WE’RE F O R T H E LOVE O F N O W I N T O O U R T H I R D D E C A D E O F T H E S E L F - E S T E E M ‘ME’BY FRANK STEPHENSON C R U S A D E . ime was, the term “self-esteem” was ARE WE HAPPY used primarily by poets, philosophers and preachers. Especially preachers. YET? Since the dawn of Christianity, any notion of heaping praise on oneself for any reason at all generally has been viewed as sinful and a mighty affront to God. In one of his more famous sermons, the 15th cen- Man’s status as a “worm” turned sharply in the tury German monk Thomas a′ Kempis admonished 1980s. After 180-odd years, worshippers finally got believers to stamp out all vestiges of self-esteem or face to belt out Watts’ old standard without having to eternal damnation: compare themselves to such lowly life forms. Watts’ “If I humble myself and acknowledge my nothingness; hymn got washed in the blood of a spanking new if I cast away all my self-esteem and reduce myself to the social movement hotter that today’s low-carb craze. dust that I really am, then Your grace will come to me, New hymnals appeared with Watts’ phrase “for such and Your light will enter my heart; thus will the last a worm as I” changed to “for sinners such as I.” trace of self-esteem be engulfed in the depth of my own Reportedly, no complaints from the author, dead nothingness, and perish forever.”—The Imitation of Christ two centuries. (1390?), Chapter VIII In the waning days of the 1960’s counter cul- A′ Kempis described himself and his fellow humans ture movement, America’s youth—tired of trying as “abject worms,” actually a biblical theme picked up to change the world—passed into a phase of try- 400 years later by the English hymnist and preacher ing to change themselves. A sort of collectivistic Isaac Watts: contemplation of one’s navel emerged, sparking a revival in interest in religion among young people “Alas! and did my Savior bleed, (e.g. the Jesus Freaks; Krishna Consciousness) and in Tand did my Sovereign die? self-evaluation and self-healing (e.g. transcendental Would he devote that sacred head meditation; Rolfing). for such a worm as I?”—1707, 1855* continued on next page ILLUSTRATION: BRUCE HALL

16 Florida State University ResearchinReview SUMMER 2004 17 F O R T H E LOVE O F 'ME' P H O T O : RAY STANYARD

This sudden, mass rediscovery of the self (pre-TV  ROY BAUMEISTER American culture had its own versions) hardly escaped is the author of six the attention of academic types, particularly sociologists books dealing with and psychologists. various aspects of Among the early arrivals was the late psychologist Carl mankind’s age-old Rogers (d. 1987), regarded by some researchers as the grand- struggle with the self. father of today’s well-established self-esteem movement. Rogers His book, Evil: Inside came up with the idea of “unconditional positive regard,” a Human Violence and technique he intended as a means for helping kids cope with Cruelty (W.H. Free- feelings of inadequacy in the eyes of their parents when they man, 1997), describes failed to meet certain goals. how people with hy- Another early force was—and still is—Nathaniel Branden, per-inflated senses a Los Angeles psychotherapist whose name in some circles of self-esteem have is nearly synonymous with what by 1980 was recognized as contributed to some a self-esteem movement gaining steam from coast to coast. of the most horrifying Branden’s book, The Psychology of Self-Esteem (1969 and still in chapters in history. print), laid a blueprint of sorts for the rise of self-esteem in the public consciousness. Since then, more than 4 million copies of Branden’s 20 books have been translated into 18 languages, according to his Web site. Like a creature not quite ready for prime time, self-esteem— as given airs by serious researchers—soon escaped campus psych Kindergartners and elementary school kids soon began hearing rational assumptions about sex, physical beauty and relationships. can use to protect their sons from stumbling into unfulfilled, labs and entered the mainstream. By 1985, a tidal wave of from their teachers that they were “special in every way,” that they Consequently, females’ selves were in danger of being completely dead-end lives. self-esteem awareness was breaking over nearly every cultural were “excellent,” regardless of what their report cards may have eclipsed by bias and male fantasies. A strong dose of self-esteem, beachhead in the land. Suddenly, the ‘me’ generation was in suggested otherwise; that they were “superstars.” liberally applied to schoolgirls, clearly was called for. ELF-ESTEEM RULES full swing, swaying to the mantra of self-worth at any cost. For a flagging civil rights movement, self-esteem provided A 1995 bestseller, Reviving Ophelia: Saving the Selves of Ado- S Apparently, people had grown damned tired of feeling a much-welcomed shot of energy. Self-esteem pressure groups lescent Girls (Ballentine), by psychologist Mary Pipher, shook By any standard one can use to gauge the scope of anything bad about themselves—and weren’t going to take it anymore. supplied minorities with plenty of new ammunition to push for up complacent moms and teachers with the revelation that short of war that triggers massive social change, the self-esteem Feeling good about oneself, the self-esteem gurus preached, better treatment in classrooms and on the job. African-Americans girls’ self-esteem “plummets” during their teen years. A crisis movement entered the 21st century as a spectacular success. was what it’s all about. were told that they didn’t perform as well as whites on standard- was afoot, and the only hope for saving an entire generation of American society—indeed most Western societies (self-es- ized tests, for example, because as a group they were victims of a young American women from “a girl-poisoning culture” was the teem is decidedly a preoccupation of the Western mind)—quite racist society that eroded their self-esteem. All they had to do to immediate and determined application of self-esteem therapy as literally experienced a fundamental revolution in thinking about fix things—succeed in school and later in life—was to find them prescribed in her book. the importance of self-worth and its value to individuals and some more self-esteem. But what about boys? Could it be that they, too, were being to society at large. Women’s rights groups soon chimed in with their own self- sold a bill of goods by a macho society whose values ill-fit boys’ The blitzkrieg-like advances of the movement’s early years esteem issues. For far too long, women said they had suffered natural proclivities for expressing who they really are and rejoic- had made “self-esteem” a household word by 1982, and by the under the thumb of gender bias, and in particular, of men’s ir- ing in that? close of the 1990s, the central tenet of the movement—essen- Citing “more than 20 years of research” on the subject, tially that building self-esteem among youth was of paramount Harvard psychiatric professor William Pollack, in his 1998 book importance not just to individuals but to civilization—was Real Boys: Rescuing Our Sons from the Myth of Boyhood (Random deeply engrained in pedagogy, parenting, child and criminal “We must be our own before House) sounded an alarming “yes!” to the question. psychology, psychiatry, family therapy, addiction treatment Pollack revealed that society’s stereotypes of boys—that they programs and, in some notable cases, even religion. we can be another’s.” tend to be “tough, cool, rambunctious and obsessed with sports, California’s enormously popular televangelist Robert cars and sex” as one reviewer put it—are threatening to destroy Schuller, borrowing 30-year-old themes from Norman Vincent —RALPH WALDO EMERSON boys’ “fragile self-esteem.” This menace was sapping boys’ creativ- Peale’s famous conviction in “the power of positive thinking,” ity and keeping them from exploring their sensitive sides. Pollack’s put a whole new spin on sin. American author, poet and philosopher (1803-1882) book helpfully gives details on “proven techniques” that parents Schuller literally redefined sin to mean the lack of self-

