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• Hydrogen is the first element in the periodic table and As such � gas is not found in our atmosphere because is the lightest known element. It was prepared by Herny of its lighter nature. Sun's atmosphere contains 90% of Cavendish in 1766 by the action of acids on metals. hydrogen. Earlier it was named as inflammable air then Lavoisier Isotopes named it hydrogen (in Greek hydro means water, gen means producing) because it produces water on burning with oxygen. Occurrence of hydrogen : Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe. It occurs in nature in @)@)iHProtium i H Deuterium �HTritium both free state as well as combined state. (Hydrogen) (Heavy hydrogen) (Radioactive hydrogen) 1 Molecular fonns : H2 (dihydrogen) 2 Free state � In air, volcanic gases, natural gases H2 or D2 (dideuterium) Combined state � In water, mineraloils , hydrocarbons, 3H2 or T2 (ditritium) fats, proteins, alkalies, acids, etc. alongwith HD, HT, DT, etc. Protium 1 0 99.986 Stable 1/2 1.007825 Deuterium f H (D) 2 0.014 Stable 1 2.014102 Tritium iH (T) 3 1 2 7 X lQ-16 Radioactive 1/2 3.106049 • Allotropes : Ortho hydrogen and para hydrogen Preparation 1. With metals 1. From acids ,\If+ HzO -Motl From 2. With ionic hydrides water (Pam hydrogen) ouuuhydrogen) MH + H20 -..\10H At room(Ortho tem perature, ordinary hydrogen contains 75% 3. With methane y g g CH + H20 ortho-h dro en and 25% para hydro en. As the 4 -co, temperature decreases, the percentage of ortho 4. Electrolysis of water hydrogen in the mixture decreases. Pure para hydrogen f¼O�H'"+OW can be prepared by cooling nearly to absolute zero but on cathode pure ortho hydrogen cannot be prepared. Stability l> : Ortho hydrogen > Para hydrogen Properties l> Differences in physical properties of both is • Physical properties : The importantp hysical properties because of differences in internal energy of both. of dihydrogen are: Internal energy of ortho H2 > para H2• It is a colourless, tasteless and odourless gas. Ja- > It is slightly soluble in water. BeH and MgH have covalent polymeric strncture. > The hydrogen atom exists f· ion. It is lightest substance known. For example, one 2 2 as litre of hydrogen at NTP weighs only 0.0980 g. Ionic hydrides are prepared by thef direct combination > It is highly combustible and therefore should be of the metals ,vith hydrogen at high temperatures of handled carefully. 750 C. > It is non-poisonous and lighter than air (vapour ° 2Li + H2 2Lt·H- density = 1 while vapour density of air 14.5). Mol!en �° > Hydrogen is inflammable and does not= help in 800 C burning. • Characteristics of ionic hydrides • Chemical properties > Ionic hydrides are white or light grey crystalline 0 solids. They behave like salts. 2H2 0 + Heat -,, They have high melting and boiling points. 2 HX X2 > They conduct electricity in fused state. > N, Thethermal stability of the alkali metal and alkaline Heat + NH Fe/Mo earth metal hydrides follow the order: reaction Na +H2 �NaH 3 Lili > NaH > KH > RbH > CsH with Ca + H 4 CaH and CaH > SrH > BaH > Aqueous solution of ionic hydrides is basic in 2 2 2 2 2 nature. oxidesof with LiH + H 0 � LiOH + H less elecb"o­ unsaturated carbon hydrocarbons 2 2 electrode positive metals co, ,l HC001Yf+C + H 3MC1+ MA!H4 PbS +MOH HgO + H2 ---+Hg + H 0 CH2 =CH 2 2 200'C Ni urPt) Jle 0 + 4H ---+ 3Fe + 4H 0 CH -CH 2 SiH4 + MCI Ni or Pt ) WO3 4+ 3H 2---+W + 3H O2 CH CH + 2H 2 3 3 • Uses of Ionic hydrides and their 200°c ionic hydrides complexes are used as reducing agents. They evolve 3 2 2 CH -CH hydrogen when heated. Hence, they are used as solid Uses 3 3 fuels as they ignite spontaneously. e Used as a reducing agent in industry and laboratories. Molecular or Covalent Hydrides • Used to prepare hydrogenated vegetable solid fats. • Molecular hydrides are formed mainly by elements of • Used for