Jaimie Baron 13

JAIMIE BARON

Contemporary Documentary Film and “Archive Fever”: History, the Fragment, the Joke

But if Derrida’s Mal d’archive [Archive Fever] provokes that more Documentary flm has long been enmeshed in a serious thing, which is a joke, it is because the shade of the complex relationship with archives and archival practices. history writing that haunts its pages is—really—no laughing While many documentary flmmakers have drawn on matter. In this light, then, if there is laughter, it will be some kind of homage, or at very least, a recognition, of what it is archival materials—whether flm footage, photographs, that has been revealed. or other artifacts, like The Tailenders’ recordings—as il- —Carolyn Steedman, Dust: The Archive and Cultural History lustration or evidence, others have radically eschewed archives and relied only on their own footage. This split dele Horne’s documentary The Tailenders has at times been quite pronounced, especially in cases in (2005) begins with an image of a fat, which diferent modes of documentary practice are used square piece of cardboard labeled “Card- to address the same historical subject. Alain Resnais’ short A talk.” A hand reaches into the frame, unfolds documentary Night and Fog (1955), which makes use of the cardboard to form a box equipped with a tiny record shocking archival photographs of Auschwitz taken during needle, places a phonograph record beneath the needle, the Holocaust, is often contrasted with Claude Lanzmann’s and then uses a pen inserted into a hole in the record to nine-hour epic Shoah (1985), which relies only on footage spin the disc. What emerges is a man’s voice speaking in shot by Lanzmann himself over a period of eleven years English and reciting a simple, didactic lesson that answers (Bruzzi 105). Certain found footage documentaries, like the question, “What is a Christian?” His voice is slightly Emile de Antonio’s “collage junk flms” (24–25), contain distorted by the fact that the record is cranked by hand, nothing but skillfully edited archival footage, while ortho- but it is nonetheless intelligible. dox direct cinema flmmakers insist on “being there,” using The Tailenders’ odd inaugural object sets up an enigma, one not so much resolved by the flm as used as an entry point into complex issues of archivization, information dissemination, and power. Over subsequent black-and- white archival images of people standing near similar hand-cranked phonographs, a woman’s voice, Horne’s, tells the story of Gospel Recordings, an evangelical mis- sionary group founded in 1939 with the intention of recording Bible stories in every existing language and dialect in order, they say, to spread the same Christian message, translated but unchanged, across the world. The flm then cuts to interviews with contemporary Gospel Recordings missionaries explaining their project and showing of their archive, which, they boast, contains recordings of more languages than any other archive in Figure 1. The missionary group Gospel Recordings’ hand-cranked “Card- the world. The Cardtalk record in the frst shot turns out talk” record player in The Tailenders (Adele Horne, 2005) (photo by Karin to be a fragment from this vast collection. Johansson).

The Velvet Light Trap, Number 60, Fall 2007 ©2007 by the University of Texas Press, P.O. Box 7819, Austin, TX 78713-7819 14 Contemporary Documentary Film only material that they can capture through observing academic historiographic practice and of deconstruction and recording their subjects frsthand. For the most part, in academic literary and cultural practice. The archive is however, documentary flmmakers rely on a combination the common historiographic concept and technology of archival materials and their own contemporary footage, around which these two diverse (and often contradic- creating heterogeneous texts that oscillate in their relation- tory) discourses converge. I also suggest, borrowing from ship to present and past, made and found. historiographer Hayden White, that, in the context of the In the past few years, however, a number of independent emergent digital era, the emplotment of the narrative of documentaries have entered into a new relationship with the archive and hence of the historical project itself in these archives and archival practices. Rather than simply mobi- flms is that of satire, accompanied by the partial redemp- lizing archival materials in a transparent manner, the four tion of comedy and tragedy. Finally, I argue, building on flms I wish to discuss—The Tailenders (Adele Horne, 2005), the work of historiographic theorist Eelco Runia, that The Birdpeople (Michael Gitlin, 2004), okay bye-bye (Rebecca these flms are part of a larger trend in the approach to Baron, 1998), and spam letter + google image search = video history, a move away from the “transfer of meaning,” or the entertainment (Andre Silva, 2005)—fgure the archive itself attempt to narrate and explain history, toward a “transfer and thus simulate for the viewer the experience of being in of presence,” or a sense of contact with the historical past an archive, of following and trying to make sense of frag- that cannot be reduced to facts and chronologies (17). ments and traces. More specifcally, these documentaries Indeed, refusing to assert a stable narrative of the past, each begin by mobilizing material or textual objects to which of these documentaries ofers, rather, an experience of the the flmmaker has some personal connection and follow confrontation with the vast yet always partial and discon- not the defned trajectory of a journey but, rather, the tinuous archive of materials that precedes any construction tentative movements of an exploration. This exploration of historical understanding. is often indirect, dispersed, and nonlinear. It foregrounds In my view, what is ultimately at stake in all four flms process, digression, and discovery rather than a straight- is the relationship between the human subject and the forward recovery of “the facts.” What is most interesting historical past as mediated through diferent and chang- to me, however, is that, in the flms I discuss here, the frst ing technologies of memory. As material objects are archival fragment leads to further fragments and, more increasingly overwhelmed and outnumbered by digital specifcally, to the archive. Part of what is discovered is the documents, it has become ever more urgent for us to fnd archive itself and varying forms of archivization. Thus, each new ways of sorting through these traces and to invent flm treats a fragment as a jumping-of point that leads to new methods for encountering and articulating the past. a relationship with “the real” yet simultaneously interrupts While many flms engage the archive in various ways, these any such unmediated relationship. Each flm, in its own particular flms fgure the archive in such a way that they particular way, articulates a tension between the fguration dramatize the larger