Polyculturalism and Attitudes Toward Muslim Americans

Home , Nationality, Polyculturalism

Peace and Conﬂict: Journal of Peace Psychology © 2015 American Psychological Association 2015, Vol. 21, No. 4, 535–545 1078-1919/15/$12.00 http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/pac0000133 Polyculturalism and Attitudes Toward Muslim Americans

Lisa Rosenthal Sheri R. Levy, Margarita Katser, Pace University and Cartney Bazile Stony Brook University

Polyculturalism is the belief that different racial and ethnic groups, both historically and contemporarily, have interacted, exchanged ideas, and inﬂuenced each other’s cultures. Endorsement of polyculturalism involves viewing cultures as dynamic and constantly changing, as well as deeply connected to each other through different racial and ethnic groups’ interactions and shared histories. Our past work in diverse samples in the U.S. has found that endorsement of polyculturalism is associated with less support for social inequality, more positive attitudes toward diversity, and lower racial/ethnic-, gender-, and sexual identity-based prejudice. Given heightened levels of prejudice faced by Muslim Americans in the U.S. currently, we aimed to explore in the current investigation whether polyculturalism can help us understand attitudes toward Muslim Amer- icans. We found with both community adults across the U.S. (via craigslist; Study 1) and undergraduates at a university in the Northeastern U.S. (Study 2) that endorsement of polyculturalism was associated with less negative and more positive intergroup and policy attitudes as well as behavioral intentions toward Muslim Americans. These associations persisted when controlling for potentially confounding sociodemographic variables, such as age, gender, nativity, and race/ethnicity (both studies), as well as other established predictors of intergroup attitudes, including social dominance orientation and right-wing authoritarianism (Study 2). Consistent with past studies, these results suggest endorsement of polyculturalism is associated with more positive attitudes toward Muslim Americans in addition to other intergroup attitudes. Studying polyculturalism may be important for us to understand and improve intergroup attitudes and dynamics in an increasingly globalized, diverse world.

Keywords: diversity, intergroup attitudes, Muslims, Muslim Americans, polyculturalism

Arab, Middle Eastern, and Muslim Ameri- since September 11, 2001 (Jenkins, Ruppel, cans have faced heightened levels of prejudice, Kizer, Yehl, & Grifﬁn, 2012; Raiya, Pargament, stereotyping, and discrimination in the U.S. Mahoney, & Trevino, 2008). The events of that

LISA ROSENTHAL received her PhD in social and health MARGARITA KATSER received her Bachelor’s Degree psychology from Stony Brook University in 2011 and then in psychology from Stony Brook University in 2013. completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the Center for She has assisted in conducting research within the Interdisciplinary Research on AIDS at Yale University. sphere of prejudice and intergroup relations and has a She is currently an assistant professor in Psychology De- This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. vested interest in studying factors which contribute to partment of the New York City campus of Pace University.

This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly. discrimination and bias. She is currently working on her Her research focuses on stigma and social justice, includ- doctoral degree at Stony Brook University’s School of ing seeking to understand how experiences with discrimi- Dental Medicine. nation and inequality contribute to disparities. CARTNEY BAZILE majored in psychology at Stony Brook SHERI R. LEVY received her PhD in psychology from Co- lumbia University in New York City, USA. She is currently University, where he was the President of the student an associate professor in the Department of Psychology at organization Minorities in Psychology. He has worked on Stony Brook University in New York, USA. She studies research focused on prejudice, intergroup relations, and factors that cause and maintain prejudice, stigmatization, and diversity in educational settings. negative intergroup relations and that can be harnessed to CORRESPONDENCE CONCERNING THIS ARTICLE should be reduce bias, marginalization, and discrimination. Her research addressed to Lisa Rosenthal, Psychology Department, Pace focuses on bias based on age, ethnicity, gender, nationality, University, 41 Park Row, 13th Floor, Room 1317, New race, sexual orientation, social class, and weight. York, NY 10038. E-mail: [email protected]

