Coll. Antropol. 35 (2011) 4: 1273–1280 Review

Guidelines for the Structure of Methodological Processes in Visual Anthropology

Nik{a Svili~i}

Institute for Anthropological Research, Zagreb, Croatia

ABSTRACT

Vast majority of visual anthropologists of the 20th century were more focused on general phenomenology of visual an- thropology, i.e. the content aspect of their works and their impact on scientific knowledge, leaving behind style of direct- ing and practical principles & processes of creating anthropological film. So far, judging by the available literature, there are no strict guidelines for directorial procedures, nor the precise definition of determining of the methodical pro- cesses in production of an anthropological film. Consequently, the goal of this study is to determine the structure and forms of methodical processes as well as to define the advantages and disadvantages of each of them. By using adequate guidelines, the researcher, i.e. the author of the anthropological film, can optimize the production and post-production processes as soon as in preparation (preproduction) period of working on the film, by the technical choice of the approach to the production (proactive/reactive/subjective/objective...) and by defining the style of directing. In other words, it ulti- mately means more relevant scientific research result with less time and resources.

Key words: visual anthropology, sociocultural anthropology, anthropology, anthropological film, creating film, film directing, style of directing, preproduction, production, postproduction

Typology of film narrative and visual anthropology

As a sub branch of socio-cultural anthropology, visual The term »visual anthropology« was introduced by 1 anthropology deals with preparation, creation and post- the founder of visual communication Sol Worth in the th production of ethnographic audio-visual expressions mid 20 century. Worth has recognised the value of film such as film and photography. This method of capturing records in anthropological research and begun to system- the socio-cultural moment is the basis for the subsequent atically pursue this issue. In the mid 1960-ies Worth analysis of audio-visual material that provides exception- teamed up with John Adair and became the originator ally valuable information on the life of the subject of sci- and executive producer of the project »Through Navajo entific interest. The information obtained in this way au- Eyes«, which studied the Navajo Indians’ nonverbal com- ditory and visually documents the respective moments of munication and folklore. The project included the mak- their creation in the domain of observed subject’s folk- ing of seven documentaries and in 1972 the research re- lore, rituals, behaviour and beliefs. In 1920-ties, specifi- sults were also published in the book of the same title cally with the making and the success of the classic docu- (Image 1). The project was at the time supported by the mentary film »Nanook of the North« by Robert Flaherty National Science Foundation, indicating the beginning the need arises for the designed visual records of ethno- of recognition and systematic pursuit of visual anthro- graphic particularities. However, subsequent similar at- pology. tempts at making ethnographic films lacked the neces- The project consisted of seven short documentaries2 sary precise scientific organization and in addition mo- directed by seven different directors: »Intrepid Shadows« stly had a commercial background, which certainly did directed by Al Clah, »The Navajo Silversmith«, directed not have any affirmative impact on neither objectivity, by Johnny Nelson, »A Navajo Weaver«, directed by Susie nor scientific and research potential of such projects. Benally, »Old Antelope Lake«, directed by Mike Ander-

