate with UN inspection teams and not to obstruct UN forces. Iraq should declare all weapons of mass destruction in its posses sion by December 8, 2002. UNMOVIC inspection teams began inspecting sites in Iraq. On December 7, 2002, Iraq submitted documentation as required by UN Security Council Resolution 1441 that details the disposal of weapons of mass destruction. The document claimed that Iraq has disposed of all such weapons. Shortly thereafter, US experts examining the documentation claimed it was neither complete nor convin cing. On January 27, 2003, reports by UNMOVIC inspector Hans Blix and International Atomic Energy Commission head Mohamed El-Baradei were submitted. On February 19, 2003, the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation agreed to begin implementation of plans to provide military aid to Turkey. AWACS radar aircrafts, Patriot missile systems and special units to combat biochemical weapons were to be sent to the only NATO member country which shared borders with Iraq. The decision was taken by the Defence Planning Committee to approve the start of military plan ning to defend Turkey if it came under attack. The Alliance also decided to form a senior civil planning committee (SCPC) to provide civil emergency support to Turkey. NATO has 17 AWACS in Germany and operated by 12 out of 19 Alliance member states. The Patriot anti-missile batteries were shipped to Turkey from the Netherlands. A second resolution was tabled at the UN on February 24, 2003, sponsored by the US, the UK, and Spain. It was short and general, asserting that Iraq has failed to comply with Resolution 1441, and re-stating its obligation to rid itself of nuclear, bio logical and chemical weapons. The 15-member Security Council was composed at the time of the five permanent members (the US, France, the UK, China, and Russia) and the elected members (Bulgaria, Cameroon, Guinea, Mexico, Syria, Germany, Spain, Pakistan, Chile and Angola), with Germany then Guinea holding the Presidency. 44 Case Studies in International Relations

The draft United Nations Security Council resolution on Iraq presented to the Council on February 24, 2003, was proposed by the United States and Britain and co- sponsored by Spain. Its key points stated that Iraq has failed to take the final opportu nity afforded it in Resolution 1441. On March 7, Blix gave an oral report to the Security Council. On March 19, 2003, US defence officials said the air strikes so far had been of limited scope, and were designed to prepare the field for more intense operations. US President George W Bush addressed the nation, saying that coalition forces had begun striking targets of military importance in Iraq. On March 17, France said President Bush’s ultimatum to Saddam Hussein is ‘con trary to the will of the UN Security Council. The US increased its terrorism alert to orange, the second highest level. President Bush delivered a live television address, saying Saddam Hussein and his sons must leave Iraq within 48 hours or face mili tary conflict. The former foreign secretary, Robin Cook, resigned, saying he could not support a war without international agreement or domestic support. The UK advised all its citizens, except diplomatic staff, to leave Kuwait. Reports emerge that UN observers stationed along Kuwait’s border with Iraq have ceased all operations. The US ordered non-essential diplomats to leave Israel, Syria and Kuwait. On March 18 2003, The Pentagon confirmed new air strikes by the US and British planes against what it says are surface-to-surface missiles and artillery in the no-fly- zone in south-eastern Iraq. The US said 17 Iraqi soldiers surrendered to American forces on the Kuwaiti border. The Iraqi leadership rejected the US ultimatum for Presi dent Saddam Hussein and his sons to leave the country. The UK House of Commons voted on Iraq. French President Jacques Chirac denounced impending US invasion as bound to undermine future efforts at peaceful disarmament. German Chancellor Gerhard Schroeder said there was no justification for war against Iraq and no reason to end the weapons inspections. The Chairman of the US Joint Chiefs of Staff, General Richard Myers, had stressed speed and decisiveness, the aim being to knock the Iraqi regime off-balance and to keep it there. The three elements of the campaign were: an air campaign of great intensity; a psychological warfare assault to convince the Iraqi military that resis tance was pointless; and a ground operation to encircle Baghdad. The hope was that there would be only limited resistance from demoralised and isolated units. Those that did fight would face the full force of American combat power. It was hoped the Iraqi regime would collapse. Unlike 1991, the air and ground phases of the plan were less distinct. There was to be movement on the ground quite early in this campaign, and if resistance was light, American and British forces were encouraged to continue advancing. It began with air attacks against radars, surface-to-air missile systems and command and control centres. New, so-called E-bombs could be used to destroy electrical circuitry. The aim was to isolate Saddam Hussein and his senior commanders. There were fewer targets than in 1991, but the attacks – especially in the Baghdad area – were to be much more intensive and concentrated into a much shorter time period. Attacks would be Bush Administration’s New Doctrine and Iraq 45

carried out with cheaper, and hence more numerous, more accurate satellite-guided weapons. The aim of the US and British was to reduce these to a minimum and to reduce damage to the civilian infrastructure to a minimum as well. They were likely to be clearing up the mess afterwards and responsible for restoring essential services. The psychological campaign, using leaflets and broadcasts, would only be proven effective when war actually broke out. Within days – some people believed hours US and British ground forces moved into Iraq. Some airmobile units might have leap-frogged deep into the country. The bulk of the heavy US and British armour con centrated on the southern front where a number of water obstacles might pose chal lenges. If the advance was rapid then a key problem would be maintaining their lines of supply. The US also wanted to get significant forces on the ground in northern Iraq as quickly as possible to secure oilfields and to maintain order in Kurdish areas. Some former US military officers worried the US had gathered insufficient forces for a full-scale invasion of Iraq. In the military world, it is not so much the numbers of troops or tanks that matter, but the way units and weapons systems combine to provide combat power. The US and British deployment in the Gulf was actually rather small. Some 250,000 soldiers – half the number assembled for the 1991 Gulf War – actually provided about 150,000 US and British combat troops. The outcome of this conflict was not in doubt. How long it was to take and the level of casualties would depend upon the degree of Iraqi resistance. But the imbalance between the two sides was stark. Urban warfare, in Baghdad for example, enabled the Iraqis to inflict significant casualties on the Americans, but risked a terrible price in civilian loss of life. Equally the use of chemical weapons could have caused some problems for advancing American and British forces, but they were well-equipped and trained. Civilian casualties, on the other hand, could be serious if the weapons were used near inhabited areas. Internationally, the stakes were high. The Administration hoped that victory in Iraq would spread democracy in the Middle East, deter other dictators and vindicate its policy of pre-emptive action. Bush was very explicit about the need for regime change in Baghdad, and appealed directly to the Iraqi people in his speech, saying the US would liberate them from an oppressive dictator.

Worksheet 5.1.1: Strategy

Issue/Problem How Bush is to deal with Iraq

Goal Topple Hussein regime

Core Idea (metaphor, slogan, etc.) Knock Iraq off balance

Tactics (actions or bundles of actions) 1 Plan combined assault

2 Confront Hussein with ultimatum

3 International diplomacy using the UN and NATO 46 Case Studies in International Relations

Worksheet 5.1.2: Key Actors

All Actors Can this actor affect achieving the goal? (Yes/ No)

President of the United States Y

Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Y

United Nations Security Council Y

Saddam Hussein N

Parliament of the United Kingdom Y

Tony Blair, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Y

UN Secretary General Kofi Annan N

NATO allied countries N

Worksheet 5.1.3: An Actor’s Actions and Tactics

Actor: President of the United States

Time/Date Action Is this a tactic? (Yes/No)

Not known Approves new doctrine Y

September 11, 2001 Visits schools in Florida N

September 11, 2001 Declares war on terror Y

September 2002 Addresses United Nations General Assembly Y

January 2003 Gives Axis of Evil State of the Union address N

March 17, 2003 Delivers ultimatum to Hussein Y

March 19, 2003 Announces beginning of air strikes in address to the nation Y

Ongoing Chairs Cabinet meetings Y Bush Administration’s New Doctrine and Iraq 47

Worksheet 5.1.4: Key Resources

Resource Is there enough? Is this a ‘nice to Is this a ‘must (Yes/No) have’? have’?

Secretary General of United Nations Y X

Secretary general of NATO Y X

Leader of United Kingdom Y X

Leader of Turkey Y X

Leaders of NATO allies countries Y X

US armed forces Y X

US federal budget for defence N X

Media Y X

Presidential staff Y X

Worksheet 5.1.5: Key Rules

Goal or Actor:President of the US

Rule Does this rule help reach Does breaking this rule the goal? guarantee failure?

North Atlantic Treaty Y N

US Constitution Y Y

International law on war Y N

United Nations Charter Y N

UN Security Council procedures Y N

Worksheet 5.1.6: Factors Outside Anyone’s Control

Goal: remove Hussein from power

Factors that help Factors that don’t help

→ ← International crisis elsewhere 48 Case Studies in International Relations

Worksheet 5.1.7: Do-or-Die Moments

Steps to Goal Problem 1 Problem 2

Approves new doctrine ▾

Visits schools in Florida ▾

Declares war on terror ▾

Addresses the UN General Assembly ▾

Gives Axis of Evil State of the Union address ▾

Delivers ultimatum to Hussein ▾

Announces beginning of air strikes in address to the nation ▾

Use as many columns or rows as necessary. When the task is completed, bold or circle each do-or-die moment.

Worksheet 5.1.8: Tactics, Countervailing Tactics

Goal, actor 1: President of the US Goal, Actor 2: Hussein

Tactics Tactics

Approves new doctrine → ← Declines ultimatum

Declares war on terror → ←

Addresses the UN General Assembly → ←

Gives Axis of Evil State of the Union address → ←

Delivers ultimatum to Hussein → ←

Announces beginning of air strikes in address to the → ← nation The North Korean Nuclear Stand-Off 49

5.2 The North Korean Nuclear Stand-Off

On a visit to Pyongyang in October 2002, US Assistant Secretary of State James Kelly pressed the North on suspicions that it was continuing to pursue a nuclear energy and missiles program, citing evidence of a secret uranium-enriching program carried out in defiance of the 1994 Agreed Framework.3 Under this deal, North Korea agreed to forsake nuclear ambitions in return for the construction of two safer light water nuclear power reactors and oil shipments from the US. Later that month, the US announced that North Korea had admitted in their talks to a secret nuclear arms program. Initially the North appeared conciliatory. Kim Jong-Il said he would allow international weapons inspectors to check that nuclear facilities are out of use. The North-South Korea talks in Pyongyang were undermined by the North’s nuclear program ‘admission’. US Secretary of State Colin Powell then said further US aid to North Korea was now in doubt. The same month, five Japanese citizens abducted by North Korea 25 years before were allowed a brief visit home. But they ended up staying, thereby provoking more tension in the region. The North adopted a mercurial stance, one moment defiantly defending its right to weapons development, offering to halt nuclear programs in return for aid and the signing of a non-aggression pact with the US the next. It argued that the US had not kept to its side of the Agreed Framework, as the construction of the light water reac tors – due to be completed in 2003 – was now years behind schedule. US President George W. Bush declared that the November oil shipments to the North would be the last if the North does not agree to put a halt to its weapons ambitions. In December 2002, North Korean-made Scud missiles were found aboard a ship bound for Yemen, provoking American outrage. The US detained the ship, but released it, conceding that neither country has broken any law. The North threatened to reactivate nuclear facilities for energy generation, saying the Americans’ decision to halt oil shipments left it with no choice, blaming the US again for wrecking the 1994 pact. On December 13, North Korea asked the UN’s International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) to remove seals and surveillance equipment from its Yongbyon power plant, then removed them itself. North-South Korea talks over reopening road and rail border links stalled. North Korea began shipping fuel rods to the Yongbyon plant which could be used to produce plutonium. The IAEA expressed concern and the two IAEA nuclear inspectors were expelled from the country. North Korea also said it was planning to reopen a reprocessing plant, which could start producing weapons-grade plutonium within months.

3 Sources include BBC News, 2002, 2004, 2005, 2007, 2013; Keesing’s Record of World Events, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005. 50 Case Studies in International Relations

In January 2003, the IAEA passed a resolution demanding that North Korea readmit UN inspectors and abandon its secret nuclear weapons program. The US said it was willing to talk to North Korea about how it met its obligations, but would not provide goods to North Korea in exchange. North Korea then announced it would withdraw from the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. US satellites tracked movement at the Yongbyon plant throughout January. In February 2003, North Korea said it had reactivated its nuclear facilities. The IAEA found North Korea in breach of nuclear safeguards and referred the matter to the UN Security Council. On February 24, 2003, North Korea fired a missile into the sea between South Korea and Japan, firing a second one in March. On March 2, North Korean fighter jets intercepted a US reconnaissance plane in international air space and shadowed it for 22 minutes. On April 1, the US announced that stealth fighters sent to South Korea for train ing would stay on. The UN Security Council expressed concern about North Korea’s nuclear program. North Korea announced that it was willing to negotiate, having started to reprocess its spent fuel rods. Talks did begin in Beijing, led by the US Assistant Secretary of State for East Asian affairs, James Kelly, and the deputy Direc tor General of North Korea’s American Affairs Bureau, Li Gun. Nonetheless, in May, North Korea scrapped a 1992 agreement with the South to keep the peninsula free from nuclear weapons, its last remaining international agreement on non-prolifera tion. In June 2003, officials admitted to a visiting delegation of US congressmen that the country had nuclear weapons. North Korea said that it would build a nuclear deterrent, ‘unless the US gives up its hostile policy’. In August, it agreed to six-way talks on its nuclear program – the US, Japan, China and Russia and the two Koreas. The talks failed to bridge the gap. In October, North Korea announced that it would display its nuclear deterrent, and it also agreed to resume talks on the nuclear crisis. In December, it offered to freeze its nuclear program in return for a list of concessions from the US. It warned that if the US did not agree, it would not take part in further talks. The US declined. In January 2004, an unofficial US team visited Yongbyon and was shown what appeared to be weapons-grade plutonium, but no evidence of a nuclear bomb. In May, the UN atomic agency investigated allegations that North Korea secretly sent uranium to Libya. In June, a third round of six-nation talks was held in Beijing, with the US making a new offer to allow North Korea fuel aid if it froze then dismantled its nuclear programs. In July, US Secretary of State Colin Powell met the North Korean Foreign Minister, Paek Nam Sun. North Korea later described US President George W. Bush as an ‘imbecile’ and a ‘tyrant that puts Hitler in the shade’; in response to comments President Bush made describing the North’s Kim Jong-Il as a ‘tyrant’. Following that sparkling moment in diplomatic history, Vice Foreign Minister Choe Su-hon told the UN General Assembly that his country had turned plutonium from 8,000 spent fuel rods into nuclear weapons. The North Korean Nuclear Stand-Off 51

In January 2005, North Korea expressed willingness to restart stalled talks on its nuclear program. In February, North Korea suspended its participation in the talks over its nuclear program and repeated its assertion to have built nuclear weapons for self-defence. In April, South Korea noted that the Yongbyon reactor had been shut down, a move which could allow it to extract more fuel for nuclear weapons. On May 1, 2005, North Korea fired a short-range missile into the Sea of Japan. On May 11, it completed extraction of spent fuel rods from Yongbyon. On May 16, North and South Korea held their first talks in 10 months. The US suspended efforts to recover the remains of missing US servicemen in North Korea, saying restrictions placed on its work were too great. In June, North Korea requested more food aid from the South, and in July it said it would re-join nuclear talks. In July, South Korea offered the North huge amounts of electricity as an incentive to end its nuclear weapons program. The fourth round of six-nation talks in Beijing, reached deadlock within two weeks, but after a month resumed. North Korea agreed to give up all its nuclear activities and re-join the nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. The US said it had no intention of attacking. But on September 20, North Korea said it would not scrap its nuclear program until it is given a civilian nuclear reactor. In December, North Korea announced it intended to resume building nuclear reactors, because the US had pulled out of a key deal to build it two new reactors. There the matter rested until April 2006, when a two-day meeting aimed at per suading North Korea to return to talks on its nuclear program failed. In July, Washing ton dismissed a threat by North Korea that it would launch a nuclear strike against the US in the event of an American attack as ‘deeply hypothetical’. North Korea test-fired at least six missiles. South Korea suspended food aid and the UN Security Council unanimously banned exports and imports of missile-related materials. In September, North Korea blamed the US financial sanctions for the deadlock in a speech to the UN General Assembly. It carried out a nuclear test on October 9. As a result, the UN Security Council voted unanimously to impose weapons and financial sanctions on North Korea. The six-nation talks resumed briefly in December in Beijing, but without progress. In January 2007, the Japanese Prime Minister, Shinzo Abe, stated his country could not tolerate a nuclear-armed North Korea and called for closer international co-operation to stop such an outcome. The six-nation nuclear talks then resumed, in Beijing.4

4 BBC News. (2007) North Korea Nuclear Crisis. 8 February. (www.bbcnews.co.uk). 52 Case Studies in International Relations

Worksheet 5.2.1: Strategy

Issue/Problem Suspicions that North Korea is pursuing nuclear weapons

Goal Stop North Korea from developing nuclear weapons

Core Idea (metaphor, slogan, etc.) Tame North Korea’s nuclear wild horse

Tactics (actions or bundles of actions) 1 Officials visit

2 Bargain goods

3 Display military strength

4 Participate in talks

Worksheet 5.2.2: Key Actors

All Actors Can this actor affect achieving the goal? (Yes/ No)

US Y

North Korea Y

South Korea Y

Colin Powell Y

Jim Kelly N

Japanese citizens in North Korea N

President of the US Y

Yemen N

International Atomic Energy Association N

IAEA nuclear inspectors N

UN Security Council Y

Japan Y

Li Gun, Deputy Director, American Affairs Bureau, North Korea N

Russia Y

Libya N

Foreign Minister of North Korea, Paek Nam Sun N

Kim Jong IL, leader of North Korea Y

Vice foreign minister, North Korea N

US Secretary of State Y The North Korean Nuclear Stand-Off 53

continued Worksheet 5.2.2: Key Actors

All Actors Can this actor affect achieving the goal? (Yes/ No)

Senior US diplomat N

Unofficial US inspection team N

Japanese Prime Minister Y

Worksheet 5.2.3: An Actor’s Actions and Tactics

Actor: United States

Time/Date Action A tactic?