welding purposes in both the oxy-hydrogen comparatively higher electronegativity as of p-block torch and the atomic-hydrogen torch, wh en elements . These hydrides, have molecular lattices held temperature of the order of 2500 °C and 4000 °C are together by weak van der Waals forces. In some cases, required respectively. hydrogen bonds are also formed. The general formula • Used as a rocket fuel in the form of liquid hydrogen. for covalent hydrides is .XH where X stands for the symbol ofa metal and 'n' is number ofvalence electrons. • Used in the manufacture of synthetic petrol. 8_n e Used in the preparation of many compounds such as • Characteristics of covalent hydrides > Molecular hydrides are soft. methane, ammonia, water gas, and fertilizers such as ,, urea, ammonium sulphate, etc. They have low _electrical conductivity. > The electronegati vity difference between • Used in metallurgy. hydrogen and the atom bonded to it, determines • Used in preparation of metal hydrides. the properties of covalent hydrides. On moving from left to right in a period, hydrides become HYDRIDES • The binary compounds formed by hydrogen with other increasingly acidic in character. For exarnple NHi elements, are called hydrides. Hydrogen combines with is a weak base, H 0 is neutral and HF is acidic. > The hydrides of Group [II ( BH and AlH ) are most of the metals and non-metals (except noble gases). 2 e.g., electron deficient compounds and exist in Hydrides are classified into three main groups, 3 3 depending upon their physical and chemical properties polymeric forms [e.g., B H and (AlH ) l- Hydrides of oup-14 CH , Sil-Li,GeH , etc.) have exact and the types of bonding: (e.g. 2 6 3 n number of electrons and hence called electron L Ionic or salt like or saline hydrides gr 4 4 2. Covalent or molecular hydrides precise hydrides. Hydrides of group-15, 16, 17 (i.e. 3. Metallic or interstitial hydrides NI--I , PH , H 0, H S, HF, HCl, etc.) have one or more lone pairs of electron around central atom 3 3 2 2 Ionic Hydrides or Saline Hydrides and hence called electron rich hydrides. • These are formed by highly electropositive metals Molecularhydrides have elements of group IA (alkali metals) and group IIA • Uses of molecular hydrides : wider applications. Some of them are mentioned here. (alkaline eaiih metals with the exception of Be and Mg). Hydrogen Boron hydrides are used as high energy fuels and those of hydrides other members of the oxygen propellants. Phosphine is used for making Holme's group such as H2S, H2Se, H2 Te, etc., due to the signals. H2S is an important laboratory reagent. presence of intermolecular hydrogen bonding in 2 Metallic or Interstitial Hydrides H 0 molecules. • Metallic hydrides are formed by most of the d-block > Water has a high dielectric constant. So that, water elements (i.e., transition elements), on reacting with can dissolve wide variety of compounds in it. hydrogen. These are interstitial compounds and may That'swhy water is regarded as universal solvent. be regarded as solid solutions. > Water is a poor conductor of heat and electricity • Hydrides off-block elements are non-stoichiometric in However, addition of a small quantity of an acid or nature. alkali makes it conducting. • Mainly transition and inner transition elements form Water plays an important role in biosphere. metallic hydrides. • Chemical> l properties of water • Characteristics of metallic hydrides 2 with metal H CO co (M} MOH +Hz I > They conduct electricity. 