DOCSLIB.ORG

SOYUZ THROUGH the AGES the R-7 Rocket That Led to the Family of Soyuz Vehicles Launching Today Lifted Off for the First Time Onfeb

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
SOYUZ THROUGH the AGES the R-7 Rocket That Led to the Family of Soyuz Vehicles Launching Today Lifted Off for the First Time Onfeb RUSSIAN SPACE SOYUZ THROUGH THE AGES The R-7 rocket that led to the family of Soyuz vehicles launching today lifted off for the first time onFeb. 17, 1959. The last launch, on Dec. 27, 2018, was number 1,898. Irene Klotz and Maxim Pyadushkin Vostochny Cosmodrome anufactured by the Progress Rocket Space Center in Sama- Evolution of Soyuz-Family Launch Vehicles ra, Russia, the medium-lift expendable booster originally was used for Soviet-era human space missions and later became the R-7 Soyuz Soyuz-L workhorse for the country’s civilian and military space programs. M 1957 First launch of the ICBM (SS-6 1966-76 (32 launches, 1970-71 (three launches, Sapwood) that served as a basis for including 30 successful, all successful, The first rocket officially named Soyuz was launched in Soviet/Russian launch vehicles from Baikonur) from Baikonur) 1966 and has since flown 1,050 times, of which 1,023 were including the Soyuz family successful. Production of Soyuz rockets peaked in the early Soyuz 1980s at about 60 vehicles per year. Medium-Class Launch Vehicle Russia began offering Soyuz launch services internationally in the mid-1980s through Glavkosmos, a commercial entity set up to sell Soviet rocket and space technologies. Manufacturer: Progress Rocket Space Soyuz-U/-U2 Soyuz-M Center, Samara, Russia In 1996, Russia created Starsem, a joint venture (35% ArianeGroup, 25% Roscosmos, 25% RKTs Progress, 15% 1991 Breakup of the 1973-2017 1971-76 (eight launches, Soviet Union, (859 launches, including all successful, from Plesetsk) Dimensions Arianespace) that had exclusive rights to provide commercial launch services on Soyuz launch vehicles. The agreement end of the Cold War 837 successful, from Baikonur and Length ................... 51.1 m (167.6 ft.) expired in December 2017. Plesetsk) Diameter ................. 10.3 m (33.8 ft.) In 2002, Russia teamed with Arianespace to sell Soyuz Number of Stages ........................ 3 launch services via Arianespace from the Guiana Space Cen- Liftoff Mass ....... 313,000 kg (690,000 lb.) ter in Kourou, French Guiana. In 2017, GK Launch Services—a joint venture of Glavkosmos Fuel (now a subsidiary of Roscosmos) and Kosmotras, an operator First Stage ................... LOX/kerosene of Dnepr launch vehicles—was created to provide commercial Soyuz-FG launch services with the Soyuz from Russia’s leased facility Second Stage ................ LOX/kerosene 2001-present at the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan and from the Soyuz-2.1a/b/v Soyuz-ST Third Stage .................. LOX/kerosene Soyuz-FG new Vostochny spaceport in Russia’s Far East. Kosmotras is 2006-present 2011-present Fregat Upper Stage: Dinitrogen tetroxide/UDMH (67 launches, (61 launches, (20 launches, a joint venture among Russia, Ukraine and Kazakhstan that including 66 successful including 59 successful, all successful, was established in 1997. from Baikonur) Payload for Soyuz-2.1a with Fregat Upper Stage: from Baikonur, Plesetsk and from French Russia’s Khrunichev Space Research and Production Cen- Vostochny) Guiana) 4,200 kg (9,260 lb.) to Sun-Synchronous Orbit ter is the parent company of Reston, Virginia-based Interna- tional Launch Services, or ILS, which was established in 1995 Launch Price: from $48.5 million for commercial sales of Russia’s Proton and Angara launch vehicles. c Total for Soyuz-family launches: 1,050, including 1,023 successful. PHOTO CREDITS IN CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER: HERIBERTO ARRIBASABATO/WIKIMEDIA, ADIUDIN/WIKIPEDIA, BILL INGALS/NASA/WIKIPEDIA, ARIE/WIKIPEDIA, ARIANESPACE Rockets come and gone (by lift capability, small to heavy) ROCKET ILLUSTRATIONS: COLIN THROM/AW&ST ILLUSTRATIONS: ROCKET Soyuz Falcon 1 Diamant family Kosmos family Vostok Tskylon-3 Delta II Voskhod Titan family Space Shuttle Energia N1 Saturn family (Soviet/Russian) (SpaceX) (French) (Soviet/Ukraine) (Soviet/Russian) (Soviet/Ukraine) (U.S.) (Soviet) (U.S.) (U.S.) (Soviet) (Soviet) (U.S.) 1957-present 2006-2009 1965-1975 1967-2010 1960-1991 1977-2009 1989-2018 1963-1976 1959-2005 1981-2011 1987-1988 1969-1972 1966-1973 44 AVIATION WEEK & SPACE TECHNOLOGY/JANUARY 28-FEBRUARY 10, 2019 AviationWeek.com/awst AviationWeek.com/awst AVIATION WEEK & SPACE TECHNOLOGY/JANUARY 28-FEBRUARY 10, 2019 45.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Shuttle-Mir Rendezvous & [Locking Missions
