Developing the Space Shuttle1
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The Flight to Orbit
There are numerous ways to get there— Around the Corner Th As then–US Space Command chief from rocket The Gen. Howell M. Estes III said to launch to space defense writers just before his re- tirement in August, “This is going maneuver to come along a lot quicker than we vehicles—and the think it is. ... We tend to think this stuff is way out there in the future, Air Force is but it’s right around the corner.” keeping its Flight The Air Force and NASA have divided the task of providing the options open. US government with a means of reliable, low-cost transportation to Earth orbit. The Air Force, with the largest immediate need, is heading to up the effort to revamp the Expend- to able Launch Vehicles now used to loft military and other government satellites. Called the Evolved ELV, this program is focused on derivatives of existing rockets. Competitors have been invited to redesign or value- engineer their proven boosters with new materials and technologies to provide reliable launch services at a he Air Force would like to go Orbit far lower price than today’s bench- back and forth to Earth orbit as bit mark of around $10,000 a pound to T O easily as it goes back and forth to Low Earth Orbit. The reasoning is 30,000 feet—routinely, reliably, and that an “evolved”—rather than an relatively cheaply. Such a capability all-new—vehicle will yield cost sav- goes hand in hand with being a true ings while reducing technical risk. -
The International Space Station and the Space Shuttle
Order Code RL33568 The International Space Station and the Space Shuttle Updated November 9, 2007 Carl E. Behrens Specialist in Energy Policy Resources, Science, and Industry Division The International Space Station and the Space Shuttle Summary The International Space Station (ISS) program began in 1993, with Russia joining the United States, Europe, Japan, and Canada. Crews have occupied ISS on a 4-6 month rotating basis since November 2000. The U.S. Space Shuttle, which first flew in April 1981, has been the major vehicle taking crews and cargo back and forth to ISS, but the shuttle system has encountered difficulties since the Columbia disaster in 2003. Russian Soyuz spacecraft are also used to take crews to and from ISS, and Russian Progress spacecraft deliver cargo, but cannot return anything to Earth, since they are not designed to survive reentry into the Earth’s atmosphere. A Soyuz is always attached to the station as a lifeboat in case of an emergency. President Bush, prompted in part by the Columbia tragedy, made a major space policy address on January 14, 2004, directing NASA to focus its activities on returning humans to the Moon and someday sending them to Mars. Included in this “Vision for Space Exploration” is a plan to retire the space shuttle in 2010. The President said the United States would fulfill its commitments to its space station partners, but the details of how to accomplish that without the shuttle were not announced. The shuttle Discovery was launched on July 4, 2006, and returned safely to Earth on July 17. -
Columbia and Challenger: Organizational Failure at NASA
ARTICLE IN PRESS Space Policy 19 (2003) 239–247 Columbia and Challenger: organizational failure at NASA Joseph Lorenzo Hall* Astronomy Department/School of Information Management and Systems, Astronomy Department, University of California at Berkeley, 601 Campbell Hall, Berkeley, CA 94720-3411, USA Abstract The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)—as the global leader in all areas of spaceflight and space science— is a unique organization in terms of size, mission, constraints, complexity and motivations. NASA’s flagship endeavor—human spaceflight—is extremely risky and one of the most complicated tasks undertaken by man. It is well accepted that the tragic destruction of the Space Shuttle Challenger on 28 January 1986 was the result of organizational failure. The surprising disintegration of the Space Shuttle Columbia in February 2003—nearly 17 years to the day after Challenger—was a shocking reminder of how seemingly innocuous details play important roles in risky systems and organizations. NASA as an organization has changed considerably over the 42 years of its existence. If it is serious about minimizing failure and promoting its mission, perhaps the most intense period of organizational change lies in its immediate future. This paper outlines some of the critical features of NASA’s organization and organizational change, namely path dependence and ‘‘normalization of deviance’’. Subsequently, it reviews the rationale behind calling the Challenger tragedy an organizational failure. Finally, it argues that the recent Columbia accident displays characteristics of organizational failure and proposes recommendations for the future. r 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1. Introduction in 1967 are examples of failure at NASA that cost a total of 17 astronaut lives. -
Rockets for Education 5 June 2019