shifts taking place in our cultural and of the archive and the use of fragments as well as between theoretical conception of history. Indeed, they exemplify an the acts of fnding things and of making flms. emergent strategy within independent documentary flm While discourse about documentary has endlessly re- production for dealing with the traces of the past while hashed the truism that no documentary flm is objective simultaneously rejecting any simple notion of access to despite its implied truth claims, less has been written about historical meaning, which seems increasingly untenable in the relationship between documentary as a historiographic the information age. Refecting this historiographic crisis, process and contemporary changes in the wider feld of they inhabit and thematize the desire for a coherent history historiographic theory.1 Like other forms of historical confronted by the unruly vestiges of its passage. inquiry, documentary is concerned with questions of how the past may be experienced or understood in the present. Historiography, Deconstruction, Documentary Thus, it seems productive to locate documentary practice within this broader historiographic context. Here, I argue Since the 1980s there has been a marked democratization that these four contemporary documentaries that fgure and personalization of historiographic practice at large archives and mobilize archival fragments do so in a way that has been at least partially spurred by the develop- infected by the methods both of New Historicism in ment of New Historicism. According to preeminent Jaimie Baron 15 scholars Catherine Gallagher and Stephen Greenblatt, demonstrate (whether intentionally or not) the excess, New Historicism begins from the premise that there ambiguity, and disruptive real that are key elements upon is no single, universal history but rather many histories which New Historicists base their work. Second, expressed based in the unique, the particular, and the individual (6). through diferent media, they difer in their relationships to Furthermore, Gallagher and Greenblatt emphasize the way time and presence. Several of the flmmakers discussed here, in which New Historicism has opened up the range of in fact, use New Historicist methods not primarily to seek topics considered worthy of historical investigation. By out and disclose the past but rather to explore the present conceiving of individual cultures as sets of texts, New as it is moving into the past, to examine the relationship Historicists have been able to use almost any aspect of between past and present, or to seek out traces of the past cultural production as a potential historical site for read- in the present. ing and interpretation (Gallagher and Greenblatt 8). New While New Historicism provides one framework for Historicists also acknowledge the fact that any exploration understanding these documentaries, elements of decon- of history is necessarily in part subjective and based in structive practice also emerge forcefully within these the historian’s desire to experience the “touch of the real” works. Deconstructive practice extends from the premise (Gallagher and Greenblatt 31). Thus, they often search the that language and signifcation are inherently multivalent archive for eccentric anecdotes and enigmatic fragments and that therefore meaning itself can never be stabilized. in order to construct counterhistories that interrupt the Its practitioners often interrogate the processes by which homogenizing force of grand narratives by grounding texts are made to “mean” something in order to question themselves in the contingent and “the real,” all the while larger cultural assumptions. Indeed, the use or revelation of acknowledging that the real is never accessible as such the pun or the “play on words” in order to reveal the slip- (Gallagher and Greenblatt 49). It is the archives and their page of the meaning of the signifer is one of the defning vast amalgamation of unrelated objects that make the New tools of deconstructive practice. New Historicists Gallagher Historicist project possible. The four documentaries I wish and Greenblatt explicitly distance themselves from the to discuss here are particularly allied with New Historicist critical practice of deconstruction, arguing that it does not strategies in that their self-conscious exploration of the take cultural and historical specifcity into account (14). I archive and their emphasis on the fragment that disrupts would argue, however, that these documentaries discover grand narratives bring them into closer alignment than and dramatize shared ground between New Historicism other current documentary forms with the New His- and deconstruction. That is, they generate and maintain a toricist project. productive tension between the description of the speci- Nonetheless, despite commonalities between New fcity of a given cultural and historical situation and an Historicism proper and these particular documentary prac- interrogation of textuality itself. tices, several important distinctions must be made between In Dust: The Archive and Cultural History Carolyn them. First of all, while New Historicists note the common Steedman has indicated a way in which rigorous archival problems of the excess and inexhaustibility of the cultural research can be combined with deconstructive method. archive, they respond in written documents that do not Steedman notes that deconstruction uses the form—not have the same indexical relationship to the historical world the afect—of the joke, which employs “the calculated as do photographic, flmic, or other audiovisual media, in naivety involved in the literal interpretation of a trope,” which issues of excess are even more pronounced. Indexical thereby “missing the point, in order to make another one” images as well as sound recordings, quite simply, are even (11). Steedman, in fact, makes use of this joke structure less easy to contain than written documents; their tangi- in her book, using Derrida’s fgurative notion of “archive bility and ambiguity are often even more unruly. While fever” (mal d’archive) to examine the literal way in which every trace, written or otherwise, is open to interpretation, nineteenth-century archives harbored the anthrax virus in indexical audiovisual recordings are especially resistant to the binding of books. Steedman literalizes the metaphor of full comprehension or interpretation. As Friedrich Kittler archive fever in order to begin historicizing bookbinding has argued, the indexical sign, unlike writing, records all the and industrial diseases, including that of the scholar (28). uncensored, unfltered “noise,” which resists signifcation The joke, which literalizes a metaphoric trope, is thus a (86). Given their unruly excess, audiovisual media often form of “misuse” that is also historically productive. In all 16 Contemporary Documentary Film of the documentaries discussed here metaphors associated uncanny pun signals the death