TECHNICAL PAPER

Table of Contents High Strength • Authors ...... 2 • Abstract ...... 2 Glass Fibers • Introduction ...... 2 • Glass Fiber Chemical Compositions . . .2 • Glass Fiber Properties ...... 3 – Physical Properties ...... 3 – Chemical Resistance ...... 3 – Electrical Properties ...... 3 – Thermal Properties ...... 4 – Optical Properties ...... 5 – Radiation Properties ...... 5 • Glass Fiber Size Treatments ...... 5 • Fiber Composite Utility ...... 5 – Composite Properties ...... 5 – Environmental Durability ...... 5 • Acknowledgements ...... 6 • References ...... 6 • Table 1 Composition Ranges for Glass Fibers ...... 7 • Table 2 Properties of Glass Fibers -- Physical Properties ...... 7 • Table 3 Properties of Glass Fibers -- Chemical, Electrical and Thermal Properties . . .8 • Table 4 Glass Fiber Size Chemistry Summary ...... 9 • Table 5 S-2 Glass® Fiber Unidirectional Epoxy Composite Properties .9 • Figure 1 Continuous Glass Fiber Manufacturing Process . . .10 • Figure 2 Fiber Strength at Temperature ...... 10 • Figure 3 Fiber Weight Retention vs. pH Exposure ...... 10 • Figure 4 Fiber Strength vs. pH Exposure ...... 11 • Figure 5 Glass Viscosity vs. Temperature ...... 11 • Figure 6 Thermal Expansion vs. Volume In Epoxy ...... 11 • Figure 7 Dielectric vs. Fiber Volume In Epoxy ...... 11 • Figure 8 Environmental Stress Rupture In Epoxy ...... 11 • Figure 9 Environmental Stress Rupture In Epoxy ...... 11 High Strength KEYWORDS: S-2 Glass;® C Glass, A GLASS – Soda lime silicate glasses Glass Fibers AR Glass, D Glass, ECRGLAS,® used where the strength, durability, R Glass; E Glass; Fiberglass, Glass and good electrical resistivity of Reinforcements. E Glass are not required. Authors C GLASS – Calcium borosilicate In 1996 this paper was written in 1. Introduction glasses used for their chemical sta- collaboration with David Hartman, Ancient Egyptians made containers bility in corrosive acid environments. Mark E. Greenwood, and David M. of coarse fibers drawn from heat D GLASS – Borosilicate glasses with Miller who were employed at the softened glass. The French scientist, a low dielectric constant for electri- time by Owens Corning Corp. Reaumur, considered the potential cal applications. Mr. Hartman received his degree of forming fine glass fibers for woven E GLASS – Alumina-calcium-borosili- in chemistry from David Lipscomb glass articles as early as the 18th cate glasses with a maximum alkali University and an M.S. degree in century. Continuous glass fibers content of 2 wt.% used as general chemistry from Georgia Institute of were first manufactured in substan- purpose fibers where strength and Technology with emphasis in textile tial quantities by Owens Corning high electrical resistivity are required. and plastic engineering. Textile Products in the 1930’s for ECRGLAS® – Calcium aluminosilicate Mr. Greenwood received his B.S. high temperature electrical applica- glasses with a maximum alkali con- and M.S. degrees in Civil Engineering tions. Revolutionary and evolutionary tent of 2 wt.% used where strength, from Purdue University, with an technology continues to improve electrical resistivity, and acid emphasis in structural design. manufacturing processes for corrosion resistance are desired. Dr. Miller received his Bachelor’s, continuous glass fiber production, AR GLASS – Alkali resistant glasses Master’s, and Ph.D. degrees in illustrated in Figure 1. Raw materials composed of alkali zirconium silicates Ceramic Engineering from the such as silicates, soda, clay, used in cement substrates and Ohio State University. limestone, boric acid, fluorspar or concrete. Abstract various metallic oxides are blended R GLASS – Calcium aluminosilicate glasses used for reinforcement Continuous glass fibers, first to form a glass batch which is melt- where added strength and acid conceived and manufactured during ed in a furnace and refined during corrosion resistance are required. 1935 in Newark, Ohio, started a lateral flow to the forehearth. The S-2 GLASS® – Magnesium aluminosil- revolution in reinforced composite molten glass flows to platinum/ icate glasses used for textile materials which by 2000 led to a rhodium alloy bushings and then substrates or reinforcement in global annual glass fiber consump- through individual bushing tips and composite structural applications tion of 2.6 million tons. During 1942 orifices ranging from 0.76 to 2.03 which require high strength, glass fiber reinforced composites mm (0.030 to 0.080 in) and is modulus, and stability under extreme were first used in structural rapidly quenched and attenuated temperature and corrosive environ- aerospace parts. In the early 1960’s in air (to prevent crystallization) into ments. high strength glass fibers, S Glass, fine fibers ranging from 3 to 35 µm. were first used in joint work between Mechanical winders pull the fibers Owens Corning Textile Products and at lineal velocities up to 61 m/s over 2. Glass Fiber Chemical the United States Air Force. Later an applicator which coats the fibers Compositions with an appropriate chemical sizing in 1968 S-2 Glass® fibers began Chemical composition variation evolving into a variety of commercial to aid further processing and within a glass type is from applications. High strength glass performance of the end products. differences in the available glass fibers combine high temperature High strength glass fibers like batch raw materials, or in the durability, stability, transparency, S-2 Glass are compositions of melting and forming processes, and resilience at a very reasonable aluminosilicates attenuated at higher or from different environmental con- cost-weight-performance. The utility temperatures into fine fibers ranging straints at the manufacturing site. of high strength glass fiber composi- from 5 to 24 µm. Several other These compositional fluctuations do tions are compared by physical, types of silicate glass fibers are not significantly alter the physical or mechanical, electrical, thermal, manufactured for the textile and chemical properties of the glass acoustical, optical, and radiation composite industry. Various glass type. Very tight control is maintained properties. chemical compositions described within a given production facility to below from ASTM C 162 were devel- achieve consistency in the glass oped to provide combinations of fiber composition for production capability properties directed at specific end and efficiency. Table 1 provides the use applications. 