PROPAGANDA IN THE PROTESTANT

by

Courtney Suzanne Kriewald

A SENIOR THESIS

m

GENERAL STUDIES

Submitted to the General Studies Council in the College of Arts and Sciences at Texas Tech University in Partial fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of

BACHELOR OF GENERAL STUDIES

Approved

r • I YM. BELL Depa ent of History Chairperson of Thesis Committe$--

DR. MICHAEL PARKINSON School of Mass Communications Chairperson of Thesis Committee

Accepted

DR. MICHAELSCHOENECKE Director of General Studies

DECEMBER 2000 M^'f^^^

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

1 would like to thank Dr. Gary Bell and Dr. Michael Parkinson for their guidance

.39 and encouragement, and the General Studies program director and adviser. Dr. Michael T ,^ Schoenecke and Ms. Linda Gregston. Also, I would like to thank Tim Head, Courtnie

Smith, my sister, Lesley Kriewald, and my parents, Kay and Dennis Kriewald, for their

positive attitude, even when my thesis was in pieces. TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ii

LIST OF FIGURES iii

CHAPTER

I. INTRODUCTION 1

The Significance of the Printing Revolution to the Protestant Reformation 1

II. VISUAL PROPAGANDA AND ORAL TRADITION

IN THE PROTESTANT REFORMATION 8

III. THEMES OF PROTESTANT PROPAGANDA 16

Malevolency of the Roman 16

Protestant Martyrs 19

IV. THE PROPAGANDA AND PUBLIC RELATIONS TECHNIQUES OF THE PROTESTANT REFORMATION 28 The Successes of the 28

The Failures of the Church 35

V. Bibliography 39 LIST OF FIGURES

1.1 6

1.2 Johann Gensfleisch zum Gutenberg 7

2.1 Title page to Verhor und Acta vor dem Byschoff'von Meysen 13

2.2 Title page to Die Luterisch Strebkatz 13

2.3 The on the Ice 14

2.4 The and his Maid 14

2.5 Luther Leads the Faithful from Egyptian Darkness 15

3.1 The Spiritual Wolves 25

3.2 Title page to Das Deutsch and an illustration

in Czech edition of Luther from Vom Ambeten des Sakraments 26

3.3 Title page to Am anazaignng wie D. Martinus Luther zu Worms 27

4.1 Ignatius Loyola 38

IV I

INTRODUCTION

A public relations campaign is defined as a "connected series of operations designed to bring about a particular result; ... the term encompasses such related activities as publicity, promotion, special events, advertising, and organizational behavior, all coordinated to sway public opinion and/or behavior" (Kendall 520-21).

Although the notion of an organized public relations campaign is a fairly new idea, there have been several examples of public relations campaigns throughout history. The movement to abolish slavery or the movement for women's rights are just two examples of what could be considered public relations campaigns. But perhaps one of history's best examples of a successful public relations campaign is the Protestant Reformation.

The Protestant Reformation effectively challenged the dominant institution of sixteenth century Europe, the Roman , and established numerous Protestant religions. To this day, millions of people are followers of the faiths that arose follow ing the challenge to the established Church.

The Significance of the Printing Revolution to the Protestant Reformation

It is important to note that what is commonly considered the event that spurred the

Protestant Reformation — Martin Luther posting his ninety-five theses to the door of

Castle Church in Wittenburg, Germany on October 31, 1517 — is not the true beginning of the Reformation (Ozment x). Before Luther, there were several reformers who challenged the authority and questioned the practices of Catholicism (Figure 1.1). Jan

Hus in Czechoslovakia, Ulrich Zwingli in , and John Wyclif in England all rebelled against the Catholic Church before Luther. But the early reformers lacked an effective channel of communication to spread their message of reform. The reason

Martin Luther successfully spread his ideas was because a medium that could reach a large number of people in far away places quickly and efficiently was available — the medium of the pnnted word. Wyclif's and the other early Reformers' ideas spread slowly because it took so long to produce hand-written copies. However, Luther's ideas flooded Europe within months because they were printed (Lindberg 36). The printing press opened the door for Luther and other reformers to end the dominance of the Roman

Catholic Church.