October 2002 Presses North Korea on nuclear program Y

October 2002 Announces that North Korea admitted to the program Y

December 2002 Outraged to find scuds shipped to Yemen Y

January 2003 Detains ship Y

Announces movement at Yongbyon plant Y

February 2003 Sends reconnaissance plane, later intercepted Y

April 2003 Announces stealth fighters will remain in S. Korea Y

Leads talks in Beijing Y

June 2003 Sends delegation of Congressmen to North Korea N

January 2004 Sends unofficial inspection team to North Korea Y

May 2004 Suspends efforts to recover servicemen remains N

July 2004 Participates in six-nation talks Y

Says it won’t attack North Korea Y

July 2006 Dismisses North Korean threat Y

December 2006 Participates in six-nation talks Y

January 2007 Participates in six-nation talks Y 54 Case Studies in International Relations

Worksheet 5.2.4: Key Resources

Goal or Actor: US

Resource Is there enough? Is this a ‘nice to Is this a ‘must (Yes/No) have’? have’? International law Y X

Diplomatic ability of IAEA Y X

Diplomatic ability of Japanese Prime Minister Y X

US technical expertise Y X

Diplomatic ability of Kelly Y X

Diplomatic ability of Powell Y X

Oil Y X

Nuclear technology in US Y X

Goodwill of North Korea N X

International nuclear agreements Y X

US credibility with North Korea Y X

North Korean credibility with US N X

Worksheet 5.2.5: Key Rules

Goal or Actor: US

Rule Does this rule help Does breaking this rule reach the goal? guarantee failure? International law on sovereignty N N

International law on nuclear technology Y N

Non-aggression pact Y Y

Agreed framework Y N

Informal rules of international diplomacy N N

Worksheet 5.2.6: Factors Outside Anyone’s Control

Goal: Stop nuclear weapons in North Korea

Factors that help Factors that don’t help

Famine in North Korea → ← Nuclear technology available on black market The North Korean Nuclear Stand-Off 55

Worksheet 5.2.7: Do or Die Moments

Steps to Goal Problem 1 Problem 2 Problem 3

Presses North Korea on nuclear program ▾

Announces that North Korea admitted to the program ▾

Outraged that North Korean scuds are found on their way to Yemen ▾

Detains ship ▾

Announces that there was movement at Yongbyon plant ▾

Sends reconnaissance plane, which is intercepted ▾

Announces stealth fight- Leads talks in Beijing ▾ ers will remain in South Korea ▾

Sends delegation of Congressmen to North Korea ▾

Sends unofficial nuclear inspection team to North Korea ▾

Suspends efforts to Participates in 6-nation recover remains of talks ▾ servicemen ▾

Says it won’t attack North Korea ▾

Dismisses threat ▾

Participates in 6-nation talks ▾

Use as many columns or rows as necessary. When the task is completed, bold or circle each do-or-die moment. 56 Case Studies in International Relations

Worksheet 5.2.8: Tactics, Countervailing Tactics

Goal, actor 1: Stop North Korea from developing Goal, Actor 2: Get as much as possible for agree- nuclear weapons ment to not develop

Tactics Tactics

Presses North Korea on nuclear program → ← Admits to nuclear program

Announces that North Korea admitted to the → ← Participates in talks with South Korea program

Outraged that North Korean Scuds are found → ← Defends weapons development on their way to Yemen

Detains ship → ← Offers halt

Announces that there was movement at → ← Accuses US of defaulting on agreement Yongbyon plant

Sends reconnaissance plane, which is inter- → ← Makes confusing or ambiguous statement cepted

Announces stealth fighters will remain in → ← Ships Scud missiles South Korea

Leads talks in Beijing → ← Blames US for Agreed Framework

Sends delegation of Congressmen to North → ← Asks IAEA to remove surveillance equipment Korea from nuclear facility

Sends unofficial nuclear inspection team to → ← Removes IAEA equipment from nuclear facil- North Korea ity

Suspends efforts to recover remains of → ← Ships fuel rods to Yongbyon servicemen

Participates in six-nation talks → ← Announces withdrawal from Non Proliferation treaty

Says it won’t attack North Korea → ← Insults President of US

Dismisses North Korean threat → ← Says it reactivated plants

Participates in six-nation talks → ← Fires missiles into sea

Participates in six-nation talks → ← Announces it is reprocessing spent rods

→ ← Scraps last nuclear agreement

→ ← Announces it is building a nuclear deterrent

→ ← Offers concessions

→ ← Offers to restart six-party talks

→ ← Makes contradictory statements The North Korean Nuclear Stand-Off 57

Other Applications The worksheet method has been used successfully to analyse a wide range of situa tions in International Relations, including Dark Winter, a US preparedness exercise, Arctic sovereignty, and the Gulf War.

Part II: Simulations And Exercises The theory and practice of politics is often covered by a combination of lectures deliv ery and long form written work – essays, examinations, etc. A simulation exercise, on the other hand, presents all the advantages of active pedagogy, as well as cover ing some of the basic themes typically present in upper-year or – division courses. Role-play simulations are extensively established in the literature on teaching and learning at the university level (Woodworth and Gump, 1982; Walcott, 1976; Gould, 1979). In recent years, classroom role-play simulations have been used for Cabinet and budget processes in courses on Canadian Politics at the University of Toronto, for determining foreign policy at Dalhousie University, for determination of future Canadian policy in Afghanistan by the Senlis Council, and in single class simulations in comparative politics at the University of Delaware. The second part of this book describes the simulations, outlines the content and concepts covered, explains how the simulation can be integrated into a twelve- or fourteen-week course, and speci fies requirements to maximise student learning. The instructor also stands to learn a good deal about politics from students, because the collective research capacity of the students always exceeds his or her own. However, the most recent political develop ments tend to come up in any simulation, making them more predictable than they might at first seem. Not only are these simulations fun, students develop skills as well as knowledge, but motivation to work is less of a problem for students, given the cooperative competitive nature of them. Some role-play simulations use the generic analysis worksheets discussed previ ously. Others have worksheets specifically developed. Excursus: The Overview Worksheet

When an instructor adapts or designs active learning, especially when it is compara tively new in a discipline or institution, it is important that the students know what they have learned. The role-play simulations below have proven very popular with students, but the teaching evaluations showed that they were not necessarily aware of how much they had learned. In many ways that is the role of examinations. In addi tion, examinations force students to develop an overview of the course, and make them realise what they have learned. The exercise and worksheet presented here allows them to do both of those. In that regard, it provides some of the same benefits as a final examination. Moreover, the overview worksheet gives the instructor feed back about how well students have learned through the methods used the informa tion provided during a particular course, or part of a course. The overview worksheet described below is valid across the curriculum of politi cal science, and indeed, across various disciplines. An additional benefit for students it had, when they graduate and enter the job market, they can use the skills column in a qualification grid. Students can retain their worksheet and continue to fill out more as their education progresses. Eventually, they can list the professional and/or volunteer experience that they have had. There are samples of all of these below, including a job application, a sample qualification grid to illustrate the use to which the skills column can be put. Also appended is a list of action verbs and a classification of the types of learning, to assist in the preparation of the grid. The Overview Worksheet consists of four columns. In Column 1, the student fills in the components or modules of the course taken. In Column 2, the student fills in the particular role or content that was taken in role-play simulations, exercises, or other types of assignments. In Column 3, the student lists the skills used for the first time or further developed for each of the exercises or assignments. In Column 4, the student lists the applications of those skills that are transferable.

Worksheet 1: Overview Worksheet

Name Course Date

Simulation/Exercise Content/ Role Skill Application in workplace

Students can use Table 1, Various Kinds of Learning (inspired by Bloom, s.d.), to jog their thinking or to check that they have a complete list.

Table 1: Various Kinds of Learning

Kinds of learning Verbs which describe it

Recall facts: defines, describes, identifies, knows, labels, lists, matches, names, outlines, recalls, recognises, reproduces, selects, states.

Understand the meaning, interpre- comprehends, converts, defends, distinguishes, estimates, tation of instructions and problems: explains, extends, generalizes, gives an example, infers, inter- prets, paraphrases, predicts, rewrites, summarises.

Unprompted use of an abstraction, applies, changes, computes, constructs, demonstrates, dis- applies what was learned in new covers, manipulates, modifies, operates, predicts, prepares, situations: produces, relates, shows, solves, uses.

Separates material into component analyzes, breaks down, compares, contrasts, diagrams, decon- parts, understands organisational structs, differentiates, discriminates, distinguishes, identifies, structures: illustrates, infers, outlines, relates, selects, separates.

Structure information, creating new categorises, combines, compiles, composes, creates, devises, meaning: designs, explains, generates, modifies, organises, plans, rear- ranges, reconstructs, relates, reorganises, revises, rewrites, summarises, tells, writes.

Assess value of ideas or materials: appraises, compares, concludes, contrasts, criticizes, critiques, defends, describes, discriminates, evaluates, explains, inter- prets, justifies, relates, summarizes, supports.

The end result could be something like this, for a student with an introductory course, which includes exercises such as simulated US elections, or preparing a budget simu lation.

Table 2: Overview Worksheet: Introduction to Political Science

Name Course Date

Simulation/ Exercise Content/ Role Skill Application in workplace

US election Platform for Demo- Speechwriting Speechwriting for politician, crats Republicans candidate, CEO, Executive Direc- tor of NGO

Election simulation Speechwriter Presentation Product launch

Political campaigning Structured presentations for sales, marketing, advocacy

Assessment of opponents/collaborators Excursus: The Overview Worksheet 63

continued Table 2: Overview Worksheet: Introduction to Political Science

Name Course Date

Simulation/ Exercise Content/ Role Skill Application in workplace

Budget simulation Analysis of figures

Correlation of Planning for business Sales, marketing, competitive expenditures, rev- marketplace for goods and enues, objectives services

Reviewing budget for grant, government program, business

When completed, the skills grid for each course can be combined for a qualification grid that can then be used for a job search strategy.

Table 3: Skills grid for a hypothetical student

Experience (Job/Volunteer) Skill Applicability

Wrestling coach Conflict resolution Team work

Training Planning

Organizing trips/meets Event planning

Fundraising Fundraising

Speechwriter in Introduction to Writing long form for the ear Presentation Political Science

Political campaigning

Product launch

Structured presentations for sales, marketing, advocacy

Call Centre Imparting information extempo- Sales, marketing, training of raneously personnel

Customer relations Teamwork, conflict resolution, interpersonal skills

Problem solving Management 1 Political Philosophy

For political philosophy, two exercises are proposed. The first is ‘What is Politics’, which is a conceptual exercise that can be used to introduce students to a particular idea. The second, a multi-class exercise, is called ‘Political Ideologies’, and covers families of political ideas.

1.1 What is Politics?

This conceptual exercise introduces students to the requirements of definition of political ideas. It also introduces the students to the problems and realities of apply ing concepts in real-life situations. It can serve as an introduction to methodological considerations. In preparation for this exercise, the instructor should advise librar ians that the class will be working in the library on a particular time and date. The instructor can then split the class into two groups, keep one half for the lecture on basic concepts while the other goes to the library. The library group then returns for the lecture and have the lecture group go to class. The instructor then asks students to come to class with a transparency, flash drive or copy/print cards for the library. The instructions to students are as follows: –– form teams of 3–5; –– go to the current periodicals/newspaper room of the library, the electronic resources section and/or the microfilm section; –– search for a story that may be about politics; –– print or copy it onto a transparency; –– fill out attached worksheet; –– emphasise respect of other patrons (i.e. keep noise down); –– ask students to return materials to the right place after they are done, so the next group can find material as well.

At the next class, have students share the story chosen and give their reasons for why it is about politics. If the class is over 75 students, have discussion in groups regarding what is politics first, then build a definition of politics. Once the definition of politics is determined, it is possible to expand the definition to political science. Classify the various stories into fields of political science: International Relations, Comparative Politics, Political Philosophy, etc. Below is a Worksheet 1.1, What is Politics, for stu dents to use during the exercise, also in the Appendix.

Worksheet 1.1.1: What is Politics?

Date

Students:

Our news story is from______

(News chapter, date, page, by-line, URL)

Headline:______

Topic: ______

This story is political because:

1. ______

2. ______

3. ______

1.2 Ideologies: Families of Political Ideas

The second exercise is designed to familiarise students with the great ideologies in politics: conservatism, Marxism, liberalism, feminism and environmentalism. It can be adapted for more specific political ideologies. The instructor should have students bring the worksheet found below to class for lecture on ideologies. S/he then schedules schedule 3–5 guests for the classes follow ing the lecture on ideology. These speakers should represent a range of ideologies, and each one need not represent only one ideology. The exercise requires the students to identify the dominant ideology. Guest speakers should address class for about twenty minutes and then take questions, and they should be asked, by the students or the instructor, on what they believe in politics and why they are politically active. Guests can represent federal/ provincial parties, fringe parties, special interest groups or social movements (peace activists, environmentalists, etc.); politicians in pre-election or election mode will be particularly willing to speak. The instructor should start scheduling speakers several weeks in advance of the initial lecture, bearing in mind that the more prominent members of the community tend to cancel at the last minute. The instructor can offer one lecture on the ideology likeliest to be that of the coming guest and have students 66 Political Philosophy

fill in the worksheet below as s/he lectures, then collects those worksheets at the end of each lecture. At the end of the lecture, the students can break into small groups and develop questions for guests. At the close of the guest speaker series, the instructor can have a discussion based on the questions listed below.

Worksheet 1.2.1: Ideologies: Families of Political Ideas

Date: Students:

Liberalism Conservatism Marxism Feminism Environmentalism

Actors

Motivation of Actors

Distribution of Power

Optimal Conditions

Assumptions

Sources of Power

Other

Post-Exercise Discussion: –– Did any of the ideologies of the 19th century show up in 21st century? –– Is there a difference between a conservative or liberal party and a party with the word ‘conservative’ or ‘liberal’ in the name? Is there a difference between the commonly applied label ‘liberal’ and the liberal ideology? –– Is there a difference between the commonly applied label ‘conservative’ and the conservative ideology? –– Is there a difference between common knowledge of ideology and political sci ence’s knowledge of ideology? –– Is there a difference between an ideology presented in books and an ideology in life? –– If so, what are they? –– Is there a difference between politicians in person and politicians on TV, the Internet, or newspapers? –– Has this affected the criteria by which to judge politicians? –– What criteria were used before? –– What criteria are used now? –– What was learned about the library resources? What library resources were used? –– If only one thing was to be done differently at the end of this exercise, what would it be? Ideologies: Families of Political Ideas 67

Resources: Potential guests whose views can be analysed for ideology include: –– political party riding association presidents; –– presidents of political party riding association youth wings; –– present and past member of the national legislature; –– various social activists (poverty, violence, peace, environment).

Films that can be analysed using worksheets include: –– Roger and Me, –– Matchpoint.

Having examined some exercises suitable for political philosophy, the time has come to turn to the first of several role-play simulations, starting in Chapter 2. 2 Role-Play Simulations for Comparative Politics

There are three role-play simulations proposed for Comparative Politics: the budget simulation, the election simulation, and the public opinion poll.

2.1 The Budget Simulation

This simulation is a multi-class role-play in which players will simulate the budget- making process is based on the budget process in Canada, but it can be easily modi fied for terminology and institutions, to represent other liberal democracies with transparent institutions. Ideally, this simulation should take place just ahead of the national budget being handed down. The class can then watch the delivery of the budget together, to see how accurate their predictions were. It is simplified, and does not require students to develop detailed programs. However, it is possible for students to decide the fundamental question of politics: who gets what when and where. Given scarce resources, should the government continue with its present ini tiatives or should it move into new areas? Cabinets face myriad political pressures, financial interests at home and abroad are calling for action on the economy, and a variety of political issues. Various interest groups are pulling the government in different directions. Individual Cabinet ministers face pressures from within their ministries and their electoral constituencies. In the present simulation, assume the government wants to introduce some potentially popular and high-profile new projects. The simulation is launched by a short lecture describing the executive of the go vernment, the budget process, and the budget tools or instruments. In the alternative, the lecture can be broken up into sections and given just ahead of the students having to start their work. The instructor should explain the required worksheet at the start of each class. The government document and electronic services librarians should be warned about the assignments, especially if the class is large. If the class is too large, it is possible to run several Cabinets simultaneously. Roles within a Cabinet will be allocated by consensus by students. In selecting and preparing for their roles, students should know the position for which they may be asked to act as a substitute and be ready to take that role if necessary. Meetings outside of class time can be used to plan, form an approach and/or set priorities. The role-play consists of a set number of Cabinet or Cabinet committee meetings. Students are expected to act in a manner consistent with their minister’s profile. They should consider what pressures are being brought to bear on their assigned minister, and then choose a strategy that takes these pressures into consideration. Cabinet must develop new proposals to fund and decide which programs to cut or what income to raise. Each proposed new program is divided into components, which

the Cabinet can choose, but the Cabinet cannot break the proposal down further. The final budget must raise enough revenue from program cuts, increased taxes or bor rowing to pay for new programs. Students can choose to have revenues exceed expen ditures in order to reduce the nation’s debt. At the first meeting, the clerk will make some introductory remarks which will include a brief overview of the political situa tion. Finance will then offer a brief overview of the fiscal situation. The clerk will then ask each Cabinet minister for a brief opening statement outlining his/her position. A representative of the Cabinet will make a short statement regarding what has been decided, and the ministers will respond to questions from the press. The simulation cannot work if students do not come prepared to each class, with the worksheets filled out. To be specific, for each class each student must: (1) bring in document to be analysed; (2) bring in worksheet for that class; (3) bring in com pleted worksheet. Each successive class will cover the following steps to building a budget: –– Analysis of the Throne Speech; –– Analysis of the Finance Minister’s Economic Statement; –– Expenditure Proposal; –– Expenditure Reduction/Revenue Increase Proposal; –– Proposed Budget.