535 536 ROSENTHAL, LEVY, KATSER, AND BAZILE

day, along with subsequent increases in repre- 2003). These historians have provided evidence sentations of these groups as “terrorists” in mass of ways that different racial and ethnic groups media, military actions in Iraq and Afghanistan, around the world have interacted and influenced government profiling and detaining of people each other’s cultures over time and continue to from these groups accused of “terrorism,” as do so today. For example, Prashad (2001) doc- well as other factors have been a part of this umented the pan-African and pan-Asian (in ad- increase in already existing negative attitudes dition to other) influences that created and con- toward Muslim, Arab, and Middle Eastern tributed to the evolution of Kung Fu, although Americans. Facing these heightened levels of this martial art form is often thought of as solely interpersonal prejudice, stereotyping, discrimi- an East Asian cultural product. Also, Flint nation, and threat of and/or actual physical vi- (2006) has written about the ways that people of olence by other people, as well as institutional- African and Indian descent in South Africa have ized discrimination, has many adverse shared ideas and practices and together influ- consequences for these groups (Amer & enced health and medicine in contemporary Bagasra, 2013). Therefore, it is important to South Africa. understand factors that contribute to attitudes Bringing this concept into psychology, we toward these groups and that can potentially be began to examine individual differences in en- harnessed to reduce this prejudice. dorsement of or belief in polyculturalism, and Experimental and correlational studies in the the associations with intergroup attitudes U.S. have found various factors that contribute (Rosenthal & Levy, 2010). From a psychologi- to more positive or more negative attitudes to- cal perspective, endorsing polyculturalism in- ward Muslim Americans, such as perceptions of volves thinking of cultures and people as prod- threat to Western values (Matthews & Levin, ucts of historical and contemporary interactions 2012), imagined intergroup contact (Turner & and influences among many different groups Crisp, 2010), authoritarianism, patriotism, and (Kelley, 1999), recognizing ways that we are all religious traditionalism (Kalkan, Layman, & deeply and dynamically connected to people of Uslaner, 2009). And, some research has sug- other cultures by intersecting histories and gested that attitudes toward Muslim Americans shared cultural influences (Prashad, 2003), and may be driven by and be similar to attitudes viewing cultures as constantly changing be- toward other marginalized groups in the U.S., cause of these intergroup interactions. Even and because of this may be influenced by beliefs though polyculturalism is not a lay term, lay about diversity (Kalkan et al., 2009). people may still endorse polyculturalism, espe- In this investigation, we explore the role of cially in the U.S. or other places where every- polyculturalism, an individual difference belief day cross-cultural influences are at least some- about the connections and influences among times discussed, such as with art, food, music, different racial and ethnic groups that shows or politics. As one example, someone in the promise in contributing to a fuller understand- U.S. might think about influences from all racial ing of attitudes toward Muslim Americans. and ethnic groups in the U.S., as well as cultures from around the world, in creating Jazz in its Polyculturalism many forms and various aspects of the culture around Jazz. Endorsement of polyculturalism is Polyculturalism is the belief that different presumed to foster more positive racial, ethnic, This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. racial and ethnic groups both historically and and religious intergroup attitudes and behaviors This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly. contemporarily have interacted, exchanged by de-emphasizing cultural boundaries and em- ideas, and influenced each other’s cultures phasizing connections among members of dif- (Rosenthal & Levy, 2010, 2012, 2013). Thus, ferent groups, while still recognizing the impor- endorsement of polyculturalism involves view- tance of these identities (see Rosenthal & Levy, ing cultures as dynamic and constantly chang- 2012). Greater endorsement of polyculturalism ing, as well as deeply connected to each other was expected to be associated with believing through different racial and ethnic groups’ mu- more in social equality among different groups, tual interactions and cultural influences. The being more comfortable with and appreciative concept of polyculturalism was introduced by of diversity, and being more interested in inter- historians Kelley (1999) and Prashad (2001, acting with people from backgrounds other than POLYCULTURALISM 537