2 3 non-me!allic oxides > The density of such compound is less than that Na20 of the metal itself and theirproperties are not much hydrides (metallic NaOH H Ca(OH) ( oxides) different from their respective metal i.e., they give 2 + 2 CaH2 out hydrogen easily and are strong reducing non-metals § Cl2, cold HCl + I-IClO agents. with :� alkali o Cl > Theyare black powdery, hard, have a metallic lustre CH3COONa -'), 02 COOI-I or aci � 1-. un- Hg'-h -t HCI + and magnetic properties. CH3 hydrolysis • Uses of metallichydr ides : Metallic hydrides arewidely +NaOH used in catalytic reduction and hydrogenation for water gas preparing large number of useful compounds. • Uses of water : Water is vitalto life. Humans, plants and WATER animals are made up of mostly water. AU living things • Occurrence : About 75% of the Earth's surface would die if thereis no water. Water is mainly used for consists of water. Water is present as either drinking, cleaning and irrigation crops and landscape. (a) Solid : In the form of ice, snow, etc. (b) Liquid : in the form of water in lakes, rivers and HEAVY WATER oceans, etc. • Deuteriumoxide (D20) is known as heavy water. It was (c) Water vapour : In the form of clouds or moisture discovered by Urey in 1932. It is present intrace ammmt in the air. in ordinary water (1 part in 6000 parts). • • Heavy water is prepared either by prolonged Structure : Water is3 a covalent molecule in which oxygen undergoes sp hybridisation and contains two electrolysis or by :fractional distillation of ordinary lone pairs. ,v ater. • Heavy water may contain some heavier isotopes of Due to the presence of two lone pairs of electrons on° the oxygen atom, theH- 0 -H bond angle is 104.5 . oxygen also. Molecule is angular or bent in shape. • Physical properties lone pair 1.84 D (net dipole) > Heavywater is colourless, tasteless and odourless liquid. It has all higher values for physical constant than c{i) _J_(i l> the corresponding values of ordinary water. 0 Physical properties of water and heavy water at 298 K +ciH/ '°x+ci H�H H In solid state (ice) water molecules are arranged in 1 Molecular mass (g mol- ) 18.015 20.028 l> highly ordered three dimensional open cage like structure through hydrogen bonding.
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  • Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry. IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013

    Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry. IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013

    International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry Division VIII Chemical Nomenclature and Structure Representation Division Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry. IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013. Prepared for publication by Henri A. Favre and Warren H. Powell, Royal Society of Chemistry, ISBN 978-0-85404-182-4 Chapter P-6 APPLICATIONS TO SPECIFIC CLASSES OF COMPOUNDS (continued) (P-66 to P-69) (continued from P-60 to P-65) P-60 Introduction P-61 Substitutive nomenclature: prefix mode P-62 Amines and imines P-63 Hydroxy compounds, ethers, peroxols, peroxides and chalcogen analogues P-64 Ketones, pseudoketones and heterones, and chalcogen analogues P-65 Acids and derivatives P-66 Amides, hydrazides, nitriles, aldehydes P-67 Oxoacids used as parents for organic compounds P-68 Nomenclature of other classes of compounds P-69 Organometallic compounds P-66 AMIDES, IMIDES, HYDRAZIDES, NITRILES, AND ALDEHYDES, P-66.0 Introduction P-66.1 Amides P-66.2 Imides P-66.3 Hydrazides P-66.4 Amidines, amidrazones, hydrazidines, and amidoximes (amide oximes) P-66.5 Nitriles P-66.6 Aldehydes P-66.0 INTRODUCTION The classes dealt with in this Section have in common the fact that their retained names are derived from those of acids by changing the ‘ic acid’ ending to a class name, for example ‘amide’, ‘ohydrazide’, ‘nitrile’, or ‘aldehyde’. Their systematic names are formed substitutively by the suffix mode using one of two types of suffix, one that includes the carbon atom, for example, ‘carbonitrile’ for –CN, and one that does not, for example, ‘-nitrile’ for –(C)N. Amidines are named as amides, hydrazidines as hydrazides, and amidrazones as amides or hydrazides.