The list of meetings can be further simplified as necessary. The instructor can provide the membership and committee structure of the Cabinet, as relevant. In upper year courses, students may be responsible for correctly researching such issues. The worksheets for the simulation are as follows:

Worksheet 2.1.1: Analysis the Throne Speech/Official Opposition Response

Sources of information:

Students:

Throne Speech

Most Important Initiatives Proposed Changes in Spending How It Will Be Paid For

Main Instruments Used Initiative Amount 70 Role-Play Simulations for Comparative Politics

Worksheet 2.1.2: Opposition Reply

Most Important Initiatives Proposed Changes in Spending How It Will Be Paid For

Main Instruments Used Initiative Amount

Worksheet 2.1.3: Analysis of the Finance Minister’s Economic Statement

Sources of information:

Students:

Most Important Changes in Circumstances Amount Involved Surplus/Deficit

Changes to Largest Expenditures Amount Statutory/Discretionary

Changes to Largest Expenditures Amount Under/Outside Control The Budget Simulation 71

Worksheet 2.1.4: Expenditure Proposal/ Expenditure reduction proposal

Title:

Proposed by: (Minister’s Name, Ministry‘s Name)

Rationale:

Detailed Expenditures

Worksheet 2.1.5: Proposed Budget

Sources of information:

Students:

Spending Item Amount Proposed by

Spending Cut

Surplus/Deficit

Below, students will find some sources of information to assist them in the simula tion. These include government and scholarly sources.

Resources on the Canadian Budget Websites include: –– Introduction to the budget at http://mapleleafweb.com/features/federal-budget- canada –– Illustrated procedure of federal budget at http://www.parl.gc.ca/About/House/ compendium/web-content/c_d_financialcycle-e.html. –– Budget process, major players, major documents at http://www.budget. gc.ca/2010/budproc/budproc-eng.html. –– Scholarly overview of budget process at http://www.parlcent.org/en/wp-content/ uploads/2011/04/articles_and_papers/Canadian_Budget_Process_EN.pdf.

Resources for a potential adaption to the UK Budget Websites include: –– Official documents of UK government at https://www.gov.uk/government/ publications?official_document_status=command_and_act_papers. –– https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/uk.html. 72 Role-Play Simulations for Comparative Politics

Video: –– http://www.parliament.uk/about/how/occasions/budget/video-the-budget-and- parliament. Podcast: –– http://www.parliament.uk/about/how/occasions/budget/budget/.

2.2 The Election Campaign Simulation

In the format proposed, the instructor can select countries to be studied, or have stu dents choose. Most industrialised countries have ample news and scholarly coverage of elections, especially since the advent of electronic resources. While the students do not need to speak the language of the country chosen, information about the politics of that country needs to be available in a language that students understand. It is useful to have a professional librarian conduct a research workshop tailored to the assign ment or test about two weeks before the deadline. If the instructor prefers to establish a threshold of basic knowledge, at the start of the simulation, it is possible to have stu dents write a take-home test covering the main parties, their main platforms, the struc ture of the electoral system, and current and recurring political issues in the country. Teams of students are formed, at random, by the instructor, by their own choice, to represent the parties which hold seats in the legislature of the country. During the simulation, students are encouraged to be as realistic as possible. If the class is large enough, it is possible to have students appointed as journalists, whose job is to write news reports using the tone and editorial bias of a media outlet of their choice for each class. Media or other role-players cannot invent incidents. The simulated journalists would also be expected to produce other material as required from other students. Students may also be required to complete worksheets 1–8 to analyse the perfor mance. This analysis is particularly useful to keep students engaged. A short intro duction to the uses and background to the worksheets is best given at the start of the class during which students will use a particular worksheet to analyse what occurs. This introduction will allow students to take notes adequately during the simulation, thereby also keeping them engaged.

Simulation Details The students are required to prepare for, and conduct, the major events of an election campaign such as has occurred or is occurring in the country under study, with each student playing the role of a different actor in the process: leader of a party, campaign manager, fundraiser, speechwriter, etc. The simulation includes the following tasks, which can be covered in eight classes over four weeks, assuming 90 minute classes: –– a campaign managers’ meeting to set timetables and parameters; –– an election call or campaign launch; The Election Campaign Simulation 73

–– one campaign speech; –– writing and/or production of two television/internet commercials, one less than one minute and one less than two minutes; –– one news conference; –– a one-on-one media interview; and –– an all-candidates’ debate.

Each of these tasks is designed to cover themes common in upper-year or -division courses in the comparative politics of industrialised courses. Team formation and selection of the party to represent familiarises students with political parties. The campaign launch by the parties introduces students with the party platform. The planning of the simulated election campaign gets students acquainted with electoral systems, the legislative and executive branches of government, and any election laws or regulations. Media reports or interviews, if they occur, condition students with the role of the media in the politics of the country under study, as well as journalist, media consumer and voter behaviour. Campaign speeches will ensure students are familiar with the most important political issues in the given election campaign or cycle. The leaders’ debate, which occurs in almost all liberal democratic countries, will show the brand of leadership for that country, as well as confirming students’ understanding of platform elements and extemporaneous speaking skills. Finally, the holding of the simulated election itself reveals how the social cleavages and stra tification will occur as represented by voting behaviour. The instructor may devote entire classes to teamwork if required or possible, or the instructor may choose to intersperse lectures with the simulated election classes, providing information that the students can use in the next scheduled event. Another option is to use the simu lation for that part of term where students are usually the least motivated, say in the latter half of a term. Students can choose their roles within the political party apparatus of each party, or they can be assigned. The election campaign is usually a national one, so there has to be a party leader, as well as a campaign manager, someone responsible for elec tion fundraising, spending and reporting, at least one speechwriter, a researcher who may be researching other parties’ flaws or embarrassing moments, a strategist, and a media relations specialist if there are media. If there are media, then each class during the campaign starts with media reports. These take the form of brief written articles written in the style and tone of newspa pers of the country under study. Next are the campaign events scheduled for that class, followed by some time for the professor to give feedback to students on the accuracy and realism of their performance, to highlight any particular characteris tic of the politics of the particular country, and to assign tasks to particular teams to improve their performance. The teams are assessed either on their performance in class, evaluated in the same way a participation grade would be assessed. They can also be assigned analytical assignments that help them put their learning into 74 Role-Play Simulations for Comparative Politics

context, which would be marked like more traditional short-answer or longer form written assignments. Table 2.2.1: Election Rules, specifies by event what is required.

Table 2.2.1: Election Rules

Event Rules

Campaign Launch 10 minute maximum time for presentation for each party; presentations are open to whatever the party wants, i.e. pamphlet, overheads, slide shows; no personal attacks on the other parties; restricted to their own parties political history and possible initiatives; there are no money restrictions for the presentation.

Campaign Speeches 10 minute maximum time for speeches by each candidate. Speeches are restricted to platform issues with no personal attacks. There is a 10-minute question period for media. Media questions are restricted to the platform.

Commercial 1 Commercial must not exceed 1 minute at the most. There are no topic restrictions on the content of the commercial.

Press Conference There are no topic restrictions. Following the press release, each media representation may ask one question each.

One-on-one media There will be one media representative with one candidate. The media will interviews supply a list of topics one class beforehand to prepare. The candidate may pass on any question they deem as inappropriate.

Commercial 2 The commercials shall not exceed 3 minutes. There are no topic restrictions on the content.

All candidates debates Two minutes are allocated for the opening and closing statements. Can- didates speak in order starting from audience’s left going to right. Media must take turns asking questions. One minute is the maximum time limit for answers. Any question deflections to other party will allow a one minute rebuttal. There is only one rebuttal for each topic allowed.

Victory speech Maximum five minutes is allowed for the speech.

Other: Press Press Releases can be published throughout the campaign. Submission will be ongoing as needed to accomplish related tasks, i.e. Press/ Media submissions on questions will be completed before the Press Conference, one-on-one interviews, and leaders’ debate. Parties are free to try and develop good working relationships with the press.

Other: Electoral Coali- Negotiations for electoral coalitions or coalition governments are permitted tions if they occur in the country being studied. These agreements can be public or private; if private and discovered by reporters, they can be published.

A sample campaign/classroom work schedule follows. Class one is Campaign Launch Day and consists of a short presentation by each group to introduce their party to the class. Class two is devoted to campaign speeches: the parties outline their posi tions on major issues and unveil their election platform. During Class three, students The Election Campaign Simulation 75

present a short (less than one minute long) political commercial. They may introduce themselves to the public or make pitch for a particular group of voters’ support. Each party leader faces the press during Class four. If there are no reporters appointed, the instructor asks the questions. Each party also has five minutes at the start to make a speech, show a commercial or otherwise add information to their platform. Class five is dedicated to one on one interviews between each of the party leaders and a member of the media. If there are no students acting as journalists, the instructor prepares and asks the questions. Class six is the time when the parties show their second, longer commercial. The leaders’ debate takes place during class seven, with the format being negotiated in advance by the campaign managers and the media or instructor. Finally, the vote is held on class eight, with the victory speech from the winning party. The instructor is free to remove an event or to change the order to suit the class schedule or to more closely follow events in the country being studied. The main effort for the instructor is in the design of the simulation and the enforcement of its rules. Once preparatory material is ready and the role-play is launched, however, the instructor can focus on the proceedings themselves. While teaching, management and assessment strategies are up to individual instructors, the instructor should use analytical assignments on the content of the simulation on an ongoing basis, and not assign more than 20% of the final grade for participation. Students should be graded by their performance as a group, so that the peer pressure and solidarity natural in this setting helps improve the performance. Students learn a great deal, driven in part by the desire to perform well in front of their peers, but also to win the election. There is also extensive learning from each other. While simulation is suitable for the classroom, it may be possible to adapt it to distributed learning. That said, the valuable face-to-face interactions that facilitate student understanding and retention would be greatly restricted using distributed or distance learning. Below, students will find some sources of information to assist them in the simu lation. These include government and scholarly sources.

Resources on the US simulation Websites include: –– Official website of the US government at http://www.usa.gov/. –– Presidential election data at http://www.270towin.com/historical-presidential- elections/. –– Non-partisan description of the process at http://www.loc.gov/teachers/class roommaterials/presentationsandactivities/presentations/elections/elecprocess. html. –– US campaign reports, other information at: http://www.usa.gov/Citizen/Topics/ Voting/Learn.shtml.

Films include: –– Primary Colors, 76 Role-Play Simulations for Comparative Politics

–– Manchurian Candidate, –– Wag the Dog, –– The War Room, –– The Incident, –– Secret Ballot, –– Democracy a la mode.

Potential guests for the classroom include: –– Retired politicians; –– Former candidates for elected office; –– Alumni of the course/university who have campaigned for candidates.

2.3 Public Opinion Poll

A public opinion poll is, by definition, a scientific survey designed to measure the views of a specific group at a point in time. It usually takes the shape of a series of questions, and its goal is to allow for the extrapolation of generalities within a confidence interval. Polls have been common to most liberal democracies since the 1950s, and it is now common to have them sponsored by both television networks and larger newspapers. Most political opinion surveys are regulated during election time, with restrictions on the publication of results on the day of an election, or close to it, although usually only until the polls close. Polls have not been without their failures to predict, however, with the most notable failures occurring in 1974, with the failure to predict the Labour win in the UK, the 1974. The failure to predict the conservative win in the UK in 1992, the repeated failures during the Bush-Gore US presidential election in 2000, and the 2004 US exit polls predicting a Kerry victory. Major polling organisations have become political actors in their own right, with the major firms in Canada, for example, being Angus Reid Strategies, EKOS Research Associates, Environics Research Group, Harris/ Decima, Ipsos-Reid, Léger Marketing, and Nanos Research. Polling relies on inferential statistics, i.e. the fact that it is possible to draw con clusions about a given population on the basis of a sample of that population. Obvi ously, random and representative selections of this subset are of key importance. A statistical formula produces a margin of error, and the larger the random sample, the smaller the sampling error. There are several dangers, chief among them asking leading questions. There are a range of methods and types of polls. There are also a number of questions that need to be answered in the process of building public opin ions polls. First, who is going to be asked? On the answer to that question depends the accu racy of the poll. In general terms, if the poll is of voters, then the respondents must be Public Opinion Poll 77

of voting age. In addition, the total sample should be greater than 500, since it must be representative of the broader population and it must also be random. Second, under what conditions will the interview be conducted? The questions must be clear, unbiased and have a reasonable number of alternatives. For the simplest kind of survey, the questions must allow for ‘Yes’ or ‘No’, or multiple choice answers. The questions should not be emotionally charged. Personal interviews are better than telephone interviews, since the pollster has more control over the circumstances. Third, when is the poll to be conducted? Ideally, polls should be conducted over a short period of time, if possible one or two days. Results need to be released quickly, if they are to be made public, since the situation can change quickly, particularly close to an outcome such as an election. Fourth, what is the margin of error? This has already been discussed above, and it is essential to the poll’s credibility to indicate this margin of error alongside the results. The only exception is informal or unscientific polls, for which the results are not considered valid from the start. Sometimes informal polls can be used when the resources for a formal one do not exist. Questions should be short and simple. There are several data banks of survey questions, such as the one that can be found at websites such as the UK Data Service (http://discover.ukdataservice.ac.uk/variables) which provides high-quality informa tion for researchers who rely on high-quality social and economic data. It is a good idea to test the questions on a small sample to work out any issues that might arise. When determining the sample, it is also a good idea to determine what population should be included. It can include everyone in the community, or only a portion. Simi larly choosing sample is important, so that every person in the population has the same chance of taking the public opinion poll. It is possible, for example, to decide to call every fifth person on each page of the phone book. In general terms, designing a survey should have specific goals, and consider alternatives for both goals and methods. It is important to select samples that well represent the population to be studied. It is also important to use designs that balance costs of doing the survey with the errors or bias which may occur. Similarly, it is important to take care in matching question wording to the concepts being measured and the population studied, as well as pre-testing questionnaires and procedures. Interviewers need to be carefully trained on interviewing techniques and the subject matter of the survey. The person in charge of the survey needs to check the quality at each stage of its application. The students’ cooperation or response rates should be maximised, within the limits of ethical treatment of human subjects. The statistical analytic and reporting techniques need to be appropriate to the data and the objec tives of the survey. Each respondent should receive a pledge of confidentially, which is then fulfilled. And all methods should be disclosed with the results to allow for evaluation and replication. In conducting the public opinion poll, it is important for the interviewer to prepare and practice a brief introduction and to be polite. It should always be clear 78 Role-Play Simulations for Comparative Politics

that results will be reported anonymously. The director of the survey should be as organised as possible and check each completed questionnaire or other result as it comes in to make sure it is complete. The exercise can be launched by a short lecture describing the nature and expec tations for a sound public opinion poll. The instructor may also break up the lecture into shorter talks delivered on the day that the issue is addressed in the teamwork. The instructor should explain the worksheet at the start of each class, as required. The librarians should be warned about the assignments, especially if the class is large. If the class is too large, it is possible to run several polls simultaneously. Roles will be allocated by consensus. Students should prepare for their roles and read the worksheets in advance of each class. Relevant information must be made available by those students charged with that research in each team. Meetings can occur outside of the course time, to plan, formulate an approach, and/or set priori ties. Teams of student must develop and note the answers to the issues raised by each worksheet. The final poll must yield results that can be analysed, the margin of error calculated, and the simulation culminates with a press release. The simulation cannot work if students do not come prepared to each class, including their worksheets. To be specific, for each class each student must: (1) bring in information as agreed; (2) bring in worksheet for that class; (3) bring in completed worksheet from previous class. This simulation covers the following steps: –– choosing the sample; –– determining the interview format and content; –– determining the issue to be investigated and designing the poll consistent with it; –– specifying the circumstances in which the poll will be conducted; –– reviewing ethical issues; –– conducting the poll; –– tabulating the results of the poll; –– analysing the results; and –– writing the press release.

The series of worksheets, given below, corresponds to each step in the development and conducting of a public opinion poll.

Worksheet 2.3.1: Sample

Question Answer

Who is going to be asked? Everyone in the community? A portion? Select the population wanted.

How will they be found?

How can a representative sample be insured? Public Opinion Poll 79

continued Worksheet 2.3.1: Sample

What is total number of population targeted by poll?

How will a random sample be ensured?

Are they voting age?

Do they have an equal chance of being asked as anyone else in the same category?

How many will be asked?

How many useable answers are expected?

How long will one interview take?

How much will an interview cost?

Worksheet 2.3.2: Interviews

Questions Answers

What are the questions? Question 1

Question 2

Question 3

Question 4

Is each question clear? Question 1

Question 2

Question 3

Question 4

Is each question not emotionally charged? Question 1

Question 2

Question 3

Question 4

Are there a reasonable number of alternatives? Question 1

Question 2

Question 3

Question 4

Is each question unbiased? Question 1

Question 2 80 Role-Play Simulations for Comparative Politics

continued Worksheet 2.3.2: Interviews

Questions Answers

Question 3

Question 4

Is each questions either Y/N or a/b/c/d? Question 1

Question 2

Question 3

Question 4

What are the circumstances of the interview expected to be?

Is each question adapted to the population targeted?

Is there any way control for those circumstnaces can be increased?

Worksheet 2.3.3: Design

Question Answer

What are the goals?

Why were they chosen?

What alternatives were considered?

Does the sample represent well the population to be studied?

Does the design balance costs with errors?

Is the question wording matched to the concepts being measured and the population studied?

How will interviewers be carefully trained on interviewing techniques and the subject matter of the survey?

How will quality be checked at each stage?