Received for publication September 21, 2011

1273 N. Svili~i}: Methodological Processes in Visual Anthropology, Coll. Antropol. 35 (2011) 4: 1273–1280 son, »Second Weaver« directed by Alta Kahn, »The Shal- react to the imposed stimulus. This type of procedure is low Well Project«, directed by Johnny Nelson and »The very useful in the comparative analyses method when re- Spirit of the Navajos« directed by Maxine Tsosie and searching the real-time subject’s reactions. Mary J. Tsosie. Audio-visual information obtained in this way is sto- After the year 1964 and the first conference on the red directly to high capacity servers, while the researcher making of anthropological films the PIEF (Program in may use the video analysis software in several windows Ethnographic Film) was established. In 1969 PIEF laun- on the same screen, getting a simultaneous insight into a ched the newsletter, which among other topics dealt with number of analysed subjects. In this way the real-time the challenges of visual anthropology. The editor of the digital processing makes the analytical aspect of the newsletter was Jay Ruby, who through a series of scien- work significantly easier. tific activities (annual conferences on visual anthropol- This is because with the former method of analysis of ogy within the American Anthropology Association, es- recorded material – when the materials were stored in tablishment of »National Anthropological Film Centre« 8mm, 16mm or 35mm film formats and/or video media at the Smithsonian Institution, etc.) became a leading such as VHS, S-VHS, VHS-C, Umatic, Beta or DV for- figure in the filed of visual anthropology. mats – material processing took much longer, as the ma- Jay Ruby3 was amongst the first scientists to ambiva- terial was not digitalized. This means that the nonlinear lently approach the relations of visual communication. In viewing of such material was not available. This again re- his article: »Is an Ethnographic Film a Filmic Ethnogra- sulted in a time-consuming and often hard-labouring phy?« Ruby inquires the up to then current paradigm of process of analytic portion of the research. visual anthropology as a technical reality recorded in the film medium and indirectly places it to the higher level of In other words, there was no way for the researcher to scientific potential. non-linearly view the (often very long) videos, but the re- searcher has no choice but to linearly view them, i.e. to With the development of information technology in rewind the video tapes (in case of video media) or to view st early 21 century and the appearance of Internet with its the material at the editing table (in case of non-digita- hypermedia and multimedia characteristics – i.e. possi- lized film formats). Therefore it can be stated that the bilities of non-linear multimedia viewing of information use of comparative advantages of information communi- – visual anthropology entered a new development period. cation technology gradually becomes a standard in ana- In order for scientific research community to be ready lytic research processes of visual anthropology. to optimally use all comparative advantages of the new When deliberating the filmmaking and photograph medium, it is necessary to define the online processes of taking as the basic activities of visual anthropology, it is visual anthropology – that is to say, to design typology, important to typologically define the respective genres scientific and research guidelines, technical points of ref- and sub-genre features of such work (Image 2). So, the erence and process manageability in the visual anthro- basic genre is documentary film, whereas narrative for- pology of the future. mats may take forms of either »ethnographic film«, »do- Unlike the time of classic ethnographic films and ex- cudrama«, »docufiction« or »mocumentary«. peditions that sometimes lasted for several months, cur- In genre terms ethnographic film is a documentary rently there are wireless online systems available to re- that through its basic concept and design shows a reality searchers, and from their domicile laboratory they may staged according to the principles of ethnographic meth- simultaneously view several localities that they are re- ods. That is to say, in an ethnographic film the author’s searching. Fast Internet connections made it possible to licence is less prominent and the emphasis is on the establish video links from locations of interest at a com- methodological, ethnographically relevant approach to paratively low cost and with very high level of navigation the subject matter. This is especially manifested in terms system manageability. In other words, from his labora- of dynamics and the scope of recording processes and tory the researcher may have a full control of the camera field procedures. system established at the research site and can, as the case may be, perform adequate technical and operative Mocumentary is a term coined of the words »mock« procedures in order to obtain audiovisual records of the and »documentary«, representing a subtype of documen- best possible technical quality (e.g. panoramic view of ob- tary that – unlike the »docufiction« format – stages ficti- jects, zooming of objects, vertical and/or horizontal axial tious events in a documentary narrative format. This kind camera displacement, increase of microphone input sig- of format is used to show socially relevant events with nal, etc.). irony and parody, with either dramatic or comic touch. In addition to video presentation, the software addi- Docudrama is a documentary-style genre that featu- tionally processes in real time a vast quantity of relevant res dramatized re-enactments of actual historical events. data related to the observed subject and such data are In this way, cum grano salis, it contributes to broadening momentarily processed and distributed to analytic cen- of the viewer’s understanding of the subject of interest in tres/laboratories. In this way the direct OFA data com- the docudrama. Minor deviations from actual events are parison (»On Fly Analysis«) can be conducted, as the ob- allowed in docudrama as long as it is justified in terms of servation subjects at different locations simultaneously raising the viewers’ interest in the topic.