2 oxide components and their weight moisture is minimized. The result out binders or sizes, to a known ranges for eight types of commercial is an increase of 50 to 100% in volume of corrosive solution held at glass fibers [1-6]. strength over a measurement at 96°C. The fibers are held in the solu- room temperature in 50% relative tion for the time desired and then 3. Glass Fiber Properties humidity air. The maximum are removed, washed, dried, and Glass fiber properties, such as measured strength of S-2 Glass weighed to determine the weight tensile strength, Young’s modulus, fibers at liquid nitrogen temperatures loss. The results reported are for and chemical durability, are is 11.6 GPa for a 12.7 mm gauge 24-hr (1 day) and 168-hr (1 week) measured on the fibers directly. length, 10 µm diameter fiber. The exposures. As Table 3 shows, the Other properties, such as dielectric loss in strength of glass exposed to chemical resistance of glass fibers constant, dissipation factor, dielectric moisture while under an external depends on the composition of the strength, volume/surface resistivi- load is known as static fatigue [4.8]. fiber, the corrosive solution, and the ties, and thermal expansion, are The pristine strength of glass fibers exposure time. measured on glass that has been decreases as the fibers are exposed It should be noted that glass formed into a bulk sample and to increasing temperature. E Glass corrosion in acidic environments annealed (heat treated) to relieve and S-2 Glass fibers have been is a complex process beginning with forming stresses. Properties such found to retain approximately 50% an initial fast corrosion rate. (Note as density and refractive index are of their pristine room-temperature the similarity in weight loss between measured on both fibers and bulk strength at 538°C (1000°F) and are the 1-day and 1-week samples treat- samples, in annealed or unannealed compared to organic reinforcement ed with acid in Table 3.) With further form. The properties presented in fibers in Figure 2. time, an effective barrier of leached Tables 2 and 3 are representative of The Young’s modulus of elasticity glass is established on the surface of the compositional ranges in Table 1 of unannealed silicate glass fibers the fiber and the corrosion rate of and correspond to the following ranges from about 52 GPa to 87 the remaining unleached fiber slows, overview of glass fiber properties. GPa. As the fiber is heated, the being controlled by the diffusion of modulus gradually increases. E Glass compounds through the leached 3.1 Physical Properties – Density fibers that have been annealed to layer. Later, the corrosion rate slows of glass fibers is measured and compact their atomic structure will to nearly zero as the non-silica reported either as formed or as bulk increase in Young’s modulus from compounds of the fiber are depleted. annealed samples. ASTM C 693 is 72 GPa to 84.7 GPa [4]. For most For a given glass composition, the one of the test methods used for silicate glasses, Poisson’s ratio falls corrosion rate may be influenced by density determinations [7]. The fiber between 0.15 and 0.26 [9]. The the acid concentration (Figure 3), density (in Table 3) is less than the Poisson’s ratio for E Glasses is 0.22 temperature, fiber diameter, and the bulk annealed value by approximately ± 0.02 and is reported not to solution volume to glass mass ratio. 0.04 g/cc at room temperature. change with temperature when In alkaline environments weight loss The glass fiber densities used in measured up to 510°C [10]. measurements are more subjective composites range from approximate- High strength S-2 Glass fibers’ as the alkali affects the network ly 2.11 g/cc for D Glass to 2.72 annealed properties measured at and reprecipitates the metal oxides. g/cc for ECRGLAS reinforcements. 20°C are as follows: Tensile strength after exposure is a Tensile strength of glass fibers Young’s Modulus 93.8 GPa better indicator of the residual glass is usually reported as the pristine Shear Modulus 38.1 GPa fiber properties as shown in Figure 4 single-filament or the multifilament for 24-hour exposure at 96°C. Poisson’s Ratio 0.23 strand measured in air at room tem- peratures. The respective strand Bulk Density 2.488 g/cc 3.3 Electrical Properties – The strengths are normally 20 to 30% electrical properties in Table 3 were lower than the values reported in 3.2 Chemical Resistance – The measured on annealed bulk glass Table 2 due to surface defects intro- chemical resistance of glass fibers samples according to the testing duced during the strand-forming to the corrosive and leaching actions procedures cited [11-13]. The process. Moisture has a detrimental of acids, bases, and water is dielectric constant or relative permit- effect on the pristine strength of expressed as a percent weight loss. tivity is the ratio of the capacitance glass. This is best illustrated by The lower this value, the more resis- of a system with the specimen as measuring the pristine single-filament tant the glass is to the corrosive the dielectric to the