How has cooperation or response rates been maximised, within the limits of ethical treatment of human subjects?

Have appropriate statistical analytic and reporting techniques being used?

Have pledges of confidentiality given to respondents been developed and fulfilled?

Have all methods of the survey been disclosed to allow for evaluation and replication?

What is the introduction of the pollster to the subject? Public Opinion Poll 81

continued Worksheet 2.3.3: Design

Question Answer

Is the introduction polite?

Is the subject assured the results will be reported anonymously?

Does the subject know how the results will be used?

Does the poll meet the requirements of the research ethics policy of the university?

Does the subject know how the information will be preserved?

How will the information be collected?

How will the results be checked for completeness?

When will the poll be conducted?

Over how long a period?

How quickly will the results be released?

Will it occur close to a particular event, like an election?

How will you maximise participation?

Does any measure coerce ethical consent?

How do you know?

How will the interviewers be trained?

Who will be the interviewers?

How will the methods be disclosed to students? 82 Role-Play Simulations for Comparative Politics

Worksheet 2.3.4: Ethics

Question Answer

Where can the research ethics policy of the university be found?

Under what category of requirements would this poll fall?

What are the steps in getting ethics review?

What are the requirements the poll must meet for the review?

What evidence do you prepare for each of the requirements?

Worksheet 2.3.5: Pollster’s Questionnaire

Pollster:

Time:

Date:

Subject:

Instructions

Confidentiality issues

Methodology issues

Eligibility questions

Questions Answers

Worksheet 2.3.6: Tabulation of Results

Question Answer

How many subjects polled?

How many planned to be polled?

How many valid responses? Public Opinion Poll 83

continued Worksheet 2.3.6: Tabulation of Results

Question Answer

What is total for each question? 1

What is percentage for each question? 1

How many spoiled responses? 1

What is the margin of error?

Other Applications The budget simulation can be adapted for use in the UK, for example, and with other governments with a Westminster system, such as New Zealand and Australia. The election simulation has been used successfully in the study of the domestic politics of France, Germany, Ireland, the UK, Australia, New Zealand, Japan and have all worked well. The opinion poll can be used in any level of government or country where there is political freedom and freedom of expression. 3 Simulations for International Relations

There are four simulations proposed here: the International Court of Justice (ICJ) sim ulation, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) simulation, the United Nations (UN) Security Council simulation and the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) simu lation. For these simulations, students may also be required to complete the work sheets 1–8 to analyse the performance. This is particularly useful to keep students engaged. A short introduction to the uses and background to the worksheets is best given at the start of the class during which students will use a particular worksheet to analyse what occurs. This will allow students to take notes adequately during the simulation. It is not possible to provide samples of worksheets applied to these simu lations, but it is possible to use the generic worksheets provided earlier.

3.1 The International Court of Justice Simulation

The goal of this simulation is to familiarise students with how some international issues are resolved in the international system. The role-play simulation consists of three teams of students representing the applicant country, the respondent country and the court. What follows are some practical directions for students to follow. All applications are for contentious cases. Applications and responses are made by memorials and counter-memorials. Applications must include: a statement of the relevant facts; a statement of law, and submissions. Responses must include: an admission or denial of the facts stated in the Memorial; any additional facts, if neces sary; observations concerning the statement of law in the Memorial; a statement of law in answer; and the submissions. Judgments must include: the date on which it is read; the names of the judges participating in it; the names of the parties; the names of the agents, counsel and advocates of the parties; a summary of the proceedings; the submissions of the parties; a statement of the facts; the reasons in point of law; the operative provisions of the judgment; the decision, if any, in regard to costs; the number and names of the judges constituting the majority; a statement as to the text of the judgment which is authoritative. The abridged procedures of the Court, out lined below, should be followed where possible. Presidents of judiciary panels must be elected. Judiciary deliberations are secret. However, judges may choose to render part of their deliberations public. Applica tions, responses, judgments must resemble International Court of Justice (ICJ) cases. On procedural issues, applicants, respondents and judges will cite chapters of court procedures. Applications, responses, judgments may not be late. Initial presentations during oral arguments must be at least five minutes long. Judges may ask questions. Applicants make arguments first. After judges have asked their questions, applicants may ask questions. After applicants have asked questions, respondents may ask ques tions. These requirements are listed below, in Table 3.1.1.

Table 3.1.1: Requirements, ICJ Simulation

Group Concerns Oral and Written requirements

Applicant Issue raised by applicant on an one page minimum/three page maximum memo- country international matter within the rial including statement of the claim, facts, laws, court’s jurisdiction treaties, arguments, alternative arguments, requested remedies, other material in support of claim, other information as per rules of court; presentation to court, 10 minute minimum, 30 minutes maximum; answer to questions from the court or the respondent; reply to respondents’ presentation

Respondent Response to issue raised by one page minimum/three page maximum counter- country applicant and protection of exist- memorial including statement of the claim, facts, ing rights laws, treaties, arguments, alternative arguments, requested remedies, other information as per rules of court; other material in support of position presentation to court, 10 minute minimum, 30 minutes maximum; answer to questions from court or applicant; questions for applicant

Judges Decision on relevant laws, trea- questions during presentation; oral presentation ties, facts; decision on applicant’s of decision; one page minimum, 3 page maximum remedy; assessment of applicants’ judgment and respondents’ arguments and alternative arguments

The abridged and simplified procedures of the International Court of Justice (www.icj. org) are, for the purposes of the simulation, as follows: –– The Members of the Court, in exercise of their functions, are of equal status, irre spective of age, priority of election or length of service. –– The position of the President shall be decided by the judges prior to the first public sitting of the Court. –– The President shall preside at all meetings of the Court; he/she shall direct the work and supervise the administration of the Court. –– The application shall indicate the party making it, the State against which the claim is brought, and the subject of the dispute. –– The application shall specify as far as possible the legal grounds upon which the jurisdiction of the Court is said to be based, the precise nature of the claim, a concise statement of the facts, and the grounds on which the claim is based. –– The pleadings in a case begun by an application shall consist, in the following order, of: a Memorial by the applicant; a Counter-Memorial by the respondent. –– A Memorial shall contain a statement of relevant facts, a statement of law, and the submissions. 86 Simulations for International Relations

–– A Counter-Memorial shall contain: an admission or denial of the facts stated in the Memorial; any additional facts, if necessary; observations concerning the statement of law in the Memorial; a statement of law in answer thereto; and the submissions. –– There shall be attached to the original of every pleading copies of any relevant documents adduced in support of the arguments contained in the pleading. –– If only parts of the document are relevant, only such extracts as are necessary shall be attached. –– No reference may be made during the oral proceedings to the contents of any document which has not been produced. –– The hearing shall be public, unless Court or parties involved demand otherwise, regarding either the whole or a part of the hearing, a request which can be made at any time. –– Oral statements must be as succinct as possible, within the requisite for adequate presentation. They should be directed towards the issues that still divide the parties, and not merely repeat information. –– The Court may ask questions and explanations of the answers given. –– The agents, counsel and advocates may answer immediately or within a time- limit decided by the President. –– The Court may at any time call upon the parties to produce evidence or explana tions the Court deems necessary for the elucidation of any aspect of the matters in issue. –– The Court may at any time exercise its functions with regard to obtaining evi dence at a place or locality to which the case relates. –– Any written reply or any evidence or explanation supplied by a party and received after the closure of the oral proceedings shall be communicated to the other party, which shall be given the opportunity of commenting on it. If necessary, oral pro ceedings may be reopened. –– A written request for indication of provisional measures may be made by a party at any time during the case. –– The request shall specify the reasons therefore, the possible consequences if not granted, and measures requested. This will be communicated via the Registrar to the other party. –– The Court shall fix a date where the both parties can be represented at it. –– The preliminary objection shall set out the facts and the law on which the objec tion is based, the admissions and a list of the documents in support, it shall mention any evidence which the party may desire to produce. Copies of the sup porting documents shall be attached. –– In order to enable the Court to determine its jurisdiction at the preliminary stage of the proceedings, the Court, whenever necessary, may request the parties to argue all questions of law and fact, and adduce all evidence, which bear on the issue. The International Court of Justice Simulation 87

–– After hearing the parties, the Court shall give its decision in the form of a judg ment, by which it shall either uphold the objection, reject it. The Court may enter tain a counter-claim only if it comes within the jurisdiction of the Court and is directly connected with the subject matter of the claim of the other party. The judgment shall be read at a public sitting of the Court and shall become binding.

The below Table 3.1.2 provides a schedule based on classes meeting twice a week.

Table 3.1.2: Schedule Sample, ICJ Simulation

Week Class Requirement

1 1 Written application 1

2 Oral arguments, written response 1

2 1 Written application 2, written and oral judgment 1

2 Oral arguments, written response 2

3 1 Written application 3, written and oral judgment 2

2 Oral arguments, written response 3

4 1 Written application 4, written and oral judgment 3

2 Oral arguments, written response 4

5 1 Written and oral judgment 4

What follow are a sample memorial, a sample counter-memorial and a sample judg ment, developed by students themselves and used with their permission, on the understanding that they would be anonymous. These include Pakistan v. United States in relation to drone attacks and Lybia v. United Kingdom and United States in relation to Panam Flight 103. Formatting and writing are as the originals.

Resource 3:1: Memorial, Pakistan v. United States in relation to drone attacks

Memorial: Pakistan V. United States of America in relations to drone attacks INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE

CASE CONCERNING THE SOVEREIGNTY OF PAKISTAN AND THE JURISDICTION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA IN RELA- TION TO DRONE ATTACKS ALONG THE BORDER SHARED BY PAKISTAN AND AFGHANISTAN

(PAKISTAN v. UNITED STATES OF AMERICA)

MEMORIAL TUESDAY, OCTOBER 8TH, 2013 88 Simulations for International Relations

STATEMENT OF FACTS Beginning in 2004 under the Bush Administration, the United States of America began a campaign using UAV’s (Unmanned Aerial Vehicles) also known as drones to patrol the tribal region of Pakistan along the shared border of Pakistan and Afghanistan. These attacks, perpetrated under the authority of the Central Intelligence Agency of the United States of America, hereby referred to as the CIA, increased tenfold following the inauguration of President Obama in 2008 (Woodward, 2010). The attacks increased from ten strikes during the Bush Administration (2004–07), to a total of 33 in 2008, 54 in 2009, 131 in 2010, and 22 by April of 2011 (Plaw, 2012). By 2012, there were a reported 48 strikes and exactly one week before this case is presented to the court there were a reported 19 strikes (New America Foundation, 2013). According to the United States government policy standards and procedures for the use of force in counter terrorism operations outside of its borders, the United States will ‘use all available tools of national power to protect the American people from the terrorist threat posed by al-Qaida and its associated forces… approving operations to capture or employ lethal force against terrorist targets,’ including but not limited to capture or use of lethal force( US Press Secretary, 2013). This use of lethal force in drone strikes has led to the recorded fatalities of 166 between 2004 and 2007, 290 in 2008, 582 in 2009, an all-time high of 860 in 2010, and 133 by April of 2011 (Plaw, id.). By 2012 the fatalities totalled 306 and by this date the fatalities this year total 124. Within these fatalities, the total number of civilian casualties is between 258 and 307, whereas the total number of targets killed is around 1606–2757 (New America Foundation, id.).

ISSUES The state of Pakistan feels that the use of force in these attacks upon its own citizens violates the sovereignty of the nation, as the force used is excessive. Pakistan holds the United States of America accountable for this reckless and negligent use of force, supported by Article 1 of the United Nations international legal commission regarding state responsibility: (1) The principle that any conduct of a State which international law characterises as a wrongful act entails the responsibility of that state in international law is one of the principles most strongly upheld by state practice and judicial decisions and most deeply rooted in the doctrine of international law.(International Law Commission, 1997).

Pakistan believes that the drone mission conducted by the America government has reached the point where it has surpassed its intended goal of eliminating active terrorist groups and transformed into a kill-switch operated by the US as a way to easily eliminate possible terrorists they deem a ‘threat.’ Again, Pakistan condemns the following drone missions on the basis of obsessive force and encroachment on sovereignty by the jeopardizing of social cohesion and fortification of anti-government sentiments through such attacks.

‘Sovereignty’ is defined as the idea of freedom from external forces, a characteristic the Pakistan government has slowly been losing grip with due to a drone mission conducted by secrecy through the CIA. Through this, Pakistan, as a sovereign nation feels that it is the responsibility of the state to hold the United States of America accountable for the needless destruction of persons and their property, as well as the lack of transparency of their actions. The use of drones in Pakistani territory shall be upheld should the United States of America agree and commit too transparency and willingness to accept Pakistan regulation in their actions within the sovereign states’ borders.

JURISDICTION OF THE COURT The ICJ must, ‘decide, in accordance with international law, disputes of a legal nature that are submitted to it by States.’ These disputes are defined as, ‘a disagreement on a question of law or fact, a conflict, a clash of legal views or of interests’. Thus, since we as representatives of Pakistan have The International Court of Justice Simulation 89 clearly shown a difference in views on the true success of the Drone missions and a disagreement on the conduction of drone missile attacks implemented by the US government, we establish that the ICJ has clear jurisdiction on the matter.

LEGAL PRINCIPLES Under the United Nations treaty Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts the following criteria is outlined:

‘There is an internationally wrongful act of a State when: (a) Conduct consisting of an action or omission is attributable to the State under international law; and (b) That conduct constitutes a breach of an international obligation of the State’ (Crawford, 2012, s.p.).

The conduct of the United States constitutes a breach of their policy standard regarding international counter terrorism, which states:

‘The following criteria must be met before lethal action may be taken: Near certainty that the terrorist target is present; Near certainty that non-combatants will not be injured or killed; An assessment that capture is not feasible at the time of the operation; An assessment that the relevant governmental authorities in the country where action is contem- plated cannot or will not effectively address the threat to US persons; and An assessment that no other reasonable alternatives exist to effectively address the threat to US persons’ (US Press Secretary, 2012, s.p.).

Furthermore, the United States government also has an additional statement within their policy standard:

‘United States uses force in foreign territories, international legal principles, including respect for sovereignty and the law of armed conflict imposes important constraints on the ability of the United States to act unilaterally – and on the way in which the United States can use force. The United States respects national sovereignty and international law’ (Ibid). US Drone missiles within Pakistan borders breaches international law when concerning the death of citizens impacted by drone strikes: The following under Chapter 20 of International Humanitarian law must be understood for all participants in these drone strikes and must be upheld with the highest importance: Protocol I prohibits the use of weapons which are ‘of a nature to strike military objectives and civilians or civilian objects without distinction’ Several States argued that a weapon is indiscriminate if it has uncontrollable effects or if the damage would be extensive and may be expected to cause incidental civilian losses which would be excessive in relation to the military advantage anticipated. The use of means and methods of warfare which are of a nature to cause superfluous injury or unnecessary suffering is prohibited (Ibid). International Court of Justice defined unnecessary suffer ing as harm greater than that unavoidable to achieve legitimate military objectives’(Ibid).

Under the ICRC, drones are not specifically mentioned in any chapters or weapon treaties. None the less, drones are still considered a weapon, and such uses to eliminate combatants are subjected to the rule of international humanitarian law. Therefore, every attack conducted with the use of drone missiles must be closely analysed under the laws of proportionality and distinction between not only civilians and active combatants but civilian buildings and combatant objects (Maurer, 2013, s.p.). 90 Simulations for International Relations

JUDGEMENT REQUESTED To conclude, the state of Pakistan requests confirmation and willingness of the US government to disclose documents specific to drone attacks conducted within its borders. The state believes that the US drone program has fervently pursued its enemies with little regard for the lives of those not directly participating in illegal terrorist activity. The state does not ask for complete seizure of all drone missions but simply heightened regulations agreed on by both parties and a willingness of the US government to provide communication and respect for any Pakistan request of overseeing any potential drone strike. We are bringing this issue to the International Court of Justice not only to protect our citizens from the fear and destruction the drone missions deliver but also in an effort to stabilise the world by aiding in the elimination of terrorist organisations.