18 Florida State University ResearchinReview SUMMER 2004 19 THE SELF-ESTEEM CURVE

F O R T H E LOVE O F 'ME' The Self-Esteem Curve

esteem. To be “born again,” he wrote, people must first free While the task force busied itself with setting up self-esteem did—that his work could really count for themselves “from the sin of self-degradation” (e.g. quit a 2,000- committees around the state, it also assembled a group of uni- something. year-old habit of regarding themselves as worms) and realize that versity professors to study what scientific literature there was on “By the late 1970s, people were pretty “self-will is sin (while) self-love is salvation.” Indeed, in his 1982 self-esteem and find out what research had to say on the topic. much convinced that self-esteem had great bestseller, Self-Esteem: The New Reformation (Word Publishing) Such a scientific foundation could come in handy as lawmakers potential, that many personal and social prob- "I'M AS GOOD AS Schuller proclaimed that “the lack of self-worth lies at the root took on the task of revamping California’s public education system lems had self-esteem at their core,” he told an ANYONE ELSE" (basic "high" self-esteem) of almost every one of our personal problems.” in the name of self-esteem. interviewer recently in his new office within Amen, echoed a host of professionals in a new field called What the task force’s team of scholars found surprised the FSU’s psychology department. "I'M BETTER THAN OTHERS" self-esteem therapy. Here was the whole point, they said. Lying crusaders. Not a single one of the studies they looked at showed Last year Baumeister came to Florida (conceited, above average at the bottom of America’s cesspool of crime, poverty, sloth, much, if any, connection between self-esteem and all the good State (as a Francis Eppes Eminent Scholar "high" self-esteem) drug abuse, violence, depression and greed was a vicious void things that were supposed to come from it. in psychology) from a post at Case Western "I DESERVE of self-worth. This somewhat embarrassing finding essentially was interpreted Reserve University. He reflected at length on "I'M SO-SO" SPECIAL TREATMENT" (typical "low" self-esteem, (conceited) In 1984, Nathaniel Branden wrote that he couldn’t think “of as evidence of the need for more research to corroborate common his grad school days at Princeton and on his most common) a single psychological problem—from anxiety and depression, to sense—everybody knew that a lack of self-esteem was crippling subsequent research that has made Baumeis- "I'M TRULY "I HATE MYSELF" AMAZING" fear of intimacy or of success, to spouse battery or child molesta- young Californians and thus wreaking costly civil havoc. ter one of the nation’s foremost authorities (rare) (Clinical Narcissism: delusions of grandeur, rare) tion—that is not traceable to the problem of low self-esteem.” on self-esteem. Since 1978, he has produced Echoing Branden’s sentiments was another Californian, dozens of papers on the topic, plus at least Population Distribution Andrew Mecca, a prominent public health official in the state. C ALIFORNIA “ESTEEMING” six books dealing with various aspects of Mecca was quoted as saying that “virtually every social problem California’s failure to find any substantial proof that self-esteem is mankind’s age-old struggle with the self. Overall, Americans have a fairly high regard for themselves. Some can be traced to people’s lack of self-love.” linked to good (or bad) consequences hardly derailed the state’s “We figured that if we could boost self- social scientists refer to this as another example of the so-called All that was necessary to make the world a happier and safer politically fueled self-esteem train. But it did raise eyebrows in a esteem we not only could learn about our- “Lake Wobegon effect,” a reference to the mythical town of author and place, the thinking went, was to make people start feeling good growing circle of Ph.D. skeptics. selves but maybe do some good in society,” humorist Garrison Keillor, “where all the children are above average.” about themselves for a change. But how best to do that? And Roy F. Baumeister was a young associate professor of psychol- he recalled. what would it cost? ogy at Case Western Reserve University when he learned about “We thought it would advance the cutting Leave it to California—the bell cow of bellwether states—to the California findings. Years before, as an undergrad at Princeton edge of social psychology. And it was easy to get good data—it “To me, this was quite a black eye for the self-esteem move- find out. In 1986, the state drew national attention when it he had launched what would become an academic career with a was fairly easy to get a handle on in the lab. So, all this made me ment.” became the first state to officially endorse the premise of the study of self-esteem. think I was onto something good.” From that point on, Baumeister designed his lab experi- self-esteem initiative. In the name of the public good, The At the time (1973), the term “self-esteem” had barely entered But this rosy outlook took a turn in the early ‘80s, when ments (primarily involving student subjects) with a more criti- California Task Force on Self-Esteem and Personal and Social public consciousness. Baumeister was casting around for a topic Baumeister learned that not all scholars held his line of research cal eye. For Plenum Press, in 1993 he edited Self-Esteem: The Responsibility became the vanguard of a crusade to vaccinate for his undergraduate thesis, and when a favorite prof suggested in such high esteem. Puzzle of Low Self-Regard, an in-depth analysis of self-esteem impressionable young people with the serum of self-esteem. he give self-esteem a whirl, he jumped at it. At a scientific meeting he attended at Stanford in 1984, a soci- research. The book summarized 20 years of psychological and The move was made substantially on economic grounds. Taking a strong liking to the subject, Baumeister pursued self- ologist turned to him and asked: “What’s wrong with self-esteem? sociological investigations of self-esteem and its correlations to California lawmakers reasoned that raising self-esteem among esteem research straight into Princeton’s doctorate program. All How come it never does any good, never predicts anything?” such things as academic accomplishment, job success, aggres- school kids would pay big dividends down the road in savings the while, the stature of self-esteem as a serious topic of academic Baumeister was incredulous. What do you mean self-esteem sion and violence. from reduced crime, juvenile delinquency, drug abuse, teen inquiry was rising on campuses everywhere. Baumeister genuinely doesn’t do any good? By this time, Baumeister had begun to understand one of pregnancy, school drop-outs—even pollution. liked what he was doing. He felt—as so many of his colleagues “We figured that, for some reason, maybe sociologists weren’t the key flaws inherent in much self-esteem research. Too many getting much in their own studies, maybe measuring things wrong studies were based either largely or entirely on subjective data. or what not.” Subjects would be asked to fill out questionnaires on how they But as the ‘80s wore on, Baumeister paid closer attention to felt about themselves—were they smarter, more attractive or the larger—and rapidly growing—body of research on self-esteem. more well-liked by others than average? Beneath the movement’s From a number of perspectives, he began to re-examine what the Although such self-reported data can’t be avoided in any phenomenon really does—and doesn’t. psychological testing of humans, Baumeister and others wor- enormously popular public “I started to realize that it doesn’t do much at all,” he said. ried about the impact of bias in such studies. Devising some “At least not much of what had been promised for it.” objective techniques to reveal bias in self-evaluations, researchers face lay a growing discontent Then he heard about the California task force search for sci- soon proved what many had suspected all along: People with entific evidence of self-esteem’s efficacy in people’s lives, and how high self-esteem tend to rate themselves as more intelligent, among researchers. the search came up empty. more attractive and more socially appealing than they really are.