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The most famous docudrama is the radio drama The of tribal rituals in Madagascar), on which we (more or WaroftheWorlds4, by Orson Wells performed on Hallow- less) previously had certain scientifically relevant knowl- een 1938. Using the suggestive narrative approach the edge and the recorded material shall be serve as docu- author of the broadcast created a psychosis suggesting to mentation, i.e. for subsequent analysis. Such procedure the listeners that an alien invasion was in progress. The is entirely legitimate and the modern visual anthropology basic characteristic of docudrama is the lack of explicit is in fact based on documentary – specifically: ethnogra- assertion of the author’s own point of view on the event phic – film as its main origin. featured in docudrama, as it is left to the viewers to form Defining the technical aspect of visual anthropology their own judgement. as such »service« inevitably includes the consideration of Docufiction represents a synergy of documentary and author’s approach in terms of screenwriting and direct- fiction. Unlike docudrama, docufiction includes more ing processes in preproduction, on field and in post- prominent played scenes and scene sequences and it production (i.e. in figuring out of the film, during filming largely follows the reality of the described event. Docu- on field and at the subsequent editing). Author’s ap- fiction is often filmed on real locations, where the respec- proach is important as it determines the way of achieving tive event actually happened, and the credibility of such the desired spectre of information output subject to sub- film narration is supported by the actual protagonists of sequent analysis. In terms of author’s screenwriting and the original event, who re-interpret such event. directing processes, the reactive methods of visual an- When analysing the history and at the same time de- thropology may in the practice be divided into objective liberating the future of visual anthropology, it is essential and subjective methods, depending on the approach to to define the basic rules of scientific research that actu- gathering of audiovisual research data. ally position the filmed material into the domain of vi- sual anthropological observation. Otherwise almost any Objective methods audiovisual material recorded on field could be declared a Objective methods in visual anthropology as explora- material of broader significance for visual anthropology, tory-technological »registrator« of events, i.e. hyper mul- which certainly is not the goal. timedia »service« in analysing the existing, registered Thus, it is necessary to define a differentia specifica subjects of scientific research and research procedures that will become a starting point in determining any (reactive process): filmed material to be relevant for the paradigm of visual anthropology. Without such marking, we could hypothet- a) Object-distant (pseudo objective) research appro- ically find an anthropological feature in almost any film, ach – the researcher is registering (filming) rites, regardless of its genre, as well as in any photograph. rituals and/or other folklore specifics discretely, from maximal distance, influencing them neither directly nor indirectly. Defining the Structure of Methodological The key feature of objective approach in visual an- Processes in Visual Anthropology thropology needs to be the absence of direct or indirect interaction between the researcher and film crew and The history of the development of photographic and the subject of filming. In order to be as objective as possi- film technologies, as well as the events that – whether in- ble in capturing the ethnographically relevant process tentionally or accidentally – lead to a rapid development we want to film, the crucial thing is not to disturb the dy- of visual culture indicate an inseparable duality of per- namics of the ritual procedure that we want to record ceiving visual anthropology within the context of reac- and to maximally respect the documentary dimension of tive and proactive processes: the situation. a) Visual anthropology as exploratory-technological In terms of the technical details, this means that the »registrator« of events, i.e. hyper multimedia »ser- researcher and/or the cameraman must ensure a maxi- vice« in the analytics of existing, registered sub- mal physical distance from the subject, thus not affecting jects of scientific research and research procedures the subject’s procedures in the frame. There are a num- (reactive process) ber of advantages to such approach – e.g. the authentic- b) Visual anthropology as a driving wheel of the phe- ity of the process is preserved, the subject’s reactions nomenology of the visual as primordial, proactive, when performing rituals are natural (as there is no »for- hyper multimedia initiator of anthropologically rele- eign body« that would distract the participants in the vant events, from which then the relevant anthro- scene). Additionally, such material becomes closer to the pological guidelines are derived (proactive process) recognized documentary »cinéma vérité« approach, which endeavours to present the realities accurately and with- Reactive process of defining the structure of out any additional »l’art pour l’art« (art for art’s sake) ef- methodological processes in visual anthropology fects through director’s interventions. So when speaking of visual anthropology from the as- There are, however, certain downsides to such ap- pect of perceiving it as a »service«, i.e. exploratory-tech- proach to visual recording of the reality: inability to opti- nological »registrator« of events, then we imply record- mize the frame composition (as the subject of filming is ing of anthropologically relevant topics (such as research relatively far, the operator is not able to intervene in

