THE COUNTER -REFORMATION IN THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. (16th Century.)

Atwood N. H. Beeman.

References: Schwill, "History of Modern Europe." Johnson, "Europe in the 16th Century." Hausser, "Period of the Reformation." Walker, "Ten Epochs of Church History --The Reformation. Cambridge, "Modern History," Vol. 1. D'Aubigne, "History of Reformation." Symonds, "Renaissance of Italy," Vol. 2. Alzog, "Church History." Outline.

I. Conditions leading up to the Counter -reformation: a. Renaissance. b. Demands of Wyckliffe and Huss. c. Immorality of clergy. d. Conflict of laws of Church and state. e. Mendicant friars. f. Italian influence. g. English separation. h. French Huguenots. i. The Reformation. k. Demands upon Rome. 1. Opposition of popes to reform.

II. The Counter-Reformation: a. Accession of Clement VII. 1. His plan of campaign. 2. Mantua. b. Accession of Paul III. 1. Roman Commission. c. Council of Trent. 1. Platform. 2. Organization of Church forces. 3. Protestant claims and Catholic refutatioul 4. Vulgate. 5. Other findings.

III. Protestant gains.

IV. Ultimate triumph of Rome. 1T3

THE1COUNTER4REFORMATION IN THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. (16th Century.)

,In considering the Counter -reformation in the Catholic

Church, it will be necessary briefly to look to the conditions of

Church and people preceding that movement, and to the causes lead- int; up to it.

The Renaissance had spread from sunny Italy to her Euro- pean neighbors, opening to the people new avenues of thought and action. Having been hitherto under restraint, they sought to brekK away from the authority that galled them. Viyckliffe had stirred the English people with his utterances against the arrogance of the popes, declaring them to be antichrist (1377). He declared that Christ was the King of the Church. He denied the right of the popes to English territory. His teachings spread to the conti- nent, and John Huss, in Bohemia (1 2), demanded a reconstruction of the Church, after a thorough of Holy Writ for the actual bases of Christianity, the Scriptures to be used as final authority. He insisted that an honest effort be made to satisfy all the require- ments of soul and conscience.

He and others found many reasons why such demands should be made. The immorality and worldliness of the popes had again and again scandalized the Old 7orld. The clergy had become a sep- arate caste, making and administering their own laws. Exempt from most flgg- lay interference, they could escape punishment for the not exempt the laity rant violations of state law. Yet they would from the of the laws Church, even though ;the power they now had the privileges and they enjoyed had originally come from the peo- ple, whom they now oppressed.

The laws of the Church were in many cases contradictory

to those of the state, causing many conflicts between the authori-

ties of each. The breach between pope and people was further wid- ened by the neglect of the clergy, who, not satisfied to keep their subjects in ignorance of Church affairs, left them to be ministered to by a horde of mendicant friars, whose once legiti mate object of existence had degenerated into systematic extor- tion, the proceeds of which they spent in riotous living.

The sale of indulgences to secure funds for the building of St. Peter's, Rome, caused additional discontent. In return for contributions pardons were grante9I,by means of which certain pen- alties for sins were removed, after the purchaser had contritely confessed his sin and received absolution from a priest. This eventually wrung from the Protestant forces, represented by Martin

Luther, the claim that "Justification is by faith alone."

In Italy the people were generally disinterested in the

Reformation. They cared little for Church affairs, preferring the easy, yet dissipated, life characteristic of the Italian. There was no desire to leave the Mother Church, but there grew steadily, with the circulation of books, a noticeably higher plane of living very inconsistent with such corruption as existed in the Church and among its dignitaries.

The English rebellion, under the young Henry VIII., was a severe blow bo the power of Catholicism, and the most strenuous efforts of the pope could not prevent final separation and renun- ciation, (1534), when Henry became supreme head of the Church of England.

In France the Huguenots and Guises were' mixing religious

fervor with political intrigue, with the advantage shifting from

one side to the other, until the Treaty of St. Germain (1570) grant-

ed the largest toleration French Protestants had yet enjoyed.

With the famous Ninety-five Theses of Luther the Reform-

ation began to assume definite proportions. By 1544 not only had

two-thirds of Germany, with most of her nobility, revolted, but

Norway, Sweden; and Denmark, had likewise thrown off the papal yoke and reformed their churches. In Denmark, England, Scotland, and later in Ireland and the Netherlands, at various times from 1530 to 1560, and by various means, the monasteries were dissolved, either of themselves or by the state, Church courts were abol- ished, bishops were silenced or restrained, images were removed from churches, private mass was forbidden, the mass itself puri- fied, and the Church lands in these countries reverted to the vari ous states in which located.