of any absolute meaning with the archive are literalized, thereby revealing the slip- (“The Uncanny”). The anxiety about the archive, which pages in the meaning of the signifer. The literality of these is often invoked as a place where the dead are preserved in “jokes,” however, is grounded in particular in the specifcity order to be reanimated by the historian, seems to stem from of the indexical audiovisual trace, thereby mitigating the the fear that the meaning of the traces left by the dead can- New Historicist concern that deconstruction is ahistorical not be stabilized. If there is one overarching joke to which and decontextualizing. In sum, the common elements of all these documentaries subscribe, it may be that, when it all these flms are, frst, the fact that they share a fascina- comes to history, the joke is on us. No matter how much tion with the archive and archival objects and, second, the archival material we may uncover (or perhaps because we fact that they mimic the structure of the joke. This raises have uncovered too much), a coherent history is always just the question, What is the afnity between the historical out of reach. Nevertheless, along with the stuf of satire, the archive and the joke? I would suggest that it has to do with joke is also comic, which, according to White, opens up the the fundamental ambiguity of the meaning of the archival possibility of some partial redemption (9). Freud, too, notes object as both fgurative and literal, which lends itself not the association of the joke not only with anxiety but also only to factual assertion but also to misuse and play. with freedom, play, and the opportunity to think outside At this historical moment in particular, when the ever- the habitual confnes of rational thought (Jokes 10–11). This expanding digital archive threatens to overwhelm all nar- liberatory potential—the possibility for a playful attitude rative coherence, the question of how to organize archival toward history in the act of writing it—allows these four traces and narrate from them any history at all has come documentaries to reassert the partial redemption of the to feel increasingly urgent. Hayden White has argued that comic, as well as the tragic, in the face of a nihilistic view all historical narratives are emplotted, primarily in the of documentary as nothing but “mockumentary” and of modes of romance, comedy, tragedy, and satire. While the history as pure farce. story of the archive itself has often been emplotted in the romantic genre as a recovery and redemption of the past The Archive of Noise in the form of historical narrative, now the sheer volume of archival materials threatens to undermine the lofty On several levels, Adele Horne’s flm The Tailenders is goals of historians descended from Jules Michelet, who structured like a joke, which is not to say that it is overtly dreamed of “raising the dead.” Indeed, the romance of the comic but rather to point to its productive “misuse” of its archive now verges on collapse, and the attempt to nar- materials. To begin with, Horne herself actively misuses rate the experience of engaging the archive seems to have the archive of recordings collected by Gospel Recordings (d)evolved into satire. According to White, “Satire is the and “misses” the intended point of their archive in a subtly precise opposite of this Romantic drama of redemption; critical way in order to show not only its ambiguous nature it is, in fact, a drama of diremption, a drama dominated by but also the ambiguous efects of its use on the communi- the apprehension that man is ultimately a captive of the ties the missionaries target.2 In the manner of the New world rather than its master, and by the recognition that, in Historicists, Horne uses an odd archival fragment—in the fnal analysis, human consciousness and will are always the form of the Cardtalk record—to disrupt the grand inadequate to the task of overcoming defnitively the dark narrative of Western progress uplifting the non-Western force of death, which is man’s unremitting enemy” (9). world through religion and technology.3 Horne, who never I would argue that the structure of the joke as it is appears on-screen, follows a group of Gospel Recordings mobilized in these flms is most closely aligned with missionaries to the Solomon Islands, Baja California, and satire and its recognition of the inability of any narrative India to document them carrying out their work. Rather or signifcation to create a meaningful history in the face than focusing solely on the missionary organization, how- of not only the passage of time and of death but also the ever, Horne uses their hand-cranked record player and contemporary proliferation of archival materials. The vacil- archive of Bible recordings to explore the experiences of lation between the literal and the metaphoric, and the very the consumers of the missionaries’ wares, the power of glut of signifcation, renders the presumed meaning of any the disembodied voice, and the complexities of carrying a signifcation suspect. Indeed, as Freud has pointed out, the particular message across languages and cultures. Without Jaimie Baron 17 ever overtly condemning their project, Horne is able to about power. As Derrida has pointed out, the archives in use Gospel Recordings’ archival mission to trace the legacy ancient Greece were administered by archons, who con- of colonialism and the fow of evangelism, in concert with trolled the gathering and preservation of documents as the spread of global capitalism and consumerism, into well as their interpretation and hence their meaning (2). poverty-stricken communities whose traditions and lan- Here, the Gospel Recordings missionaries take on the role guages are quickly being quashed by all these forces, even of the archons, choosing what is to be collected. Without as the missionaries attempt to translate “themselves” into overtly judging the collection of recordings, The Tailenders the cultures in question. Thus, while telling the history of produces a sense of ambivalence about the missionaries’ Gospel Recordings, Horne also tells another history, which archive, which contains recordings of over fve thousand is one of exploitation, oppression, and extinction rather languages and dialects, many of which are no longer than one of uplift and salvation spoken or are soon to be lost. Clearly, there is an allure to On this most basic level, the flm can be seen as a joke this archive of dead or disappearing languages, but there on Gospel Recordings. Yet deconstruction also emphasizes is also a clear sense of the archive’s selectivity, the fact that the breakdown of any clear opposition between subject whoever decides what to archive also controls what traces and object, in this case, between the flmmaker and the will be available in the future. On the one hand, these are missionaries, an opposition that Horne herself rejects. valuable indexical traces of certain languages that are gone Indeed, the