20 Florida State University ResearchinReview SUMMER 2004 21 F O R T H E LOVE O F 'ME'

If there’s any confusion about self-es- teem, one reason might be that even experts on the topic don’t always agree on just exactly what it is. In Conversely, people with low self-esteem often give themselves Esteem felt obliged to change its name in 1995 to the National the scientific literature alone, more than 100 different poorer ratings in such categories than they rightly deserve. Association for Self-Esteem. State chapters of the association definitions of the term may be found. Such findings soon led to clever new ways to crank more began springing up in every region of the county. By 1996, the Over a century ago, the great American psycholo- objective measures into self-esteem research, Baumeister said. association’s momentum had leapt the Atlantic and materialized gist William James defined self-esteem in terms of By the mid-1990s, researchers were conducting some of the into the International Council for Self-Esteem, headquartered how good we feel about ourselves after we’ve finally most rigorous investigations of self-esteem’s link to behavior in London. (Today, this body reportedly has chapters in 70 come to grips with who and what we are. ever done. It soon became obvious that there was little in the countries.) James believed that a true sense of self-worth new findings that the potentates of the self-esteem movement But underneath the movement’s enormously popular public comes only after we’ve finally given up all pretenses could use to bolster their claims. face lay a growing discontent among sober researchers. In 1993, about what we’re capable of doing or becoming, It hardly mattered. By 1992 the movement had morphed Baumeister and two colleagues, T.F. Heatherton and D.M. Tice, about what we’re genuinely interested in and about into a mega-industry with embedded, highly lucrative ties to became some of the first researchers to report on the negative the role we play in the things that matter to us most. nearly every facet of society. consequences of high self-esteem in an article they wrote for The In James’ view, people acquire true self-esteem when Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. the reality of their accomplishments collides with the Baumeister’s analysis of the literature had revealed a side of the fantasy of their ambitions. DARK SIDE OF A NOTION self-esteem crusade that undermined one of its main themes—that The National Association of Self-Esteem defines low self-esteem plays a powerful role in aggression. self-esteem as “the experience of being capable of I think I can! I think I can! I think I can! Intrigued by research conducted in the early 1990s by a Nor- meeting life’s challenges and being worthy of happi- Once upon a time, American children heard bedtime stories wegian psychologist and others that disputed the notion that kids about a little engine that could. The message: You can overcome become bullies because of feelings of insecurity and self-doubts, obstacles in life if you work hard and try your best. Baumeister launched a series of his own experiments. By the mid-90s, children were hearing another message: In 1996, Baumeister’s findings were summarized in an article They were great! Miracles even! subtitled “The Dark Side of Self-Esteem” that ran in the journal SELF-ESTEEM: In classrooms from California to Maine, pre-K through Psychological Review. The article not only emphatically denied the WHAT IS IT? high school, American schoolchildren were learning that existence of a link between low self-esteem and aggression, it went ness.” Dictionaries give such terms as “ego;” “pride;” feeling good about themselves was VERY important. Build- a step further—given the right circumstances, high self-esteem “self-regard;” “self-concept;” and “self-respect” as ing self-esteem had finally become the dominant educational can lead to hostility—even violence—against others. synonyms or near-synonyms. In the 1930s, Henry WILLIAM JAMES theme in the nation. Self-esteem dangerous? How on Earth could feeling great Louis Mencken, the great American iconoclast, AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGIST, PHILOSOPHER Kids found colorful signs hanging from school bathroom about oneself ever pose a threat to a soul? Answer: through in- deadpanned: “Self-respect—the secure feeling that 1 8 4 2 - 1 9 1 0 mirrors proclaiming: “LOOK! HERE IS A VERY SPECIAL flated senses of self-esteem. Baumeister and his colleagues found no one, as yet, is suspicious.” STUDENT!” that people whose high self-esteem is based on little evidence of An exhaustive review of the best research on • High self-esteem comes in a variety of categories. Teachers showed up in class every day wearing large buttons genuine accomplishment are far more likely to be hostile or ag- self-esteem by FSU psychologist Roy F. Baumeister, People with high self-esteem can be highly aggressive, with such cheerful messages as: “I teach the best students in the gressive than people with low opinions of themselves. published in 2003, turns up the following aspects even murderously violent—or congenial pussycats as world!” and “Have I told you how wonderful you are?” In fact, in follow-up research with Brad Bushman, a psy- about this curious phenomenon that is unique to well. The “Magic Circle,” a self-esteem building program, became chologist at Iowa State University, Baumeister discovered that the human animal: • Aggressive or violent people typically do not have a weekly standard in many nursery and elementary schools. a particularly nasty form of high self-esteem—narcissism—is an • Self-esteem exists in essentially two forms—trait low self-esteem, as many people think. Low self-es- excellent predictor of aggression. Narcissists have extraordinarily Teachers had students sit in a circle and talk about their feel- self-esteem and state self-esteem. The former is teem doesn’t predict a life of crime, aggression or conceited views of themselves, commonly to the point of being ings. A cardinal Magic Circle rule: teachers were prohibited generally viewed as “true” or “stable” self-esteem—a drug abuse. But it can lead to depression in young obnoxious, Baumeister said. from criticizing their young charges or anything they might solid psychological trait that doesn’t vary much over people. “We found that narcissists are the most aggressive (of all sub- say during “circletime.” a person’s lifetime. State self-esteem is the day-to- jects) when provoked,” he said. “If someone thinks they’re God’s • Slight differences exist in how self-esteem To acknowledge its skyrocketing membership, what had day kind, which swings up or down depending on a gift to the world, as long as you support that view, everything manifests itself between the sexes. Men tend to begun in California in 1986 as the National Council for Self- person’s experience. have slightly higher self-esteem, basing it chiefly • Both nature and nurture play major roles in deter- on achievement and competence; whereas women “People with elevated or inflated views of mining a person’s true self-esteem. No one has yet place more importance on interpersonal relationships. determined to what extent self-esteem is genetically Women also tend to have more of a negative view of themselves tend to alienate others.” preordained, but that at least some of it is seems their bodies than do men, a factor that may account clear. Socioeconomic backgrounds and life experi- for some of the disparity in self-esteem with the op- ences play a profound role also. posite sex. —F.S.