The pnnting revolution is undoubtedly one of the greatest developments in human history. The creation of printing was not only a monumental event in the history of communications, but it also contributed to the transformation of society. For the first time in history, books were not restricted to , to the learned upper class, or to universities; the average person could possess a book. The new access to the printed word resulted in the spread of literacy and learning to an entire class of people previously unexposed to literature of any sort.

There are three important developments that led to the printing revolution — inexpensive paper, an ink of good quality, and the moveable-type pnnting press. Without these, printing would have never been possible. In 1295, Marco Polo introduced to

Europe linen rag paper from China. The materials that had been used previously for printing — papyrus from the swamps of the Nile and parchment made from sheepskin — were not only expensive, but were difficult to produce. The inexpensive linen rag paper made printing on a large scale financially feasible. Once a suitable paper was developed.

Europeans still lacked quality ink. However, it was found that mixing carbon with an oily solution produced ink that adhered to linen paper and was suitable for mass printing

(Lindberg 36).

The critical invention that spurred the printing revolution was not made, however, until the 1440s. In Germany, Johann Gensfleisch zum Gutenberg (Figure 1.2) invented the mov cable metal-type printing press (Steinberg 21). Before then, woodcuts, engravings, and drawings were mass produced, but no written tracts were available to a large number of people. The press made the printing of large amounts of text and numerous copies of text possible for the first time. Inspired in part by the presses wine makers used to squeeze grapes and the presses goldsmiths used to mint coins,

Gutenberg's printing press was durable, and the metal type could be rearranged so that the press could be reused (Clair 12). By 1450, Gutenberg's press was perfected enough to use commercially. Although Gutenberg's personal venture into the printing industry failed, other financially successful printers credited Gutenberg for spreading the technique and making the art of printing possible (Steinberg 22).

The printing industry initially flourished in Germany, along the Rhine River, w here printers established their businesses in commercial centers, and later in universities

(Buck 96). Strassburg, Mainz, and Cologne were the earliest centers for printing within

Germany (Clair 23-26). The Germans, the first printing masters, soon spread their art to other countries in order to reach untapped markets. Those with the skill and the financial backing emigrated, and by the end of the fifteenth century, more than two hundred

European cities and towns had printing presses (Lindberg 23. 36).

It did not take fifteenth-century Europeans long to realize the potential of

Gutenberg's printing press. Not only did printing represent technical mastery over a machine, but it was clear that the printed word had the power to influence human thought. Information could be spread easily and consistently to people all over Europe.

Europeans were introduced to new ideas, and creative endeavors unrelated to typical problems or scholarship were undertaken (Buck 93). Furthermore, in the new age of printing, books served as a means of transmitting opinions, where as previously books served to preserve and transmit knowledge (Lindberg 37). And what may be the most important characteristic of a culture with access to printed material, established orders and institutions could be challenged through widely distributed tracts and books.

The Protestant Reformation "'was the first movement of any kind, religious or secular, to use the new presses for overt propaganda and agitation against an established institution'" (Taylor 98). The leading Reformers, as well as their opponents, used the new printed medium in order to spread information and ideas "to wide audiences now exposed and subjected to an informational transmission capability unknown in any era previous to the sixteenth century" (Buck 95). In particular, Martin Luther became a master at using the printed word to change the course of religious history.

Luther certainly recognized the potential of printed material in challenging the

Catholic Church. In 1520, Luther published three treatises — To the Christian Nobility,

On the Freedom of a Christian, and On the Babylonian Captivity of the Church — that were so widespread that the treatises eventually became signature works of the

Reformation movement (Edwards 5). Luther also wrote books and translated the into German so that the more of the could read 's word. By the time of Luther's death in 1546, there were an estimated one million copies of his Bible in circulation

(Lindberg 37). In effect, Luther was the first best-selling author. But Reformation wnters, including Luther, did not limit themselves to books and theses. Pamphlets and brief printed tracts Hooded Europe dunng the early years of the

Reformation (Lindberg 37). Known ixs flugbldtter, meaning Hying leaves, and flugschriften, meaning Hying writings, the short printed pieces were perfect for distributing a revolutionary message (Lindberg 37, Edwards 15). The pamphlets were relatively inexpensive to produce and were easily concealed and distributed (Edwards

15). Furthermore, the pamphlets were available to all sixteenth-century Europeans. The laity could judge Church doctrine and papal decrees for themselves, a direct threat to the authority of the Church, which would rather have members of the interpret Church law for the laity (Edwards 57-58).