Respectfully submitted,

State of Pakistan

Resource 3.2: Judgment, Pakistan V. United States of America In relations to drone attacks

15 OCTOBER 2013 ORDER

JUDGEMENT CONCERNING THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA’S USE OF DRONE ATTACKS IN PAKISTAN AND ITS EFFECT ON PAKISTAN’S SOVEREIGNTY (PAKISTAN v. UNITED STATES OF AMERICA) ______

JUGEMENT SUR LES ÉTATS-UNIS D’AMÉRIQUE DE L’UTILISATION PAR DES ATTAQUES DE DRONES AU PAKISTAN ET SON EFFECT SUR LA SOUVERAINETÉ DU PAKISTAN (PAKISTAN c. ÉTATS-UNIS D’AMÉRIQUE)

15 OCTOBRE 2013 ORDONNANCE INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE

YEAR 2013 15 October General List No. 002 15 October 2013

THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA’S USE OF DRONE ATTACKS IN PAKISTAN AND ITS AFFECT ON PAKI- STAN’S SOVEREIGNTY (PAKISTAN v. UNITED STATES OF AMERICA)

ORDER

Present: Judges The International Court of Justice, Composed as above, The International Court of Justice Simulation 91

After deliberation, Having regard to Article 48 of the Statute of the Court and to Article 44 of the Rules of Court, Having regard to the Application filed in the Registry of the Court on 3 October 2013, whereby the Islamic Republic of Pakistan (hereinafter referred to as Pakistan) instituted proceedings against the United States of America (hereinafter referred to as the US) in regards to a dispute concerning the ‘sovereignty of Pakistan and the jurisdiction of the United States of America in relation to drone attacks along the border shared by Pakistan and Afghanistan’, Having regard to the Memorial and the Counter-Memorial duly filed by the Parties within the time- limits thus fixed, Having regard to Article 2, paragraph 4 of the Charter of the United Nations; Whereas permission has previously been granted by Pakistan to the US to carry out aerial drone strikes where there is perceived to be peoples of threat to international peace and security, Whereas the attacks on New York City and Washington, D.C. on 11 September 2001, in the opinion of the Court, provide reasonable grounds for the use of military force as means of self-defence by the US against al-Qaeda and the Taliban, Whereas Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (hereinafter referred to as UAVs) have proven to be effective in regards to the goal of the US to quash any threat of further terrorist attack against its people, Whereas in its application, Pakistan makes the claim of superfluous injury, suffering, and death amongst civilian casualties despite evidence suggesting that comparatively, civilian-combatant casualties ratios are significantly fewer than compared to previous wars;

For these reasons, THE COURT, By majority vote, Finds that in regard to the concern over the ‘sovereignty of Pakistan and the jurisdiction of the United States of America in relation to drone attacks along the border shared by Pakistan and Afghanistan’ that sovereignty has yet to be breached, and should Pakistan choose to recede the US’s permission to enter Pakistan’s airspace and carry out said drone strikes, under international law, the US would have to comply. Therefore it is the opinion of the court that while we have the capability to hear the case, we find that there is in fact no issue, as presented in the Memorials submitted by both Pakistan and the US Done in English and in French, the English text being authoritative, at the Peace Palace, The Hague, this fifteenth day of October two thousand and thirteen, in three copies, one of which will be placed in the archives of the Court and the others transmitted to the Government of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan and the Government of the United States, respectively. IN FAVOUR: INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE

Resource 3:2: Lybia v. United Kingdom and United States in relation to Panam Flight 103

Counter-Memorial: LIBYA v. UNITED KINGDOM and UNITED STATES OF AMERICA Pan Am Flight 103, Lockerbie CASE CONCERNING THE APPLICATION BY LIBYA FOR AN APPEAL OF THE INDICTMENT AND EXTRADITION OF LIBYAN NATIONALS IN RELATION TO THE TERRORIST ATTACK OF PAN AM FLIGHT 103; LOCKERBIE

(LIBYA v. UNITED KINGDOM) 92 Simulations for International Relations

(LIBYA v. UNITED STATES OF AMERICA)

WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 25TH, 2013

STATEMENTS OF FACTS

On December 21, 1988 Pan Am Flight 103 departed from London Heathrow Airport in London, England with destination to New York, USA. Sadly, it did not reach its destination. All 243 pas- sengers aboard, as well as all 16 crew members and 11 victims on the ground died when a bomb exploded on Flight 103 causing it to crash down in Lockerbie, Scotland (Andrews, 2004).

When this case first came before this court, the United Kingdom had taken as many necessary steps as possible to insure a fair trial for both the victims and the accused. During the investigation into the bombing, the United Kingdom not only used Scottish investigators but was also insistent upon bringing in other forces to help investigate this bombing. During the investigation, officials conducted over 15,000 interviews within 20 countries, took 35,000 photos, and obtained over 180,000 pieces of evidence in an effort to thoroughly investigate the crime and ensure a fair trial. Ultimately this case was one of the most thorough investigations to take place to date (Andrews, 2004).

During this three-year investigation, the investigators looked into several possible suspects as well as examining the bag that contained the bomb and how it made its way on to the plane and who is belonged to. Investigators were able to connect the bag to Adbdelbaset Ali Mohamed Al-Megrahi, who was the head of security for the state-owned Libyan Arab Airlines, as well a member of the Jamahiriya Security Organisation, Libya’s intelligence agency. Ultimately, it was determined that the bag was placed on Pan Am Flight 103 in Malta, by the co-accused Lamin Hkalifah Fhimah (Ushyn- skyi, 2009). Eventually, investigators obtained a witness who was placed in the Witness Protection Program, known only as ‘Puzzle Piece’. This witness gave authorities important information, which eventually leads to the arrest of Abdelbaset al-Megrahi for the Pan Am Flight 103 bombing. Ulti- mately, the witness was revealed to be Abdul Majid, a member of the Jamahiriya Security Organisa- tion, the same organisation that the accused belonged to.

ISSUES

In Libya’s memorial, the State of Libya stated they felt they had an unfair trial against the State of the UK due to a biased investigation involving coercion and false testimonies, pressure from the United States and the United Nations, as well as a trial in a biased court. The State of the UK feels that these ‘facts’ are not true, and that the United Kingdom acted in the most fair and equal way possible towards Libya and all other parties.

The United Kingdom ensured that there was a very extensive investigation in which not only the Scottish police took part, but also the Central Intelligence Agency, Federal Bureau of Investigation, National Security Agency, and the Federal Criminal Police Office from Germany (Miller, 2011). During the investigation several terrorist organisations were inquired about, and initially the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) was our main suspect and remained our main suspect for much of the investigation. It was not until the investigators discovered the fragment of clothing, which was exclusively manufactured by the Yorkie Clothing Brand in Malta that they moved on to investigation the convicted. Fortunately, the fragment of clothing had the number 1705 stamped on it, which turned out to be a specific order number to a retailer in Malta. This number led our investigators to the shop owner, whose testimony pointed them in the direction of Mr. Mehgri. Ultimately, it was determined The International Court of Justice Simulation 93 that the PFLP were not the perpetrators. Charges were laid once the investigators felt there was enough hard evidence and facts against Abdelbaset Ali Mohamed Al-Megrahi and Al-Amin Khalifa Fhima.

With regards to Libya’s claim about the court being biased against the two Libyan nationals, this is simply not the case. In fact, it was Libya who requested that the trial take place in The Hague, and even insisted that the two accused be tried before a Scottish Court, under Scottish law as long as they sat in The Hague. The United Kingdom took steps to further ensure that a fair trial took place by removing the conventional method of using a jury and instead empowered three Lord Advocates and one alternate to adjudicate to the trial. Lastly, throughout the investigation the FBI held the identity of a key witness by the name of Abdul Majid Giaka, who was a member of the very same intelligence agency that Mehgri belonged to. Giaka’s testimony was highly incriminating against the two accused, and the court’s rejection of this testimony truly exemplified the Lord Advocates’ impartiality towards this particular case.

Libya argued that we essentially bullied them into extraditing the two accused individuals, but this completely untrue. We did not bully, we did not harass, and we simply requested that the two accused be extradited to us. In fact, we asked twice, and after receiving no response both times we decided it was necessary to impose economic sanctions and trade embargoes.

We believed that it was essential that the trial be held in Scotland or at the very least a neutral site, because having the trial in Libya would not result in justice regardless of the evidence presented in court. Furthermore, we argue that the likelihood of justice being achieved had the trial been in Libya was non-existent because of the type of regime that Libya was under at the time of the incident. Libya was being led by Muammar Gaddafi, one of the most corrupt dictators of his time, who had absolutely no regard for the rule of law, and no regard for human life. Given this fact, we believe it was reasonable for us to assume that a trial involving a member of Gaddafi’s intelligence agency, accused of mass murder, would likely result in an acquittal regardless of the evidence because of the reflection that a guilty verdict would have on Muammar Gaddafi himself (Emerson, 2004). Ultimately, we contend that the political pressure and economic sanctions imposed on the state of Libya were necessary in order for justice to be achieved.

JURISDICTION OF THE COURT The United Kingdom feels that this court has no jurisdiction under article 60 of the Statue of the Inter- national Court of Justice. Article 60 states that ‘the judgment is final and without appeal. In the event of dispute as to the meaning or scope of the judgment, the Court shall construe it upon the request of any party’. The Courts decision was that of a final decision determined by proper trial proceedings.

There is was no wrongful acts committed against Libya within this trial only wrong doings committed by Libya against the United Kingdom, which resulted in the court’s previous decision to convict Mr. Mehgri.

LEGAL PRINCIPLES First, the State of the UK would like to dispute Libya’s claim of legal principles they presented, because they are, for the most part, inconsistent with the argument they presented to court. Although they have some relevance, the principles that they suggest all revolve around extradition, yet very little of their argument or was concerned with the issue of extradition. Their argument was mostly based on the investigation and trial of Mr. Mehgri, and how they believed that both were biased against the Libyan national. Ultimately, Libya was contending for an absolute overturning of the guilty verdict, not an extradition matter. In light of this, it is clear that the legal principles 94 Simulations for International Relations

presented by Libya have absolutely nothing to do with the investigation into the bombing of Pan Am Flight 103, or the trial of Mr. Mehgri.

One legal principle that the State of the UK find to be fairly significant is Article 4 Section (1) of the Rules of the Court of the International Court of Justices, which states, ‘The declaration to be made by every Member of the Court in accordance with Article 20 of the Statute shall be as follows: ‘I sol- emnly declare that I will perform my duties and exercise my powers as judge honourably, faithfully, impartially and conscientiously’. This is significant because it speaks to the initial decision of the court and its impartiality, to overturn a decision in which it has already made, would essentially mean that it violated this statute.

Another legal principle that is fairly significant is the finality of a decision made by the ICJ is once again Article 60.

Judgment Requested

In conclusion, we request that the court dismiss this case once and for all. We believe that we have proven that the International Court of Justice has no jurisdiction over the matter because all decisions made under its jurisdiction are final. Furthermore, we argue that even if the Court decides it has jurisdiction, we believe we have presented enough factual evidence to withhold the initial verdict.

The court has already used its time and resources to the Lockerbie case and should not to need another time.

Respectfully Submitted,

Agent of the People of United Kingdom, State of United Kingdom

Works cited by the memorials or judgments: Andrews, D.R. (2004). A Thorn on the Tulip – A Scottish Trial in the Netherlands: The Story Behind the Lockerbie Trial. Case Western Reserve Journal of International Law 36, no. 2/3, 307–318. British Library Document Supply Centre inside Serials & Conference Proceedings, EBSCOhost. Article 4. International Court of Justice, Rules of the Court. (http://www.icj-cij.org/documents/index. php?pl=4&p2=3&p3=0) Article 60. International Court of Justice, Rules of the Court. (‘http://www.icj-cij.org/ documents/?p1=4&p2=2&p3=0.) Black, R. (2004). Lockerbie: A Satisfactory Process But A Flawed Result. Case Western Reserve Journal of International Law 36, no. 2/3: 443–451. Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost. Counter- Memorial for the United Kingdom. International Court of Justice, ‘Case Concerning Interpretation and Application of the 1971 Montreal Convention Arising from the Aerial Incident at Lockerbie. (http:// www.icj-cij.org/docket/files/88/13633.pdf). Emerson, S. (2004). The Lockerbie Terrorist Attack And Libya: A Retrospective Analysis. Case Western Reserve Journal of International Law 36, no. 2/3, 487–490. Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost. Miller, D. (2011). Who Knows About This? Western Policy towards Iran: The Lockerbie Case. Defence & Security Analysis 27, no. 4, 295–309. Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost. Ushynskyi, S. (2009). Pan Am Flight 103 Investigation And Lessons Learned. Aviation (1648–7788) 13, no. 3, 78–86. Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost (accessed 24 September 2013). The IMF Simulation 95

Additional resources: –– Contentious cases: http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/index.php?p1=3&p2=3. –– How the court works: http://www.icj-cij.org/court/index.php?p1=1&p2=6. –– Membership: http://www.icj-cij.org/court/index.php?p1=1&p2=23. –– Political Handbook of the World (Binghamton, NY: CSA 2008). –– Europa World Yearbook (London: Europa, 2013). –– CIA World Factbook (Washington: Skyhorse, 2013). –– Economist Intelligence Unit, EIU.com.

3.2 The IMF Simulation

The goal of this simulation is to familiarise students with how some international issues are resolved in the international system. The role-play simulation consists of two teams of students representing the applicant country and the International Mone tary Fund (IMF). What follows are some practical directions for students to follow, a table of requirements for the simulation, and some sample documents prepared by students in previous years. The instructor should give a lecture introducing the IMF to students, with particular emphasis to the lending facilities. What follows is abridged information about the IMF from official sources. Upon request by a member country, an IMF loan is usually provided under an arrangement, which stipulates the specific policies and measures a country has agreed to implement to resolve its balance of payments problem. The economic program underlying an arrangement is formulated by the country in consultation with the IMF and is presented to the Fund’s Executive Board in a Letter of Intent. Once an arrangement is approved by the Board, the loan is usually released in phased instalments as the program is implemented. Over the years, the IMF has developed various loan instruments, or facilities, that are tailored to address the specific circumstances of its diverse membership. Low- income countries may borrow at a concessional interest rate through the Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility (PRGF) and the Exogenous Shocks Facility (ESF). Non- concessional loans are provided mainly through Stand-By Arrangements (SBA), the Flexible Credit Line (FCL) for members with very strong policies and policy frame works, and the Extended Fund Facility. The IMF also provides emergency assistance to support recovery from natural disasters and conflicts, in some cases at conces sional interest rates. Except for the PRGF and the ESF, all facilities are subject to the IMF’s market- related interest rate, known as the rate of charge, and large loans carry a surcharge. The rate of charge is based on the SDR interest rate, which is revised weekly to take account of changes in short-term interest rates in major international money markets. The amount that a country can borrow from the Fund—its access limit—varies depen 96 Simulations for International Relations

ding on the type of loan, but is typically a multiple of the country’s IMF quota. This limit may be exceeded in exceptional circumstances. The Flexible Credit Line has no pre-set cap on access. For the purposes of the simulation, it is possible to assume that the SDR is equivalent to the US dollar or the Euro. Students may prepare letters of intent for the following facilities:

Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility (PRGF) and Exogenous Shocks Facility (ESF). PRGF-supported programs for low-income countries are underpinned by com prehensive country-owned strategies, delineated in their Poverty Reduction Strategy. The ESF, which was modified in September 2008 to make it more flexible and increase access levels, aims to meet the needs of low-income member countries for rapid shock assistance with streamlined conditionality. The interest rate levied on PRGF and ESF loans is only 0.5 percent, and loans are to be repaid over a period of 5½–10 years.

Stand-By Arrangements (SBA). The bulk of Fund assistance is provided through SBAs. The SBA is designed to help countries address short-term balance of payments problems. The length of a SBA is typically 12–24 months, and repayment is due within 3¼–5 years of disbursement. SBAs may be provided on a precautionary basis—where countries choose not to draw upon approved amounts but retain the option to do so if conditions deteriorate—both within the normal access limits and in cases of exceptio nal access. The SBA provides for flexibility with respect to phasing, with front-loaded access where appropriate.

Flexible Credit Line (FCL). The FCL is for countries with very strong fundamentals, policies, and track records of policy implementation and is particularly useful for crisis prevention purposes. FCL arrangements are approved for countries meeting pre-set qualification criteria. The length of the FCL is six months or one year (with a mid-term review). Access is determined on a case-by-case basis, is not subject to the normal access limits, and is available in a single up-front disbursement rather than phased. Disbursements under the FCL are not conditioned on implementation of specific policy understandings as is the case under the SBA. There is flexibility to draw on the credit line at the time it is approved, or it may be treated as precautionary.

Extended Fund Facility (EFF). This facility was established in 1974 to help countries address longer-term balance of payments problems requiring fundamental economic reforms. Arrangements under the EFF are thus longer than SBAs—usually three years. Repayment is normally expected within 4½–7 years. Surcharges apply to high levels of access.

Emergency assistance. The IMF provides emergency assistance to countries that have experienced a natural disaster or are emerging from conflict. Emergency loans are subject to the basic rate of charge, although interest subsidies are availa The IMF Simulation 97

ble for PRGF-eligible countries, subject to availability. Loans must be repaid within 3¼–5 years.

Practical directions for the simulation include: –– All applications are for actual countries and situations. –– Applications and responses must be as realistic as possible. –– Applications and responses are made in writing. –– Applications use facts and studies conducted by the IMF, but need not be limited to them. –– Applications must include: statement of the relevant facts, a statement of the request, the facility to which the application is made, and a statement of the con ditions the applicant is willing to meet. –– Responses must include a statement of the loan or other award and the condi tions of agreement. –– Procedures of the IMF will be followed where possible. –– Any conflict on procedures or facts should be resolved by consensus. If that is not possible, then the instructor can intervene. –– Internal IMF deliberations are secret. –– Internal applicant deliberations are secret. –– Applications and responses cannot be late. Penalties are in the course outline. –– Applicants make their presentation first. –– The IMF panel may ask questions during presentation and during its own internal deliberations. –– The IMF panel may response must be presented orally and in writing.

Table 3.2.1 below lists what students are expected to do.

Table 3.2.1: Requirements, IMF Simulation

Group Concerns Oral and Written requirements

Applicant Economic problem one page minimum/three page maximum statement of the country presented to IMF problem, how the assistance meets the particular facility, rel- specific facility evant facts on economic situation and past history with the IMF, specific assistance requested; presentation, 10 minute minimum, 30 minutes maximum; answer to questions from the IMF

IMF Decision Response one page minimum/three page maximum statement of the to request assistance offered, including amount and type of assistance, con- for assistance ditions and deadlines attached to the assistance: presentation 10 minute minimum, 30 minutes maximum; answer to questions from applicant; questions for applicant

Table 3.2.2 provides a sample schedule for the IMF simulation. 98 Simulations for International Relations

Table 3.2.2: Sample Schedule, IMF Simulation

Week Class Requirement

1 1 Application 1

2 Decision 1

2 1 Application 2

2 Decision 2

3 1 Application 3

2 Decision 3

4 1 Application 4

2 Decision 4

There are no specific worksheets for this simulation, since the generic worksheets outlines previously may be used. There are, however a few specific instructions: stu dents should take care to analyse either the situation giving rise to the application, or the proceedings themselves. If analysing the proceedings, students should also analyse and research the situation and the actions taken by students. But if the analy sis bears only on the situation, there should not be any analysis of student behav iours. Worksheets should include footnotes as for an essay. What follow are a sample application and a sample decision, developed by stu dents themselves and used with their permission, on the understanding that it would be anonymous.