one’s own (Rosenthal & Levy, 2010; Rosenthal cultures around the world for centuries, includ- & Levy, 2012). ing those in the U.S. We can see influences of Our past work across many samples of di- Islamic cultures in architecture (e.g., arches), art verse undergraduate and graduate students as (e.g., pottery, textiles), food (e.g., ice cream, well as adult community members in the U.S. spices), and science (e.g., algebra, the scientific indicates that endorsement of polyculturalism is method), as just a few examples. Individuals indeed associated with less support for social who endorse polyculturalism more might be inequality, more positive attitudes toward diver- more knowledgeable about some specific exam- sity, and lower racial/ethnic- (Rosenthal & ples of Muslims’ influences on different cul- Levy, 2012), gender- (Rosenthal, Levy, & Mili- tures. And, even if they did not know specific tano, 2014), and sexual identity-based prejudice examples, because endorsement of polycultur- (Rosenthal, Levy, & Moss, 2012). We have also alism on a broad level involves recognition that found that in both the U.S. and the Philippines, cultures influence each other, individuals en- endorsement of polyculturalism is associated dorsing polyculturalism would be expected to with more positive attitudes toward immigrants assume Islamic cultures have influenced and (Bernardo, Rosenthal, & Levy, 2013). Across continue to influence other cultures. these studies, polyculturalism explains unique variance in intergroup attitudes, while control- The Current Investigation ling for many well-known predictors of intergroup attitudes, including assimilation, color- In the current investigation, we aimed to test blindness, conservatism, egalitarianism, gender the hypothesis that endorsement of polycultur- and race essentialism, gender and racial/ethnic alism is associated with more positive and less identification, multiculturalism, positive self- negative attitudes and behavioral intentions to- beliefs, right-wing authoritarianism, social ward Muslim Americans among both adult dominance orientation, and sociodemographics. community members and college students in the Further, these associations have been found U.S. We aimed to assess a broad range of both with a neutral (neither positively nor negatively positive and negative attitudes, affect, and be- framed) set of items meant to assess belief in haviors toward Muslim Americans across the polyculturalism as an understanding of cultures two studies, including allophilia (positive atti- in general. Taken together, these past findings tudes, like, or love of a group; Studies 1 and 2), suggest that viewing cultures as dynamically intergroup anxiety (anxiety experienced when connected to each other through interaction and interacting with members of a group; Study 1), influence is associated with more positive atti- behavioral intentions (willingness for contact tudes toward diversity in many forms and to- with members of a group; Studies 1 and 2), ward various social groups. interest in knowing about or helping with issues Because of the heightened levels of prejudice faced by a group (Study 1), and support for faced by Muslim Americans in the U.S. cur- policies that could positively or negatively af- rently, it is important for research to continue to fect a group (Studies 1 and 2). In testing our explore factors that can explain differences in, hypothesis, we assessed and controlled for po- and potentially be leveraged to, improve atti- tentially confounding sociodemographic vari- tudes toward Muslim Americans. Given that ables, including age, gender, nativity, and race/ past research suggests attitudes toward Muslim ethnicity (Studies 1 and 2), as well as other This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. Americans may be influenced by beliefs about well-established predictors of intergroup atti- This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly. diversity (Kalkan et al., 2009), and building on tudes, including social dominance orientation our past work on endorsement of polycultural- and right-wing authoritarianism (Study 2). ism finding that it is associated with more positive attitudes toward diversity and social equal- Study 1 ity (Rosenthal & Levy, 2012), we aimed to explore in the current investigation whether Study 1 aimed to test the association of en- studying polyculturalism can specifically con- dorsement of polyculturalism with attitudes to- tribute to an understanding of attitudes toward ward Muslim Americans among a sample of Muslim Americans. Muslims from many cul- adults from cities across the U.S., while con- tures and parts of the world have influenced trolling for potentially confounding sociodemo- 538 ROSENTHAL, LEVY, KATSER, AND BAZILE