1275 N. Svili~i}: Methodological Processes in Visual Anthropology, Coll. Antropol. 35 (2011) 4: 1273–1280 terms of removing the unwanted objects in front of the ing attracted to content other than the one that was sup- camera, which are blocking the key focus of the action and/ posed to be recorded. or has not the chance to accentuate the frame through vi- There is also the issue of quality of recording – due to sual architectonics by changing object algorithms). operator’s insufficient training the recordings obtained The cameraman is additionally constricted to a very in such procedure are often barely technically correct be- small manoeuvring area (as to keep his/her presence dis- cause of excessive trembling and noises. Accordingly, in crete), which then compromises the recording of parts of this situation visual anthropologist (the author of such rituals taking place outside the reach of the camera. This ethnographic film) is not fully in control of the filming is why the cameraman’s preparation and previous know- process and is not able to ensure the desired focus of film- ledge of the dynamics of the process to be filmed is of cru- ing process, but is depending on the subject-operator and cial importance for the project. An additional challenge is his/her sense of relevancy of the moment. often the cameraman’s inability to change shooting plans Because of the possible occurrence of these objective in order to improve the dynamics of the filming process problems this procedure is recommended in situations and emphasize what is perceived as essential. when the researcher has a clear indication that the direct The fact is that it is challenging to combine the shoot- involvement of the subject-operator will actually be able ing plans, as the cameraman is forced to keep his physi- to contribute to the value of the material during shooting. cal movement (both horizontal and vertical) to the mini- mum, so as to remain unnoticed. Thus the camera posi- tion and the shooting plan cannot be changed to accentu- Hidden camera method ate certain portions of shooting process. The »hidden camera« method includes positioning of b) Method of objectification by Trojan Horse effect – fixed camera at the location designated for ritual (or training and equipping subjects of interest so that other) events, and such camera is neither visible nor ac- they themselves film the rites, rituals and/or other cessible to the research subject (a group or an individual). folklore specifics. One of the pioneers and advocates of this method is This objective approach method is rather delicate, al- the English anthropologist, linguist, cyberneticists and though in positive practice it can render highly interest- semiotician Gregory Bateson19. In his reflections on vi- ing results. The pioneer and advocate of this method was sual anthropology, photographs and ethnographic films visual anthropologist and founder of visual communica- he made, Bateson joins Margaret Mead20 in advocating tion as branch of science, Sol Worth. In the course of his the principle of distancing oneself from the object of original project5 »Through Navajo Eyes«, in cooperation shooting, because in his opinion the »Observer effects«22 with the company »Bell and Howell Filmo«, he distrib- are detrimental to the quality of ethnographic film, as uted video cameras to the children of Navajo Indians in they affect the level of objectivity and reality of the shoot- Pine Springs (Arizona) and provided them with the basic ing process and ultimately the quality of the results of technical training, to enable them to make films in their the scientific research project. community. In this context the clear advantage of the »hidden The advantage of this method is that the subject is a camera« method is certainly the high level of objectivity, part of the scene (at the same time being the operator) i.e. of documenting the reality. This is because with the and thus does not represent a »foreign body«, i.e. does hidden camera method there is no disturbance to the not disturb the continuity of the process. As the newly flow of the scene (ritual etc.) that is the subject of scien- trained operator is familiar with the dynamics of process tific interest and thus the negative »observer effect« is procedure, his/her reactions to events to be recorded by absent. If technically feasible, it is recommended that camera are faster and more adequate. In addition, by several hidden cameras are positioned on key locations/ knowing the process that is being filmed, the newly positions, as to obtain a higher postproduction potential trained operator may give the recording an added value of the recorded material. In other words, the event would by possibly reacting instinctively at certain moments, re- in this case be filmed from several angles, which would cording specific details indirectly in connotation to the make editing significantly easier and ensure better qual- ritual (which would definitely not be registered by a pro- ity of the end result. fessional cameraman who is not a part of such milieu). By using this method the credibility of documentary In the subsequent analysis of such audiovisual re- sequence is fully preserved as there is no need to inter- cords it is possible to find a number of quality, anthropo- rupt the dynamics of the process being recorded and the logically relevant derivations that have suddenly occu- shooting is continuous (unlike the situation with subjec- rred from the original concept of the film, while in tive methods, where the author/operator repeatedly in- holistic terms the research results may be of better qual- terrupts the shooting, i.e. the ritual process to change ity and more far-reaching. However, there are some dis- lens, shooting angle, plan etc.). Some of the basic short- advantages of such approach – primarily the operator’s comings of this method are insufficient degree of optimi- (lack of) training and fascination by technology. The per- sation of shooting process and inability to influence the son who was just trained to operate a camera is likely to unforeseen circumstances during shooting. Insufficient suffer the »new toy« syndrome, including the trap of be- degree of optimisation of shooting process implies the