The people, while protesting against the corruption at

Rome, were yet loyal at heart. They desired amicably to settle their difficulties, yet insisted that they be allowed a voice in the matter, all decisions to be based on the Bible. In the begin- ning Luther had no other idea than that of protesting against the sale of indulgences, but the opposition his theses artoused forced him to investigate Catholicism Tore closely, with the result that he found other teachings he could not accept.

In 1524 the Theatines and Capuchins were organized, also the Oratory of Divine Love. These were religious organizations.

They tried to exemplify the teachings of Jesus in their daily lives. They preached, taught, and cared for the poor and sick.

These organizations had a strong influence in causing the popes to make at least an attempt at reform.

Though the powerful Charles V. had seconded the demand of the people for a general council, still the popes disliked the

idea. To accede would mean a loss of power. A decreased revenue from the sale of indulgences would surely result. The pope feared he could not trust the bishops, and that to reform the Church would be to acknowledge the heretical Luther to be in the right,

and Luther was still at large with the Edict of Worms yet unexe-

cuted. Lastly, he would never yield to the demand that the people have an equal vote wit414Xi the clergy, nor any vote at all, for that would entirely upset the old idea of the divine inspiration attendant upon all acts of the clergy. He held that the people vote, and had no part in such things, hence were not competent to he never gave in.

But circumstances beyond the control of Rome gradually council. compelled the pope to acouiesce in tie demand for the was not The growing strength of Protestant belligerent forces to AdrianVl. without its influence. A letter written by Erasmus may have had some weight. The threat of. Charles V. to call a pope council himself, and to preside at its deliberations, if the sight of did not call one, was doubtless a factor. Never losing

the vital principles he cherished, theA b pan the plans for a cam- -) paign which was a model of diplomaCy.

On the accession of Clement VII. (1523-g4) the people were given a promise of a general council, but it must consist of the pope's appointees, and contrary to German opinion it was not to meet in Germany. These last conditions were rejected, which was what Clement wished and expected, for he could now claim that he had offered what had been the rule since apostolic days, and its rejection was no fault of his.

The pope made the first attempt to carry out his plans by calling a council at Mantua, but this failed because the Duke of Mantua refused to allow it to convene'in his territory. This and other things created a better feeling toward the pope, who now had opportunity to lay his plans more deeply.

Under Faul III. (1534-49) a commission of reform met at

Rome to consider the situation. Four cardinals, three bishops,

one abbott and the master of the palace were in attendance. They

found much need for reform, in that there were abuses and corrup-

tions in benefices, no care was taken as to fitness of appointees

for office, revenues were misemployed, simony and pluralism exis-

ted everywhere, episcopal residence was seldom found, and the peo- ple were correspondingly neglected. They found that exemptions were sold from almost everything, the monasteries werw disordered, the nunneries given to lewdness, the sacraments and religion 144re self contempted.

They could not shut their eyes to these things. They considered the sale of, indulgences to be demoralizing. They

Tound a multitude of defects. vet, unfortunately, they decided to allow the Church to go on in the same old way, and their good work was thus worse than useless.

As the sixteenth century advanced, the need for a council seemed greater than aver. Appeals were made for it to the pope by

princes and nations. Paul III., who was now pope, had been noted

for appointing only learned and pious men to the cardinalates, and

these men now framed the papal bull calling the first council in December, 1545. iii

In compliance with =the wishes of the German people, Trent

was finally decided upon as the place of meeting. This was in tie 461

territory of Ferdinand, close to the Italian frontier, and there- II fore of easy access to the pope. The German -French war kept these

peoples from attendance at this first meeting, so that there were

present only a few Italian prelates. King Ferdinand was in attend-

ance, the emperor being represented by his chancellor, Graneville.

They met "for the propagation of the faith, the elevation

of Christian religion, the uprooting of heresies, the restoration

of peace, the reformation of clergy and people, and the overthrow

of the enemies of the Christian name."

It would be a Herculean task to treat the sessions of the

Council of Trent individually. Briefly, they covered a period of eighteen years, during which time twenty-five sessions were held, at intervals of from one month to ten years. They are generally considered to have been three in number, and are treated by histor-

ians as follows: First session, December, 1545, to 1547; second one session, May, 1551; third session, January, 1562, to 1563. At Bologna, time (1547) the Council left Trent, going to but returning to Trent later. The first session was a failure. The pope refused to ad- mit laymen, and the emperor, in retaliation, allowed nothing to be

done. After weary weeks of delay and disappointment, the Council

adjourned.

Having been, in a measure, defeated, the pope now proceed-

ed to organize his fores and means for an effective canpaign. The

delays, therefore, while exasperating, were advantageous to him.

Excitement died down and passion cooled. The Protestants reduced

their claims to a more definite form, and the Catholics were thus

enabled to prepare to refute them. The pope saw clearly that he

could succeed only by cunning and diplomacy, and his appreciation

of the situation contributed very largely to his success.