capacitance of strength at liquid nitrogen tempera- solution. The test procedure involves the system with a vacuum as the tures where the influence of subjecting a given weight of 10 dielectric. Capacitance is the ability micron diameter glass fibers, with- 3 of the material to store an electrical the thickness), temperature, voltage measurements were made on charge. Permittivity values are affect- application time, voltage wave form, annealed bars using ASTM D 696 ed by test frequency, temperature, frequency, surrounding medium, [17]. A lower coefficient of thermal voltage, relative humidity, water relative humidity, water immersion, expansion in the high strength glass- immersion, and weathering. and directionality in laminated and es allows higher dimensional stability The dissipation factor of a inhomogeneous plastics. at temperature extremes. dielectric is the ratio of the parallel The specific heat data in Table 3 reactance to the parallel resistance, 3.4 Thermal Properties – was determined using high tempera- or the tangent of the loss angle, The viscosity of a glass decreases as ture differential scanning calorimetry which is usually called the loss tan- the temperature increases. Figure 5 techniques. In general, the average gent. It is also the reciprocal of the shows the viscosity-temperature specific heat values can be quality factor, and when the values plots for E Glass and S-2 Glass represented as follows: 0.94 are small, tangent of the loss angle fibers. Note that the S-2 Glass kJ/kg•K at 200°C, 1.12 kJ/kg•K is essentially equal to the power fibers’ temperature at viscosity is just below the transition point, and factor, or sine of the loss angle. The 150-260°C higher than that of 1.40 kJ/kg•K in the liquid state power factor is the ratio of power E Glass, which is why S-2 Glass above the transition. These values in watts dissipated in the dielectric fibers have higher use temperatures are accurate to about ±5%. Above to the effective volt-amperes. The than E Glass. the transition temperature, no fur- dissipation factor is dimensionless. Several reference viscosity points ther increase in specific heat was In almost every electrical application, are defined by the glass industry as observed. The transition temper- a low value for the dissipation factor used in Table 2. The softening point ature is nearly identical to the is desired. This reduces the internal is the temperature at which a glass annealing temperature of bulk glass. heating of the material and keeps fiber of uniform diameter elongates Thermal conductivity characteristics signal distortion low. The dissipation at a specific rate under its own in glasses differ considerably from factor is generally measured weight when measured by ASTM C those found in crystalline materials. simultaneously with permittivity mea- 338 [14]. The softening point is For glasses, the conductivity is lower surements, and is greatly influenced defined as the temperature at which than that of the corresponding by frequency, humidity, temperature, glass will deform under its own crystalline materials. Also, the con- and water immersion. weight; it occurs at a viscosity of ductivity of glasses drops steadily The loss factor, or loss index, as approximately 106.6 Pa.s with temperature and reaches very it is sometimes called, is occasionally (107.6 P). The annealing point is the low values, near absolute zero. For confused with the dissipation factor, temperature corresponding to either crystals, the conductivity continues or loss tangent. The loss factor is a specific rate of elongation of a to rise with decreasing temperature simply the product of the dissipation glass fiber when measured by ASTM until very low temperatures are factor and permittivity and is propor- C 336 [15], or a specific rate of reached [18]. Thermal conductivity tional to the energy loss in the midpoint deflection of a glass beam data for glass varies among investi- dielectric. when measured by ASTM C 598 gators for materials which are The dielectric breakdown voltage, [16]. At the annealing point of glass, normally identical [19]. In general is the voltage at which electrical fail- internal stresses are substantially fused silica glass and the alkali and ure occurs under prescribed test relieved in a matter of minutes. The alkaline earth silicate glasses have conditions in an electrical insulating viscosity at the annealing point is relatively similar conductivities at material that is placed between two approximately 1012 Pa.s (1013 P). room temperature, whereas conduc- electrodes. When the thickness of The strain point is measured follow- tivities of borosilicate and glass that the insulating material between the ing ASTM C 336 or C 598 as contain lead and barium are some- electrodes can be accurately described above for annealing point. what lower. Near room temperature, measured, the ratio of the At the strain point of glass, internal the thermal conductivity for glasses dielectric breakdown voltage to stresses are substantially relieved in ranges from 0.55 W/m•K for lead the specimen thickness can be a matter of hours. The viscosity at the silicate (80% lead oxide, 20% silicon expressed as the dielectric strength strain point is approximately 1013.5 dioxide) to 1.4 W/m•K for fused in kV/cm. Breakdown voltages are Pa.s (1014.5 P). silica glass [20]. E. H. Ratcliffe influenced by electrode geometry, The mean coefficient of thermal developed property coefficients for specimen thickness (because dielec- expansion over the temperature predicting thermal conductivity from tric strength varies approximately as range from -30° to 250°C is provid- the percentage weight compositions the reciprocal of the square root of ed in Table 3. The expansion of component oxides making up the