1276 N. Svili~i}: Methodological Processes in Visual Anthropology, Coll. Antropol. 35 (2011) 4: 1273–1280 fact that once the camera is positioned at a certain site, it researcher is part of the scene and thus positively pro- stays there until the end of the shooting. vokes reactions of the subject in the field. So, the author/cameraman/operator is deprived of The famous sentence that Jean Rouch always used to »peripheral perception«, i.e. it is not possible that at a mark the first takes of a field shoot was always directed given moment (regardless of the dynamics of the filming at the film crew: »The camera must interfere and cine- process that is underway) the camera is moved horizon- matographer has to be a part of shooting event«. With tally or vertically to record a detail that is not explicitly that phrase, which has become a paradigm of his anthro- linked to the dynamics of the ritual itself, but implicitly pological work, Rouch also defines a scientific method- provides very interesting ephemeral indications concern- ological approach to visual anthropology. ing the event, that may be highly relevant in term of sci- entific research. Admittedly, thanks to the advancement With regards to the author approach to his ethno- of digital technology and the respective infrastructure it graphic films, Rouch pioneered a kind of visual anthro- is rather easy to install the module for remote control of pology »cyclotron«, using a proactive approach to pro- camera movement, but there is a latent risk that if the voke the reactions of a filmed subject in real environ- operator/cameraman often employs panning, the subject ment. The advantage of such an approach is a positive of filming would notice the cameras placed at hidden po- compression of the time reality of the subject of author’s sitions, which would result in a broad negative impact on interest, because the subject’s answers to »the provoca- the authenticity of further process. tion« speed up his relevant reactions (E.g., the author In addition, with this method we are also facing the does not have to wait for a member of the tribe to take a inability to react to unforeseen circumstances during tool that hanging on the wall of a hut to find out it’s pur- shooting. Unlike the situation where the cameraman is pose, instead the operator/author would take it and imi- deprived of »peripheral perception«, where the problem tate a supposed action, waiting for the »provoked« tribe is that with the hidden camera being fixed the author/ member to take it from him and correct him, i.e. demon- cameraman/operator has not the opportunity to contrib- strate how the tool should really be used). ute an added value by recording ephemeral scenes that Rouch’s methodology of the approach to visual an- influence the positive holism of the filming process, the thropology is thus based on the active participation of an issue of »unforeseen circumstances« includes all the things author/cameraman/operator in recording the specifics of that directly disturb the filming process but cannot be the observed subject, making him the active part of the prevented. process (Figure 3). The films of Jean Rouch have left a These include, e.g., flock of birds landing on the significant mark in visual anthropology. His major works branch where the camera is fixed and contaminate it (i.e. include: Initiation à la danse des possédés (1949.), La shake the branch so that the recording is unusable), or a Chasse à l’hippopotame (1952.), Bataille sur le grand sudden burst of wind, hail, rain, etc. It is also possible of fleuve (1952.), The Mad Masters, Les Maîtres fous, (1955.), subjects entering the frame although they were neither Moi, un noir (1957.), The Human Pyramid (La Pyramide planned, nor are they in any way relevant for the film humaine 1959.), Chronicle of a Summer (Chronique d’un (e.g. swarm of bees in front of the camera, etc.). été, 1960.), Rose et Landry (1962.), Hunting the Lion with Bow and Arrow (La Chasse au lion à l’arc, 1967.), Subjective methods Jaguar (1967.), Petit à petit ou Les lettres persanes 1968 (1969.), Cocorico! Monsieur Poulet (1974.), Babatou, les Subjective methods in visual anthropology as explora- trois conseils (1977.), Dionysos (1985.), Enigma (1986.; tory-technological »registrator« of events, i.e. hyper mul- co-directors: Alberto Chiantaretto, Marco di Castri, Da- timedia »service« in the analytics of existing, registered niele Pianciola), Folie ordinaire d’une fille de Cham (1987.; subjects of scientific research and research procedures co-director; Philippe Constantini), Madame L’Eau (1992.), (reactive process). Moi fatigué debout, moi couché (1997.), Le Rêve plus fort Directed proactive principle que la mort (2002.; co-director: Bernard Surugue). The researcher participates actively in the rites, ritu- Through the analysis of the films of Jean Rouch, it is als and/or other specifics of the folklore, while, as a part clear that Rouch quite consciously enters the camera in of the ritual/scene, having an opportunity to be curious the local tribes’ tents, questions and provokes them with with the camera, which contributes to a more proactive his inquiries about their habits regarding their life on approach to the filming and provides more scientifically the location, thus indirectly receiving a significantly wi- and exploratory relevant information for the later analysis. der horizon of the relevant information on the film sub- The founder of such an approach is visual anthropolo- ject. However, the delicacy of such an approach has been gist Jean Rouch (1917.–2004.), one of the founders of suggested by the present Jean Rouche’s controversial proactive »cinéma vérité« direction in visual anthropol- image in the circles of African scientists and authors of ogy. Namely, he was the one to take the aesthetics of ethnographic films, regardless of his undeniable contri- mid-20th century documentary movement, called »direct bution to the visual anthropology. Namely, many people cinema« whose directing credo was: »directly capture re- resent his exaggeration to the point of caricature of the ality and represent it truthfully«, and combine it with a characters and situations he recorded in his films, as well proactive socio-anthropological paradigm in which the as overly imposing the views of his own author ego6.