22 Florida State University ResearchinReview SUMMER 2004 23 THIS SYNDICATED COMIC STRIP by Bruce Tinsley, which ran in May, demonstrates how

F O R T H E LOVE O F 'ME' self-esteem has become a prominent theme in American education. 

will be fi ne. If you criticize them, they will respond with much their anxiety rose. University of Georgia’s W. Keith Campbell, greater hostility than anyone else.” coauthor of the study, summed up the fi ndings this way: By 1998, such fi ndings—amounting to blasphemy among “There are many potential benefi ts of self-esteem, but we the self-esteem crowd—had jelled into a substantial backlash wanted to see, among other things, whether those benefi ts are against the self-esteem movement by academics and others. clear when viewed across time. Much of the alarm was being sounded over what self-esteem “Unfortunately (we found that) few positive changes have promoters were constantly preaching, namely that children could occurred in children’s and young adult’s behavior. Indeed, most be given self-esteem without necessarily having to earn it. of the relevant behavioral indicators have worsened.” Simply through daily exposure to self-affi rming messages Campbell’s coauthor, Jean Twenge of San Diego State, was

(e.g. “I’m a marvel!”) and pleasant experiences, children could more succinct: CARTOON: © REPRINTED WITH PERMISSION OF KING FEATURES SYNDICATE absorb enough “feel-good” self-confi dence to tackle (and “College students’ high self-esteem seems to be built on a presumably succeed at) anything. The theory was that this foundation of sand,” she said. entitled “Does High Self-Esteem Cause Better Performance, heightened sense of self-worth would better prepare kids for ACT & FANTASY Interpersonal Success, Happiness, or Healthier Lifestyles?” their lessons in reading, math and so forth. Good F The report, assembled by Baumeister, Jennifer D. Campbell, feelings bring good results, in other words. By 2001, the mixed messages being sent by seemingly every- at the University of British Columbia; Joachim I. Krueger of By the close of the century, a spate of popular body with a stake in self-esteem theory had generated considerably Brown University and Kathleen D. Vohs of the University of Utah, books had appeared harshly attacking this funda- more heat than light. is the largest, most defi nitive critique of self-esteem ever done. mental principle behind what some critics were Popular family psychologist and nationally syndicated col- In their summation, Baumeister and his colleagues wrote: calling “the cult of self-esteem.” Conservative umnist John K. Rosemond took frequent delight in skewering “Overall, the benefi ts of high self-esteem fall into two catego- commentator Charles J. Sykes was among the the evangelists of self-esteem and what he called their “muddy ries: enhanced initiative and pleasant feelings. We have not found fi rst to fi re a shot. “Believe in thinking” that he vehemently argued was actually hurting young evidence that boosting self-esteem (by therapeutic interventions or In Dumbing Down Our Kids: Why American people. school programs) causes benefi ts.” Children Feel Good About Themselves But Can’t yourself! Nonetheless, sales of such self-esteem books as Today I am As for the enormous effort under way in schools across the Read, Write or Add, (St. Martin’s, 1995), Sykes Loveable: 365 Positive Activities for Kids (Starseed Press) by Di- nation to raise self-esteem among young people, the researchers cited research showing an inverse relationship Have faith ane Loomans continued apace. Among the book’s recommended were of a mind: between kids’ academic accomplishments and “activities” is the daily recitation of self-congratulatory phrases, “Our fi ndings do not support continued widespread efforts to their self-esteem. He wrote: “American students in your such as “I am more amazing than I thought!” and “Today I will boost self-esteem in the hope that it will by itself foster improved who rank last in international comparisons of math remind myself that I am a marvel.” outcomes.” abilities, for instance, rank fi rst when they’re asked abilities! As a way to get a solid grip on what’s real and what’s fantasy Such efforts “might just as easily promote narcissism with its how they feel about their math abilities.” in self-esteem theory, the American Psychological Society decided less desirable consequences,” the report added. We’d be helping In 1998, John P. Hewitt, a University of Without a that the time had come to review the entire catalog of scientifi c young people a lot more, the researchers concluded, if we stopped Massachussetts sociologist, weighed in with The studies on the topic. What the organization was proposing was the promoting self-esteem per se, and instead opened the door for it Myth of Self-Esteem: Finding Happiness and Solv- humble but largest analysis of self-esteem research ever attempted. the old-fashioned way, as a reward for a job well done. ing Problems in America (Contemporary Issues). Impressed by his fair-handed appraisal of self-esteem science, “Instead (of current strategies), we recommend using praise The book exemplifi ed an increasingly critical view reasonable the society asked Baumeister to lead the effort, then hand-picked to boost self-esteem as a reward for socially desirable behavior and by scholars of many of the self-esteem movement’s a team of other researchers to help him take on the huge task. self-improvement. most cherished claims. Chiefl y among these, the notion that confi dence in your own Since the launch of self-esteem research in the mid-60s when so- genuine self-esteem can somehow be “built” without a founda- ciologist Manny Rosenberg invented a self-testing scale to assess tion in genuine competence. powers you cannot be the phenomenon, more than 15,000 papers involving self-esteem MAKING THE GRADE? Meanwhile, additional research was mounting. In 2001, have been published. psychologists at the University of Georgia and San Diego State successful or happy.” Early on, Baumeister and his team decided to skip over most Which comes fi rst—self-esteem or good deeds? University released the results of a new analysis of 25 years’ research that was based largely—if not entirely—on self-reported In finding that the formula—high self-esteem equals worth of data on self-esteem among college students dating back —NORMAN VINCENT PEALE data. “We’ve learned that you simply can’t always trust what people happiness and enough inner strength to avoid most of life’s to 1968. The aim was to determine what impact self-esteem has say about themselves,” Baumeister said. The winnowing process sorrows—is scientifi cally unsupportable, Baumeister’s report in fostering happier lives across time. U.S. religious leader (1898-1993) left only 229 studies to analyze, the earliest dating to 1968. pulls the optimistic rug from beneath the entire self-esteem The fi ndings showed that between 1968 and 1994, students’ In May 2003, the society’s journal, Psychological Science in movement. self-esteem jumped dramatically, while their SAT scores fell and the Public Interest, published a 44-page synthesis of the fi ndings “The relationship between self-esteem and real accomplish-