    / tv -t_ ---Fi>{ NASA-TM-II2692 • _7, w- -_ ° ;: Fourth Report of the Task Force on the Shuttle-Mir Rendezvous & [locking Missions March 1, 1995 A Task Force of the NASA Advisory Council THOMAS P. STAFFORD 1006 Cameron Street Alexandria, VA 22314 March 1, 1995 Dr. Bradford Paxkinson Chairman, National Aeronautics and Space Administration Advisory Council National Aeronautics and Space Administration Washington, DC 20546-0001 Dear Dr. Parkinson: Enclosed is the fourth report of the NAC Task Force on the Shuttle-Mir Rendezvous and Docking Missions. This report is the culmination of a two and one-half month review of preparations in Russia for the Phase 1A missions (Soyuz TM-21, Mir 18 Main Expedition, and STS-71). Once again the Task Force received tremendous support from many individuals and organizations at NASA. The same applied to our site visits in Russia where we were met with an openness and candor which served to reinforce our confidence in the ultimate success of the upcoming missions. Over the next two months, the Task Force will be focusing its efforts in two areas. The first are the preparations for STS-71, including the status of the Orbiter Docking System and the analysis of data produced by the STS-63 mission. The second area is the NASA and NASA contractor presence in Russia, including the interaction of Phase 1 and Phase 2 personnel, NASA and contractor functions, and the transition from Phase 1 to Phase 2. Sincerely, Thomas P. Stafford CC: NASA/HQ/Code A/Mr. Goldin NASA/HQ/Code A/Gen. Dailey NASA/HQ/Code A/Mr.
    [Show full text]
  • The Wittelsbach-Graff and Hope Diamonds: Not Cut from the Same Rough
    THE WITTELSBACH-GRAFF AND HOPE DIAMONDS: NOT CUT FROM THE SAME ROUGH Eloïse Gaillou, Wuyi Wang, Jeffrey E. Post, John M. King, James E. Butler, Alan T. Collins, and Thomas M. Moses Two historic blue diamonds, the Hope and the Wittelsbach-Graff, appeared together for the first time at the Smithsonian Institution in 2010. Both diamonds were apparently purchased in India in the 17th century and later belonged to European royalty. In addition to the parallels in their histo- ries, their comparable color and bright, long-lasting orange-red phosphorescence have led to speculation that these two diamonds might have come from the same piece of rough. Although the diamonds are similar spectroscopically, their dislocation patterns observed with the DiamondView differ in scale and texture, and they do not show the same internal strain features. The results indicate that the two diamonds did not originate from the same crystal, though they likely experienced similar geologic histories. he earliest records of the famous Hope and Adornment (Toison d’Or de la Parure de Couleur) in Wittelsbach-Graff diamonds (figure 1) show 1749, but was stolen in 1792 during the French T them in the possession of prominent Revolution. Twenty years later, a 45.52 ct blue dia- European royal families in the mid-17th century. mond appeared for sale in London and eventually They were undoubtedly mined in India, the world’s became part of the collection of Henry Philip Hope. only commercial source of diamonds at that time. Recent computer modeling studies have established The original ancestor of the Hope diamond was that the Hope diamond was cut from the French an approximately 115 ct stone (the Tavernier Blue) Blue, presumably to disguise its identity after the that Jean-Baptiste Tavernier sold to Louis XIV of theft (Attaway, 2005; Farges et al., 2009; Sucher et France in 1668.
