SHELL HYDROGEN STUDY ENERGY OF THE FUTURE?

Sustainable Mobility through Fuel Cells and H2 SHELL HYDROGEN STUDY ENERGY OF THE FUTURE? INTRODUCTION 4 1 THE ELEMENT HYDROGEN 6 Sustainable Mobility through Fuel Cells and H2

SHELL WUPPERTAL INSTITUT

Dr. Jörg Adolf (Project Lead) Prof. Dr. Manfred Fischedick (Supervision)

Dr. Christoph H. Balzer Dr. Karin Arnold (Project Coordination) Dr. Jurgen Louis Dipl.-Soz.Wiss. Andreas Pastowski Dipl.-Ing. Uwe Schabla Dipl.-Ing. Dietmar Schüwer

www.shell.de www.wupperinst.org 3 2 STORAGE & TRANSPORTATION SUPPLY PATHWAYS 20 11

PUBLISHED BY Shell Deutschland Oil GmbH 22284 Hamburg

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9 SUMMARY 62 4 ENERGY & ENVIRONMENTAL BALANCES APPLICATIONS 28 SCENARIOS FOR FUEL CELL VEHICLES 57

MOBILITY APPLICATIONS REFUELLING STATION VEHICLE OWNERSHIP 38 COSTS 47 INFRASTRUCTURE 51 STATIONARY ENERGY 6 APPLICATIONS 35 8 7

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Design & Production: Mänz Kommunikation INTRODUCTION Shell Hydrogen Study

Hard copies of the Shell Commercial Vehicle Study, the Shell Passenger Car Scenarios (both also as an English summary) and the Shell/BDH Domestic Heating Study (only in German) can be ENERGY OF THE FUTURE? ordered via [email protected].