4 glass [20]. Using this calculation, it 4. Glass Fiber Size Treatments The S-2 Glass fibers lower dielectric is found that the approximate thermal The surface treatment chemistry constant and therefore the potential conductivity of C Glass is 1.1 W/mK, of glass fiber follows the necessary for better radar transparency. E Glass is 1.3 W/m•K, and S-2 product function. Textile size Glass fibers is 1.45 W/m•K near chemistries based on starch or 5.2 Environmental Durability room temperature. polyvinyl alcohol film formers are The durability of glass fiber compos- capable in weaving, braiding, or ite materials is one of the features 3.5 Optical Properties – knitting processes. Typically the that attract users to them. Refractive index is measured on weaver then scours or heat cleans Composites do not corrode like either unannealed or annealed glass the glass fabric and applies a finish metals and are low maintenance fibers. The standard oil immersion compatible with the end product. materials. However, the durability techniques are used with monochro- Nonwoven size chemistries often and reliability in specific applications matic sodium D light at 25°C. In include dispersants compatible with is often requested for design input. general, the corresponding annealed white water chemistry for wet In load bearing structures, the long- glass will exhibit an index that will formed mats or additives compatible term behavior of the material is range from approximately 0.003 to with dry or wet binder chemistry for needed to complete the design of 0.006 higher than the as-formed dry formed mats. Reinforcement the structure. How much load will glass fibers given in Table 2. size chemistries must be compatible the structure hold and survive for a with a multitude of processes and given period of time? Or, how thick 3.6 Radiation Properties – E Glass with the composite material end use must the part be to handle a load and S-2 Glass fibers have excellent performance criteria. Processes for a given period of time? resistance to all types of nuclear such as injection molding require These questions are usually radiation. Alpha and beta radiation chopped fibers with compatibility addressed empirically, with accelerat- have almost no effect, while gamma for thermoplastic compounds. ed testing. ASTM D 2992 and radiation and neutron bombardment Filament winding and pultrusion ASTM D 3681 for example are produce a 5 to 10% decrease in require continuous fibers with utility methods often incorporated in the tensile strength, a less than 1% in thermoset and thermoplastic practice of evaluating and designing decrease in density, and a slight compounds. Typically three basic composite pipe. In these methods, discoloration of fibers. This data components are used with high actual prototype products are manu- was true to 1020 NVT neutrons or strength glass size chemistries: a factured and loaded in simulated gamma radiation up to 105 J/g. film former, lubricant, and coupling environments for which the product Glass fibers resist radiation because agent. Table 4 outlines evolutionary is intended. To accelerate testing, the glass is amorphous, and the research for glass fiber size chem- the loads are significantly higher than radiation does not distort the atomic istry by each component’s role. operating conditions to induce failure ordering. Glass can also absorb a in a relatively short period of time. few percent of foreign material and 5. Fiber Composite Utility The extrapolation of short-term data maintain the same properties to a 5.1 Composite Properties – to the expected life of the product reasonable degree. Also, because Application of glass fiber composite allows engineers to predict safe the individual fibers have a small materials depends on proper utiliza- operating loads (stresses) for the diameter, the heat of atomic distor- tion of glass composition, size purpose of design. This practice has tion is easily transferred to a surface chemistry, fiber orientation, and fiber served the composites industry well for dispersion. volume in the appropriate matrix for for over 30 years. E Glass and C Glass are not rec- desired mechanical, electrical, ther- To demonstrate this process, ommended for use inside atomic mal, and other properties. Table 5 the results of several test series reactors because of their high boron gives typical mechanical properties are reported. Tests were conducted content. S-2 Glass fibers are suitable for high strength S-2 Glass fibers using pultruded rods made of glass for use inside atomic reactors. epoxy with unidirectional fiber orien- fibers and thermoset resins. These Because quite a wide variety of tation. The elastic constants and tests are similar to those referenced organic products are used in diverse strain allowables are used for in ASTM except the loading condition radiation environments, it is usually design input. The effect of glass is pure tension and under a constant necessary to try out most products composition and fiber volume in load. Figure 8 summarizes stress in simulated conditions to determine epoxy are shown in Figure 6 for the rupture testing using S-2 Glass whether the organics will be coefficient of thermal expansion and fibers in epoxy with and without an satisfactory. in Figure 7 for dielectric constant. adverse environment, a calcium