Reformation writers, especially Martin Luther, used the printing press to their advantage. From 1520 to 1526, Luther alone was responsible for approximately twenty percent of the total number of pamphlets produced and distributed (Edwards 17). And from 1518 to 1525, there were eleven times as many printings of Luther's works than any other Evangelical writer (Edwards 27). To Luther, printing was the method by which

God had chosen to free the German people from the "corruption" of Rome (Taylor 98). Figure 1.1 Martin Luther

One of the many illustrations of Martin Luther to be included in Reformation propaganda ("Luther as Spin-Doctor?" 26) I F. A N G V nr '^ K ^! Vi T. K

Figure 1.2 Johann GensHeisch zum Gutenberg

Although there are no known authentic portraits of Gutenberg, this is one of the many imaginary portraits in existence (Clair 7). CHAPTER II

VISUAL PROPAGANDA AND ORAL TRADITION IN THE PROTESTANT REFORMATION

Obviously, the Protestant propaganda that was printed was directed to the people who had the ability to read. But the literate population in Germany was severely limited, even after the development of the printing press. Literacy was restricted geographically and socially: literacy was concentrated in towns, among the upper class and clergy, and in the "more culturally advanced" southwest region of Germany (Scribner 1). A conservative estimate of literacy rates at the beginning of the sixteenth century include a thirty percent literacy rate in urban areas, but only a five-percent rate of literacy overall

(Lindberg 36). Urban areas had higher literacy rates than rural areas because there were more people connected to business and trade in urban areas who needed to read in order to conduct business (Buck 95).

Europeans who could not read relied on visual images from woodcuts, engravings, drawings, and the spoken word as the primary means for acquiring knowledge. Because the majority of the European population leamed from visual images and speech, Reformers knew that printed propaganda would have a limited effect. Many

Reformers believed more of the laity could be converted through oral communication than through wnting (Buck 97). In an example of what Marshall McLuhan referred to as the "hybridization of media," the Reformation propagandists read, wrote, lectured from text, and interpreted visual images to spread their message (Scribner 3). "The combination of oral methods with printed materials as sources of information created a new 'cultural mix" that was essentially a new force in the sixteenth century" (Buck 97). Society as a whole during the Protestant Reformation was a society accustomed to visual images. The Roman Catholic Church played a significant role in developing a culture that was in large part dependant on visual images, such as pagentry, morality plays, and by displaying relics, a form of "visual piety," to which sixteenth-century

Europeans had become accustomed and by telling Biblical stories through stained-glass church windows (Scribner 4). Reformation propagandists capitalized on society's religious dependence on visual elements by designing woodcuts and other pictures with a

Reformation theme. McLuhan believed that printing "extended man's visual ability" because printing developed with mass pictorial representation (Scribner 5). While printing allowed for a written statement to be exactly repeated, the woodcut print created an exactly repeatable visual statement. Prints thus fulfilled the same communication function for the illiterate and the semi-literate that printing fulfilled for the literate.

Woodcuts were the first items produced that served as a means of visual mass communication. Woodcuts were cheap, easy to produce, and could be read and interpreted easily. However, woodcuts became "hybridized" with print to produce woodcut broadsheets. The addition of written words to a printed image was an advantage to the artists because words reduced ambiguity in the meaning of the image. Artists could explain the intended meaning of a piece, leaving nothing to be interpreted by a . Broadsheets also provided the opportunity for an oral interchange. or laity readers could share the meaning of a picture, and expound further on the issue to a large, illiterate audience. Broadsheets "thus served as a meeting point between the illiterate, the semi-literate, and the literate" (Scribner 6). Those with no, little, or advanced reading skills could all conclude the same meaning from a broadsheet. Visual images were not restricted to just woodcuts. A large portion of the early

Reformation books incorporated a large amount of visual aids, specifically included to widen the audience beyond the literate (Taylor 98). Reformation books were aimed at three different audiences: those who could read pictures, those who could read German, and those who could read Latin (Scribner 3). While the role of the written text of the books was to explain the evils of the Catholic Church and the benefits of the new

"Reformation," the role of the visual images was to concentrate the reader's attention on spiritual truths and to extend the audience beyond the literate (Scribner 115).