graphic characteristics, including age, gender, group anxiety, adapted for this study to refer to nativity, and race/ethnicity. Muslim Americans (e.g., “I would feel nervous if I had to sit alone in a room with a Muslim Method American and start a conversation”; Britt, Bon- ieci, Vescio, Biernat, & Brown, 1996; ␣ϭ.84) Participants and procedure. A total of on a scale of 1 (Strongly Disagree)to7 ϭ 166 adults (114 women, 52 men; Mage 32.87, (Strongly Agree). SD ϭ 12.59; 103 White, 20 Latino, 12 Black, 7 Behavioral intentions. Participants com- Asian, 24 Other or Multiracial/ethnic; 150 born pleted the established 12-item Behavioral Inten- in the U.S., 16 born outside the U.S.) were tions measure, which assesses willingness for recruited via craigslist and completed an online intergroup contact, and which was adapted for survey. Participants were recruited from the fol- this study to refer to Muslim Americans (e.g., lowing 28 cities’ craigslist sites across the U.S.: How willing you would be to “have a Muslim Birmingham, Alabama; Anchorage, Alaska; American as a close friend?”; Esses & Dovidio, Phoenix, Arizona; Scottsdale, Arizona; Long 2002; ␣ϭ.94) on a scale of 1 (Strongly Dis- Beach, California; Sacramento, California; San agree)to7(Strongly Agree). Diego, California; Santa Ana, California; Au- Interest in Muslim American issues. rora, Colorado; Washington, DC; Hialeah, Flor- Participants responded to the question, “How ida; Jacksonville, Florida; Fort Wayne, Indiana; interested would you be in knowing about or Wichita, Kansas; Detroit, Michigan; Omaha, helping with the issues faced by Muslim Amer- Nebraska; Reno, Nevada; Newark, New Jersey; icans?” on a scale of 1 (Not at all interested)to Buffalo, New York; Greensboro, North Caro- 10 (Very interested). lina; Cleveland, Ohio; Portland, Oregon; Phila- Policy attitudes. Participants reported on a delphia, Pennsylvania; Corpus Christi, Texas; scale of 1 (Oppose Strongly)to4(Favor El Paso, Texas; Houston, Texas; Virginia Strongly) their attitudes toward four policies: Beach, Virginia; Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Partic- (a) “the government limiting the number of ipants were entered into a raffle for the potential Muslims allowed to get visas to visit the U.S. as to win one of ten $25 gift cards. An additional tourists”; (b) “the practice of racial profiling by 16 adults completed the survey, but were ex- police or security of Muslim Americans in air- cluded from analyses because they identified as ports and other places”; (c) a policy that makes Muslim or Muslim American. And, an addi- it illegal for police or security to racially profile tional nine complete entries were removed be- Muslim Americans”; (d) “the building of more cause of it being a participant who completed mosques in your area.” We examined each of the survey more than once (determined based on these policy attitudes separately because of their IP address, name, and email address). distinct implications. Measures Polyculturalism. Participants completed an Results and Discussion established 5-item measure of endorsement of polyculturalism (e.g., “Different cultural groups Table 1 displays means, standard deviations, impact one another, even if people in those and bivariate correlations for Study 1. A series groups are not completely aware of the impact”; of eight stepwise regression analyses were con- Rosenthal & Levy, 2012; ␣ϭ.92) on a scale of ducted for allophilia, intergroup anxiety, will- This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. 1(Strongly Disagree)to7(Strongly Agree). ingness for contact, interest in Muslim Ameri- This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly. Allophilia. Participants completed an es- can issues, and the four policy questions as tablished 17-item measure of allophilia, or pos- outcome variables. These analyses all included itive attitudes toward outgroups, adapted for polyculturalism as the main predictor variable this study to refer to Muslim Americans (e.g., of interest entered in Step 2 of the regressions “In general, I have positive attitudes about Mus- by itself, as well as control variables for age, lim Americans”; Pittinsky, Rosenthal, & Mon- gender, nativity, and race/ethnicity (as 4 dum- toya, 2011; ␣ϭ.95) on a scale of 1 (Strongly my-coded variables for Asian, Black, Latino, Disagree)to7(Strongly Agree). and White) entered together in Step 1 of the Intergroup anxiety. Participants com- regressions. Results of Step 2 of the regression pleted an established 11-item measure of inter- analyses are in Table 2. Consistent with hypoth- POLYCULTURALISM 539

Table 1 Bivariate Correlations, Means, and Standard Deviations for Study 1 (N ϭ 166)

123456789 1. Polyculturalism ءAllophilia .20 .2 ءءϪ.50 ءIntergroup anxiety Ϫ.20 .3 ءءϪ.51 ءء69. ءءBehavioral intentions .39 .4 ءء45. ءءϪ.30 ءءInterest in Muslim American issues .15 .48 .5 ءϪ.17 ءءϪ.36 ءء49. ءءϪ.29 ءءLimiting tourist visas Ϫ.25 .6 ءء68. ءءϪ.22 ءءϪ.33 ءء40. ءءϪ.27 ءءRacial proﬁling Ϫ.30 .7 ءءϪ.34 ءءϪ.21 ءء39. ءء43. ءϪ.20 ءء35. ءءPolicy making racial proﬁling illegal .28 .8 ءءϪ.14 Ϫ.04 .37 ءء47. ءء53. ءءϪ.29 ءء61. ءBuilding more mosques in area .19 .9 M 5.55 4.54 3.28 5.28 5.30 1.92 1.92 2.55 2.62 SD 1.25 1.14 1.07 1.29 2.56 .88 .99 1.10 .84 .p Ͻ .01 ءء .p Ͻ .05 ء