24 Florida State University ResearchinReview SUMMER 2004 25 F O R T H E LOVE O F 'ME'

ment has been glossed over,” he said. “In the 1970s, the California show that bullies typically have less anxiety and more confi dence ELLING SELF-ESTEEM initiative was launched by those who saw an association between in themselves than average individuals. Another study, a 1993 $ high self-esteem and good things, and concluded high self-esteem study of 1,000 Australian schoolchildren, found no correlation “IT’S HARD FOR A PERSON to enjoy life when he or was the cause. That’s not a legitimate conclusion. at all between high self-esteem and schoolyard bullies. she feels worthless.”—excerpt from advertising copy for a “In school, the association of high self-esteem with good In his highly acclaimed 1997 book, Evil: Inside Human 2002 self-esteem DVD grades is certainly not nothing, but when you track kids over Violence and Cruelty (W.H. Freeman), Baumeister cites his and It’s also hard for millions to resist such pitches by self- time, self-esteem does not lead to them to doing better in school. others’ research showing that aggressive people typically have esteem purveyors, apparently. Since 1988, readers have In fact, it’s really more the other way around. Doing better in favorable—even dramatically infl ated—views of themselves. In snapped up more than 3,000 titles of “how-to” books and school leads to higher self-esteem.” all likelihood, no better large-scale example of this in modern manuals related to building self-esteem. Reading material In other words, it’s impossible to predict how a student with history is the Nazis, whose hyper-infl ated regard for themselves aside, here’s a snapshot of what other self-esteem prod- high self esteem who is doing fi ne academically in sixth grade, as the “master race” mirrored the pathologically high self-esteem ucts were recently available, as found on amazon.com: for example, will be doing in the ninth. But the research shows of their leader, Adolf Hitler. a strong correlation between early classroom success and future The late leader of the Third Reich, like so many of history’s performance, Baumeister said. Success tends to breed success, human malignancies, was a profound narcissist. The most ex- AROMATHERAPY: essential age and Self-Esteem (2002) which over time can produce a true, uninfl ated—and far more treme version of high self-esteem (Baumeister has shown there oils of larch, pine, verbena, (length: 18 minutes)—$69.95 emotionally healthy—sense of self-worth, he said. are several varieties, not all of them prone to aggression), narcis- neroli and clary sage, all • Beyond the Looking Glass: Of all the outcomes studied by Baumeister and his team, school sism is a comparatively rare personality type that can be a strong with self-esteem-enhancing Self-Esteem and Body Image performance was given the most attention. Much of the energy predictor of violence. powers—$10.95 ea., Bach (2001)—$141.75, Hourglass that has driven the self-esteem movement from the beginning has To test narcissism’s correlation with aggression, Baumeister Flower Essences Productions • Self-Esteem come from a widely held belief that kids with high self-esteem and his colleague Bushman of Iowa State designed an experi- for Latino Students (1996)— STUFFED TOYS: five “love- make better grades. ment whereby opposing sets of subjects could use loud blasts $59.95, TMW/Media Group able creatures”—the Some of the best evidence reveals just the opposite—that kids of an air horn to annoy each other. In test after test, narcissists “Querks”—who “learn that JEWELRY: Rhodonite self-es- with better grades go on to have higher senses of self-esteem. In a were found to be much more willing to lean on the horn longer they do not need to change teem pendant ($17.60); ear- “U.R. the Star” is 1990 study of 600 Norwegian third- and sixth-graders, researchers than their opponents. to be liked.”—$199.95, Dis- rings ($17.60); ring ($22.50)— a line of self-es- tested kids who made good grades in a given school year. They The upshot of all the best research done on the subject of count School Supply Silvermoon Jewelry teem products found that in the following year, those children’s self-esteem had aggression and self-esteem is that the relationship is nothing aimed at children risen substantially. remotely like what so many have assumed for so long. Aggressive CDS: Self-Esteem Through GAMES: “U.R. The Star,” per- and distributed Most of the studies, in fact, showed little, if any, evidence that people can have both low and ultra-high esteem, and all grades Hypnotherapy—$24.95, sonalized game/gift pack- by Sentimental high self-esteem played any role in children’s future success in the in between. But typically, people with low self-esteem aren’t Mind-Fit Technologies • “I age—various prices, Senti- Journeys, Inc., classroom. One of the more compelling studies, a 1986 investiga- aggressive at all, while people with high self-esteem often are. Can Do It” Positive Self- mental Journeys, Inc. • “The a firm based in tion by two University of Michigan psychologists, Jerald Bachman “Generally speaking, people with low self-esteem tend to be Esteem Songs for Kidz by Ungame” (noncompetitive Ft. 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If we like ourselves a lot does (2002)—$17.98, Deepak Cho- six, Discount School Supply individuals—bullies, thugs, cheats and criminals. it pay off in popularity? In success on the job? pra, Rasa Music As touched on previously, the sinister side of self-esteem was Can a better sense of self-worth keep us healthier? Keep us SEMINARS: Nathaniel Bran- VIDEOTAPES/DVDS: How to never considered until fairly recently. Traditionally, bullies and from smoking, abusing alcohol and other drugs, from fi nding den’s Six Pillars of Self-Es- Build Self-Esteem (2001) other “toughs” have been profi led by psychologists as people ourselves pregnant at 16? teem On-Line Course and (length: 15-minutes)— with hidden feelings of inadequacy, a low self-esteem masked by If we accept the standard code of today’s self-help industry, the Teleseminar—$69.00 • Jack $89.95, Educational Video a nasty, even vicious, exterior. answer to all of the above is an unqualifi ed ‘yes.’ Poor self-regard Canfield’s 7-Day Self-Esteem Network • Teens, Body Im- Norway’s Dan Olweus was among the fi rst psychologists to is the genesis of these and so many more social ills, we’re told. Seminar—$2,495.