    [Show full text]
  • OUFTI-1 Environmental Impact Assessment
    Date: 11/02/2016 Issue: 1 Rev: 1 Page: 1 of 11 OUFTI-1 Environmental Impact Assessment Reference 3_OUF_ENV_IMPACT_1.0 Issue/Rev Issue 1 Rev 0 Date 11/02/2016 Distribution OUFTI-1 team OUFTI-1 Environmental Impact Assessment Date: 11/02/2016 Issue: 1 Rev: 1 Page: 2 of 11 AUTHORS Name Email Telephone X. Werner [email protected] +32 4 366 37 38 S. De Dijcker [email protected] +32 4 366 37 38 RECORD OF REVISIONS Iss/Rev Date Author Section/page Change description 1/0 11/02/2016 X.Werner, All Initial issue S. De Dijcker Copyright University of Liège [2016]. OUFTI-1 Environmental Impact Assessment Date: 11/02/2016 Issue: 1 Rev: 1 Page: 3 of 11 TABLE OF CONTENTS Authors ....................................................................................................................................... 2 Record of revisions ..................................................................................................................... 2 1. Activities and Objectives ................................................................................................... 4 1.1. Project description ....................................................................................................... 4 1.2. Soyuz launch vehicle ................................................................................................... 5 1.3. Arianespace ................................................................................................................. 7 1.4. Conclusion ..................................................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • Space Launch System (Sls) Motors
    Propulsion Products Catalog SPACE LAUNCH SYSTEM (SLS) MOTORS For NASA’s Space Launch System (SLS), Northrop Grumman manufactures the five-segment SLS heavy- lift boosters, the booster separation motors (BSM), and the Launch Abort System’s (LAS) launch abort motor and attitude control motor. The SLS five-segment booster is the largest solid rocket motor ever built for flight. The SLS booster shares some design heritage with flight-proven four-segment space shuttle reusable solid rocket motors (RSRM), but generates 20 percent greater average thrust and 24 percent greater total impulse. While space shuttle RSRM production has ended, sustained booster production for SLS helps provide cost savings and access to reliable material sources. Designed to push the spent RSRMs safely away from the space shuttle, Northrop Grumman BSMs were rigorously qualified for human space flight and successfully used on the last fifteen space shuttle missions. These same motors are a critical part of NASA’s SLS. Four BSMs are installed in the forward frustum of each five-segment booster and four are installed in the aft skirt, for a total of 16 BSMs per launch. The launch abort motor is an integral part of NASA’s LAS. The LAS is designed to safely pull the Orion crew module away from the SLS launch vehicle in the event of an emergency on the launch pad or during ascent. Northrop Grumman is on contract to Lockheed Martin to build the abort motor and attitude control motor—Lockheed is the prime contractor for building the Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle designed for use on NASA’s SLS.
    [Show full text]
  • The Tubesat Launch Vehicle
    TubeSat and NEPTUNE 30 Orbital Rocket Programs Personal Satellites Are GO! Interorbital Systems www.interorbital.com About Interorbital Corporation Founded in 1996 by Randa and Roderick Milliron, incorporated in 2001 Located at the Mojave Spaceport in Mojave, California 98.5% owned by R. and R. Milliron 1.5% owned by Eric Gullichsen Initial Starting Technology Pressure-fed liquid rocket engines Initial Mission Low-cost orbital and interplanetary launch vehicle development Facilities 6,000 square-foot research and development facility Two rocket engine test sites at the Mojave Spaceport Expert engineering and manufacturing team Interorbital Systems www.interorbital.com Core Technical Team Roderick Milliron: Chief Designer Lutz Kayser: Primary Technical Consultant Eric Gullichsen: Guidance and Control Gerard Auvray: Telecommunications Engineer Donald P. Bennett: Mechanical Engineer David Silsbee: Electronics Engineer Joel Kegel: Manufacturing/Engineering Tech Jacqueline Wein: Manufacturing/Engineering Tech Reinhold Ziegler: Space-Based Power Systems E. Mark Shusterman,M.D. Medical Life Support Randa Milliron: High-Temperature Composites Interorbital Systems www.interorbital.com Key Hardware Built In-House Propellant Tanks: Combining state-of-the-art composite technology with off-the-shelf aluminum liners Advanced Guidance Hardware and Software Ablative Rocket Engines and Components GPRE 0.5KNFA Rocket Engine Test Manned Space Flight Training Systems Rocket Injectors, Valves Systems, and Other Metal components Interorbital Systems www.interorbital.com Project History Pressure-Fed Rocket Engines GPRE 2.5KLMA Liquid Oxygen/Methanol Engine: Thrust = 2,500 lbs. GPRE 0.5KNFA WFNA/Furfuryl Alcohol (hypergolic): Thrust = 500 lbs. GPRE 0.5KNHXA WFNA/Turpentine (hypergolic): Thrust = 500 lbs. GPRE 3.0KNFA WFNA/Furfuryl Alcohol (hypergolic): Thrust = 3,000 lbs.