Over the years Shell has produced a number of scenario dedicated business unit, Shell Hydrogen. Now, in cooperation studies on key energy issues. These have included studies on with the Wuppertal Institute in Germany, Shell has conducted important energy consumption sectors such as passenger cars a study on hydrogen as a future energy source. and commercial vehicles (lorries and buses) and the supply of as part of a compound. If hydrogen is to What are the main conversion methods develops models, strategies and instruments The study looks at the current state of hydrogen supply path- energy and heat to private households, as well as studies on be used as an energy source in a future involved in using hydrogen for energy for transitions to sustainable development. ways and hydrogen application technologies and explores the the state of and prospects for individual energy sources and hydrogen energy economy, then first of all purposes? Alongside the mobility applica- Its work centres on the way in which potential and prospects for hydrogen as an energy source in fuels, including biofuels, natural gas and liquefied petroleum its origin needs to be clarified: Where does tions for hydrogen technology, are there challenges in terms of resources, climate the global energy system of tomorrow. The study focuses on gas. hydrogen occur? From which materials and any stationary applications for hydrogen as and energy influence and are influenced the use of hydrogen in road transport and specifically in fuel how can it be produced, and using what a source of energy? by the economy and society. The “Future Shell has been involved in hydrogen production as well as in cell electric vehicles (FCEVs), but it also examines non-automo- technical processes? If a future energy Energy and Mobility Structures” research The focus of this study is the issue of research, development and application for decades, with a tive resp. stationary applications. economy is to be sustainable, the way in group, which was involved in the study, is sustainable mobility through fuel cells and which it is generated is key. So what are concerned in particular with the transition hydrogen (H ). When we think of hydrogen the advantages and disadvantages of the 2 to sustainable structures from a technical / – as was interest in novel energy forms. and mobility, fuel cell electric vehicles, HYDROGEN – RESEARCH OBJECTIVES various hydrogen supply pathways? structural and systems analytical point of in particular passenger cars, are what A PROMISING ELEMENT Nevertheless, issues around sustainability, AND KEY QUESTIONS view. climate protection and environmental Highly developed energy systems rely come to mind. But hydrogen and fuel cells More than 100 elements are known in Shell scenario studies present facts, trends protection began to have a growing influ- increasingly on electricity as a secondary can be used by other means of transport The project leader and coordinator of the chemistry, over 90 of which occur naturally. and prospects on specific key energy ence on energy supply policy. This sparked energy source. Electricity has many too. Therefore, the aim of this study is to Shell Hydrogen Study on behalf of Shell Elements are substances which cannot issues in a compact form. As in the a new interest in hydrogen as a clean and advantages as an energy source, but some give an overview of the technical state of was Dr. Jörg Adolf. The scientific coordina- be broken down into simpler substances previous Shell studies on passenger cars, sustainable energy option. disadvantages too: it can generally only and prospects for hydrogen and fuel cell tor on behalf of the Wuppertal Institute was and from which all other substances are commercial vehicles, domestic heating be directly stored in small amounts and for technology in all transport sectors, including Dr. Karin Arnold. She was supported by formed. Hydrogen is an element – but not Over the past two decades, the energy and individual energy sources and fuels, short periods of time, and its transportation non-road means of transport. Andreas Pastowski and Dietmar Schüwer. just any element. Hydrogen is the smallest debate has been and is still dominated by the initial focus is on providing an expert is mostly grid-based. Chemical energy The work was carried out under the and lightest of all elements. Hydrogen was analysis and assessment of a subject. After assessing the technological maturity other energy sources – such as natural gas, storage via hydrogen could represent an scientific supervision of Professor Manfred the first element created in space after the of motor vehicles and passenger cars in biofuels/biomass and electricity. Throughout There has certainly been plenty of alternative or an important supplement to Fischedick. Big Bang. And it is the first element in the particular, we look at the costs and cost- this period, however, intensive research and discussion and reporting on hydrogen, existing energy stores. If hydrogen is to periodic table in modern chemistry. effectiveness of hydrogen mobility as an development in hydrogen-related technolo- and it is an exceptionally simple element. The following authors at Shell also con- play a part in the energy system of the important decision-making criterion, as well th gies has continued. Nonetheless, hydrogen At the same time, however, hydrogen is tributed to the scientific preparation of the Hydrogen was discovered in the 18 future, the possibilities for storing and trans- as the development of a hydrogen supply has so far failed to gain commercial not a familiar product, especially among study: Dr. Jurgen Louis, regarding technical century as a flammable gas. Important porting hydrogen need to be analysed. infrastructure. Finally, since hydrogen- acceptance either generally or in individual technologies for producing and using end users who are accustomed to petrol and scientific questions about hydrogen In the past, debate about the use of hydro- powered vehicles are only viable if th application areas as a new energy source. and electricity. So far, any experience of and fuel cell technology, Uwe Schabla, hydrogen were developed in the 19 and they can be operated more sustainably Owing to high capital investment costs and hydrogen is limited largely to its use as a gen has centred above all on automobility. regarding stationary fuel cell applications, early 20th century. Even then, its potential than today’s vehicles, we use scenario a long useful life of energy infrastructure, feed material in chemical production and But hydrogen usage cannot be and is not and Dr. Christoph H. Balzer, regarding the for the energy industry was recognised. techniques to estimate and assess possible as a technical gas in industry. limited to transport applications. In new preparation of energy and greenhouse gas We now know that hydrogen has a very it takes considerable time for new energy energy and environmental balances for technologies there are often synergies balances and scenario techniques. high specific energy content (calorific or sources to capture a significant share of the future fuel cell passenger car fleets. For that reason one of the most important between different applications, and these heating value). In some contemporary energy market. aims of the Shell Hydrogen Study is need to be taken into account when In addition, many other experts, decision visions of the future, hydrogen played a to provide basic information about the After decades of R&D as well as testing, it is looking at learning curves and economies AUTHORS AND SOURCES makers and stakeholders from science, busi- prominent role as an energy source. element and about the use of hydrogen as legitimate to ask: Is hydrogen the energy or of scale of (new) technologies. And when it Shell worked closely with the German ness and politics were consulted during the an energy source. The first purpose of the Hydrogen was given new impetus in the at least an important energy of the future? comes to the use of scarce resources (like research institute and think-tank Wuppertal preparation of the Shell Hydrogen Study. study is to give an overview of the special 1960s by space travel, which relied heavily And, if so, when and how could hydrogen energy and fuels), competing uses need Institute to produce the Shell Hydrogen Shell would like to take this opportunity to properties and advantages of hydrogen. on hydrogen as an energy store, and in the develop into a leading energy source in to be considered. This raises the following Study. Back in 2007 the Wuppertal Insti- thank all concerned for their contribution 1970s as a consequence of the energy the global energy system? The intent of Hydrogen is one of the ten most common question: What (other) fundamental tute examined and evaluated the concept and cooperation. A selection of relevant