flm is also concerned with its own textuality or soon to be gone. Indeed, it is difcult not to admire as well as with the question of textuality itself. Horne’s an organization that has been able to amass recordings in voice-over, while not the male voice of authority associ- so many languages and dialects. On the other hand, this ated with more traditional documentary practice, is, like admiration is accompanied by the realization that these the sound that emanates from the missionaries’ recordings, recordings are only of Christian Bible stories: what is saved disembodied. Rather than ignore this “voice of God” tran- is determined by the missionaries, who have the privilege scendence, Horne interrogates the form as she mobilizes of deciding what counts. it. Without overt wordplay, she literalizes the notion of Yet (and this is part of the joke, too), the flm also points “Cardtalk,” a card that talks, asking what it means for an to the fact that archives and the indexical traces they preserve inorganic object (like a flm) to speak with a human voice. often escape the control of the archons. These traces mean Over images of sound recording and playback devices, more than the archons might intend or wish. Film theorist Horne’s disembodied voice asks, “Why are disembodied Mary Ann Doane, following Kittler, has suggested that the voices so captivating? . . . Separated from its body, the ability of technologies of mechanical reproduction to create voice becomes superhuman. It can speak to more people indexical traces holds both the allure of the preservation of than any single person could. Evangelists began using the the past and the threat of preserving too much, of generating disembodied voice in the twenties and thirties.” So, too, only an “archive of noise” (65). New Historicists Gallagher in the 1930s, one might add, did documentary flmmak- and Greenblatt emphasize the seductive lure of the archive ers. Thus, without being overtly funny, Horne mobilizes as the place where one may encounter “the touch of the the structure of the joke in order to move from a singular real” and the “luminous detail” (15), but, at the same time, object to much broader questions of power in which her they acknowledge the potential problem of counterhistory own practice is implicated. She thereby also disrupts the as a practice, in which anything may constitute a trace of convention of the documentary voice-over that so often, the real (72). Horne’s flm expresses a similar experience like missionary recordings, speaks with disembodied and of allure and threat, but it also, simultaneously, thematizes transcendental authority. and literalizes this notion of the “archive of noise.” For one The Cardtalk record player, which emits the disem- thing, the missionaries’ recordings themselves go beyond the bodied voice, also directs the flm toward the much larger control of meaning as intended by the missionaries. Most archive of such voices and toward a consideration of the fundamentally, the flm illustrates the problem of the subtle power of archives in general. Horne’s flm functions, in transformations of meaning inherent even in an “accurate” many ways, as a meditation on the processes of archiving translation from one language to another. Furthermore, and the collection of the indexical trace, in this instance in one interview a Gospel Recordings member discusses the audio trace. Like the disembodied voice, archives are some of the additional problems of making recordings in 18 Contemporary Documentary Film languages that the missionaries themselves do not under- Birdpeople, in which the taxidermic body of the (most stand. Sometimes, he explains, the translators themselves likely) extinct ivory-billed woodpecker is the ambigu- “misuse” the recording process, making mistakes and taking ous and opaque object that structures the flm. The New liberties with the biblical stories, as in the example of one Historicists suggest that archival fragments are alluring translator who turned the story of the prodigal son into the because of their radical alterity and their ability to punc- story of the prodigal pig. The intended biblical meaning ture historical platitudes. The taxidermic body suggests is transformed into “nonsense.” Even more crucial to the just such radical alterity. It also exists in a special relation “archive of noise” in the flm, however, are the literal noises to time. As Steedman writes, “In the practice of History on these missionary soundtracks. Missionary interviews (in academic history and in history as a component of and written archives attest to the fact that local conditions everyday imaginings) something has happened to time: it often do not allow for a clean, crisp recording. Crickets, has been slowed down, and compressed. When the work domestic animals, children playing, and other noises are of Memory is done, it is with the things into which this captured on the recording and cannot be eliminated. The time has been pressed” (79). In Horne’s flm time has lit- “thickness” of the indexical sound recording produces an erally been “pressed” into the Cardtalk record in a record unintended encounter with and description of “the real” press. In Gitlin’s flm the stufed body of the ivory-billed and thus generates the threat—for the missionaries—of woodpecker becomes the technology of memory into losing control of meaning, of excess and inexhaustibility. which time has been pressed. Nonetheless, it would be However, rather than seeing noise as threat, The Tailenders misleading to say that the flm is about the ivory-billed celebrates the liberatory efect of “noise” as the breakdown woodpecker. Like Horne’s “misuse” of Gospel Recordings’ of the missionaries’ control. For Horne, the problems recordings and archives, Gitlin’s flm is also structured as a encountered by Gospel Recordings point to the fact that joke. Gitlin uses the stufed, dead body of the ivory-billed local realities cannot be fully contained or silenced by the woodpecker and the marginal practices of bird-watching, voice of Western missionaries and the global marketplace. bird banding, and avian taxidermy to address larger ques- An archive of instrumental power is subverted, (mis)used tions about the impulse to observe, preserve, catalog, and for diferent ends—or for no end at all, for play. While, on archive by turning his subjects’ strategies of archivization the one hand, the flm satirically narrates the archive as an back on themselves—and by refecting on flm as an ar- instrument of social control rather than of truth, it also reas- chival medium itself. serts the comedy of the archive as a site of liberation from As in New Historicism, in which idiosyncratic frag- these very sources of control through misuse and play. ments are used to illuminate historical norms, marginal Appropriately, the flm itself rejects the role of the ar- practices of archivization in the flm serve to underscore chon, refusing to ofer a defnitive account of the historical