eses, endorsement of polyculturalism was sig- Method nificantly associated with greater allophilia toward Muslim Americans, lower intergroup Participants and procedure. A total of ϭ ϭ anxiety toward Muslim Americans, greater will- 228 (132 women, 96 men; Mage 19.03, SD ingness for contact with Muslim Americans, 2.46) undergraduates (102 Asian, 75 White, 23 and greater interest in knowing about or helping Black, 18 Latino, 10 Other or Multiracial/ with Muslim American issues. Also consistent ethnic; 163 born in the U.S., 65 born outside the with hypotheses, endorsement of polycultural- U.S.) at a midsized public university in the ism was significantly associated with less sup- Northeastern U.S. completed an online survey port for limiting tourist visas to the U.S. for and received Psychology subject pool participa- Muslims and for racial profiling of Muslim tion credit for their participation. An additional Americans, as well as more support for a policy 14 students completed the survey, but were ex- that would make racial profiling of Muslim cluded from analyses because they identified as Americans illegal and for building more Muslim or Muslim American. mosques in one’s area. Results support that Measures. Participants completed the same even while controlling for potentially confound- measures for polyculturalism (␣ϭ.91), allophilia ing sociodemographic variables, greater en- (␣ϭ.95), and behavioral intentions (␣ϭ.93) as dorsement of polyculturalism is associated with from Study 1. Participants also responded to two more positive and less negative attitudes toward of the same policy questions from Study 1, regard- Muslim Americans, including for relevant pol- ing limiting the number of tourist visas to the U.S. icies and behavioral intentions for contact with for Muslims and racial profiling of Muslim Amer- Muslim Americans. icans in airports and other places. Social dominance orientation. Participants Study 2 completed the established 14-item measure of social dominance orientation, or support for so- This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. Study 2 aimed to test the association of en- cial hierarchy and inequality (e.g., “It’s OK if This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly. dorsement of polyculturalism and attitudes to- some groups have more of a chance in life than ward Muslim Americans among a sample of others”; Pratto, Sidanius, Stallworth, & Malle, undergraduates attending a midsized public uni- 1994; ␣ϭ.92) on a scale of Ϫ3(Very Nega- versity in the Northeastern U.S., while control- tive)toϩ 3(Very Positive). ling for potentially confounding sociodemo- Right-wing authoritarianism. Participants graphic characteristics, including age, gender, completed an established 8-item measure of nativity, and race/ethnicity, as well as well- right-wing authoritarianism, or submission to known predictors of intergroup attitudes, in- established and legitimized authorities in society, cluding social dominance orientation and right- hostility toward those who go against authorities, wing authoritarianism. and high conventionality (e.g., “Our country will 540 ROSENTHAL, LEVY, KATSER, AND BAZILE

␤ be destroyed someday if we do not smash the perversions eating away at our moral ﬁber and -traditional beliefs”; Sibley, Harding, Perry, As ء ء .05 .04 .07 .17 .03 ␣ϭ Ϫ Ϫ Ϫ brock, & Duckitt, 2010; .72) on a scale of 1 (Strongly Disagree)to7(Strongly Agree). Building more mosques in area Results and Discussion

␤ Table 3 displays means, standard deviations, and bivariate correlations for Study 2. A series ءء ءء .14 .02 .04.04 .12 .06 .09 .13.26 .06 .06 of four stepwise regression analyses were con- Ϫ Ϫ Ϫ Ϫ Ϫ ducted for allophilia, willingness for contact, and the two policy questions as outcome vari- proﬁling illegal

Policy making racial ables. These analyses all included polyculturalism as the main predictor variable of interest ␤ ءء ءء entered in Step 2 of the regressions by itself, as ءء .09 .30 .30 .02 .00 .10 .08 well as control variables for age, gender, nativ- Racial Ϫ Ϫ Ϫ Ϫ

proﬁling ity, race/ethnicity (as 4 dummy-coded variables for Asian, Black, Latino, and White), social dominance orientation, and right-wing authori- ␤ ءء ءء -tarianism entered together in Step 1 of the re ءء .23 .22 .14 .03 .03 .02 .05 gressions. Results of Step 2 of the regression Ϫ Ϫ Ϫ visas analyses are in Table 4. Consistent with hypoth-