Resource 3:3: Case study: Argentina

Memorandum of Financial and Economic Policies

Argentina’s history is full of economic and political instability. In the beginning of the 1990s Argen- tina entered a period of drastic change and reform. There were major structural changes in tax policies, privatisation, trade liberalisation, and monetary policy. These changes brought about a period of prosperity for Argentina, including low inflation and low interest rates. This reform attracted much foreign investment, and spurred economic growth. However, in this period government spending was much higher than its revenue, and this was financed through accumulating massive foreign debt (CRS 20030605). As debt accumulated, foreign investors lost confidence in Argentina’s economy, resulting in massive out flows of capital. Argentina’s consumers soon followed suit, and begun withdrawing large sums of money. This situation escalated into the crisis of 2001. In December of that year, Argentina defaulted on its foreign debt, the largest default in history. The economy bottomed out in 2002, leaving 60% of the population living under the poverty line (CIA, 2012). Riots and violent clashes with police ensued, and at least 25 people were killed. It was a common job for people to rummage The IMF Simulation 99 through trash bins looking for cardboard which could then be sold to recycling companies. These people would make roughly $15 US a week (CNN, 2012). In this period unemployment soared to 23% (BBC, 2012). Argentina’s economy began to recover by 2003. Since then GDP has risen at an average of 8.8% annually. Investment has raised an average of 25% annually, and unemployment has dropped to 7.7%. The country has managed to run budget surpluses enabling it to pay off its debt (IMF, 2012). All in all, Argentina’s economy was well on its way to recovery prior to the financial crisis in the United States of this year. Since the financial crisis in the United States the Argentine peso has begun a downward slide. It has now hit a six year low. The central bank tried selling large amounts of dollars for pesos in an attempt to stop the downward slide, in fear of another crisis like that at the turn century (Bloomberg, 2012). The government has also made plans to nationalise the country’s 10 private pension funds. In doing so they hope to acquire the money needed to meet financing needs. The intent is that the nationalisation will make people more willing to own Argentine bonds than they were in the past, and this in turn should slow the fall of the value of the peso, and possibly start bringing it back up. If there is no outside help there is a threat that Argentina could default on its sovereign debt. If loans are made to Argentina now, it is possible to avert the imminent crisis, and continue with growth as it has been since 2003. Should this be the case, Argentina would continue to run surpluses allowing repayment of its sovereign debt as well as the debt that will be owed to the Fund.

Letter of Intent Tuesday, November 3, 2008 Dominique Strauss-Kahn, Managing Director International Monetary Fund

The Government of Argentina is requesting a loan from the International Monetary Fund of 3.2 billion dollars, with the hope that we will be paid half (1.6 billion) immediately, and the other half in two separate payments, 800 million after 6 months, and again after a year. It should be noted that our country is not in immediate despair as it was in 2001, as Argentina’s economy has been on a strong and steady growth for the last five years. But the rapid shifting of the US dollar in recent months has had drastic effects upon the economy, causing the market to dip by up to 12% in October. The exchange-rate value of the Argentine peso has also dropped rapidly, to its lowest value in six years, which may be the precursor to an economic upheaval that would place us in another depression. By receiving a large sum of money immediately, we wish to repurchase a great deal of our own national currency, driving its value back up. Along with this, we plan to use part of the loan in an effort to nationalise Argentina’s 10 private pension plans, acquiring enough money to begin paying back our debt to the IMF immediately. By nationalizing these pension plans, Argentines will be more likely to invest in them, driving the value of the peso back up as well. With the loan of 3.2 billion, we are requesting a payment plan extending over the next three years with an interest rate of 2.99%, with payments to be made to the IMF on a quarterly basis. This would mean that there would be 12 payments of $300 million to be paid each six months over the next three years, the first payment starting six months after the initial loan of $1.6 billion is received. In accordance with our plan, we want to use this loan from the IMF in order to halt the economic downfall we are currently experiencing before it becomes a desperate situation, in which Argentina would be more likely to default on a loan. A similar situation was decided on by the IMF regarding Honduras, in which the loan was deemed a precautionary measure in order to ‘sustain growth and enrich stability’ (IMF, 2012). In addition, we would request that the loan be relatively free of the conditions or remedies often demanded by the IMF in exchange for loans. The Government of Argentina has experienced unfortunate situations that 100 Simulations for International Relations come with such conditions, such as a severe violation of national sovereignty, violent riots, unstable government, and a shift in public policy that is detrimental to the overall quality of life of Argentina’s citizenry. In the economic downfall of 2001, Argentina was suffering from such a major depression that such changes from external sources like the IMF were necessary, in the end. Argentina has currently been on a steady economic growth and only recently suffered hardship because of the instability of the US dollar. To demand such conditions on the loan is bound to cause civil unrest, as it has in the past, which does not help to stabilise Argentina’s economy and makes a fast, easy repayment of the loan become less and less likely (Rourke, 2001). It should also be noted that a stronger Argentine government may also have substantial benefits regarding interrelated matters of international importance. Human trafficking and the illegal sex trade have found a place of operation within Argentina, becoming a source, transit and destination for those victims of this horrible affair. While the government has openly declared its intention to wipe out this black market, it is on the local and municipal levels, where officials are very poorly paid and bribes are welcomed, that these acts are being allowed to carry on. By strengthening the economy, and in turn the government, we can make moves to ensure that these officials are either rooted out or forced to change their views and actions regarding such events (CIA, 2012).

Resources: CRS Report for Congress, http://assets.opencrs.com/rpts/RS21072_20030605.pdf CIA World FactBook, https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ar.html CNN website, http://www.cnn.com/2003/WORLD/americas/03/26/ argentina.train.reut/ BBC Website, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/4534786.stm IMF website, http://www.imf.org/External/AM/2008/imfc/statement/eng/arg.pdf http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=newsarchive&sid=aDDu7awY.Vb4 International Politics on the World Stage, Rourke and Boyer, pg. 314–315

Additional resources: –– IMF official website: http://www.imf.org/external/index.htm. –– Information about economies of member states: http://www.oecd.org/, http:// www.worldbank.org/. –– Information about member states: CIA World Factbook https://www.cia.gov/ library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/us.html. –– Political Handbook of the World (Binghamton, NY: CSA 2008). –– Europa World Yearbook (London: Europa, 2013). –– A Dictionary of Political Biography (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013). –– World Encyclopaedia of Political Systems and Parties (New York: facts on File, 2006). –– Economist Intelligence Unit, EIU.com.

3.3 The NATO Simulation

tic Council, each of which may present requests. What follows is abridge informa tion about NATO from official sources. The discussions are moderated by the honor ary president of the North Atlantic Council, to be chosen on a rotating basis of the alphabetical name of the country in English. What follows is a general introduction to NATO and the North Atlantic Council, and then some practical directions for students and instructor to follow. The North Atlantic Council is NATO’s key political decision-making body. It brings together high-level representatives of each member country to discuss policy or ope rational questions requiring collective decisions. It is the forum for wide-ranging consultation between members on all issues affecting their security. All members have an equal right to express their views and share in the consensus on which deci sions are based. Decisions are agreed upon on the basis of unanimity and common accord: there is no voting or decision by majority. This means that policies decided upon by the North Atlantic Council (NAC) are supported by and are the expression of the collective will of all the sovereign states that are members of the Alliance and are accepted by all of them. The NAC meets at least every week and often more frequently, at the level of Permanent Representatives; it meets twice a year at the level of Ministers of Foreign Affairs, as well as at the level of Ministers of Defence, and occasionally at the Summit level with the participation of Prime Ministers and Heads of State and Government. Its decisions have the same status and validity at whatever level it meets. Permanent representatives act on instruction from their capitals, informing and explaining the views and the policy decisions of their governments to their colleagues around the table. Conversely they report back to their national authorities on the views expressed and positions taken by other governments, informing them of new developments and keeping them abreast of movement toward consensus on impor tant issues or areas where national positions diverge. Each country represented at the council table or on any of its subordinate committees retains complete sovereignty and responsibility for its own decisions. Consultation between member states is a key part of the decision-making process at NATO, allowing Allies to exchange views and information prior to reaching agree ment and taking action. The process is continuous and takes place both on an infor mal and a formal basis with a minimum of delay or inconvenience, due to the fact that all member states have permanent delegations at NATO Headquarters in Brussels. Consultation takes many forms. At its most basic level it involves simply the exchange of information and opinions. At another level it covers the communication of actions or decisions which governments have already taken or may be about to take. Finally, it can encompass discussion with the aim of reaching a consensus on policies to be adopted or actions to be taken. Table 3.3.1 lists requirements for the simulation. 102 Simulations for International Relations

Table 3.3.1: Requirements, NATO Simulation

Group Concerns Oral and Written requirements

Member country Issue raised by member country on an one page minimum/three page matter of international security within maximum STANAG (see below) includ- NATO’s jurisdiction ing statement of the claim, facts, laws, treaties, arguments, alternative arguments, requested actions, other material in support of request; presentation to NAC, 10 minute minimum, 30 minutes maximum; answer to questions from the council

Other member Response to issue raised by member one paragraph minimum, one page countries country minimum position memorandum of home government; questions of member making request; participation in consensus building

President of Moderates discussion; works behind In addition, acts as member country Council scenes to foster consensus; sets (see above) deadlines on duration of discussion and presentation of requests; manages time

Table 3.3.2 provides a sample class schedule for the NATO simulation.

Table 3.3.2: Sample Class Schedule, NATO

Week Class Requirement

1 1 Stanag 1

2 Follow-up to Stanag 1

2 1 Stanag 2

2 Follow-up to Stanag 2

3 1 Stanag 3

2 Follow-up to Stanag 3

4 1 Stanag 4

2 Follow-up to Stanag 4

Beyond the Stanag Worksheet, presented below, it is also possible to use the generic Worksheets outlined previously, either once per class starting with worksheet 1, or one per week. There are, however a few specific instructions; students should take care to analyse either the situation giving rise to the application, or the proceedings The NATO Simulation 103

themselves. If analysing the proceedings, students should also analyse and research the situation and the actions taken by students. But if the analysis bears only on the situation, there should not be any analysis of student behaviours. Worksheets should include footnotes as for an essay. What follows is a fictitious sample developed by the students, based on actual document in use by NATO. It was submitted by students and used here on the under standing that they would remain anonymous.

Worksheet 3.3.1: STANAG

STANAG No. _____6______

NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY ORGANISZATION

STANDARD AGREEMENT

SUBJECT: Interoperability of small arms

Promulgated on: January 24, 2014

By ___Slovakia______STANAG ___6______RECORD OF AMENDMENTS

Reference/date of amendment Date entered Signature Date of entry into force 24 January 2015 amended to Jan 2019

EXPLANATORY NOTES

1. This NATO Standard Agreement (STANAG) is promulgated by Slovakia under the authority vested in him by the North Atlantic Treaty. 2. No departure may be made from the agreement without consultation with the tasking authority. Nations may propose changes at any time to the tasking authority where they will be processed in the same manner as the original agreement. 3. Ratifying nations have agreed that national orders, manuals and instructions implementing this STANAG will include a reference to the STANAG number for purposes of identification.

DEFINITIONS 1. Ratification is ‘In NATO Standard, the fulfilment by which a member nation formally accepts, with or without reservation, the content of a Standard Agreement’ (AAP-6). 2. Implementation is ‘In NATO Standard, the fulfilment by a member nation of its obligations as specified in a Standard Agreement’ (AAP-6). Reservation is ‘In NATO Standardisation, the stated qualification by a member nation that describes the part of a Standardisation Agreement that it will not implement or will implement only with limitations’ (AAP-6). 104 Simulations for International Relations

continued Worksheet 3.3.1: STANAG

3. Interoperability means the capacity of the armed forces of member states to use each other’s equipment, as specified by agreement. 4. Small arms mean that the calibre of ordnance used is below 50 mm.

RELATED DOCUMENTS: Others: ____AAP 6______

AIM

The aim of this agreement is to agree on the definition of small arms. The aim of this agreement is to agree on the definition of interoperability. The aim of this agreement is to agree on the interoperability of small arms of member states.

AGREEMENT

Participating nations agree to:

1. Work towards interoperability until the agreement comes into force. 2. Achieve interoperability by the deadline set above. 3. Pay for any expenditures out of their own budgets.

DETAILS OF THE AGREEMENT 1. Participating nations undertake to achieve interoperability of small arms by the deadline outlines above. 2. Participating nations agree to share information and expertise regarding the achievement of interoperability by the deadline.

IMPLEMENTATION OF THE AGREEMENT This STANAG will be considered to have been implemented when: Arms using ordnance below 50 mm in calibre are interoperable by all member states.

Additional resources: –– Official website: http://www.nato.int/. –– Official documents search site: http://www.nato.int/cps/en/natolive/publica tions.htm. –– NATO library guides: http://www.natolibguides.info/welcome. –– Searchable Publicly available Stanag library: http://nso.nato.int/nso/. –– Europa World Yearbook (London: Europa, 2013). –– CIA World Factbook (Washington: Skyhorse, 2013). –– Jane’s Defence publications. –– Economist Intelligence Unit, EIU.com. The UN Security Council Simulation 105

3.4 The UN Security Council Simulation

The goal of this simulation is to familiarise students with how some international issues are resolved in the international system. The role-play simulation consists of teams of two students representing each of the permanent and elected member coun tries of the Security Council (SC). What follows is a general introduction to the SC, using official sources, followed by rules and procedures, abridged, governing discus sions there. The SC has primary responsibility, under the Charter, for the maintenance of international peace and security. It is so organised as to be able to function con tinuously, and a representative of each of its members must be present at all times at United Nations Headquarters. When a complaint concerning a threat to peace is brought before it, the Council’s first action is usually to recommend to the parties to try to reach agreement by peaceful means. In some cases, the Council itself under takes investigation and mediation. It may appoint special representatives or request the Secretary-General (SG) to do so or to use his good offices. It may set forth prin ciples for a peaceful settlement. What follows are simplified and abridged procedures of the Security Council for use in the simulation. The President shall call a meeting of the Security Council if a dispute or situation is brought to the attention of the SC under Chapter 35 or under Chapter I (3) of the Charter, or if the General Assembly makes recommendations or refers any question to the Security Council under Chapter 11 (2), or if the Secretary-General brings to the attention of the Security Council any matter. The Secretary-General shall immediately bring to the attention of all representa tives on the SC all communications from States, organs of the United Nations, or the Secretary-General concerning any matter for the consideration of the Security Council in accordance with the provisions of the Charter. Any item of the agenda of a meeting of the Security Council, consideration of which has not been completed at that meeting, shall, unless the SC otherwise decides, automatically be included in the agenda of the next meeting. The SC may, however, in urgent circumstances, make additions to the agenda at any time during a periodic meeting. Each member of the SC shall be represented at the meetings of the SC by an accredited representative. The presidency of the SC shall be held in turn by the members of the Security Council in the English alphabetical order of their names. The President shall preside over the meetings of the Security Council and, under the authority of the SC, shall represent it in its capacity as an organ of the United Nations. Whenever the President of the Security Council deems that for the proper fulfilment of the responsibilities of the presidency he should not preside over the Council during the consideration of a particular question with which the member he represents is directly connected, he shall indicate his decision to the Council. The presidential chair shall then devolve, for the purpose of the consideration of that 106 Simulations for International Relations

question, on the representative of the member next in English alphabetical order, it being understood that the provisions of this rule shall apply to the representatives on the Security Council called upon successively to preside. The President shall call upon representatives in the order in which they signify their desire to speak. If a representative raises a point of order, the President shall immediately state his ruling. If it is challenged, the President shall submit his ruling to the Security Council for immediate decision and it shall stand unless overruled. Proposed resolutions, amendments and substantive motions shall normally be placed before the representatives in writing. Principal motions and draft resolutions shall have precedence in the order of their submission: Parts of a motion or of a draft resolution shall be voted on separately at the request of any representative, unless the original mover objects. The following motions shall have precedence in the order named over all princi pal motions and draft resolutions relative to the subject before the meeting: 1. To suspend the meeting; 2. To adjourn the meeting; 3. To adjourn the meeting to a certain day or hour; 4. To refer any matter to a committee, to the Secretary-General or to a rapporteur; 5. To postpone discussion of the question to a certain day or indefinitely; or 6. To introduce an amendment.

Any motion for the suspension or for the simple adjournment of the meeting shall be decided without debate. It shall not be necessary for any motion or draft resolution proposed by a repre sentative on the Security Council to be seconded before being put to a vote. A motion or draft resolution can at any time be withdrawn so long as no vote has been taken with respect to it. If the motion or draft resolution has been seconded, the representative on the Security Council who has seconded it may require that it be put to the vote as his motion or draft resolution with the same right of precedence as if the original mover had not withdrawn it. If two or more amendments to a motion or draft resolution are proposed, the President shall rule on the order in which they are to be voted upon. Ordinarily, the Security Council shall first vote on the amendment furthest removed in substance from the original proposal and then on the amendment next furthest removed until all amendments have been put to the vote, but when an amendment adds to or deletes from the text of a motion or draft resolution, that amendment shall be voted on first. Any Member of the United Nations which is not a member of the Security Council may be invited, as the result of a decision of the Security Council, to participate, without vote, in the discussion of any question brought before the Security Council when the Security Council considers that the interests of that Member are specially affected, or when a Member brings a matter to the attention of the Security Council. The UN Security Council Simulation 107

Any Member of the United Nations invited in accordance with the preceding rule, to participate in the discussions of the Security Council may submit proposals and draft resolutions. These proposals and draft resolutions may be put to a vote only at the request of a representative on the Security Council. The Security Council may invite members of the Secretariat or other persons, whom it considers competent for the purpose, to supply it with information or to give other assistance in examining matters within its competence. Voting in the Security Council shall be in accordance with the relevant Chapters of the Charter and of the Statute of the International Court of Justice. Table 3.4.1 lists what students are expected to do.