the normative status of the urge to collect experiences, signifcance of its own materials. Like the New Historicists, data, and objects. The Birdpeople provides a catalog of Horne uses her objects and anecdotes not to construct diferent kinds of avian archives, their justifcations and a grand narrative but to throw such narratives of track their production of “evidence,” which become part of without establishing any other unitary meaning. The flm larger archives of knowledge or experience. Each type of ofers potential insights into the archival process and its activity represented in the flm serves as an instance of a consequences, and yet, by withholding explicit judgment, particular technology of memory available at a given cul- it hovers on the edge of itself becoming “noise.” It works tural moment. The flm, in fact, creates an overt taxonomy to provoke and evoke rather than to judge or explain. of these mnemonic technologies and the “birdpeople” In the end, although we know much more about it, the (“birders,” “banders,” “scientists,” and “searchers”) who disembodied voice emanating from the Cardtalk record put these technologies into practice. Himself an amateur player remains a subtly disturbing enigma. birder, Gitlin does not so much make fun of the people who obsessively collect sightings of birds as ponder their The Archive as Taxonomy and Taxidermy impulse to look and then to catalog these looks in written or unwritten transcripts. Birders thus produce an archive The uncanny encounter with an archive of bodiless voices of what they have seen without necessarily preserving an in The Tailenders fnds an echo in Michael Gitlin’s flm The image or any other indexical form of representation. Their Jaimie Baron 19 prosthetic tool is the binoculars rather than the camera, The archive as a raising of the dying, the dead, and and their archives exist mostly in individual memories or the extinct is perhaps the underlying logic of all of these on slips of paper inscribed with name, date, and location. practices. At the same time, however, there is a sense that Meanwhile, catching live birds in nets, the banders docu- the archive is beyond the control of any of the individuals ment the numbers of bird species present in an area and within the flm. The birders may have the most control over take measurements of these live birds before tagging and their archive, for they are the only ones who can access it, setting them free, thereby producing extensive facts and but their archive of personal encounters is limited in that it fgures about bird populations even as this “living archive” cannot be used by anyone else. By contrast, the banders’ data of tagged bird bodies wings its way through the trees. become part of a larger instrumental archive within which This is not to say that nature itself is an archive but rather the banders themselves have almost no control. Similarly, that the banders attempt to impose an order on nature one taxidermist says, “Twenty years down the road, people through their taxonomic activities. While the banders may be thinking about things we can’t even envision right seek to control the excess of nature in the present, the now, and these specimens that I laid down two decades ago avian taxidermists attempt to impose a similar order onto will be really important.” Although the taxidermist speaks nature in the past tense, preserving the bodies of dead in a utopian tone, his comment also serves to underscore birds as museum exhibits or tools for future research. For the fact that his work—his archival data—could be used the searchers, people who spend months in the swamps for almost any purpose in the future. Meanwhile, the looking for a visual or audio trace of the vanished ivory- searchers produce only a failed archive of false sightings billed woodpecker, the living body of this bird is fgured and recordings, and their motivation for seeking evidence as a redemptive icon of the past in its ultimate sense: ex- of the extinct woodpecker’s continued existence is entirely tinction. These searchers do not produce an archive but, unclear. It seems like pure obsession and, to a great degree, rather, like the historian in the archive, attempt to do no undermines all of the justifcations all of the birdpeople less than raise the dead. In doing so, they point to what is make in the flm for their actions. The impulse to create missing in the archives produced by the birders, banders, an archive, to produce evidence of “having been there,” of and taxidermists, to the absences that are an inherent part “having seen,” to assert control by stalling or turning back of every archive. death, is more powerful than any rational motive.

Figure 2. The taxidermic body of the ivory-billed woodpecker in The Bird- people (Michael Gitlin, 2004). 20 Contemporary Documentary Film

Like Horne, Gitlin recognizes his own complicity in in all archival practices. In fact, the birdpeople perform a archivization. The impulse to make flms, Gitlin subtly displacement of the discourse of “salvage ethnography” implies, especially the urge to make documentaries, may from the ethnographic subject to the animal subject, an- be the result of the same obsession. André Bazin’s de- thropomorphizing the bird, who, like the Native American scription of cinema as a result of the historical obsession “noble savage” in colonial discourse, is posited as always with likeness and as a preservation against death, which already disappearing (Rony 91). Thus, the gaze of the birder he calls the “mummy complex” (9), already points to the is revealed as a colonizing gaze, while the gaze of Gitlin’s connection between flmmaking and taxidermy. Fatimah camera is precisely a taxidermic gaze, since the images will Tobing Rony extends this comparison in her discussion of presumably outlast the individuals that Gitlin flms. Indeed, the “ethnographic taxidermy” practiced by documentary The Birdpeople moves from an archive of dead bird bodies flmmakers like Robert Flaherty, who tried to make a to a taxonomy and taxidermy of living human bodies, dead indigenous culture look alive for white consumption creating an uncanny parallel between looker and looked- (99–126). Filmmaking itself is a technology of history and at, mummifed and photographed, and producing the sort memory and thus emerges from an archival impulse to of laughter that is edged with anxiety and the thought of record and save. Indeed, because Gitlin’s flm is structured death. as a taxonomy rather than a narrative, it echoes the non- narrative, categorical structure of an archive. Moreover, The Unintended Reader the taxonomic structure and the formal parallels drawn between human bodies and animal bodies produce a Like The Tailenders and The Birdpeople, Rebecca Baron’s flm blurring of the boundaries between animals and humans, okay bye-bye both represents and interrogates archival forms. nature documentary and ethnographic flm, taxidermy and It takes an epistolary form, a cinematic