Limiting tourist eses, endorsement of polyculturalism was significantly associated with greater allophilia ␤ toward Muslim Americans and greater willingness for contact with Muslim Americans. Also consistent with hypotheses, endorsement of ء ء ء .19 .03 polyculturalism was significantly associated with less support for limiting tourist visas to the Interest in Muslim American Issues U.S. for Muslims and for racial profiling of

␤ Muslim Americans. Results replicate and ex- tend Study 1 results, and support that even ءء ءء 166) .01 .09 .11 .09 .12 .21 .06 .17 .02 .06 .04 .12 .35 .11 while controlling for potentially confounding Ϫ Ϫ Ϫ Ϫ ϭ Behavioral intentions sociodemographic variables and well-known, strong predictors of intergroup attitudes, greater ␤ ءء endorsement of polyculturalism is associated ءء .04 .08 .10 .10 .02 .00.01 .07 .01.22 .08 .14 .04 .02 .04 .04 with more positive and less negative attitudes Ϫ Ϫ Ϫ Ϫ Ϫ Ϫ Ϫ anxiety

Intergroup toward Muslim Americans, including for relevant policies and behavioral intentions for con- ␤ tact with Muslim Americans. ء ء ء .00 .02 .07 This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. Ϫ Ϫ

This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly. General Discussion Allophilia In two online survey studies, one with adult community members from cities across the U.S.

.01. (recruited via craigslist) and one with under-

Ͻ graduates at a midsized public university in the p Northeastern U.S., we found support for the ءء hypothesis that endorsement of polyculturalism

.05. is associated with greater allophilia toward for Step 2 (inclusion of Ͻ

2 Muslim Americans, less intergroup anxiety to- polyculturalism) .03 R p Polyculturalism .18 White Latino .08 Born in U.S. .11 AsianBlack .11 ء ⌬ Table 2 Results of Step 2 of Regression Analyses for Study 1 (N Age .00 Female .18 ward Muslim Americans, greater willingness POLYCULTURALISM 541

Table 3 Bivariate Correlations, Means, and Standard Deviations for Study 2 (N ϭ 228)

1234567 1. Polyculturalism ءءSocial dominance orientation Ϫ.42 .2 ءء24. ءءRight-wing authoritarianism Ϫ.26 .3 ءϪ.16 ءءϪ.28 ءءAllophilia .26 .4 ءء64. ءءϪ.35 ءءϪ.47 ءءBehavioral intentions .44 .5 ءϪ.12 Ϫ.16 ءء20. ءء22. ءءLimiting tourist visas Ϫ.26 .6 ءء40. ءءϪ.23 ءءϪ.26 13. ءء32. ءءRacial proﬁling Ϫ.27 .7 M 5.66 Ϫ1.53 3.36 4.30 5.05 1.96 1.98 SD .89 .99 .92 .94 1.03 .70 .82 .p Ͻ .01 ءء .p Ͻ .05 ء

for contact with Muslim Americans, greater in- group currently facing heightened prejudice in terest in knowing about or helping with the the U.S. issues faced by Muslim Americans, as well as Taken together, these and past findings sug- less support for limiting tourist visas to the U.S. gest that polyculturalism—the belief that differ- given to Muslims and racial profiling of Muslim ent racial and ethnic groups both historically Americans, and more support for making racial and contemporarily have interacted, exchanged profiling of Muslim Americans illegal and ideas, and influenced each other’s cultures—is a building more mosques in one’s area. These unique construct that explains additional vari- associations remained significant while control- ance in a range of intergroup attitudes, above ling for potentially confounding sociodemo- and beyond relevant constructs, including as- graphic variables, including age, gender, nativity, similation, colorblindness, conservatism, egali- and race/ethnicity, as well as other established tarianism, gender and race essentialism, gender predictors of intergroup attitudes, including so- and racial/ethnic identification, multicultural- cial dominance orientation and right-wing au- ism, positive self-beliefs, right-wing authoritar- thoritarianism. These results build on a growing ianism, social dominance orientation, and so- body of work demonstrating the positive asso- ciodemographics. In forthcoming work, we ciations that polyculturalism has with a variety have additionally found that among racially and of intergroup attitudes, and confirm that this ethnically diverse undergraduates, greater en- also applies to a range of attitudes and behav- dorsement of polyculturalism is associated with ioral intentions toward Muslim Americans, a less intergroup anxiety (and thereby more pos-