There was a low level of theological content in visual propaganda. Reformation propagandists realized that it was best to keep the message simple and in common terms.

One way this was accomplished was by comparing the struggle between Catholics and

Protestant to the struggle between two opponents in a game. Illustrations depicting tug- of-war (Figure 2.1) or jousting matches (Figure 2.2) were used to emphasize the struggle between the Protestants and Catholics (Scribner 60-61).

Protestant propaganda also accomplished simplicity by using a sixteenth century prototype of modem comic strips (Figures 2.3 and 2.4). Simple and direct, the early, religiously themed comic strips blended visual signs and rudimentary literacy skills to tell a story (Scribner 38). Comic strips, as well as other types of visual propaganda, relied on humor. Humor "[reduced] the high and serious to the level of the comic and mundane," a level that a broader audience could comprehend (Scribner 62). Catholic cardinals were dressed as fools, and stately hunts of the upper class were parodied into hunts for clergy

(Scribner 62). Luther's opponents were also portrayed as foolish or demonic animals in

10 order to reduce the respectability of the Catholic Church so that the laity would be more open to new religious ideas.

Protestant propagandists did not rely solely on denigration of the Catholic Church to persuade. While bringing down the image of the Church, Reformers had to boost

Protestant ideas. Positive images of the leading Reformer, Martin Luther, were used in contrast to the negative images of the old Church. Luther's life and persecution were directly compared to the life and persecution of in several forms. For example. Reformation propagandists compared Luther's 1521 trial at Worms to Christ's

Passion. Visual images of Luther's hearing were consciously and consistently made similar to visual images of Christ's Passion up until the end when Christ was crucified but Luther's books were burned (Scribner 21). Luther was depicted in other ways besides visual comparisons to Christ. Reformation propagandists visually compared

Luther to another Biblical figure, . In the woodcut titled "Luther Leads the

Faithful from Egyptian Darkness" (Figure 2.5), Luther led the faithful Protestants out of the dark — presumably of the Catholic Church — and into the light of the Protestant faith

(Scnbner 27). Luther was also portrayed as a monk, doctor, teacher of the Bible, and a (Edwards 83).

The visual propaganda of the Reformation was not the only method to reach the illiterate of the sixteenth century. While visual images did play a significant role in converting the people, the culture of the Reformation period was accustomed to oral interchange (Ozment 46). Songs and rhymed couplets that were easily remembered by the illiterate were popular means of disseminating Reformation propaganda (Chrisman

268, Scnbner 39). But the principal medium of medieval propaganda was the pulpit, and

11 the advent of the printing press did not put it into decline. In fact, there was a resurgence in the importance of from the pulpit dunng the Reformation because sermons were equally effective at communicating to the literate and illiterate. Both Catholics and

Protestants used sermons to convey to the laity the true message (Taylor 97-98). In fact, most members of the laity leamed of the Reformation from sermons as well as conversation (Edwards 37).

Often, the oral tradition of sixteenth-century society combined with the new

pnnted medium through preaching and public oratory. Reformation pamphlets were

intended to be read aloud as well as to be read in private (Ozment 46). Thus the

combination of the old and new media was a "potent agent of change" (Buck 96).

""Faith," as Luther stressed, 'comes by hearing'" (Lindberg 36). Figure 2.1 Title page to Verhor und Acta vor dem Byschoff von Meysen (Scribner 60)

Figure 2.2 Title page to Die Luterisch Strebkatz (Scribner 61)

Woodcuts depicting Catholic clergy participating in foolish games not only simplified Protestant propaganda, but also made the clergy appear foolish.

13 Figure 2.3 The Abbot on the Ice (Scribner 26)

Figure 2,4 The Monk and his Maid (Scribner 27)

Early versions of comic books included in Protestant propaganda allowed those with minimal reading skills to understand printed messages.

14 Figure 2.5 Luther Leads the Faithful from Egyptian Darkness (Scribner 30)

Comparisons of Luther to Biblical figures enhanced the credibility of the Protestant Reformation.