letter addressed flmmaking. to an unspecifed “you” from a quasi-autobiographical Indeed, purporting to be about people who watch, band, “I” narrated by the flmmaker. Here again the structure stuf, and search for birds, The Birdpeople, in fact, turns the of the joke appears as a literalization of the metaphor of birdpeople’s own archival strategies back on themselves. For the archive. The epistolary format is, of course, one of the one thing, the flm is as much about watching people as it most common forms of archival document. Indeed, along is about watching birds. While Gitlin’s flm simulates the with the ofcial record and the photograph, the letter act of bird-watching through binoculars, it also performs may be the archival document par excellence. Steedman an ethnographic inspection. As he documents the processes points out, however, that, like the reader of a letter sent of avian archiving, Gitlin also flms the birders themselves, to someone else, the historian who uncovers any object revealing the voyeuristic aspect of birding. As he points out, in the archive will always, in some sense, steal or misuse the birds look back at the camera or the binoculars, but it: “The Historian who goes to the Archive must always theirs is an ambiguous gaze, although not the threatening or be an unintended reader, will always read that which was threatened returned gaze of the ethnographic subject. The never intended for his or her eyes. Like Michelet in the bird is a “safe” other whose gaze does not matter. Gitlin’s 1820s, the Historian always reads the fragmented traces of camera, however, is another matter. When he frames the something else . . . an intended, purloined letter” (75). The birdpeople individually, standing silent and almost mo- act of viewing a documentary flm is always in some way tionless in long takes, he seems to be literally producing an act of “reading” a purloined letter. However, okay bye- “ethnographic taxidermy” in the form of images. In most bye literalizes this situation by actually placing the viewer cases the birdpeople’s discomfort at being looked at and in the position of the historian in the archive, reading recorded is palpable. Although compelled by the archival letters addressed to someone else. That is, we never fnd impulse, most of the birdpeople seem much less comfort- out exactly who the narrational “I” is or to whom she is able being themselves preserved in the archival medium writing, but we remain intensely aware that we are reading of cinema. someone else’s letter. This discomfort comes as no surprise, since the verbal Although the flm text does not begin with a fragment, discourse produced by all of the birdpeople in the flm a fragment of flm both was the actual instigation of the reveals the theme of death, extinction, and loss implicit flm and becomes the impetus for the narrator’s search to Jaimie Baron 21 understand its meaning in relation to herself. In a few silent seconds of a Super-8 flm fragment a Cambodian man gestures and talks, as if telling an exciting story. The flm- maker/narrator—who are not entirely coincident—found this piece of flm, labeled with the name of a Cambodian city, on a sidewalk in San Diego, California, and it serves as a starting point for (among other things) an investigation of the Cambodia genocide under Pol Pot, the role of the United States in Cambodia during the Vietnam War, and the Cambodian immigrant population in Southern Cali- fornia. The flm makes use of a variety of archival materials: microfche copies of the New York Times, old ethnographic and military footage, and—most strikingly—the online databases of photographs of the victims of the Cambodian genocide, taken, in fact, by Pol Pot’s Khmer Rouge in the S-21 camp right before the prisoners were shot and killed. All of these archival materials are presented as actively found by the flmmaker/narrator, not as simply given. In fact, the flm is very much about the personal process through which these further fragments were discovered and about their promise of a coherence that ultimately cannot be realized. While all of the flms discussed here are about how the past—or elements of it—is preserved in one form or another, this flm is the most explicitly about memory and how technologies of archiving afect what and how a culture remembers as well as what and how it forgets. Baron’s flm not only enacts the desire to turn archival fragments into a narrative but also suggests Figure 3. A strip of found archival flm showing a boxer in okay bye-bye that certain fragments can never be contained by a story. (Rebecca Baron, 1998). Indeed, the flm fragment that sets of the narrative is ul- timately unassimilable to narrative; its meaning is left open Thus, like The Tailenders and The Birdpeople, Baron’s flm and unresolved. raises the question of how archival materials circulate and While the epistolary format puts the flm viewer in the how they are made to speak according to circumstances position of an unintended reader, the narrator is explicitly that long postdate their production. The narrator of okay aware that she herself is reading a set of “letters” that are bye-bye realizes that she is responding to the images in not addressed to her. The S-21 archive is perhaps the terms of their strange beauty and uncanny attraction, the most distressing of these, for its contents were “written” people’s hair and men’s beards, the lighting of the shots. by the Khmer Rouge, who took pictures of their victims Certain thoughts, it seems, are inappropriate to the ob- moments before their deaths. To whom could these im- jects, and yet there is no denying the aesthetic allure of ages have been addressed? For what purpose were they these death masks, now archived online. Here, the fact intended? Is this some grisly historical joke? The Khmer of the digital archive in particular raises questions about Rouge photographers surely could not have imagined the leveling of images and their meanings. The dystopian the contexts into which the images they made would nightmare of the digital age involves the way in which be put: a museum exhibit, a cofee-table book, an online the Internet, the archive, and perhaps any technology database, or an experimental documentary flm. These of memory are both selective and valueless. What fnds “letters,” “sent” by the Khmer Rouge (perhaps to them- its way into the digital archive depends on who fnds selves), have been archived, appropriated, and “misused.” what images and chooses to make them available. Even 22 Contemporary Documentary Film more frighteningly, all images on the Internet have the “quoting history” like the “compilation flm,” “quotes the potential for a problematic equivalence, for becoming just media, which have replaced history and virtually abolished another combination of ones and zeroes that may gener- historicity” (45). I would argue, however, that rather than ate moments of enlightenment but that may also generate being abolished by Silva’s