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It is interesting that, in most of his films, Rouch uses social reactions, which will have a significant impact on narrative »ethnofiction« form and through film action the research of behaviour of both individuals and the en- tries to reach higher levels of life purpose of his heroes tire community. through the anthropological description of his heroes. Therefore, Rouch uses the subjective method in which the played sequences are interpolated in the socio-cul- Conclusion tural anthropological paradigm. The advantages of such a method are numerous. First of all it corresponds with Visual anthropology has undergone many changes the viewer on two levels, which are in complete synergy. coming to the form under which it is known today. At the The first level of interaction with the viewer is docu- end of the second half of the 19th century, considerably mentaristic base of (ethnological) film, which the viewer earlier than the establishment of anthropology as a sci- really expects. The second level is a creation of a played entific discipline as we know it today, the photographic sequence that carries a plot potential, and in its content record was a very important part of ethnological re- relying on ethnographic particularity of the situation, search. The pioneer of photo-visual anthropology in this thus successfully maintaining the level of viewer’s atten- field was Edward S. Curtis, who had photographed In- tion while simultaneously serving as a visually-analytical dian princess Angelina, nicknamed »Kickiosomlo« in 1896, scientific repetitorium. which is believed to be the first documented photography of a native American Indian7. Such an approach is obvious in the movie »Vird`ina« (1990), directed by Sr|an Karanovi} (Figure 4), that The beginning of the development of documentary- faithfully paints socio-economical anthropological aspe- -ethnographic film of the end of 19th and beginning of cts of Dalmatinska Zagora in the past century, in synergy 20th century, was dominated by the initial fascination with a fascinating storyline. The feeling of truthful eth- with the very possibility of »film record of the very mo- no-reality thus created in the viewer raises the credibility ment we live in«, as the scientific contemporaries called of the entire feature film story. This confirms the para- it at that time. Since it was a time of enthusiasm and ini- phrase of many authors of the French »New Wave« (Fr. – tial momentum of visual expression, no importance has »La Nouvelle Vague«), suggesting that the best feature been attached to the genre and sub-genre determinations films are those that the viewer thinks are documentaries of film art. Moreover, according to some authors, coher- and the best documentaries those that the viewer thinks ent division into genres began only when the holdings of are feature films. the recorded film material itself began to structure its audience, making the typological definition of film types necessary. Proactive Process of Defining the Structure With the beginning of 20th century came the develop- of Methodical Processes of Visual ment of utilitarian documentarism, which might be ca- Anthropology lled a forerunner of contemporary ethnographic film. There was a growing interest in that time for visually Visual Anthropology which represents the driving registering the ethnographic particularities, for the pur- force of the phenomenology of the audiovisual as primor- poses of scientific analysis. One of the first documenta- dial, proactive, hyper-multimedia driver of the anthropo- ries of that type, with an emphasis on ethnographic ele- logically relevant events from which then anthropologi- ments, was filmed in Cambodia under the title: »Prome- cal relevant policies are derived (proactive process). nades des Éléphants à Phnom Penh«. The film shows the In the previously described subjective and objective traditional Cambodian elephant celebration and prome- reactive processes, visual anthropology is being used and nade, which is an integral part of ancient religious rituals. perceived as a scientific research registrator of relevant In 1922, Robert Flaherty makes a cult classic »Na- anthropological manifestations. However, one can expect nook of the Nord«, achieving significant success and es- that the potential of visual anthropology will in the near tablishing documentary genre as well as an ethnographic future incline towards the proactive role in scientific re- film subgenre7. search processes. In other words, it will be a driving force From the available literature and video recordings of of a number of induced manifestations with a very wide the time it is clear that for the vast majority of documen- anthropological connotative scope. tary film makers of the period recording of ethnographic A proactive approach implies the routing of use of au- elements and specifics was not a primary goal, and that diovisual tools and hypermedia characteristics in the ser- the main motive for displaying exotic lands, people, folk- vice of »triggers« which condition the socio-cultural reac- lore and rituals was usually of a commercial nature. tions. So, (audio) visual anthropology in this case deals Namely, soon after the discovery of celluloid tape and with consequences of the impact of the visual on the com- motion pictures, the film has become an integral part of munity, and not, as before, only with visual recording cultural life of upper classes of society. 7 and registering the current state . The film production at that time was growing expo- Such an approach will in many ways change the cur- nentially, and after the first wave of enthusiasm, in the rent paradigm of looking at visual anthropology, affirm- first decade of the 20th century, viewers have become fed ing the audiovisual stimulus as the primordial source of up with the film »commonplaces« and interest in the film