5 hydroxide solution with a pH of 13. [5] W. W. Wolf. “The Glass Fiber [14] “Standard Test Methods for For reference, the initial tensile Industry – The Reason for the Use Softening Point of Glass,” C. 338, strength of the composite rod was of Certain Chemical Compositions,” “Annual Book of ASTM Standards,” 2070 MPa. The stress rupture Seminar at University of Illinois, American Society for Testing and behavior of an S-2 Glass fibers/ Urbania, IL, (Oct. 1982). Materials. epoxy rod in this test indicates a [6] J. C. Watson, and N. [15] “Standard Test Methods for long-term stress capability of 65% Raghupathi, “Glass Fibers, Annealing Point and Strain Point of of the initial ultimate tensile stress. Engineered Materials Handbook. Glass Fiber Elongation,” C. 336. As expected, the stress rupture Vol. 1 – Composite,” ASM “Annual Book of ASTM Standards,” behavior of the composite material International, (1987). pp. 107-111. American Society for Testing and is affected by the presence of the Materials. environment. The long-term stress [7] “Standard Test Method for capability of this material in the high Density of Glass by Buoyancy, C693, [16] “Standard Test Methods for pH environment is roughly 50% of Annual Book of ASTM Standards,” Annealing Point and Strain Point of the initial ultimate tensile strength. American Society for Testing Glass by Beam Bending,” C. 598. A second test series compared Materials. “Annual Book of ASTM Standards,” American Society for Testing and the stress rupture performance of [8] P. K. Gupta, “Examination of the Materials. E glass and S-2 Glass reinforce- Textile Strength of E-Glass Fiber in ments in epoxy resin with the high the Context of Slow Crack Growth, [17] “Standard Test Methods for pH environmental exposure. Figure 9 Fracture Mechanics of Ceramics.” Coefficient of Linear Thermal summarizes this data. The S-2 Glass Vol. 5, (1983), pp. 291. Expansion of Plastics,” D. 696. fibers reinforced composite rod had “Annual Book of ASTM Standards,” [9] J. R. Hutchins, III and R. W. a higher initial tensile stress than the American Society for Testing and Harrington, Glass in “Encyclopedia E Glass reinforced rod. The influence Materials. of Chemical Technology,” Vol. 10. of the combined effects of stress 2nd Ed., pp. 533-604. [18] C. Kittel, Phys. Rev., Vol. 75, and environment were similar for the (1949), pp. 972. two materials. [10] R. T. Brannan, “Am. Ceram. Soc.,” Vol. 36, (1953). pp. 230- [19] C. L. Babcock, Symposium on Acknowledgements 231. Heat Transfer Phenomena in Glass. The authors thank Cathy Holton for J. Am. Ceram, Soc., Vol. 44 [11] “Standard Test Methods for A-C assistance with the manuscript. (No. 7), (July 1961). Loss Characteristics and Permittivity References (Dielectric Constant) of Solid [20] E. H. Ratcliffe, “Thermal [1] D. M. Miller. “Glass Fibers, Electrical Insulating Materials,” Conductivities of Glass Between Engineered Materials Handbook,” D. 150, “Annual Book of ASTM -150°C and 100°C, Glass Vol. 1 – Composites, ASM Standards.” American Society for Technology,” Vol. 4 (No. 4), International. 1987, pp. 45-48. Testing and Materials. (August 1963). [2] G. J. Mohr, and W. P. Rowe, [12] “Standard Test Methods for “Fiber Glass,” Van Nostrand Reinhold D-C Resistance or Conductance Co., (1978), pp. 207. of Insulating Materials.” D. 257, “Annual Book of ASTM Standards,” [3] K. L. Lowenstein, “The American Society for Testing and Manufacturing Technology of Materials. Continuous Glass Fibers.” Elsevier, (1973), pp. 28-30. [13] “Standard Test Methods for Dielectric Breakdown Voltage and [4] R. D. Lowrie, Glass Fibers for Dielectric Strength of Solid Electrical High-Strength Composites, in Insulating Materials at Commercial “Modern Composite Materials,” Power Frequencies.” D. 149, Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., “Annual Book of ASTM Standards,” (1967), pp. 270-323. American Society for Testing and Materials.