flm, historicity, by its absence, meaninglessness. At the same time, the utopian dream of is precisely its topic. While this flm is more likely to be the Internet is that of access, communication, and con- classifed as an experimental flm than as a documentary, I nection, through which relatives of the S-21 victims may wish to make the argument that it is indeed a documentary, recover their dead. While the frst view coincides with precisely because it illustrates and simulates the relation- the satirical recognition of archival meaninglessness, the ship between the contemporary reader and the digital second ofers some hope for the redemption of meaning, archive and because all of its constituent parts are found although emplotted more in the mode of tragedy than rather than invented by the flmmaker. Moreover, its use comedy. White writes: “The reconciliations that occur at of the archive is so disturbing to conventional notions of the end of Tragedy are much more somber [than those history that, I contend, the flm is forced to change genres, in Comedy]; they are more in the nature of resignations ousted from the realm of documentary to be classifed and of men to the conditions under which they must labor contained in the category of the experimental. Looking in the world. These conditions, in turn, are asserted to be at it as a documentary, however, challenges the distinction inalterable and eternal, and the implication is that man between “proper” and “improper” uses of the archive as cannot change them but must work within them” (9). well as reifed notions of the historical. okay bye-bye may be read as both satire and tragedy in its As in okay bye-bye, issues of the letter to the unintended emplotment of the story of the archive. The found fragment reader and of the endless digital archive are also taken up of flm (a piece of detritus on the street), the epistolary by Silva’s three-minute flm. Silva, like many of us, was the missives of the narrator, and the many archival documents recipient of a generic spam letter sent to thousands of users shown neither cohere as a unifed narrative nor establish a ostensibly from a lawyer in Nigeria asserting that, because defnitive meaning. Instead, the flm acts as a succession of the addressee bears the same last name as his deceased client, encounters and interruptions that are only tentatively held the addressee is the client’s next of kin, and thus, with the together by a delicate narrative thread of refexive medita- addressee’s help, the client’s money can be repatriated to tions. Nonetheless, the flm asserts the need to continue the United States, whereupon the lawyer and the addressee to sort through archival traces even if they will never yield can split the profts. Silva took the letter and performed a any defnitive conclusions. Google image search of each word in the letter. He then programmed the letter into the computer’s voice genera- The Archive as Spam tor. In the flm, as each word of the letter is spoken by the computer, it is accompanied by the frst Google image that While flms categorized as “found footage flms” often came up for each word. The result is a bizarre sequence engage with the archive in various ways, okay bye-bye may of images that bear heterogeneous and often incompre- be better classifed as a “fnding footage” flm, in which hensible relationships to the words they “represent.” Every the found fragment provides only a starting point for element of the flm is drawn from (virtual) objects that, the documentary flmmaker’s confrontation with and like the letter itself, circulate in the vast, active archive of attempt to convey some aspect of the historian’s impos- the web. The spam letter acts as the fragment that leads to sible task. Indeed, the flm discovers not only a fragment this greater archive. but also the vast archives that give the fragment the In this case, the fragment is literally a spam letter re- promise—unfulflled, because it cannot be fulflled—of ceived by an unintended reader. The name of the dead meaning. The same is true of a very diferent flm, which man, whose last name Silva is supposed to share, is actually begins not from a piece of flm but rather from a spam not “Silva.” Moreover, spam letters and most web pages, letter. Andre Silva’s spam letter + google image search = video like flms and other technologies of memory, are epistles entertainment seems—at least at frst glance—in line with sent into cyberspace that can be read by anyone and in- what William Wees has called the “appropriation flm,” a terpreted by anyone who happens to receive the message. postmodern form of found footage flm that, instead of In this perverse form of epistolary documentary, the letter Jaimie Baron 23 is meant to be read—by anyone with a checkbook. On thermore, since textuality and signifcation are constantly the one hand, the Internet’s feld of messages presents a in question in these flms, none of the flms purports to utopian vision of the active, agentic reader who has access be comprehensive or fully coherent, closing the book, as to all material. And yet again, on the other hand, we once it were, on the meaning of its subject. Indeed, the frag- again encounter an “archive of noise,” of meaninglessness ment that structures each flm does not act so much as a or nonsense, of letters not intended for us in particular or metaphor as a metonym. Runia argues that today the key perhaps for anyone in particular. The flm is a Frankenstein historical trope is not metaphor but metonymy. He writes, patchwork of voices and images, the digital archive talking “Metonymy may be described as the willfully inappro- to itself about everything and nothing. If there is anything priate transposition of a word that belongs to context 1 . at all that controls what is meaningful here, it is the search . . to context 2[,] . . . where it subsequently stands out as engines, inhuman technologies of memory (or the naviga- just slightly ‘out of place’” (15–16). For Runia, unlike the tion of memories) without afect or intentionality. How metaphor, which is concerned with a “transfer of meaning,” can one think of history here? And yet, precisely because the metonym is concerned with a “transfer of presence,” history is so thoroughly devastated by the flm, the ques- that is, a transfer of experience and afect generated by the tion of—even the demand for—historicity returns in all uncanny contrast between words, objects, and contexts that of its insistence. are incommensurable with one another (17). In this sense, Of all of these flms structured like a joke, spam letter the metonym has much in common with the literalizing is both the most satirical and unambiguously funny. The joke, which, in literalizing a metaphor, rejects the meta- most humorous moments are those when a word is used phoric and its promise of a corresponding meaning. Each aurally in one manner but is accompanied by an image archival fragment in these flms can be seen as a metonym, that is associated