Rockets for education 5 June 2019 Technology, Poland. Several modular experiments are held in the circular containers imaged here. Called Hedgehog, the experiment tested patented instruments for measuring acceleration, vibration and heat flow during launch. The team hopes to refine the tools for use on ground-based qualification tests that all payloads must pass before launch. At launch, Rexus produces a peak vertical acceleration of around 17 times the force of gravity. Once the rocket motors shut off, the experiments enter freefall. On the downward arc parachutes deploy, lowering the experiments to the ground for transport back to the launch site by helicopter as quickly as possible. Credit: European Space Agency A service module sends data and receives commands from the ground to keep everything on course while sending videos and data to ground Why rockets are so captivating is not exactly rocket stations. science. Watching a chunk of metal defy the forces of gravity satisfies many a human's wish to soar ESA has used sounding rockets for over 30 years through the air and into space. to investigate phenomena under microgravity from the state-of-the-art facilities are available at Today there are countless rockets to satisfy the Esrange. The laboratories include microscopes, itch, and they are not all big launchers delivering centrifuges and incubators so investigators can heavy satellites into space, like Europe's Ariane 5 prepare and analyse their experiments around and the upcoming Ariane 6. flight. Sounding rockets, like this Rexus (Rocket Coordinated by ESA Education, the Rexus/Bexus Experiments for University Students) being programme launches two sounding rockets a year assembled at the ZARM facilities in Bremen, and provides an experimental near-space platform Germany, are launched regularly in the name of for students who can work on different research science from the Esrange Space Center in areas from atmospheric research and fluid physics, northern Sweden. -
The New American Space Age: a Progress Report on Human Spaceflight the New American Space Age: a Progress Report on Human Spaceflight the International Space
The New American Space Age: A PROGRESS REPORT ON HUMAN SpaCEFLIGHT The New American Space Age: A Progress Report on Human Spaceflight The International Space Station: the largest international scientific and engineering achievement in human history. The New American Space Age: A Progress Report on Human Spaceflight Lately, it seems the public cannot get enough of space! The recent hit movie “Gravity” not only won 7 Academy Awards – it was a runaway box office success, no doubt inspiring young future scientists, engineers and mathematicians just as “2001: A Space Odyssey” did more than 40 years ago. “Cosmos,” a PBS series on the origins of the universe from the 1980s, has been updated to include the latest discoveries – and funded by a major television network in primetime. And let’s not forget the terrific online videos of science experiments from former International Space Station Commander Chris Hadfield that were viewed by millions of people online. Clearly, the American public is eager to carry the torch of space exploration again. Thankfully, NASA and the space industry are building a host of new vehicles that will do just that. American industry is hard at work developing new commercial transportation services to suborbital altitudes and even low Earth orbit. NASA and the space industry are also building vehicles to take astronauts beyond low Earth orbit for the first time since the Apollo program. Meanwhile, in the U.S. National Lab on the space station, unprecedented research in zero-g is paving the way for Earth breakthroughs in genetics, gerontology, new vaccines and much more. -
Columbia Accident Investigation Board
COLUMBIA ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION BOARD Report Volume I August 2003 COLUMBIA ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION BOARD On the Front Cover This was the crew patch for STS-107. The central element of the patch was the microgravity symbol, µg, flowing into the rays of the Astronaut symbol. The orbital inclination was portrayed by the 39-degree angle of the Earthʼs horizon to the Astronaut symbol. The sunrise was representative of the numerous science experiments that were the dawn of a new era for continued microgravity research on the International Space Station and beyond. The breadth of science conduct- ed on this mission had widespread benefits to life on Earth and the continued exploration of space, illustrated by the Earth and stars. The constellation Columba (the dove) was chosen to symbolize peace on Earth and the Space Shuttle Columbia. In addition, the seven stars represent the STS-107 crew members, as well as honoring the original Mercury 7 astronauts who paved the way to make research in space possible. The Israeli flag represented the first person from that country to fly on the Space Shuttle. On the Back Cover This emblem memorializes the three U.S. human space flight accidents – Apollo 1, Challenger, and Columbia. The words across the top translate to: “To The Stars, Despite Adversity – Always Explore“ Limited First Printing, August 2003, by the Columbia Accident Investigation Board Subsequent Printing and Distribution by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the Government Printing Office Washington, D.C. 2 Report Volume I August 2003 COLUMBIA ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION BOARD IN MEMORIAM Rick D. Husband Commander William C. -
