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Insecure Worlds on Screens: Early Ethnographic Cinema in France and the United States, 1896-1931

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Insecure Worlds on Screens: Early Ethnographic Cinema in France and the United States, 1896-1931 INSECURE WORLDS ON SCREENS: EARLY ETHNOGRAPHIC CINEMA IN FRANCE AND THE UNITED STATES, 1896-1931 A Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of Cornell University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy By Katherine Ellen Groo August 2009 © 2009 Katherine Ellen Groo INSECURE WORLDS ON SCREENS: EARLY ETHNOGRAPHIC CINEMA IN FRANCE AND THE UNITED STATES, 1896-1931 Katherine Ellen Groo, Ph.D. Cornell University, 2009 Early ethnographic cinema is a doubly condemned genre. These films emerged in a moment of cinematic history that scholars have had to vigorously defend against accusations of incompetence and archival excess. They were also born of the nineteenth-century cultural fascination with racial difference and the ever-expanding reach of Western imperialism. Post-war visual anthropologists distance themselves from their pre-war counterparts, arguing that early ethnographic cinema lacks not only technical sophistication, but also a necessary dose of self-reflection. For film scholars, the very term “early ethnographic cinema” has become a kind of shorthand for a regime of visual oppression and capture. This dissertation examines the broad field of French and American ethnographic cinema produced by government agencies, academic institutions, and commercial film companies between the advent of cinema and the early nineteen thirties. Looking beyond and well before the most widely-cited example of this cinematic mode—Robert Flaherty’s Nanook of the North (1922)—I reconsider the boundaries of early ethnographic cinema and challenge its pervasive dismissal as a hegemonic ideological and narrative force. Through close readings of the Lumières’ Village Ashantis series, the Albert Kahn photo-film archives, and a wide range of expedition films, I argue that early ethnographic cinema renders visible the discursive and disciplinary instabilities of nineteenth- and early twentieth-century ethnographic practice. Early ethnographic cinema demands a shift from linguistic signs to indexical images, from the armchair to the field, from the pen to the camera. It contributes yet another order of displacement to a discipline founded upon geographic dislocations and decenterings. The incoherent or unstable quality of the ethnographic image owes not to the failures of untrained filmmakers or the primitivity of the earliest cinematic forms, but to the combined demands of ethnographic practice and visual reproduction. Cameras in hand, filmmakers went in search of the non-self, the unfamiliar, and the faraway. An insecure world of irrepressible motion and infinite difference stretched out before their lenses. BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH Katherine Ellen Groo was born and raised in Longwood, Florida. She received her Bachelor of Arts degree in Comparative Literature from Emory University in 2002. She received her Master of Arts degree in Comparative Literature from Cornell University in 2007. Her research interests include nineteenth- and early twentieth- century ethnographic practice; early cinema; non-fiction film; and experimental visual art movements. iii For Nathaniel iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The influences and encounters that brought me here, to this page and to this end of sorts, are too many to recount in their fullness. I have been fortunate to spend my life surrounded by passionate teachers and learners. At Cornell University, my committee members inspired, shaped, and, shepherded this project into its current form. I owe each of them an immeasurable debt of gratitude for their enthusiasm, critique, and commitment. Tracy McNulty offered crucial suggestions and sage advice at many points along the way. Amy Villarejo read multiple iterations of this dissertation with a precision and clarity that never failed to challenge my thinking and sharpen the dull edges of my writing. Her contributions will continue to inflect the revisions that lie ahead. Sabine Haenni introduced me to the discipline of film studies and the field of early cinema, influencing this project in more ways than I can name. I thank her for reading everything I sent her way, for her brilliant and rigorous questions, and for her boundless patience. She has been a mentor and friend, as well as a model for the kind of teacher and scholar that I hope to become. I owe my deepest thanks to Timothy Murray, who taught me to move across disciplines and media. His incisive intercessions throughout the research and writing process opened onto new ways of thinking about the relationship between theory, history, and early cinema. I will be forever grateful for his support and guidance. Generous travel and research grants from the Cornell Institute for European Studies, the Cornell University Graduate School, and the Cornell Society for the Humanities allowed me to follow the many unexpected paths that this