    [Show full text]
  • Paper Session IA-Shuttle-C Heavy-Lift Vehicle of the 90'S
    The Space Congress® Proceedings 1989 (26th) Space - The New Generation Apr 25th, 2:00 PM Paper Session I-A - Shuttle-C Heavy-Lift Vehicle of the 90's Robert G. Eudy Manager, Shuttle-C Task Team, Marshall Space Flight Center Follow this and additional works at: https://commons.erau.edu/space-congress-proceedings Scholarly Commons Citation Eudy, Robert G., "Paper Session I-A - Shuttle-C Heavy-Lift Vehicle of the 90's" (1989). The Space Congress® Proceedings. 5. https://commons.erau.edu/space-congress-proceedings/proceedings-1989-26th/april-25-1989/5 This Event is brought to you for free and open access by the Conferences at Scholarly Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in The Space Congress® Proceedings by an authorized administrator of Scholarly Commons. For more information, please contact [email protected]. SHUTTLE-C HEAVY-LIFT VEHICLE OF THE 90 ' S Mr. Robert G. Eudy, Manager Shuttle-C Task Team Marshall Space Flight Center ABSTRACT United States current and planned space activities identify the need for increased payload capacity and unmanned flight to complement the existing Shuttle. To meet this challenge the National Aeronautics and Space Administration is defining an unmanned cargo version of the Shuttle that can give the nation early heavy-lift capability. Called Shuttle-C, this unmanned vehicle is a natural, low-cost evolution of the current Space Shuttle that can be flying 100,000 to 170,000 pound payloads by late 1994. At the core of Shuttle-C design philosophy is the principle of evolvement from the United State's Space Transportation System.
    [Show full text]
  • Soviet Steps Toward Permanent Human Presence in Space
    SALYUT: Soviet Steps Toward Permanent Human Presence in Space December 1983 NTIS order #PB84-181437 Recommended Citation: SALYUT: Soviet Steps Toward Permanent Human Presence in Space–A Technical Mere- orandum (Washington, D. C.: U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, OTA- TM-STI-14, December 1983). Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 83-600624 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402 Foreword As the other major spacefaring nation, the Soviet Union is a subject of interest to the American people and Congress in their deliberations concerning the future of U.S. space activities. In the course of an assessment of Civilian Space Stations, the Office of Technology Assessment (OTA) has undertaken a study of the presence of Soviets in space and their Salyut space stations, in order to provide Congress with an informed view of Soviet capabilities and intentions. The major element in this technical memorandum was a workshop held at OTA in December 1982: it was the first occasion when a significant number of experts in this area of Soviet space activities had met for extended unclassified discussion. As a result of the workshop, OTA prepared this technical memorandum, “Salyut: Soviet Steps Toward Permanent Human Presence in Space. ” It has been reviewed extensively by workshop participants and others familiar with Soviet space activities. Also in December 1982, OTA wrote to the U. S. S. R.’s Ambassador to the United States Anatoliy Dobrynin, requesting any information concerning present and future Soviet space activities that the Soviet Union judged could be of value to the OTA assess- ment of civilian space stations.