Table 3.4.1: Requirements, UNSC Simulation

Group Oral and Written requirements

Member presenting studies the foreign policy of the country on all the major issues before resolution the UNSC at present; prepares one page minimum/three page maximum written submission which includes: section 1 stating facts using infinitive verbs (noting, affirming, recalling); section 2 using numbered paragraphs and active verbs listing actions taken by UNSC; using proper UNSC format; answers questions of clarification; considers amendments; participates in discussion before vote; negotiates and lobbies privately; votes; justifies its votes

Other rotating studies the foreign policy of the country on all the major issues before the members UNSC at present; studies the resolutions placed before them; asks questions of clarification; proposes amendments; participates in discussion before vote; negotiates and lobbies privately; considers the use of abstention, supporting or voting against, and can give reasons for it; votes; justifies the votes to other members

Permanent members studies the foreign policy of the country on all the major issues before the UNSC at present; studies the resolutions place before them; asks questions of clarification; proposes amendments; participates in discussion before vote; negotiates and lobbies privately; considers the use of veto; considers the use of abstention, supporting or voting against; votes; justifies its vote to other members

Presiding member facilitates meeting according to Robert’s rules of order; ensures that material are distributed in a timely and orderly fashion; sets deadlines and agenda for everyone; studies the foreign policy of the country on all the major issues before the UNSC at present; studies the resolutions place before them; asks questions of clarification; proposes amendments; participates in discussion before vote; negotiates and lobbies privately; considers the use of veto; considers the use of abstention, supporting or voting against; votes; justifies its vote to other members 108 Simulations for International Relations

What follows is a sample resolution prepared by students and used with their permis sion, on the understanding that they would remain anonymous.

Resource 3:4: United Nations Resolution

Resolution 1787 (2007) Adopted by the Security Council at its 5795th meeting, on 10 December 2007

The Security Council, Recalling resolution 1373 (2001) of 28 September 2001, resolution 1456 (2003) of 20 January 2003, resolution 1535 (2004) of 26 March 2004, resolution 1624 (2005) of 14 September 2005, as well as its other resolutions concerning threats to international peace and security caused by terrorism, Reaffirming that terrorism in all its forms and manifestations constitutes one of the most serious threats to peace and security, Welcoming the adoption by the General Assembly of the United Nations Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy, A/60/288, and the creation of the Counter-Terrorism Implementation Task Force to ensure overall coordination and coherence in the counter-terrorism efforts of the United Nations, Reminding States that they must ensure that any measures taken to combat terrorism comply with all their obligations under international law, and should adopt such measures in accordance with international law, in particular, international human rights, refugee and humanitarian law, Commending Member States for their cooperation with the Counter-Terrorism Committee and calling upon all of them to continue to cooperate fully with the Committee, 1. DECIDES to extend the initial period referred to in paragraph 2 of resolution 1535 (2004) until 31 March 2008; 2. REQUESTS the Executive Director of the Counter-Terrorism Committee Executive Directorate, within 60 days of the adoption of this resolution and in consultation with Council members, to recommend such changes as he deems appropriate to the organisational plan referred to in paragraph 4 of resolution 1535 (2004), and to submit them to the Counter-Terrorism Committee for its consideration and endorsement prior to the expiration of the period referred to in paragraph 1 of this resolution; 3. DECIDES to remain actively seized of the matter.

The ICJ simulation has been used successfully to examine Arctic sovereignty, the law of the Sea, the use of drones, the secession of South Sudan, and many other situations. The UN Security Council simulation has been used successfully in considering a wide range of international conflict, including various issues in the Middle East and the Arab-speaking world, territorial conflicts involving Russia and China, and issues surrounding water. The IMF simulation has been used successfully to consider the circumstances of South Korea, Thailand, and the UK The NATO simulation has included applications about weapon compatibility, radar and early detection, language training and many others in the Alliance. Table 3.4.2 shows how two role-play simulations and the skills grid can be inte grated into a 12-week upper year course. The UN Security Council Simulation 109

Table 3.4.2: Dual Simulation Calendar

Week Class Student Other

1 1 Intro to course Team formation

2 Intro to international politics Team work intro to Ref- overview of expectations for role-play choice of issue works/Zotero; choice of country

2 1 Intro to UNSC Team work UNSC Resources

2 Intro to worksheets Teamwork

3 1 Intro to worksheet 2 South Korea present on nuclear disarmament France present on Central African Republic Chad chair

2 South Korea chair Russia on Arctic UK on South Sudan

4 1 Intro to worksheet 3 Worksheet 2 due France chair US present on rebel attacks in Congo Argentina present on the use of drones

2 Worksheet 5 due Choice of country NATO resources Introduction to NATO choice of issue team work

5 1 Intro to simulation requirements Team work

2 Intro to worksheet 6 Presiding 9 Stanag 1

6 1 Presiding 10 Stanag 2 worksheet 6 due

2 Intro to worksheet 7 Presiding 11 Stanag 3 team work

7 1 Presiding 12 Stanag 4 worksheet 7 due 110 Simulations for International Relations

continued Table 3.4.2: Dual Simulation Calendar

Week Class Student Other

2 Intro to worksheets 8 Presiding 13 Stanag 5 Teamwork

8 1 Presiding 14 Stanag 6 Worksheets 8 due

2 Intro to worksheet 9 and 1, skills grid; Stanag 7 presiding 15

9 1 Worksheet 9 and 1 due Skills Grid workshop

2 Participation grade return of graded work

Additional Resources: Films: –– Judgment at Nuremberg, –– The Battle of Algiers, –– Fail Safe.

For the UN Security Council: –– Document search for United Nations: http://www.un.org/en/documents/ods/. –– UNSC resolutions: http://www.un.org/en/sc/documents/resolutions/. –– Search UNSC member voting records: http://www.un.org/en/sc/meetings/search vote.shtml. –– How to find documents related to meetings: http://research.un.org/en/docs/find/ meetings. –– Activities of member states, for new members of SC: http://www.un.org/depts/ dhl/unms/. –– Political Handbook of the World (Binghamton, NY: CSA 2008). –– Europa World Yearbook (London: Europa, 2013). –– CIA World Factbook (Washington: Skyhorse, 2013). –– D. Kavanagh, E. Riches, eds. A Dictionary of Political Biography (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013). –– World Encyclopaedia of Political Systems and Parties (New York: facts on File, 2006). –– Economist Intelligence Unit, EIU.com. 4 Public Policy and Administration Simulation

Only one simulation is proposed for public policy and administration: the lobbying and advocacy simulation. The goal of the lobbying and advocacy simulation is to give students a chance to exercise or experience for the first time the skills required in lob bying and advocacy and to familiarise them with the political issues and processes of a particular country. As with several other simulations, students may also be required to complete the worksheets 1–8 to analyse the performance. This is particularly useful to keep students engaged. A short introduction to the uses and background to the worksheets is best given at the start of the class during which students will use a particular worksheet to analyse what occurs. This will allow students to take notes adequately during the simulation, thereby also keeping them engaged. Students playing the role of a special interest group or lobbying firm have several options in representing the request of their citizens. The first of these is sending a letter. Letters are the easiest and most obvious method of lobbying, but they are not always the most effective. When sending a letter, it is important to use the correct address and greeting. The letter should be typed on the organisation’s stationery. Per sonal letters hold a lot more weight than form letters. The letter should be brief and focused, and it should specify what action is being requested. The letter should also be factual and accurate, and all the facts in the letter should be checked to ensure that they are correct and that conclusions are supported. The letter closes with thanks. The tone of the letter is very important, but it is hard to judge: it is best to be neither negative, condescending, threatening, nor intimidating. Another option for a lobbyist or a special interest group is to make a submission. Submissions include information on the group or organisation being represented, as well as contact details, the topic or issue that the submission is about. A submission should also make clear why it is being made in the first place, what the concern is, how the group is connected to the issue, and what the expertise or experience on the issue is. It should also include the specific actions that need to be taken, and the reasons why this action should be taken. This section is the right place to give the facts and make the main points in the argument. It is important to be as brief and accurate as possible. Some reasons for which the actions requested are desirable to the decision-makers may include how they will improve quality of life, make a con tribution to the welfare of the community, save money or be in the interests of the minister or secretary’s support base and constituents. Table 4.1 lists what is required of students.

Table 4.1: Requirements, Lobbying Simulation

Group Concerns Oral and Written requirements

Citizens/Interest group Issue to be raised by existing interest one page letter or three page group or association submission; presentation to minister and public servants; answers to questions

Public Servants how the requested change fits in with questions after presentation; existing policy; potential application prob- one page memorandum to lems; costs; priority among other ongoing minister/secretary concerns; recommendations; any problems from similar proposals in the past

Minister’s/Secretary’s political implications for party, cabinet, questions during presenta- office minister, constituencies; priority within tion; oral presentation of deci- cabinet compared to other ongoing sion; one page memorandum concerns outlining decision

It is sometimes useful to outline briefly what would happen if no action is taken, but it is important not to sound threatening to the decision-makers. It is also a good idea to offer further information or face-to-face meetings on request. When at the meeting, the lobbyist should keep the argument short and simple. Going in, it is important to be clear about why s/he is even there, and what it is s/he hopes to accomplish during the meeting. The lobbyist should have the facts straight, should be on time, polite, patient, and always be polite. Nothing should provoke the lobbyist into being rude. It is a good idea to make the issue personal for the decision- maker. One of the most effective approaches in lobbying is to do the work for the deci sion-maker. A lobbyist should become a resource for that person or group. The lob byist should leave a one-page fact sheet with contact details. Before the lobbyist leaves, s/he should thank the decision-maker again for taking the meeting. The lob byist should also follow-up on the meeting and builds the relationship as much as possible. And the lobbyist should whenever possible provide opportunities for posi tive publicity – a photo opportunity, event or occasion. It is now possible to turn to the role of the public servants and the minister or secretary’s team. The public servants or political aides have a number of options. In terms of the questions which they may ask, there are three types: asking for more evi dence, asking questions of clarification, asking linking or expanding questions, and asking hypothetical, cause and effect or summary questions. The questions which ask for more evidence include questions such as: How do you know that? What data is that claim based on? What do other sources say that support your argument? Where did you find the view you just expressed? What evidence would you give to someone who doubted your interpretation? The ques Public Policy and Administration Simulation 113

tions which clarify the issues or requests include questions such as: Can you put that another way? What’s a good example of what you are talking about? What do you mean by that? Can you explain the term you just used? Could you give an illustration of your point? Could you give another example of your point? Linking or extending questions include such questions as: Is there any connection between what you’ve just said and what X said before? How does your comment fit in with X’s earlier comment? How does your observation relate to what was decided previ ously? Does your idea challenge or support what seems to be saying? Doing? How does the change you want add to what has already been done? Hypothetical, cause and effect, or summary questions include such questions as: What are the one or two most important ideas that emerged from this discussion? What remains unre solved or contentious about this request? What do you understand better as a result of today’s discussion? What needs to be discussed again? What key word or concept best captures our discussion today? When the time comes for the public servants to respond to the lobbyists’ efforts, they will usually provide either a written response or a verbal one. If writing, then the public servants should include certain content. According to a former politician, when bureaucrats are asked for something, all other things being equal, they say no. Public servants should use the correct greeting in their response. The letter should be typed. The content of the letter should be brief and focused. It should be addressed to the politicians or decision-makers and offer 2 or 3 options or make 2 or 3 recom mendations. The letter or memorandum should be specific about the request made by the lobbyists. Public servants should check all the facts in the submission, and correct them or offer alternatives as necessary. Their memorandum should address costs, both actual expenditure and trade-offs, i.e. what will not be done if the request is granted. It should address how the requested change fits in with existing policy, and any potential application problems. It should also discuss what the priority of the request is in the context of other ongoing concerns and other recommendations made by the public servants. It should also discuss any problems or outcomes from similar proposals in the past. The tone should be neutral. The minister or secretary’s letter replying to the lobbyist’s request should, all other things being equal, say yes. The letter should use the correct greeting. The letter should be personal, and the minister or secretary should not reply with a form letter. The letter should be brief and focused, and it should be clear and specific about what the minister will or will not do. The letter should thank the citizens for their concern. The tone of the letter should not be negative, condescending, threatening, or intimi dating. The letter should address the reasons for the decision. In making the decision, the minister or secretary should consider the political implications for the party, the cabinet, the minister or secretary him or herself, and for the various constituencies. It should also consider the priority within cabinet compared to other concerns. The simulation unfolds as can be seen from Table 4.2, which provides a sample class schedule. 114 Public Policy and Administration Simulation

Table 4.2: Sample Schedule, Lobbying Simulation

Week 2 Intro to health policy, Resources, UK health: government website, UK; Team formation UN sources

Week 3–4 Lobbying

Week 5 Intro to health policy, US Team formation

Week 5–6 Lobbying

Week 7 Intro to environmental policy, Resources, UK Environment: government website, UK; Team formation UN sources

Week 7–8 Lobbying

Week 9 Intro to environmental policy, Resources, US Environment: Congressional US; Team formation Research Service, government website, UN sources

Week 10–11 Lobbying

Below are examples drawn from student work, both letters and memoranda, and used with their permission, on the understanding that they would remain anonymous.

Resource 4:1: Sample Announcement, Lobbying Simulation

Impotence Consultation – Dobson Announces Final Decision Published date: 7 May 1999

From 1 July, GPs will be able to prescribe specified impotence treatments on the NHS for men with certain medical conditions, Frank Dobson, Secretary of State for Health, announced today.

Mr. Dobson said:

We have completed a public consultation to help us find a sensible balance between treating men with the distressing condition of impotence, and protecting the resources of the NHS to deal with other patients, for example those with cancer, heart disease and mental health problems. Today’s decision means slightly more money than currently will be spent on treating more men for impotence.

I received 861 responses within the consultation period. Three quarters of the responses supported the idea that the prescribing of Viagra by GPs should be restricted – indeed some 10% thought that it should be banned altogether. Over half thought that all prescribing of impotence treatments should be restricted or banned.

It is fair to say that a lot of people thought that more men than I proposed should be eligible for NHS prescriptions for impotence. But I have to think of the impact on the NHS as a whole in deciding this. Public Policy and Administration Simulation 115

I have, however, decided to extend the list of eligible patients to include: men treated for prostate cancer -the original proposal referred only to men having their prostate removed; men treated for kidney failure, by transplantation and dialysis; men who have had polio; men with spina bifida; men with Parkinson’s disease and men with severe pelvic injury.

Therefore GPs will be able to write NHS prescriptions for impotence treatments (including Viagra) for the following groups of men:

Men treated for prostate cancer

Men suffering from spinal cord injury

Men treated for kidney failure

Men with diabetes

Men with Multiple Sclerosis

Men with single gene neurological disease

Men with spina bifida

Men who have had polio

Men with Parkinson’s disease

Men with severe pelvic injury

For other men who are caused severe distress by impotence, it is proposed that treatment should be available in exceptional circumstances only after a specialist assessment in a hospital.

Mr. Dobson continued:

I have also decided that GPs can prescribe impotence treatments to those men not included in the above categories but who were receiving drug treatment for impotence from their GP on 14 Septem- ber 1998.

I propose to bring these changes into force from 1 July 1999, subject to Parliamentary approval.

Other men whose impotence is causing them severe distress will be able to be referred by their GP for treatment in the secondary sector. I have asked the NHS Executive’s Acting Medical Director to prepare guidance for the NHS on the arrangements for identifying and treating through secondary care services those other men whose condition is causing severe distress.

I have noted that there is general agreement to my proposal to issue guidance which will ask doctors to aim to prescribe no more than one treatment a week, which reflects research evidence on this point. As I said when I announced my proposals for consultation I shall review the operation of this policy after one year.

Notes for Editors 116 Public Policy and Administration Simulation

From 1 July 1999 any patient not suffering from one of the named conditions for Viagra and other drug treatments for impotence, and therefore not eligible for treatment on the NHS, would be able to receive a private prescription from their own GP. GPs will not be able to charge for writing the prescription.

The associated Health Service Circular is attached.

The changes will be laid as regulations subject to negative resolution.

With the exception of Sweden, Viagra is not generally available in European Union countries at the expense of their healthcare systems.

Schedule 11 to the NHS (General Medical Services) Regulations 1992 is a list of drugs which GPs may prescribe on the NHS only in specified circumstances, and/or for specified patient groups.

The criterion underpinning this decision has been notified to the European Commission to comply with the terms of the European Transparency Directive. The criterion set out in full is as follows: A medicinal product or a category of medicinal products may be excluded entirely from supply on NHS prescription. It may alternatively be excluded except in specified circumstances, or except in relation to specified conditions or categories of condition, or specified categories of patient.

A medicinal product or a category of them may be so excluded where the forecast aggregate cost to the NHS of allowing the product (or category of products) to be supplied on NHS prescription, or to be supplied more widely than the permitted exceptions, could not be justified having regard to all the relevant circumstances including in particular: the Secretary of State’s duties pursuant to the NHS Act 1977 and the priorities for expenditure of NHS resources.

Resource 4.2: Sample Letter of Reply, Lobbying Simulation

To: Laurence Buckman Chairman, British Medical Association’s GP Committee BMA House, Tavistock Square, London, UK, WC1H 9JP

From: Rt Hon Andy Burnham MP Secretary of State for Health Department of Health Richmond House 79 Whitehall London, UK SW1A 2NS

Date: 14 October 2009

Response to Request for Funds to Ensure Efficient Delivery of H1N1 Vaccines to Vulnerable Populations Public Policy and Administration Simulation 117

Dear Dr. Buckman,

Thank-you for presenting your case to us and providing your concerns about the H1N1 pandemic. We share your deep concern for the growing swine flu pandemic and its potential impact on the economy. We know that general practitioners play a crucial role in combating the swine flu and we recognise the effort that will be made into putting the vaccination campaign into practice as well as the non-routine work that will need to be done.