26 Florida State University ResearchinReview SUMMER 2004 27 F O R T H E LOVE O F 'ME'

“Everyday, and in every way, I Baumeister’s analysis of the data offers little support for smokers were found to be far more likely to have lower opinions such beliefs. of themselves than boys who smoked. am getting better and better.” When it comes to interpersonal, even romantic, relation- But a number of other large studies found no link at all be- ships, the old saw that you have to love yourself before you can tween self-esteem and smoking. A problem with all of the studies, —ÉMILE COUÉ expect others to love you simply doesn’t wash, says Baumeister. however, is that almost all are based on self-reports from smokers, In fact, the research testifies that people with high self-esteem Baumeister found. How bias colors the findings on smoking and French pharmacist, hypnotist (1857-1926) often don’t see the world around them as it really is. They often self-esteem may never be known, he said, but what seems clear think they’re widely accepted socially, even loved, when in fact so far is that, in general, low self-esteem—at least by itself—does they’re self-deluded. Science confirms that conceit is as big a not cause kids to light up. turn-off as conventional wisdom always said it was. “Most studies show that low self-esteem accounts for less “People who have elevated or inflated views of themselves than one percent (in a person’s decision) to smoke or not,” tend to alienate others,” the report states. Baumeister said. for developing a good self-image. A noted psychologist and outspoken critic of the self- But a better-than-average self-esteem can be a plus in a For problem drinking and drug abuse, the analysis showed “The main thing self-esteem does for us, apparently, is to make esteem movement, Martin E.P. Seligman, not only endorses bad romance, one study found. People with high self-esteem similar findings. As in the work done on smoking, self-reporting us happier people,” Baumeister said. “It makes us feel good, at Baumeister’s view on the dangers of unwarranted self-esteem, tend to be more willing to take the initiative to break out of bias also may influence the research done in this arena, Baumeister least for awhile.” he regards it as something of a clear-and-present menace to a love affair gone bad. said. Nonetheless, the evidence led his team to conclude that Feeling good about oneself can be a fine thing, he said, par- society. In a 1998 address to the National Press Club, Seligman, As it turns out, this trait could come in handy for some “whatever the causes of alcohol abuse and drug addiction, low ticularly when troubles arise, as they inevitably do in all our lives. former president of the American Psychological Association, laid sexually active young people. Contrary to what self-esteem self-esteem per se does not appear to be one of them.” A genuine sense of self-esteem can give people a stock of positive the blame for the nation’s epidemics of depression and violence promoters say, high self-esteem is hardly a recipe for abstinence But low self-esteem does play a substantial role in a growing attitudes that can help them cope with life’s trials. People who squarely at the doorstep of the self-esteem campaign. among youth, the study found. aspect of health that predominantly concerns young women, don’t have this handy psychological care-package are likely to be In a reference to the rash of schoolyard killings that have Several large-scale investigations of self-esteem’s associa- namely, eating disorders. more vulnerable to stress and depression, he said. traumatized the nation over the past decade, Seligman said that tion with sexual behavior among people at vulnerable ages all Today’s teen- and college-aged women face a national epi- Is the pursuit of happiness alone ample justification for keep- kids with “a mean streak” who have developed high self-esteem found the same thing: High self-esteem tends to lead to more demic of anorexia and bulimia, two closely associated emotional ing the fires burning under the self-esteem enterprise pervading “regardless of how well (they are) doing in the world” are prime sexual experimentation, not less. The problem may be worse disorders that can be fatal if not treated. Irrational worries over today’s educational system? candidates for resorting to lethal violence when confronted with among girls, in fact. weight and body image cause unknown thousands of young fe- “If a primary job of our schools is to make kids happy, then rejection (as from a girlfriend) or proof of their own inadequa- A study done in 2000 in New Zealand schools showed males in the U.S. and Europe to starve themselves to stay within maybe it is,” says Baumeister. cies in schoolwork