    [Show full text]
  • Design for Demise Analysis for Launch Vehicles
    A first design for demise analysis for launch vehicles Henrik Simon, Stijn Lemmens Space debris: Inactive, manmade objects in space Source: ESA Overview Introduction Fundamentals Modelling approach Results and discussion Summary and outlook What is the motivation and task? INTRODUCTION Motivation . Mitigation: Prevention of creation and limitation of long-term presence . Guidelines: LEO removal within 25 years . LEO removal within 25 years after mission end . Casualty risk limit for re-entry: 1 in 10,000 Rising altitude Decay & re-entry above 2000 km Source: NASA Source: NASA Solution: Design for demise Source: ESA Scope of the thesis . Typical design of upper stages . General Risk assessment . Design for demise solutions to reduce the risk ? ? ? Risk A Risk B Risk C Source: CNES How do we assess the risk and simulate the re-entry? FUNDAMENTALS Fundamentals: Ground risk assessment Ah = + 2 Ai � ℎ = =1 � Source: NASA Source: NASA 3.5 m 5.0 m 2 2 ≈ ≈ Fundamentals: Re-entry simulation tools SCARAB: Spacecraft-oriented approach . CAD-like modelling . 6 DoF flight dynamics . Break-up / fragmentation computed How does a rocket upper stage look like? MODELLING Modelling approach . Research on typical design: . Elongated . Platform . Solid Rocket Motor . Lack of information: . Create common intersection . Deliberately stay top-level and only compare effects Modelling approach Modelling approach 12 Length [m] 9 7 5 3 2 150 300 500 700 800 1500 2200 Mass [kg] How much is the risk and how can we reduce it? SIMULATIONS Example of SCARAB re-entry simulation 6x Casualty risk of all reference cases Typical survivors Smaller Smaller fragments fragments Pressure tanks Pressure tanks Main tank Engine Main structure + tanks Design for Demise .
    [Show full text]
  • GLONASS Spacecraft
    INNO V AT IO N The task of designing and developing the GLONASS GLONASS spacecraft fell to the Scientific Production Association of Applied Mechan­ ics (Nauchno Proizvodstvennoe Ob"edinenie Spacecraft Prikladnoi Mekaniki or NPO PM) , located near Krasnoyarsk in Siberia. This major aero­ Nicholas L. Johnson space industrial complex was established in 1959 as a division of Sergei Korolev 's Kaman Sciences Corporation Expe1imental Design Bureau (Opytno Kon­ struktorskoe Byuro or OKB). (Korolev , among other notable achievements , led the Fourteen years after the launch of the effort to develop the Soviet Union's first first test spacecraft, the Russian Global Nav­ launch vehicle - the A launcher - which igation Satellite System (Global 'naya Navi­ placed Sputnik 1 into orbit.) The founding gatsionnaya Sputnikovaya Sistema or and current general director and chief GLONASS) program remains viable and designer is Mikhail Fyodorovich Reshetnev, essentially on schedule despite the economic one of only two still-active chief designers and political turmoil surrounding the final from Russia's fledgling 1950s-era space years of the Soviet Union and the emergence program. of the Commonwealth of Independent States A closed facility until the early 1990s, (CIS). By the summer of 1994, a total of 53 NPO PM has been responsible for all major GLONASS spacecraft had been successfully Russian operational communications, navi­ Despite the significant economic hardships deployed in nearly semisynchronous orbits; gation, and geodetic satellite systems to associated with the breakup of the Soviet Union of the 53 , nearly 12 had been normally oper­ date. Serial (or assembly-line) production of and the transition to a modern market economy, ational since the establishment of the Phase I some spacecraft, including Tsikada and Russia continues to develop its space programs, constellation in 1990.
    [Show full text]
  • Trade Studies Towards an Australian Indigenous Space Launch System
    TRADE STUDIES TOWARDS AN AUSTRALIAN INDIGENOUS SPACE LAUNCH SYSTEM A thesis submitted for the degree of Master of Engineering by Gordon P. Briggs B.Sc. (Hons), M.Sc. (Astron) School of Engineering and Information Technology, University College, University of New South Wales, Australian Defence Force Academy January 2010 Abstract During the project Apollo moon landings of the mid 1970s the United States of America was the pre-eminent space faring nation followed closely by only the USSR. Since that time many other nations have realised the potential of spaceflight not only for immediate financial gain in areas such as communications and earth observation but also in the strategic areas of scientific discovery, industrial development and national prestige. Australia on the other hand has resolutely refused to participate by instituting its own space program. Successive Australian governments have preferred to obtain any required space hardware or services by purchasing off-the-shelf from foreign suppliers. This policy or attitude is a matter of frustration to those sections of the Australian technical community who believe that the nation should be participating in space technology. In particular the provision of an indigenous launch vehicle that would guarantee the nation independent access to the space frontier. It would therefore appear that any launch vehicle development in Australia will be left to non- government organisations to at least define the requirements for such a vehicle and to initiate development of long-lead items for such a project. It is therefore the aim of this thesis to attempt to define some of the requirements for a nascent Australian indigenous launch vehicle system.