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»per se«. Therefore the necessity emerged for more luxu- ical film is greatly simplified and therefore faster. Film rious scenes, bigger number of film locations, greater formats, due to their technical specificity (the delicacy of number of cast, richer backdrops, more luxurious scen- handling the film tape, film development, making of film ery, special effects and so on. At the same time, documen- copies in labs, telecining of the final product to the video tary filmmakers have a need to discover new landscapes, medium in order to display it outside movie theatres) de- unconventional themes, to film outside the city, etc. manded more specific processes, particularly in the area Simultaneously, there is a growing awareness of the of film production and postproduction, shooting and edit- importance of film production that gradually takes over ing. With the arrival of video technology, the shooting of the lead role in devising and commercial guiding of the anthropological films was demystified and became avail- films of the time. During the twenties film producers rec- able to a wider audience. ognize the positive correlation between luxury of the fea- With the introduction of hypermedia and multimedia, ture film production and economic aspects of film art, i.e. i.e. of Internet as a medium integrating these characteri- the number of viewers in theatres, and with the arrival of stics, the phenomenon of perception of audiovisual con- the sound film by the end of the second decade of the tents becomes a very relevant segment of the modern life23. 20th century, begins the so-called »Golden Age of Holly- It is interesting that the coryphaei of visual anthro- wood«. At the same time, film scripts start to increas- pology of the 20th century were more focused on general ingly focus on »the life we live« and the problems of ordi- phenomenology of visual anthropology, i.e. the content nary man struggling with social norms, thus elevating aspect of their works and their impact on scientific film art to the level of holistic recognition, which makes knowledge. So far, judging by the available literature, it particularly interesting from the aspect of the anthro- there are no strict guidelines for directorial procedures, pological paradigm. nor the precise definition of determining of the methodi- The awareness of the importance of the cinema audi- cal processes in production of an anthropological film. ence, the movie ratings and their economic correlation Consequently, the goal of this study is to determine the has over the time taken the authors of both feature films structure and forms of methodical processes as well as to and documentaries to the unexplored areas in search of define the advantages and disadvantages of each of them previously unseen natural scenes, primitive tribes and an- (Scheme 1, Appendix 1). cient rituals that would attract the audience to the cinema. In this way, the researcher, i.e. the author of the an- In the later stages of the film industry development thropological film, can optimize the production and post- one can notice the connection between film technology -production processes as soon as in preparation (prepro- and film format, which directly affects the development duction) period of working on the film, by the technical of visual anthropology, which is especially evident in the choice of the approach to the production (proactive/reac- second half, and mostly at the end of the 20th century. tive/subjective/objective...) and by defining the style of di- Namely, with the appearance of video technology that recting. In other words, it ultimately means more rele- slowly but surely pushes out film formats (8 mm, 16 mm, vant scientific research result with less time and re- 35 mm), the entire process of creation of an anthropolog- sources.