Without the knowledge of Charles V., the pope suddenly

called the second Council of Trent. He sent a large majority of as to how Italian clergy, who were put under orders of a cardinal

to vote. Papal legates were given precedence, and they alone had

the privilege of proposing resolutions. means of a system of

couriers, all important matters to be voted la:0n were first sub-

mitted to the pope, who gave his orders for or against. A number

of the brightest of the Italian tools of the pope were detailed to

ridicule and otherwise obstruct and intimidate speakers who were

not in sympathy with their views, by asking irrelevant Lluestions, of and so forth. Some were even sent as spies to private meetings the opposition. refuse to rec- The pope knew that the Germans would either late. He determined, ognize this second Council or would come too in their absence, thus therefore, to put and carry certain matters throughout by reason securing an advantage he was able to maintain of his majority of votes.

One of the first things done was to decide which, among several versions, was the authentic Bible. The Vulgate was accept ed, it being the translation by St. Jerome at the close of the 4th century. Its origin was claimed to have been in Africa. Jerome translated the Old Testament from Hebrew and Chaldaic, and the New

Testament he revised from an older Latin version. The Council also showed the relation of the Holy Scripture to the teachings of the

Church, and explained the rule of interpretation, that which was most in accordance with the rulings handed down by the Church from age to age to be the chosen principle. The people suspected treach- ery, however, and this session, except for the advantage gained by the pope, was also a failure.

Under the pope's able lieutenant, Cardinal de Monte, the papal interests were more than well looked after. Al atters were discussed, settled, and decisions announced in public sessions.

Some of the questions decided were:

That Adam, by his fall, had deteriorated both in soul and body, the effects of which were transmitted to posterity, and these were removed by the merits of Christ and His grace in the sacrament of Baptism. that jus- That, in direct contradiction to Luther's claim comes tification is by faith, hence of the inner man, justification from the works done, therefore is external and superficial, coming from the mere performance of the duties of the Church. in That Christ is really, truly, substantially, present the sacrament of Holy Communion at the altar.f. of iittte That Communion is not necessary to the salvation children That the sacrament of marriage is indissoluble without

sufficient cause. Two witnesses were required to all marriages,

thus to prevent secret marriages.

That the Church had received of God the power to grant

indulgences.

The doctrines of penance, extreme unction, baptism and

confirmation, and the holy sacrifice of the mass, were settled/

Various decrees on reformation, on enforcing episcopal residence

and visitation, and on regulating the holding of benefices, whereby

the candidate had to show previous fitfness, were promulgated.

It is safe to say that no former gathering ever handled

so extensive a business, ove)(so extended a time, with such great

ability, nor so precisely and prudently defined so many doctrines.

Conservative and radical met on common ground, each holding the

other in check.

The Protestants lost a powerful weapon when the reforms were inaugurated in the Church. The Church, on the other hand,

paid more attention to religious doctrines and less to politics, resulting in a unification of all her adherents, thus preventing

compromise with the Protestants and giving her an advantage in the battle with the enemies of Catholicism.

The papacy had powerful helpers in the Jesuits (1534), whose immense numbers of thoroughly loyal adherents of the Church invaded the revolted realms of Protestantism as preachers and con- fessors, winning back hundreds of men to the Catholic faith. No less potent a factor was the work of the Inquisition at this criti- cal,period. No book could be published without its leave. It could, punish with imprisonment, confiscation, or death, against which there was no appeal except to the pope. The penalty was executed by the civil authorities. In Italy and Spain, particularly, it practically crushed the tide of rebellion against Rome wherever it appeared. The Church greatly strengthened herself and her cause in the enrichment of her services by introducing congregational sing - ing, by more frequent sermons, and the translation of tIle Bible into popular tongues and its circulation among the laity, thus en- thusing the half-hearted and making sure the loyal.

The results of the Council, to the Church and to the worla at large, were very far-reaching. Now Ulla clergy do not pass laws and enforce them upon the laity with spiritual censures. The priests now suffer for crimes as other men. Cross-questioning, fining, imprisoning, or burning, for religious views, are things of the dead past. The weapon of excommunication, once so potent, is now held in check by libel laws. Indulgence venders are no

The greatest result, perhaps, was a doctrinal equilibrium giving a necessary steadiness and a needed mental rest in an age filled with cruelty, devastating wars and inquisitorial tortures.

The popes of the sixteenth century:

Leo X. .(1513-21) Paul IV. (1555-59) Adrian VI. (1522-23) Pius IV. (1559-65) Clement VII. (1523-34) Pius V. (1566-72) Paul III. (1534-49) Gregory. XIII. (1572-8) Julius III. (1550-55) Sixtus V. (1585-90)