6 Table 1 Composition Ranges for Glass Fibers

Table 2 Properties of Glass Fibers

7 Table 3 Properties of Glass Fibers

8 Table 4 Glass Fiber Size Chemistry Summary

Table 5 S-2 Glass® Fiber Unidirectional Epoxy Composite Properties

9 Figure 1 Continuous Glass Fiber Manufacturing Process

Figure 2 Fiber Strength at Temperature Figure 3 Fiber Weight Retention VS pH Exposure

10 Figure 4 Fiber Strength VS pH Exposure Figure 5 Glass Viscosity VS Temperature

Figure 6 Thermal Expansion VS Volume In Epoxy Figure 7 Dielectric VS Fiber Volume In Epoxy

Figure 8 Environmental Stress Rupture In Epoxy Figure 9 Environmental Stress Rupture In Epoxy

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Disclaimer of Liability This data is offered solely as a guide in the selection of a reinforcement. The information contained in this publication is based on actual laboratory data and field test experience. We believe this information to be reliable, but do not guarantee its applicability to the user’s process or assume any liability arising out of its use or performance. The user, by accepting the products described herein, agrees to be responsible for thoroughly testing any application to determine its suitability before committing to production. It is important for the user to determine the properties of its own commercial compounds when using this or any other reinforcement. BECAUSE OF NUMEROUS FACTORS AFFECTING RESULTS, WE MAKE NO WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING THOSE OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. STATEMENTS IN THIS DOCUMENT SHALL NOT BE CONSTRUED AS REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES OR AS INDUCEMENTS TO INFRINGE ANY PATENT OR VIOLATE ANY LAW, SAFETY CODE OR INSURANCE REGULATION.

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