with another—and often literal—mean- for it does not so much make meaning as ofer a point of ing of the same word. For instance, the possessive pronoun entry—through something out of place—to an experi- “mine,” used in the voice-over to mean “belonging to ence of the uncanny. Metonymy, unlike metaphor, refuses me,” is accompanied by an image of a miner’s lamp. Other to reduce or comprehend meaning. “Whereas metaphor combinations require other kinds of leaps of (il)logic, for ‘gives’ meaning, metonymy insinuates that there is an urgent Google image search, of course, is not based on contextual need for meaning. Metaphor . . . weaves interrelations and thought. The resultant humor is informed by the threat of makes ‘places’ habitable. Metonymy, on the other hand, the archive (specifcally, the digital archive of the Internet): disturbs places” (19). The refusal of these documentaries that even uncanny double meaning will be overwhelmed to come to any conclusive interpretations can thus be by meaninglessness. As in all of the flms discussed above, seen as a function of the disruptive, metonymic role of the the death of meaning is closely associated in this flm with fragment. Although potential meanings emerge in each death itself: the dead client in the spam letter, images of flm, the most powerful efect of each flm is a sense of death ofered by the search engine, and “dead” web pages, the disturbing and overwhelming presence of the cultural no longer meant for anyone. Death always seems to ac- archive, with its seemingly infnite and yet always partial company the archive. At the same time, however, the flm store of images, sounds, and objects. Against the already- is terribly funny and enjoyable, which suggests that comedy accepted yet unstable norms of the information age, these reasserts itself even within this nihilistic satire. Perhaps, the flms question the nature of “data” and “information”: what flm suggests, in the face of the satire of history, the only they consist of, who determines access to them, and to what possible response is to laugh and go on seeking the past multifarious uses they can be put. It is, then, the metonym through its traces, in all of their terrible excess. rather than the metaphor that ofers the comic or tragic release from the satire of meaning(lessness) in the form of The Fragment as Metonym a transfer of the presence of history, rather than its meaning, to the viewer. The joke, the fragment, and the metonym in Ultimately, all of these flms can be read as both enact- these flms all hold the potential for epiphany or at least the ing and representing the impulse to create archives while revelation of this disorienting contemporary situation. simultaneously engaging the viewer in the historian’s The stake of these flms is the ability of our society in experience of confronting the excess of the archive. Fur- general, and documentary flm in particular, to engage in 24 Contemporary Documentary Film this present moment with the past, with the dead and this transition cannot be separated from the anxiety that what they have left behind. All four flms confront the this loss of control entails. question of death that haunts each of the fragments—dead languages, dying cultures, dead species, victims of genocide, Notes dead clients, dead letters, and dead web pages—as well as the need for new ways to sort through their traces, through 1. For a broader theorization of the relationships between docu- mentary, historiography, and indexicality see Rosen (225–63). all that does not go away. Steedman argues that the logic 2. The missionaries call their potential converts “tailenders” because of “dust” is precisely the logic of the indestructibility the missionaries believe that these people are the last on earth to learn of matter (164). Matter may be transformed but never about the Christian faith and therefore to be “saved.” destroyed. At this historical juncture, material traces of all 3. Although she never says so in the flm, in an interview Horne has said that she has a personal connection to this kind of record kinds are being transformed by digital media. As Derrida player because her family had one when she was a child. has pointed out, new technologies of memory may alter our conception of the psychic apparatus and, by way of Works Cited these new technologies, transform human memory itself (16–17). One question raised by all of these documentaries Bazin, André. What Is Cinema? Volume 1. Trans. Hugh Gray. Berkeley: is what exactly will survive this particular transforma- U of California P, 1967. tion. Bruzzi, Stella. New Documentary: A Critical Introduction. London: Routledge, 2000. New Historicists have recognized the threat of the ex- Derrida, Jacques. Archive Fever: A Freudian Impression. Trans. Eric Pre- cess of material in the cultural archive that has expanded nowitz. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1995. to include almost any cultural object. The deconstructive Doane, Mary Ann. The Emergence of Cinematic Time: Modernity, Con- mobilization of the literalizing structure of the joke ofers tingency, the Archive. Cambridge: Harvard UP, 2002. Freud, Sigmund. “The Uncanny.” The Standard Edition of the Complete one way in which to deal with the paradoxical situation of Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud. Vol. 17. Ed. and trans. James the overwhelming accumulation and presence of informa- Strachey. London: Hogarth, 1953. 219–52. tion accompanied by the irreversible loss of people and ———. Jokes and Their Relation to the Unconscious. Trans. James Strachey. animals that have left only a limited feld of traces. Fol- New York: Norton, 1960. lowing fragments and “misusing” them as metonyms that Gallagher, Catherine, and Stephen Greenblatt. Practicing New Histori- cism. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 2000. ofer both a satire of meaning and a redemptive “transfer of Kittler, Friedrich. Gramophone, Film, Typewriter. Trans. Geofrey Win- presence” is thus one strategy for navigating the excess and throp-Young and Michael Wutz. Stanford: Stanford UP, 1986. impermanence of the information age in which only what Rony, Fatimah Tobing. The Third Eye: Race, Cinema, and Ethnographic is digitized matters but in which it is hard to distinguish Spectacle. Durham: Duke UP, 1996. Rosen, Philip. Change Mummifed: Cinema, Historicity, Theory. Min- between meaningful evidence and meaningless spam. neapolis: U of Minnesota P, 2001. These four documentaries, combining the techniques of Runia, Eelco. “Presence.” History and Theory 45.1 (2006): 1–29. New Historicism and deconstruction, use the fragment as Steedman, Carolyn. Dust: The Archive and Cultural History. New Bruns- an occasion to obliquely address these larger questions of wick: Rutgers UP, 2002. Wees, William. Recycled Images: The Art and Politics of Found Footage how we can deal with textual production that has already Films. 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