Please Type Your Paper Title Here In
Estimating the Reliability of a Soyuz Spacecraft Mission Michael G. Lutomskia*, Steven J. Farnham IIb, and Warren C. Grantb aNASA-JSC, Houston, TX – [email protected] bARES Corporation, Houston, TX Abstract: Once the US Space Shuttle retires in 2010, the Russian Soyuz Launcher and Soyuz Spacecraft will comprise the only means for crew transportation to and from the International Space Station (ISS). The U.S. Government and NASA have contracted for crew transportation services to the ISS with Russia. The resulting implications for the US space program including issues such as astronaut safety must be carefully considered. Are the astronauts and cosmonauts safer on the Soyuz than the Space Shuttle system? Is the Soyuz launch system more robust than the Space Shuttle? Is it safer to continue to fly the 30 year old Shuttle fleet for crew transportation and cargo resupply than the Soyuz? Should we extend the life of the Shuttle Program? How does the development of the Orion/Ares crew transportation system affect these decisions? The Soyuz launcher has been in operation for over 40 years. There have been only two loss of life incidents and two loss of mission incidents. Given that the most recent incident took place in 1983, how do we determine current reliability of the system? Do failures of unmanned Soyuz rockets impact the reliability of the currently operational man-rated launcher? Does the Soyuz exhibit characteristics that demonstrate reliability growth and how would that be reflected in future estimates of success? NASA’s next manned rocket and spacecraft development project is currently underway. -
ASTRODYNAMICS 2011 Edited by Hanspeter Schaub Brian C
ASTRODYNAMICS 2011 Edited by Hanspeter Schaub Brian C. Gunter Ryan P. Russell William Todd Cerven Volume 142 ADVANCES IN THE ASTRONAUTICAL SCIENCES ASTRODYNAMICS 2011 2 AAS PRESIDENT Frank A. Slazer Northrop Grumman VICE PRESIDENT - PUBLICATIONS Dr. David B. Spencer Pennsylvania State University EDITORS Dr. Hanspeter Schaub University of Colorado Dr. Brian C. Gunter Delft University of Technology Dr. Ryan P. Russell Georgia Institute of Technology Dr. William Todd Cerven The Aerospace Corporation SERIES EDITOR Robert H. Jacobs Univelt, Incorporated Front Cover Photos: Top photo: Cassini looking back at an eclipsed Saturn, Astronomy picture of the day 2006 October 16, credit CICLOPS, JPL, ESA, NASA; Bottom left photo: Shuttle shadow in the sunset (in honor of the end of the Shuttle Era), Astronomy picture of the day 2010 February 16, credit: Expedition 22 Crew, NASA; Bottom right photo: Comet Hartley 2 Flyby, Astronomy picture of the day 2010 November 5, Credit: NASA, JPL-Caltech, UMD, EPOXI Mission. 3 ASTRODYNAMICS 2011 Volume 142 ADVANCES IN THE ASTRONAUTICAL SCIENCES Edited by Hanspeter Schaub Brian C. Gunter Ryan P. Russell William Todd Cerven Proceedings of the AAS/AIAA Astrodynamics Specialist Conference held July 31 – August 4 2011, Girdwood, Alaska, U.S.A. Published for the American Astronautical Society by Univelt, Incorporated, P.O. Box 28130, San Diego, California 92198 Web Site: http://www.univelt.com 4 Copyright 2012 by AMERICAN ASTRONAUTICAL SOCIETY AAS Publications Office P.O. Box 28130 San Diego, California 92198 Affiliated with the American Association for the Advancement of Science Member of the International Astronautical Federation First Printing 2012 Library of Congress Card No. -
Virgin Galactic Holdings, Inc. (SPCE) Putting the Zero in Zero-G
June 2021 Virgin Galactic Holdings, Inc. (SPCE) Putting the Zero in Zero-G We are short shares of Virgin Galactic Holdings, Inc., often described as the only publicly traded space-tourism company. After going public in October 2019 by way of a merger with a “blank check” company, Virgin Galactic has seen its share price and trading volume soar. It’s become a retail darling, with day traders captivated by images of billionaires donning space suits, blasting off from launchpads, and looking down on the blue marble of Earth. But Virgin Galactic’s $250,000+ commercial “spaceflights” – if they ever actually happen, after some 17 years of delays and disasters – will offer only the palest imitations of these experiences. In lieu of pressurized space suits with helmets – unnecessary since so little time will be spent in the upper atmosphere – the company commissioned Under Armour to provide “high-tech pajamas.” In lieu of vertical takeoff, Virgin’s “spaceship” must cling to the underside of a specialized airplane for the first 45,000 feet up, because its rocket motor is too weak to push through the lower atmosphere on its own. In lieu of the blue-marble vista and life in zero-g, Virgin’s so-called astronauts will at best be able to catch a glimpse of the curvature of Earth and a few minutes of weightlessness before plunging back to ground. This isn’t “tourism,” let alone Virgin’s more grandiose term, “exploration”; it’s closer to a souped- up roller coaster, like the “Drop of Doom” ride at Six Flags. -
Facing the Heat Barrier: a History of Hypersonics First Thoughts of Hypersonic Propulsion