REFERENCES

1. Sol Worth Biography, accessed 13.08.2011. Avaliable from: URL: Film and Anthropology. (University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 2000). — http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sol_Worth. — 2. Through Navajo Eyes pro- 13. McDOUGALL D, Transcultural Cinema (Princeton, Princeton Uni- ject, accessed 17.08.2011. Avaliable from: URL: http://en.wikipedia.org/ versity Press, 1998). — 14. PRINS H, Visual Anthropology In A Compan- wiki/Through_Navajo_Eyes. — 3. RUBY J, Is an Ethnographic film a Fil- ion to the Anthropology of American Indians, (Blackwell Publishing, Ox- mic Ethnography?, accessed 19.08.2011. Avaliable from: URL: http:// ford, 2004). — 15. PRINS H, RUBY J, Visual Anthropology Review, 17 (2) astro.temple.edu/~ruby/ruby/is.html. — 4. FLYNN J. »War of the Worlds: (2001–2002). — 16. HADDON AC, An Ascent of The Snow of New Gui- From Wells to Spielberg«, Galactic Books ISBN 0976940000, (2005) 12. — nea, Science 38 (1913) 44. — 17. Observer Effect, accessed 13.08.2011. 5. Through Navajo Eyes project, accessed 21.08.2011. Avaliable from: Avaliable from: URL: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observer-expectancy- URL: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Through_Navajo_Eyes. — 6. Jean Ro- _effect. — 18. Alfred Cort Haddon, accessed 19.08.2011. Avaliable from: uch, accessed 20.08.2011. Avaliable from: URL: http://en.wikipedia.org/ URL: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Cort_Haddon. — 19. BATESON wiki/Jean_Rouch. — 7. SVILI^I] N, Coll Antropol, 35 (2011) 187. — 8. G, Naven, a Survey of the Problems Suggested by a Composite Picture of BAARBASH I, TAYLOR L, Cross-cultural Filmmaking: A Handbook for the Culture of a New Guinea Tribe Drawn from Three Points of View, Making Documentary and Ethnographic Films and Videos (University of (Stanford University Press, Stanford, 1958). — 20. MEAD M, Letters California Press, Berkeley, 1997). — 9. ENGELBRECHT B, (ed.) Mem- from the Field 1925–1975., (Harper & Row, New York, 1977). — 21. Greg- ories of the Origins of Ethnographic Film. (Frankfurt am Main et al.: Pe- ory Bateson, accessed 24.08.2011. Avaliable from: URL: http://en.wikipe- ter Lang Verlag, 2007). — 10. GRIMSHAW A, The Ethnographer’s Eye: dia.org/wiki/Gregory_Bateson#cite_ref-Lipset_1982_10-0. — 22. SCI- Ways of Seeing in Modern Anthropology.(Cambridge University Press, ENCE DAILY, Observer effect, accesed 31.08.2011. Avaliable from: URL: Cambridge, 2001). — 11. HEIDER K, Ethnographic Film (University of http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/1998/02/980227055013.htm. — 23. Texas Press, Austin, 2006). — 12. RUBY J, Picturing Culture: Essays on SVILI^I] N, Coll Antropol, 34 (2010) 159.

N. Svili~i}

Institute for Anthropological Research, Gajeva 32, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia e-mail: [email protected]

1279 N. Svili~i}: Methodological Processes in Visual Anthropology, Coll. Antropol. 35 (2011) 4: 1273–1280

SMJERNICE STRUKTURE METODI^KIH PROCESA U VIZUALNOJ ANTROPOLOGIJI

SA@ETAK

Od po~etaka razvoja strukturirane vizualne antropologije, znanstveni naglasak je uvijek bio na op}oj fenomenologiji i znanstveno istra`iva~kim aspektima antropolo{kog filma, odnosno njegovim sadr`ajnim aspektom i utjecajem na znan- stvene spoznaje. Do sada, sude}i po dostupnoj literaturi, ne postoje striktne smjernice re`ijskih postupaka, niti precizna definicija odre|enja metodi~kih procesa u praksi izrade antropolo{kog filma. Na tom tragu, ovaj rada definira strukturu i obli~ja metodi~kih procesa i definirati prednosti i nedostatke re`ijskih postupaka u nastajanju antropolo{kog filma. Istra`iva~, odnosno autor antropolo{kog filma, ve} u pripremnom (predprodukcijskom) periodu nastanka filma tehni- ~kim odabirom pristupa njegovoj izradi (proaktivni/reaktivni/subjektivni/objektivni...) i definiranjem re`ijskih postu- paka, mo`e optimizirati produkcijske i postprodukcijske procese. U kona~nici, drugim rije~ima, to zna~i relevantniji znanstveno istra`iva~ki rezultat, uz manje utro{enog vremena i sredstava.

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