Table 4 Results of Step 2 of Regression Analyses for Study 2 (N ϭ 228)

Behavioral Limiting tourist Racial Allophilia ␤ intentions ␤ visas ␤ proﬁling ␤ Ϫ This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. Age .00 .00 .04 .09 05. ءFemale Ϫ.07 .02 .14 This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly. Born in U.S. .07 .07 .02 Ϫ.04 Asian Ϫ.13 Ϫ.06 Ϫ.07 Ϫ.12 Black Ϫ.11 .06 Ϫ.09 Ϫ.15 Latino Ϫ.04 .05 .03 Ϫ.11 White Ϫ.25 .03 Ϫ.10 Ϫ.12 ءء24. 12. ءءϪ.30 ءءSocial dominance orientation Ϫ.21 03. 13. ءءRight-wing authoritarianism Ϫ.07 Ϫ.20 ءϪ.15 ءϪ.19 ءء24. ءPolyculturalism .14 ⌬R2 for Step 2 (inclusion of ء02. ء03. ءء04. ءpolyculturalism) .02 .p Ͻ .01 ءء .p Ͻ .05 ء 542 ROSENTHAL, LEVY, KATSER, AND BAZILE

itive academic- and alcohol-related outcomes), typing, and discrimination toward Muslim while controlling for general social anxiety and Americans in the U.S. both current and high school grade point aver- The current study used a general, neutral age (Rosenthal, Levy, London, & Lewis, 2015), measure of endorsement of polyculturalism, again suggesting that polyculturalism makes a which has been used in prior empirical work; unique contribution to our understanding of in- therefore, findings suggest that understanding tergroup dynamics. An understanding of cul- cultures generally as connected to each other tures from around the world as dynamically through mutual interactions and influences may connected to each other through both historical help people to see people from different back- and current interactions and influences is not a grounds more positively, even when faced with part of other relevant intergroup beliefs, al- many negative images of some groups, such as though it is also related to other beliefs. Past with Muslim Americans. However, it is un- research indicates that intergroup beliefs such as known if measuring the more specific belief that polyculturalism and multiculturalism, or right- Muslims have influenced culture in the U.S. wing authoritarianism and social dominance and/or vice versa would yield the same, stron- orientation are related to each other but still ger, or weaker associations with attitudes to- explain unique variance in intergroup dynamics ward Muslim Americans. Related to this issue (Crawford, Brady, Pilanski, & Erny, 2013; of group specificity is the question of whether a Rosenthal & Levy, 2012), suggesting it is fruit- group’s relative level of status or power in so- ful to continue to explore the interconnections ciety might influence the implications of poly- among these constructs. It may be that to best culturalism. We have previously found endorse- understand intergroup dynamics and develop ment of polyculturalism to have consistent ways to improve intergroup relations, we should associations with more positive intergroup atti- be taking into account and combining many tudes across members of different racial and different belief systems (e.g., see Rosenthal & ethnic as well as gender groups of differing Levy, 2010). Additionally, a better understand- social status and power in the U.S. (Rosenthal & ing of what leads people to adopt these various Levy, 2012; Rosenthal et al., 2014); however, belief systems (e.g., education, intergroup con- this again was using a general measure of poly- tact, etc.) can inform intervention efforts (e.g., culturalism. Future work that utilizes a group see Rosenthal & Levy, 2010). specific measure of polyculturalism could help address whether the relative social status or Limitations and Future Directions power of two particular groups influences the association between endorsement of polycultur- The current investigation involved two cross- alism and specific intergroup attitudes. This is sectional, survey studies, thus not allowing for relevant, as contexts of cultural contact and confidence in the direction of effects. Given the influence often involve dynamics of power and results that polyculturalism is associated with oppression (e.g., slavery, colonization). Future more positive attitudes and behavioral inten- work may want to explore these and other po- tions toward Muslim Americans, future re- tential nuances in measurement of polycultural- search should explore experimentally if priming ism to more deeply understand the implications or teaching polyculturalism leads to increases in of this way of understanding cultures. This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. positive and decreases in negative attitudes to- Future work may also want to build on the This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individualward user and is not to be disseminated broadly. Muslim Americans and/or other groups. current investigation by testing whether en- We have not yet tested the extent to which dorsement of polyculturalism buffers people polyculturalism is a stable belief versus a belief from exposure to negative stereotypes of Mus- that changes over time; longitudinal work that lim Americans, for example, through mass me- measures polyculturalism across several points dia, leading to more negative attitudes and be- in time is needed to assess this. Together, future havioral intentions toward Muslim Americans. experimental and longitudinal research will be Are people who endorse polyculturalism more able to determine if and how polyculturalism not as influenced by these negative images pro- can be leveraged and implemented in interven- moting stereotypes as others who endorse it tion efforts aimed at reducing prejudice, stereo- less? POLYCULTURALISM 543