    [Show full text]
  • INTERNATIONAL Call for Papers & Registration of Interest
    ORGANIZED BY: HOSTED BY: st 71 INTERNATIONAL ASTRONAUTICAL CONGRESS 12–16 October 2020 | Dubai, United Arab Emirates Call for Papers & Registration of Interest Second Announcement SUPPORTED BY: Inspire, Innovate & Discover for the Benefit of Humankind IAC2020.ORG Contents 1. Message from the International Astronautical Federation (IAF) 2 2. Message from the Local Organizing Committee 2 3. Message from the IPC Co-Chairs 3 4. Messages from the Partner Organizations 4 5. International Astronautical Federation (IAF) 5 6. International Academy of Astronautics (IAA) 10 7. International Institute of Space Law (IISL) 11 8. Message from the IAF Vice President for Technical Activities 12 9. IAC 2020 Technical Sessions Deadlines Calendar 49 10. Preliminary IAC 2020 at a Glance 50 11. Instructions to Authors 51 Connecting @ll Space People 12. Space in the United Arab Emirates 52 www.iafastro.org IAF Alliance Programme Partners 2019 1 71st IAC International Astronautical Congress 12–16 October 2020, Dubai 1. Message from the International Astronautical Federation (IAF) 3. Message from the International Programme Committee (IPC) Greetings! Co-Chairs It is our great pleasure to invite you to the 71st International Astronautical Congress (IAC) to take place in Dubai, United Arab Emirates On behalf of the International Programme Committee, it is a great pleasure to invite you to submit an abstract for the 71st International from 12 – 16 October 2020. Astronautical Congress IAC 2020 that will be held in Dubai, United Arab Emirates. The IAC is an initiative to bring scientists, practitioners, engineers and leaders of space industry and agencies together in a single platform to discuss recent research breakthroughs, technical For the very first time, the IAC will open its doors to the global space community in the United Arab Emirates, the first Arab country to advances, existing opportunities and emerging space technologies.
    [Show full text]
  • Soyuz Launch Brochure
    Incredible Adventures is excited to offer a unique opportunity – a chance to visit the famous Baikonur Cosmodrome and observe a manned launch of a Russian Soyuz spacecraft. You’ll be completely immersed in the electric atmosphere surrounding a launch. You’ll explore Baikonur’s launch sites, museums and most historic places. Join IA for an Incredible Space Adventure. Highlights of Your Incredible Baikonur Adventure 800-644-7382 or 941-346-2603 www.incredible-adventures.com Observe roll-out and installation of the Soyuz rocket at launch pad. Attend international press conference of main and back- up crews. See the farewell of the crew at the cosmonaut hotel. Hear crew's ready-to-go official report. See launch of the Soyuz rocket, something you’ll never forget. Incredible Baikonur Adventure Day 1 Meet IA representative at the airport. Flight from Moscow to Baikonur .Transfer to the hotel. Time to relax. Day 2 Breakfast in the hotel Transfer to Baikonur Cosmodrome Roll-out of the Soyuz Rocket. (Follow the Soyuz to its launch site.) Observe installation of the rocket on the launch pad. Visit to the integration building of Soyuz and Progress spaceships. Transfer back to town. Visit to the International Space School. 9 Day 3 Breakfast in the hotel. Visit Museum of History Cosmodrome Baikonur. Enjoy general sightseeing in the town of Baikonur (learn history of the town, visit memorials and monuments). Transfer to Cosmonaut hotel. International press conference with the main and backup crews of Soyuz-TMA vehicle. Walk along the historical alley of Cosmonauts where personalized trees are planted.
    [Show full text]