Facing the Heat Barrier: A History of Hypersonics First Thoughts of Hypersonic Propulsion Republic’s Aerospaceplane concept showed extensive engine-airframe integration. (Republic Aviation) For takeoff, Lockheed expected to use Turbo-LACE. This was a LACE variant that sought again to reduce the inherently hydrogen-rich operation of the basic system. Rather than cool the air until it was liquid, Turbo-Lace chilled it deeply but allowed it to remain gaseous. Being very dense, it could pass through a turbocom- pressor and reach pressures in the hundreds of psi. This saved hydrogen because less was needed to accomplish this cooling. The Turbo-LACE engines were to operate at chamber pressures of 200 to 250 psi, well below the internal pressure of standard rockets but high enough to produce 300,000 pounds of thrust by using turbocom- pressed oxygen.67 Republic Aviation continued to emphasize the scramjet. A new configuration broke with the practice of mounting these engines within pods, as if they were turbojets. Instead, this design introduced the important topic of engine-airframe integration by setting forth a concept that amounted to a single enormous scramjet fitted with wings and a tail. A conical forward fuselage served as an inlet spike. The inlets themselves formed a ring encircling much of the vehicle. Fuel tankage filled most of its capacious internal volume. This design study took two views regarding the potential performance of its engines. One concept avoided the use of LACE or ACES, assuming again that this craft could scram all the way to orbit. Still, it needed engines for takeoff so turbo- ramjets were installed, with both Pratt & Whitney and General Electric providing Lockheed’s Aerospaceplane concept. -
Into the Unknown Together the DOD, NASA, and Early Spaceflight
Frontmatter 11/23/05 10:12 AM Page i Into the Unknown Together The DOD, NASA, and Early Spaceflight MARK ERICKSON Lieutenant Colonel, USAF Air University Press Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama September 2005 Frontmatter 11/23/05 10:12 AM Page ii Air University Library Cataloging Data Erickson, Mark, 1962- Into the unknown together : the DOD, NASA and early spaceflight / Mark Erick- son. p. ; cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 1-58566-140-6 1. Manned space flight—Government policy—United States—History. 2. National Aeronautics and Space Administration—History. 3. Astronautics, Military—Govern- ment policy—United States. 4. United States. Air Force—History. 5. United States. Dept. of Defense—History. I. Title. 629.45'009'73––dc22 Disclaimer Opinions, conclusions, and recommendations expressed or implied within are solely those of the editor and do not necessarily represent the views of Air University, the United States Air Force, the Department of Defense, or any other US government agency. Cleared for public re- lease: distribution unlimited. Air University Press 131 West Shumacher Avenue Maxwell AFB AL 36112-6615 http://aupress.maxwell.af.mil ii Frontmatter 11/23/05 10:12 AM Page iii To Becky, Anna, and Jessica You make it all worthwhile. THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK Frontmatter 11/23/05 10:12 AM Page v Contents Chapter Page DISCLAIMER . ii DEDICATION . iii ABOUT THE AUTHOR . ix 1 NECESSARY PRECONDITIONS . 1 Ambling toward Sputnik . 3 NASA’s Predecessor Organization and the DOD . 18 Notes . 24 2 EISENHOWER ACT I: REACTION TO SPUTNIK AND THE BIRTH OF NASA . 31 Eisenhower Attempts to Calm the Nation . -
SOYUZ THROUGH the AGES the R-7 Rocket That Led to the Family of Soyuz Vehicles Launching Today Lifted Off for the First Time Onfeb
RUSSIAN SPACE SOYUZ THROUGH THE AGES The R-7 rocket that led to the family of Soyuz vehicles launching today lifted off for the first time onFeb. 17, 1959. The last launch, on Dec. 27, 2018, was number 1,898. Irene Klotz and Maxim Pyadushkin Vostochny Cosmodrome anufactured by the Progress Rocket Space Center in Sama- Evolution of Soyuz-Family Launch Vehicles ra, Russia, the medium-lift expendable booster originally was used for Soviet-era human space missions and later became the R-7 Soyuz Soyuz-L workhorse for the country’s civilian and military space programs. M 1957 First launch of the ICBM (SS-6 1966-76 (32 launches, 1970-71 (three launches, Sapwood) that served as a basis for including 30 successful, all successful, The first rocket officially named Soyuz was launched in Soviet/Russian launch vehicles from Baikonur) from Baikonur) 1966 and has since flown 1,050 times, of which 1,023 were including the Soyuz family successful. Production of Soyuz rockets peaked in the early Soyuz 1980s at about 60 vehicles per year. Medium-Class Launch Vehicle Russia began offering Soyuz launch services internationally in the mid-1980s through Glavkosmos, a commercial entity set up to sell Soviet rocket and space technologies. Manufacturer: Progress Rocket Space Soyuz-U/-U2 Soyuz-M Center, Samara, Russia In 1996, Russia created Starsem, a joint venture (35% ArianeGroup, 25% Roscosmos, 25% RKTs Progress, 15% 1991 Breakup of the 1973-2017 1971-76 (eight launches, Soviet Union, (859 launches, including all successful, from Plesetsk) Dimensions Arianespace) that had exclusive rights to provide commercial launch services on Soyuz launch vehicles.