The current investigation also did not explore gions of the world in which there are heightened potential mechanisms involved in the relation- levels of conflict and violence between different ship between polyculturalism and attitudes to- racial/ethnic groups because, in these cases, we ward Muslim Americans, which may be an im- do not know if thinking about intergroup inter- portant area for future research to examine. For actions and cultural influences would be viewed example, are affective or cognitive processes, or positively or negatively. Indeed, the social, po- both, involved in explaining why believing that litical, and cultural history of each region of the different racial and ethnic groups interact and world likely plays a role in levels of endorse- influence each other’s cultures is associated ment, framing, judgment, and implications of with more positive attitudes and behavioral in- polyculturalism, all of which remains to be tentions toward Muslim Americans, as well as tested in future research. diverse others more generally? It may be helpful for future work to continue Conclusion to explore any cultural differences in endorsement of polyculturalism and the associations We found that endorsement of polycultural- that polyculturalism has with different cultural ism—the belief that different racial and ethnic beliefs and attitudes. In our past work, we have groups interact and influence each other’s cul- found endorsement of polyculturalism to be tures—is associated with more positive and less high and polyculturalism to have consistent as- negative attitudes and behavioral intentions to- sociations with more positive intergroup atti- ward Muslim Americans, a group facing height- tudes across different racial/ethnic groups in the ened levels of prejudice currently in the U.S. U.S. (Rosenthal & Levy, 2012) and across the These findings build on past work and support U.S. and the Philippines (Bernardo et al., 2013). that endorsement of polyculturalism has many We have also found endorsement of polycultur- positive associations for a range of intergroup alism to be associated with more positive inter- attitudes. This body of work also connects to group attitudes while controlling for racial/ other research and theory that are currently at- ethnic identification, and to be associated with tempting to move beyond a focus on difference greater openness to criticizing some elements of and separateness when thinking about inter- one’s own culture that, for example, may dis- group relations and managing diverse societies. criminate against some groups of people, such While colorblindness has been criticized for as women or gay men and lesbian women ignoring important group identities, cultural dif- (Rosenthal et al., 2012; Rosenthal et al., 2014). ferences, and experiences of discrimination due However, there is much more to learn about to race, ethnicity, language, or culture (Neville, how endorsement of polyculturalism may vary Lilly, Duran, Lee, & Browne, 2000), multicul- across different cultural groups and may be turalism has also been criticized for focusing related to various culturally relevant beliefs, too much on cultural differences such that it can attitudes, and behaviors in future research. lead to stereotyping and maintaining divisions Related to the importance of being attuned to among groups (Bigler, 1999). Indeed, research potential cultural differences, although research finds both positive and negative consequences on polyculturalism to date has consistently of each of these beliefs or approaches to man- found associations with more positive and less aging diversity (see Rosenthal & Levy, 2010 for negative intergroup attitudes, it is important for a review). Approaching diversity and under- This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. future work to continue to be mindful of any standing cultures in more dynamic ways that This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly. potential adverse consequences of polycultural- allows for nuances of both difference and con- ism. For example, we created the measure of nection among groups is a direction much work polyculturalism to be free of valence purpose- is taking that may be promising for intergroup fully, but this means that we do not yet know if relations. For example, Lalonde, Cila, Lou, and focusing on positive versus negative interac- Cribbie (2015) has argued that in psychology tions among different racial/ethnic cultures we are biased toward focusing on differences throughout history or currently would affect between groups, often at the expense of paying whether the associations with intergroup atti- attention to similarities across diverse groups of tudes are positive or negative. Also, we do not people. In addition, Moghaddam (2012) has ar- know the implications of polyculturalism in re- gued for taking an “omniculturalism” approach 544 ROSENTHAL, LEVY, KATSER, AND BAZILE

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