or in social circles. that girls with higher self-esteem at age 11 were more likely some physical ideal. Programs that constantly stress the importance of pleasant feel- Seligman has written a series of books extolling the virtues to begin having sex by the age of 15. Another study found A great deal of evidence indicates that feelings of inadequacy ings, that rarely criticize, that avoid competition for fear of hurting of using what he calls “positive psychology” to battle pessimism that sexually active older girls with higher than average senses and self-loathing—low self-esteem—is in fact “a risk factor in someone’s feelings, surely are much more fun on a day-to-day and depression among young people. The happiness that kids of self-worth tend to discount risks of accidental pregnancy, disordered eating,” Baumeister’s report noted. Work by Kathleen basis than learning how to do square roots or write essays. get through “feel good” programs at school is “transient,” he somehow believing they’re exempt from such a calamity. Vohs, one of the report’s authors, for example, found that bulimia But here’s where the “feel good first” philosophy ultimately says, and often leads to exactly the kinds of problems that self- “All in all, the results do not support the simple view that is inextricably associated with low self-esteem. About 80 percent loses its grip on legitimacy as a rational tool for training young esteem is supposed to solve. low self-esteem predisposes people to more or earlier sexual of bulimics are female. The researchers thus conclude that “high people, he and his coauthors believe. Ultimately, kids who are “What I think has gone wrong,” Seligman said in a subse- activity,” Baumeister’s team wrote. “If anything, people with self-esteem reduces the chances of bulimia in females.” brought up in an environment where there’s no clear link between quent call to dismantle school-based self-esteem programs, “is high self-esteem are less inhibited, more willing to disregard personal accomplishment and self-worth too often pay a hefty emo- that we now think we should inject self-esteem directly into our risks, and more prone to engage in sex.” tional and even physical price down the road, they argue. young people, as opposed to producing warranted self-esteem, Beyond promoting responsible sexual behavior, self-esteem WHAT COST HAPPINESS? In his college classrooms, Baumeister sees the consequences which I believe comes from doing well with the people you love, has long been touted as a tonic for overall good health. For all the time, he said. Students show up with attitudes that they doing well in sports (and) doing well in school.” decades, psychologists studying smoking and drug addiction So, if there’s no good evidence that self-esteem can reliably help are somehow entitled to an “A” in his courses because that’s what among youth have tried to pinpoint the psychological source students do better in school, stay out of trouble, get along better they were used to getting in high school. of such damaging habits. together or act more responsibly when it comes to sex and use of “These people honestly believe they are good when they’re THE POISON OF EMPTY PRAISE Research on the topic of teen smoking and its ties to self- alcohol and drugs—aside from keeping young girls from purging not,” he said. esteem is formidable. At least three large studies done in Canada themselves to death’s door to stay thin, what good is it? Sudden doses of reality come as a real shock to some students Consider the change that the self-esteem movement has wrought and in the U.S. found that smoking is indeed associated with One of the things the research shows is that high self-esteem who lack the emotional fortitude for dealing effectively with failure in the American public classroom, Seligman told his audience. low self-esteem. A 2001 North Carolina survey of 1,200 10- to can make people more resilient, make them keep on plugging or challenges to their lofty opinions of themselves. This can be Under the banner of building students’ self-worth, many 15-year-olds living in the heart of the state’s tobacco-produc- after initially failing at something. That attribute can plausibly a sure-fire formula for frustration, anxiety, depression and even school districts have “dumbed down” coursework, eliminated ing region found a gender distinction in smoking habits. Girl contribute to what the research says is the number-one benefit violence, Baumeister believes. I.Q. testing and tracking programs, deemphasized individual

28 Florida State University ResearchinReview SUMMER 2004 29 F O R T H E LOVE O F 'ME'  “Hogwash” is a term psychologist Roy Baumeister has used to describe some of the claims of self-esteem boosters.