\5 CHAPTER III

THEMES OF PROTESTANT PROPAGANDA

While Reformers used a variety of media to get their message of to the

European laity of the sixteenth century, the Reformers often used the same themes in their messages. The themes of the malevolency of the Catholic institution and the importance of Protestant martyrs were used consistently and effectively in a large proportion of Protestant propaganda.

Malevolency of the Roman Catholic Church

One general theme that Protestant writers conveyed was that of the malevolence of the Catholic Church and the in particular. Luther knew that in order to win over new followers, had to overcome the stigma of being heretical. To do this.

Reformers had to convince the people to forget the old. Catholic faith that had existed for centuries and which was engrained into every aspect of society. Simply put, the

Reformers needed to convince the laity that the new faith was the only faith that would lead to salvation. Therefore, Luther and other Evangelical writers portrayed the Catholic

Church as an enemy of the and consequently of Christ himself, and as a proponent of a false religion that would lead its followers into damnation (Scribner 57).

In a process that is known as negative assimilation, the Reformers attempted to convince the laity of "the rightness of the evangelical cause by its opposition to exposure of religious abuses," especially those abuses committed within monasteries (Scribner

246). From the beginning of the Reformation, a large proportion of Luther's propaganda was directed against the institution of monasticism (Scribner 37). Luther's frequent criticisms of included drunkenness, gluttony, sexual immorality, the wealth of the

16 regular clergy, and the selling of indulgences (Scnbner 38). Visual propaganda, including woodcuts, depicted the immoral excess of the monks and other clergymen

(Scribner 97). By associating monks with an un-Christian lifestyle, propagandists hoped that the laity would begin to associate monks with anti-Christian beliefs. Then, it was hoped that the laity would take the association one step further by believing that all facets of the Roman Catholic Church were evil. Through a chain of association, Protestant writers and artists hoped to lead the people to believe that every aspect of the Catholic

Church was un-Christian (Scribner 48).

Protestant propaganda also took an apocalyptic tone when discrediting the

Catholic Church. A serious fixation of sixteenth century was the salvation of the soul and, more specifically, when the soul would be judged (Scribner 115). Laity concerned with damnation were also concerned about what faith was the right faith.

Protestant propagandists used this concern to their advantage in two ways. First, the writers attempted to link the with the papacy. Antichrist and papal comparisons were achieved by directly stating that the Catholic Church was an agent of

Satan and through dichotomous elements in illustrations. Propaganda that claimed the

Antichrist was among the Catholic clergy was abundant in the Reformation penod. The aim of this particular type of propaganda was to coerce the laity into believing that the established Church would lead to damnation, while Protestantism was the true faith that

would lead to salvation. Illustrations also had an eschatological tone that tended to link the Catholic Church to the Antichrist. Woodcuts such as the one titled "The Spiritual

Wolves" (Figure 3.1) from the 1520s show a binary structure suggesting Catholic

damnation and Protestant salvation. The side in which Catholic monks stand is the

17 darker right side with no vegetation. The Protestant side, showing a crucified Jesus

Christ, is lighter and has vegetation and thriving animal life. The contrast between life and death and between dark and light was used to portray the good and evil of the two religions (Scribner 56).

In the second method, Protestant propagandists used the notion of the apocalypse to their advantage was by depicting Martin Luther as an apocalyptic angel sent by God to save the people from the evils of the Catholic Church. In 1523, Haug Marschaick claimed Luther was a messenger from heaven sent to expose the Antichrist's identity

(Scribner 21). Pamphlets from the 1520s (Figure 3.2) portray Luther as an apocalyptic angel sent from heaven (Scribner 20). Seeing the success of Protestant propagandists identifying Luther as an agent of God, Catholic propagandists tried to counter the success by attempting in 1529 to identify Luther as an agent of Satan. However, "it was too little too late"" because "the papacy had already been identified too successfully with the monstrous and with the beast of the apocalypse by numerous works of evangelical propaganda" (Scribner 233).

The in papal malevolence was also a significant element in Reformation propaganda. Luther's attacks on papal customs acted "as a profession of disbelief in its power and efficacy" (Scribner 83). But perhaps the most prevalent strategy in depicting the malice of the pope was drawing contrasts between the biblical and the anti-Christ-like behavior of the pope (Ozment 48). This strategy was used in both written and pictorial propaganda. For example, the Figure3.3 is a woodcut that depicts the pope in league with Satan (Scribner 24). The images of an un-Christian pope directly attacked the laity's belief that the pope was a moral compass on the path towards salvation.