To support GPs, the Department of Health is providing a package of administrative cost-saving measures for the duration of the pandemic as well as £5.25 per vaccine dose. In addition to this, the government has launched other initiatives, such as the National Pandemic Flu Service, which will give the public access to anti-viral medications without having to see a GP, thus taking the pressure off frontline services (UK Government, 2012). This year, £109 billion went to the creation of new hospitals, 150 walk-in health care centres and 100 more GP practices in under-doctored areas for 2009–2010. This too will ease the pressure on the previously established GP surgeries.

The increase of H1N1 cases does not increase the vaccination costs. Our previously negotiated term of £5.25 per shot covers the mass inoculation program for all the target population, and we feel that this amount is sufficient. Consequently, at this time, we feel that it is necessary to decline your request for a funding increase to £8. The amount of £5.25 combines a per dose payment to cover additional staff costs and other expenses, as well as a package of measures to free up practicing time. We have already agreed to ease the burden of extra work by not making any changes to the Quality and Outcomes Framework in the 2010/2011 year. Doctors have been given leeway in setting their access targets, like guaranteeing appointments within 48 hours as well as advanced book- ings, if they achieve high immunisation rates. We are also willing to extend the collection date on childhood immunisations to mid-February as we realise that a large amount of resources needs to be directed into preventing the swine flu, and as such will give all practice staff added flexibility.

If an urgent need arises to recruit additional temporary staff, the necessary legislative and practical arrangements are in place to do so. The NHS is able to double its critical care capacity to accommo- date serious H1N1 cases. Based on collaborative monitoring of the situation, we will also continue to discuss emergency contractual arrangements should general practices experience unmanageable pressure during a second wave of the pandemic (UK Government, 2012).

The GPs promotion of vaccination uptake is part of the broader communication strategy to promote infection control practices and proper hygiene such as hand-washing, covering the nose and mouth when coughing or sneezing, and other hygienic routines.

The £ 5.25 package is fair compensation for the inoculations in balance with our resources to meet the spectrum of needs of all patients in the NHS system.

We are extremely confident that our GPs and their teams are properly equipped with the resources they need in order to run the swine flu vaccination programmer smoothly and efficiently. This arrangement has been made in unique circumstances and does not set a precedent for situations like this in the future.

Sincerely,

Rt. Hon Andy Burnham MP Secretary of State for Health 118 Public Policy and Administration Simulation

References: http://www.dh.gov.uk/en/Publichealth/Flu/Swineflu/DH_105132 GP deal on swine flu vaccination http://www.bma.org.uk/images/letterfluvacc_tcm41–190183.pdf BMA GPC H1N1 vaccination arrangements http://www.hpa.org.uk/webw/HPAweb&Page&HPAwebAutoListName/Page/124073281766 5?p=1240732817665

Other Applications The lobbying simulation has been used successfully to examine issues in health care, higher education and the environment in such countries as the US, the UK and Canada. Potential applications include other domestic issues in those countries, as well as domestic issues in France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Australia, New Zealand, Ireland, Spain, Portugal, etc.

Additional resources Potential guests include: –– NGO’s (non-profits, if they can lobby legally), –– Activists (environment, poverty, violence, peace, anti-nuclear), –– Professional lobby groups (industry, financial).

Lobbying US: –– Official website of the US government: http://www.usa.gov/. –– Lobbying federal government of the US: http://lobbyingdisclosure.house.gov/.

Lobbying UK: –– Official documents of UK government: https://www.gov.uk/government/ publications?official_document_status=command_and_act_papers. –– General information on the UK: https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the- world-factbook/geos/uk.html. –– Official policies of the UK government https://www.gov.uk/government/policies –– Lobbying the UK Parliament: http://www.parliament.uk/get-involved/have-your- say/lobbying/.

Films: –– Yes Minister, –– Twelve Angry Men, –– Conspiracy. 5 Conclusions and Limitations

Active pedagogy is in its infancy as far as political science is concerned. Many of the aspects of the proposed teaching method are still to be fully developed and exploited. And there are limitations to the method. The most important of these is that the content covered is much more limited than in the lecture-essay-exam method. It also requires a high degree of knowledge about many topics. It is labour intensive and may not be suitable for instructors at the beginning of their careers. It may not suit instructors except for courses in their area of greatest expertise. It requires a high level of transparency from the instructor in the classroom, as well as the willingness of the instructor to fail in public. None of this is easy. Nonetheless, active pedagogy provides great professional satisfaction. The instructor needs to self-evaluate in several ways, although peer-assessment remains one of the great growth experiences for any instructor at the post-secondary level. A facilitative teaching style that includes reflective questions fosters reflective learning, provides feedback on thinking and perspective taking and models that behaviour for students. There are, of course, a wide range of teaching styles and types of behaviour, even within active pedagogy. A more assertive teaching style will give directions or infor mation and ask leading questions. A collaborative teaching style will elicit and accept learners’ ideas, use open-ended questions or relate personal experience. Each teach ing style is appropriate for achieving a specific level of objectives. Suggestive teach ing styles are appropriate for helping the learner develop a cognitive base, i.e. gain knowledge and understanding. Facilitative teaching styles encourage development of meta-cognitive capabilities, including reflection, self-questioning, perspective taking, and self-assessment. The important thing is to choose the method according to the objectives sought, and to vary the style with the objectives. Professional development in teaching is essential for all instructors, but par ticularly for active pedagogy. Co-teaching a course can lead to many profitable dis cussions with a colleague. Teaching a workshop on pedagogy for graduate students also focuses one’s thinking to an admirable extent. One-on-one discussions on such topics as conflict resolution, teaching in a second (or third or fourth) language, or teaching in a culture other than the one in which one was an undergraduate oneself are all excellent topics. Writing, even if only to post on a moderated blog, is also very fruitful in clarifying the instructor’s thinking. Teaching workshops in a wider range of environments than the more usual setting of undergraduate education is also very fruitful, and hones the skills. Systematic reading in such areas as active pedagogy, curriculum review, lecturing, etc. can help. Holding discussions on areas of partic ular interest with experts such as adult education, analogical reasoning, organisa tional development, and even mental health can provide valuable insights. Learning something new and difficult periodically throughout a career is very helpful for the instructor to remember what it feels like to learn. Finally, a forgiving attitude towards

one’s own development makes it possible to integrate more and more new learning techniques into one’s teaching style. Whether common methods of student evaluations of courses appropriate or com prehensive enough for these teaching methods (or, indeed, anyone who uses pedagogy different from the mainstream one) is an open question. One solution is to develop additional questionnaires for students to complete. For example, for meta-cognitive pedagogy, Timpson proposes in Metateaching and the Instructional Map that the fol lowing aspects be graded from 1 (low) to 5 (high): instructor knowledge, instructor enthusiasm/ energy, instructor preparation/ organisation, instructor clarity, student engagement, content/activity meaningfulness, positive learning climate, feedback to students. To these could be added: applicability of learning to other situations, learn ing compared to other courses. The great advantage, of course, is that undergraduates have no preconceived notions of what is right, what is good, what is true, or what is appropriate in a class room. With them, even considering their lifetime of experience and knowledge, start at the very beginning. As research shows, students are now entering a saturated job market and an unforgiving workplace. It no longer takes much more than a single mistake for them to be oriented into uncertain jobs with lower pay, rather than higher skilled, more secure jobs. Since the miccle class been hollowed out, the first mistakes can make a big difference in the rest of their work life, as can the first jobs for the rest of their lifetime earnings. It is for this reason that were proposed the exercises, role- play simulations and case studies in the preceding chapters, so courses that teach the usual content can be combined with skills. Iris Murdoch once said that education does not make us happy: education tells one whether we are happy. Perhaps happiness is that state when we are so immersed in a task or a group that we do not notice time going by. Perhaps it is we are faced a task challenging enough to give the best of ourselves but not so challenging that it is possible to fail over and over again. In these pages, the reader will have found the tools by which happiness can often be reached in university teaching. List of Resources

Resource 3:1: Pakistan v. United States in relation to drone attacks 87 Resource 3:2: Lybia v. United Kingdom and United States in relation to PANAM Flight 103 91 Resource 3:3: Case study: Argentina 98 Resource 3:4: Voting in the Security Council 108 Resource 4:1: Sample Announcement, Lobbying Simulation 114 Resource 4.2: Sample Letter of Reply, Lobbying Simulation 116 Appendix: List of Blank Worksheets Used in Part I and Part II

Worksheet 1: Strategy 123 Worksheet 2: Key Actors 124 Worksheet 3: An Actor’s Actions and Tactics 125 Worksheet 4: Key Resources 126 Worksheet 5: Key Rules 127 Worksheet 6: Factors Outside Anyone’s Control 128 Worksheet 7: Do or Die Moments 129 Worksheet 8: Tactics and Countervailing Tactics 130 Worksheet 9: Overview Worksheet: Introduction to Political Science 131 Worksheet 10: What Is Politics? 132 Worksheet 11: Ideologies: Families of Political Ideas 133 Worksheet 12: Analysis the Throne Speech/Official Opposition Response 134 Worksheet 13: Analysis of the Finance Minister’s Economic Statement 135 Worksheet 14: Expenditure Proposal/ Expenditure Reduction Proposal 136 Worksheet 15: Proposed Budget 137 Worksheet 16: Pollster’s Questionnaire 138 Worksheet 17: Sample 139 Worksheet 18: Interviews 140 Worksheet 19: Design 141 Worksheet 20: Ethics 143 Worksheet 21: Tabulation of Results 144 Worksheet 22: Stanag Worksheet 145 Appendix: List of Blank Worksheets Used in Part I and Part II 123

Worksheet 1: Strategy

Issue/Problem

Goal

Core Idea

Tactics 1 (actions or headings)

6 124 Appendix: List of Blank Worksheets Used in Part I and Part II

Worksheet 2: Key Actors

All Actors Can this actor affect achieving the goal? (Yes/No) Appendix: List of Blank Worksheets Used in Part I and Part II 125

Worksheet 3: An Actor’s Actions and Tactics

Actor:

Time/Date Action Is this a tactic? (Yes/No) 126 Appendix: List of Blank Worksheets Used in Part I and Part II

Worksheet 4: Key Resources

Goal or Actor:

Resource Is there enough? Is this a ‘nice Is this a ‘must (Yes/No) to have’? have’? Appendix: List of Blank Worksheets Used in Part I and Part II 127

Worksheet 5: Key Rules

Goal or Actor:

Rule Does this rule help reach Does breaking this rule the goal? guarantee failure? 128 Appendix: List of Blank Worksheets Used in Part I and Part II

Worksheet 6: Factors Outside Anyone’s Control

Goal:

Factors that help Factors that don’t help

→ ←

→ ← Appendix: List of Blank Worksheets Used in Part I and Part II 129

Worksheet 7: Do-or-Die Moments

Steps to Goal Problem 1 Problem 2

▾ ▾ ▾

▾ ▾ ▾ 130 Appendix: List of Blank Worksheets Used in Part I and Part II

Worksheet 8: Tactics and Countervailing Tactics

Goal, Actor 1: Goal, Actor 2 :

Tactics Tactics

→ ←

→ ← Appendix: List of Blank Worksheets Used in Part I and Part II 131

Worksheet 9: Overview Worksheet: Introduction to Political Science

Name

Course

Date

Simulation/ Exercise Content/ Role Skill Application in workplace 132 Appendix: List of Blank Worksheets Used in Part I and Part II

Worksheet 10: What Is Politics?

Date:

Students:

Our news story is from______(News chapter, date, page, by-line, URL) Headline: ______

Topic: ______

This story is political because:

1. ______2. ______3. ______4. ______5. ______6. ______Appendix: List of Blank Worksheets Used in Part I and Part II 133

Worksheet 11: Ideologies: Families of Political Ideas

Date:

Students:

Liberalism Conservatism Marxism Feminism Environmental- ism

Actors

Motivation of Actors

Distribution of Power

Optimal Conditions

Assumptions

Sources of Power

Others 134 Appendix: List of Blank Worksheets Used in Part I and Part II

Worksheet 12: Analysis the Throne Speech/Official Opposition Response

Sources of information:

Students:

Throne Speech:

Most Important Initiatives Proposed Changes in Spending How It Will Be Paid For

Main Instruments Used Initiative Amount Appendix: List of Blank Worksheets Used in Part I and Part II 135

Worksheet 13: Analysis of the Finance Minister’s Economic Statement

Sources of information:

Students:

Most Important Changes in Circumstances Amount Involved Surplus/Deficit

Changes to Largest Expenditures Amount Statutory/Discretionary

Changes to Largest Expenditures Amount Under/Outside Control 136 Appendix: List of Blank Worksheets Used in Part I and Part II

Worksheet 14: Expenditure Proposal/ Expenditure Reduction Proposal

Title:

Proposed by: (Minister’s Name, Ministry’s Name)

Rationale:

Detailed Expenditures Appendix: List of Blank Worksheets Used in Part I and Part II 137

Worksheet 15: Proposed Budget

Sources of information:

Students:

Spending Item Amount Proposed by

Spending Cut 138 Appendix: List of Blank Worksheets Used in Part I and Part II

Worksheet 16: Pollster’s Questionnaire

Pollster:

Time:

Date:

Subject:

Instructions

Confidentiality issues

Methodology issues

Eligibility questions

Questions Answers

5 Appendix: List of Blank Worksheets Used in Part I and Part II 139

Worksheet 17: Sample

Question Answer

Who is going to be asked? Everyone in the community? A portion? Select the population wanted.

How will they be found?

How can a representative sample be ensured?

What is total number of population targeted by poll?

How will a random sample be ensured?

Are they voting age?

Do they have an equal chance of being asked as anyone else in the same category?

How many will be asked?

How many useable answers are expected?

How long will one interview take?

How much will an interview cost? 140 Appendix: List of Blank Worksheets Used in Part I and Part II

Worksheet 18: Interviews

Questions Answers

What are the questions? Question 1

Question 2

Question 3

Question 4

Is each question clear? Question 1

Question 2

Question 3

Question 4

Is each question not emotionally charged? Question 1

Question 2

Question 3

Question 4

Are there a reasonable number of alternatives? Question 1

Question 2

Question 3

Question 4

Is each question unbiased? Question 1

Question 2

Question 3

Question 4

Is each questions either Y/N or a/b/c/d? Question 1

Question 2

Question 3

Question 4

What are the circumstances of the interview expected to be?

Is each question adapted to the population targeted?

Is there any way control over those circumstances be increased? Appendix: List of Blank Worksheets Used in Part I and Part II 141

Worksheet 19: Design

Question Answer

What are the goals?

Why were they chosen?

What alternatives were considered?

Does the sample represent well the population to be studied?

Does the design balance costs with errors?

Has the question wording been matched to the concepts being measured and the population studied?

How will interviewers be carefully trained on interviewing techniques and the subject matter of the survey?

How will the quality be checked at each stage?

Has cooperation or response rates been maximised within the limits of ethical treatment of human subjects?

Are statistical analytic and reporting techniques appropriate?

Are the pledges of confidentiality given to respondents properly developed and fulfilled?

Have all methods of the survey disclosed, to allow for evaluation and replication?

What is the introduction of the pollster to the subject?

Is the introduction polite?

Is the subject assured the results will be reported anonymously?

Does the subject know how the results will be used?

Does the poll meet the requirements of the research ethics policy of the university?

Does the subject know how the information will be preserved?

How will the information be collected? 142 Appendix: List of Blank Worksheets Used in Part I and Part II

continued Worksheet 19: Design

How will the results be checked for completeness?

When will the poll be conducted?

Over how long a period?

How quickly will the results be released?

Will it occur close to a particular event, like an election?

How will participation be maximised?

Does any measure coerce ethical consent?

How is that known?

How will the interviewers be trained?

Who will be the interviewers?

How will the methods be disclosed to students? Appendix: List of Blank Worksheets Used in Part I and Part II 143

Worksheet 20: Ethics

Question Answer

Where can the research ethics policy of the university be found?

Under what category of requirements would this poll fall?

What are the steps in getting ethics review?

What are the requirements the poll must meet for the review?

What evidence is necessary for each of the requirements? 144 Appendix: List of Blank Worksheets Used in Part I and Part II

Worksheet 21: Tabulation of Results

Question Answer

How many subjects polled?

How many planned to be polled?

How many valid responses?

What is total for each question? 1

What is percentage for each question? 1

How many spoiled responses? 1

What is the margin of error? Appendix: List of Blank Worksheets Used in Part I and Part II 145

Worksheet 22: Stanag Worksheet

STANAG No. ______

NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY ORGANISATION STANDARD AGREEMENT SUBJECT: ______Promulgated on ______

By ______STANAG ______RECORD OF AMENDMENTS

Reference/date of amendment Date entered Signature

EXPLANATORY NOTES 1. This NATO Standard Agreement (STANAG) is promulgated by ______under the authority vested in him by the ______. 2. No departure may be made from the agreement without consultation with the tasking authority. Nations may propose changes at any time to the tasking authority where they will be processed in the same manner as the original agreement. 3. Ratifying nations have agreed that national orders, manuals and instructions implementing this STANAG will include a reference to the STANAG number for purposes of identification. 4. ______5. ______6. ______

STANAG ______

DEFINITIONS

1. Ratification is In NATO Standard, the fulfilment by which a member nation formally accepts, with or without reservation, the content of a Standard Agreement (AAP-6). 2. Implementation is In NATO Standard, the fulfilment by a member nation of its obligations as specified in a Standard Agreement (AAP-6). Reservation is In NATO Standardisation, the stated qualification by a member nation that describes the part of a Standardisation Agreement that it will not implement or will implement only with limitations (AAP-6). 3. ______4. ______5. ______