project eventually took. I am grateful to the staffs of the American Museum of Natural History; the Centre National de la Cinématographie; the Archives Françaises du Film; the Cinémathèque Française; and the Musée Albert Kahn. I owe special thanks to v Hermine Cognie, Serge Fouchard, and Mark Katzman, all of whom helped me to find films and images that I did not know I had been searching for. This project has benefited from a vibrant community of interdisciplinary thinkers and readers at Cornell University. I am especially grateful to Lisa Patti for her steady friendship and wise counsel at several critical junctures in the development of this dissertation and my life as a graduate student, including my very first week in upstate New York. Adeline Rother was a constant source of encouragement and a generous sounding board during those first uncertain months of research and writing. Lauren Beeley, Anne Beggs, and Leah Shafer shared their work and engaged my own with care. The members of the Cinema and Media Studies Reading Group offered a space of intellectual exchange and, in my final months at Cornell, much-needed levity and social interaction. But all of this began in the strange elsewheres of Florida. Tara Schweizer convinced me to abandon the petri dishes and the lure of financial stability. I needed the push and will always be thankful. Lauren Chianese continues to teach me about strength and grace. I thank them both for the many years of friendship, conversation, and travel. My unbounded appreciation goes to Lauren and Brad Massey for their unwavering support and willingness to hire an inexperienced nanny. Luke Massey reminded me every weekend that I needed to hurry up and finish so that we could play at the beach. I am hoping for lots of sunshine in the days ahead. Stuart Groo and Kathy Finkbeiner encouraged me to wander wherever I needed to go. I knew doors would always be open if I needed to come home. I will never be able to adequately acknowledge their innumerable acts of generosity, support, and love. Finally, I would not have completed this journey without Nathaniel Jezzi. He read every word and gave me confidence to let it all go. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Biographical Sketch iii Dedication iv Acknowledgements v Table of Contents vii List of Figures viii Introduction: When and What is Ethnographic Cinema? 1 1. Ciné Goes Abroad: La Maison Lumière, 1896-1903 45 2. Representing Difference and Vibrating with the Infinite: Ontology and Totality in Les Archives de la Planète 99 3. Other Times and Spaces: How Cinema Unmakes Ethnography’s Object 158 4. Native and Narration: Mixed Race and Hybrid Form 230 Coda: Ethnography and its Critique 291 Works Cited 301 vii LIST OF FIGURES 1.1 Still from Danse du sabre I 74 1.2 Still from Danse du sabre II 75 1.3 Still from Repas d’Indiens 93 2.1 Photograph of Albert Kahn 108 3.1 Still from Chasseurs d’ivoire 190 3.2 Still from Chasseurs d’ivoire 191 3.3 Still from Chasseurs d’ivoire 192 3.4 Still from Chasseurs d’ivoire 194 3.5 Still from Chasseurs d’ivoire 195 3.6 Still from Adventures on the Upper Nile 203 3.7 Still from Adventures on the Upper Nile 204 3.8 Still from Adventures on the Upper Nile 205 3.9 Still from Adventures on the Upper Nile 206 3.10 Still from Cameroun: Danses dans les régions 214 3.11 Still from Cameroun: Danses dans les régions 215 3.12 Still from Cameroun: Danses dans les régions 216 3.13 Still from Cameroun: Danses dans les régions 217 3.14 Still from Cameroun: Danses dans les régions 218 3.15 Still from Cameroun: Danses dans les régions 219 4.1 Still from La Sirène des tropiques 250 4.2 Still from La Sirène des tropiques 256 4.3 Still from La Sirène des tropiques 257 4.4 Still from La Sirène des tropiques 258 4.5 Still from La Sirène des tropiques 260 4.6 Still from Yasmina 270 viii 4.7 Still from Yasmina 271 4.8 Still from Yasmina 275 4.9 Still from Yasmina 276 4.10 Still from Yasmina 277 4.11 Still from Yasmina 278 4.12 Still from Yasmina 279 ix INTRODUCTION WHEN AND WHAT IS EARLY ETHNOGRAPHIC CINEMA? “To find significance elsewhere in the history of the cinema, for example, in geography, in the concept and practice of the archive, the museum, the encyclopaedia, in travel literature, in painting, in ethnography, in banking and colonialism, is to expand the boundaries of the cinema. By opening up the subject of geography to the cinema perhaps another lock might turn and the study of the cinema thereby opened up to the entry of unaccustomed discourses, not least that of a wider history.” Sam Rohdie, Royal Geography Society Lecture “The story then takes so curious a turn that I am amazed no novelist or scenario writer has seized upon it. What a film it would make!” Claude Lévi Strauss, Tristes Tropiques Of all the unsettling visions that mark Luis Buñuel’s ethnographic portrait of the Hurdanos people and their isolated region in Spain, Las Hurdes (1932), one scene garners the extended attention of nearly every critic who has responded to the film.1 It begins with an announcement from an uninflected narrative voice: “In a deserted street we come across this child.
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