If the Reformers hoped to convince the laity that their religious leader was un-

Chnstian, the Reformers had to promote a new religious leader. Often, the pope's replacement was Martin Luther. In the same woodcut that depicted Catholic officials as wolves, Luther is shown warding off danger with a Bible and a pen, a symbol of Luther's writings in defense of the true faith (Scribner 27). Protestant wnters and artists cast

Luther in a special light, one inspired by popular traditions and Biblical scripture that appealed to the masses (Edwards 12). Because of numerous woodcuts and pamphlets praising Luther, the German laity viewed Luther as "an earnest and constructive and man of the Bible concerned for the religious well-being of the laity"" (Edwards 11).

Popular woodcuts that depicted Luther surrounded by a halo and overshadowed by a hovering dove contrasted greatly to depictions of the pope portrayed as a "servant of the devil, enthroned in hell" ("Luther as Spin-Doctor?" 27). Various other depictions and descriptions of Luther, as a teacher, a doctor, or a religious leader, all contributed to the popular perception of Luther as charismatic and dynamic.

Protestant Martyrs

Another popular theme of Protestant propagandists was the concept of martyrdom. The notion of martyrs and the development of their image always has been a central theme of since the time of the Apostles (Dickens 42). Historians of the early church believed a martyr was a witness, "one who throughout his life and death testified to the reality of Christian revelation" (Dickens 40). Martyrs served as examples of the ideals toward which all Christians were to strive. Jesus Christ himself was a

19 martyr to the Christian faith. In turn, Christ was viewed as an ideal for all followers of the faith. When the Protestant movement acquired its own martyrs due to persecution by

Catholics, propagandists for the new faith did not fail to exploit this common theme of

Chiistianity.

In the eariy years of the movement, Protestants endured sanctioned persecution, both civically and physically. Any type of persecution — whether it was a law passed against Protestant practices or a physical massacre of Protestants — was used in propaganda to further the Protestant cause by demonstrating the evil of the Roman

Catholic Church. For example, in France in 1534, King Francis 1. a Catholic, banned all pnnting and bumed Protestant heretics at the stake because of an anti-Catholic broadsheet that was distributed throughout Paris. Francis' actions not only created Protestant martyrs whose devoutness invoked admiration and respect, but it also resulted in a wave of Protestant publications praising the bravery of the martyrs and lambasting Catholics

(Taylor 100). Also, anti-Catholic printers in Strasbourg stressed to the German laity the injustices French and Dutch Protestants suffered because of their faith (Chrisman 260).

Just like Jesus Christ, those Protestants that were persecuted and ultimately martyred became examples to other Protestants. They also provided "reserves of strength for future generations through the pages of historians" (Dickens 39).

Martin Luther wrote one of the earliest pamphlets published on a Protestant worthy of being martyred in 1525 (Dickens 40). In a pamphlet entitled The Bunting of

Brother Henry in Dithmarschen, Luther commemorated Heinrich of Zutphen, an

Augustinian monk killed in Wittenburg because of his belief in the Protestant faith

(Dickens 40). Luther wanted the laity as well as other clergy to know about Zutphen's dedication to the new faith. The title page of Luther's pamphlet depicted the victim tied to a ladder that had one end in a fire while two gluttonous Catholic monks joyously looked on (Dickens 40). The pamphlet is an example of the heavy emphasis on visual images that went along with the commemoration of martyrs.

The pamphlets produced by Reformers were an early form of Protestant martyrology. Eventually, the new Christian martyrs were preserved in a new context, the martyr book. One of the first martyrlogical authors was the Englishman William

Tyndalc. In his book The Obedience of a Christian Man, Tyndale wrote about a

Protestant king persecuted and humiliated by the papacy. Another English martyrlogical writer was John Bale. At one point in his life. Bale was a Catholic . Bale later became a church historian, offering an "ultra-Protestant" version of church history. In

Image ofbothe churches and Acts ofEnglysh votaryes. Bales stressed the immorality in the monasteries that he himself witnessed (Dic