achievement and have made “competition a dirty word,” he said. ways to soak up self-esteem. For example, one can wear self- All in a conscientious effort to keep from hurting the feelings OLD-FASHIONED WILLPOWER esteem jewelry, made from rhodonite, a mineral advertised as of kids who aren’t as talented or industrious as others. having the power to “uplift the emotional foundations,” thereby Last February, the director of schools in Nashville, Tennessee In 1841, the American philosopher poet Ralph Waldo Emerson making the wearer “more solid and secure.” announced that the city’s schools would no longer release the drew from his roots as the son of a Protestant minister to write an Another choice, perhaps used in conjunction with the afore- names of students making honor rolls without a written per- essay on self-reliance. mentioned jewelry, is aromatherapy. A variety of “essential oils” mission slip from parents. The ruling came after some parents In that, Emerson laid out his recipe for building strong charac- squeezed from plants ranging from jasmine to larch are sold as complained that honor rolls made kids who didn’t make the ter. Steep yourself in the art and ideas of those whose talents may promoters or restorers of self-esteem. lists feel bad about themselves. greatly exceed your own, he said, and you’ll find out who you re- That Americans are hooked on self-esteem as a product, as The venerable tradition of naming valedictorians and ranking ally are. Get to know yourself, and you’ll have the key to bettering something sitting on a shelf like a can of peas, is hardly news. graduates by grades was dropped by many high schools years yourself as a person and a contributing member of society. The mass marketing of self-esteem, which began in earnest in ago. Some no longer hold what once were called “academic pep Emerson believed that the whole purpose of education was to the early 1990s, has produced a multi-billion-dollar industry, rallies” and last spring the Associated Press reported that some give people the opportunity to find something inside themselves complete with a boardroomful of infinitely famous captains. Top schools are considering cutting out spelling bees. that they could solidly rely on to accomplish something in life. salespeople include late-night TV pitchman Anthony Robbins; There’s good evidence that this institutionalized fear of com- He implied that such dedicated self-searching isn’t always fun. It self-proclaimed New Age guru Deepak Chopra; feminist icon petition in schools has filtered into everyday social life. Parents requires hard work and willpower, he argued. Gloria Steinem; best-selling author Bernie Siegel and of late, are now expected to throw birthday parties for their children Emerson was talking about the practice of self-regulation—the pop psychologist Phillip (“Dr. Phil”) McGraw. that celebrate their self-esteem. Such parties can be elaborate and exercise of self-control. Today, the term sounds almost quaint. Against such phenomenal commercial appeal, do the latest expensive—a well-established self-esteem dictum now requires With their hidebound approach to life’s many diversions, the findings that reveal the true nature of self-esteem have any hope that all attendees must also get gifts lest they feel unloved. Puritans may have given the concept a bad name, but the old- of reforming American education? In 1993, a large, family-oriented saltwater fishing tourna- fashioned ethic of self-control is nonetheless sound, Baumeister “There are too many people making lots of money off self- ment in Florida’s Panhandle changed some rules and began believes. A self-control revival in America’s education system could esteem,” Baumeister said. “They’re very reluctant to hear that it giving all contestants in the junior division (kids 12 and under) do wonders, he’s convinced. doesn’t really work, and I doubt they’re going to change their opin- P H O T O : RAY STANYARD nifty rod-and-reel outfits—whether they actually caught a win- “My profound disappointment with the benefits of self-esteem ions any time soon. But, you never know what may turn up.” ning fish or not. The kids were “all winners” just by signing up, has been partly offset by discovering something else that does seem Just recently, prominent leaders within the self-esteem move- the tournament’s organizers said. to work,” he has written. “Self-control, as in being able to regulate “Conceivably…a new emphasis on cultivating accurate self-un- ment have modified some of the louder claims made by early On close reading of the report on self-esteem published one’s emotions, impulses, performance patterns and thoughts, has derstanding would pay off in terms of better choices. Then again, if boosters. Acknowledging scientists’ growing concern over the by Baumeister and his colleagues, from the assorted research plenty of positive payoff, for the individual and society.” high self-esteem produces happiness, the relative value of happiness issue of promoting self-esteem per se, with no clear association findings a common theme emerges. Indiscriminate praise is Instead of dismantling the entrenched self-esteem programs versus better choices based on accurate information (about oneself) with one’s subsequent personal behavior, J.D. Hawkins, former poisoning today’s youth. in American public education, as his colleague Seligman calls for, could also be debated.” president of the National Association for Self-Esteem, said “any “We’re sending the wrong message,” said Baumeister. “The Baumeister would prefer to see these programs transformed into Baumeister’s team didn’t sugarcoat where it would stand in conception of self-esteem” must include accepting responsibility message is that rewards are meaningless; that somehow, young platforms for teaching self-control. This could mean that in the long such a debate: for one’s actions. people are entitled to be treated well regardless of what they do. run, the ends of the self-esteem movement—that people acquire a “As scientists, we are inclined to favor the pursuit of truth above “If you are not personally and socially responsible, then That’s not a good message to learn and it’s not adaptive to life.” durable sense of self-worth—could be better met, he believes. all else, but we can recognize that some people might prefer self-flat- your self-worth is built on a false reality and, therefore, it’s not What has happened, Baumeister says, is that the self-esteem If returned in force to American classrooms, the principles of tering illusions over accurate knowledge.” healthy,” Hawkins was quoted as saying. industry has taken Carl Rogers’ seminal ideas about giving kids developing and using self-discipline most likely would be bitter On the self-help orthodoxy of daily reminding ourselves how “unconditional positive regard” and gone to the extreme. Con- medicine indeed to many in the education world who’ve grown great we are as individuals, Hawkins’ association now carries sequently, for two decades now parents and teachers (and school accustomed to a diet of warm fuzzies. Such would mean that self- ALAS, MAMMON the following caveat on its Web site: districts) have been conditioned to think that it’s somehow emo- esteem would return to being a byproduct of good performance, “Reciting positive affirmations about yourself—and hoping tionally crippling to discipline children or expect them to meet as it once was. Some kids would succeed and feel good about Pilgrims on the road to self-esteem these days don’t need to for results—is like wagging the tail of a dog in hopes (that the) certain standards (of course, with the notable exception of win- themselves; others would fail and take a beating to their egos. do it the hard way. The market has surely seen to that, as even a tail-wagging will make the dog happy. It won’t. ning sports championships, an arena where—oddly enough—pro- Ultimately, that’s how life is, and how teaching should be, too, cursory search of the Web will show. “The dog must be happy first, and then its tail will wag.”—RR foundly different self-esteem principles apparently apply). Baumeister’s team said in its summation. In the end, all students All told, there are more than 3,000 titles of self-help books and “I see nothing wrong with praising a child (or adult) for an would wind up with a more accurate, unvarnished understanding “how-to” self-esteem manuals available, not to mention hundreds *Watts wrote this as the hymn “Alas! and Did My Savior outstanding or brilliant performance,” Baumeister has written. of who they are, what they’re capable of—and what they’re not. of helpful videos, compact disks and family-oriented games (self- Bleed,” in 1707; it was set to a different tune and copyrighted “I see plenty wrong with praising everyone even when the actual In short, such a system would equip kids with the knowledge they esteem building is supposed to be fun). by Ralph E. Hudson and published with the title “At the achievements are mediocre.” need to make better life choices, the team said. If one isn’t inclined to read or watch videos, there are other Cross”in 1855.—Editor

30 Florida State University ResearchinReview SUMMER 2004 31