and oil price crises, when the search the Shell Hydrogen Study is to provide elements on the surface of the Earth that is application areas – as a material and an of “geological CO2 storage” as a possible data and sources can be found at the end began for alternative energy concepts. qualified assessments and answers to these accessible to man. In nature, however, it energy source – are there for hydrogen? climate policy action for Shell (WI 2007). of the study. During the 1990s energy prices were low questions. does not exist in pure form, but rather only And, with regard to energy applications: The Wuppertal Institute researches and

4 5 >> In the beginning, there was hydrogen.<< Hoimar von Ditfurt 1972

1 THE ELEMENT HYDROGEN

1.1 WHAT IS HYDROGEN? The H-H molecule has a relatively high bond energy of 436 kJ/ Space is filled with highly diluted hydro- gas, is made up of one carbon atom and The higher the hydrogen content of a

mol, which means that the H molecule is stable and chemically gen and also contains gigantic gas clouds four hydrogen atoms (CH4). By contrast, hydrocarbon, the lower the carbon The name “hydro-gène” (“water producer”) was first coined in 2 inert at room temperature. Only above temperatures of around consisting of hydrogen. The sun, which is in higher alkanes such as petrol and diesel dioxide content and hence the lower the 1787 by the French chemist Antoine Laurent de Lavoisier, from the 6000 degrees Celsius do hydrogen molecules break down almost around 4.6 billion years old, is a so-called fuel the carbon-hydrogen ratio is around greenhouse gas emissions on combustion Greek words “hydor” (water) and “genes” (producing). It had completely into hydrogen atoms. main sequence star, which releases its 1:2, and in coal it is only around 1:1. (oxidation). earlier been called “inflammable air” by the English chemist and radiant energy from hydrogen burning. physicist Henry Cavendish because of its high flammability. The Depending on whether the protons of an H-H compound rotate Hydrogen is also the most frequently German name “Wasserstoff” (“water substance”) likewise refers in parallel or in opposite directions about their own axis (nuclear occurring chemical element on the giant to its water producing properties. spin), the two modifications are known respectively as ortho- gas planets (Jupiter, Saturn) of our solar

hydrogen and para-hydrogen. Ortho-hydrogen (o-H2) has a system. Hydrogen (chemical symbol H for the Latin name hydrogenium) higher energy content than para-hydrogen (p-H ). In addition, their is the first element in the periodic table and also the simplest. 2 technical and physical properties differ slightly. Under prevailing Unlike in outer space, the proportion of Ordinary hydrogen consists of a positively charged nucleus (pro- thermodynamic conditions ortho- and para-hydrogen form an hydrogen in the elements on Earth is much ton) and a negatively charged electron. Hydrogen has the lowest equilibrium mixture. Under standard conditions hydrogen exists as smaller. The part of the Earth that is acces- atomic weight of any element, at 1.008 grams per mol (g/mol); a 75:25 mixture of o- and p-hydrogen, while cryogenic hydrogen sible to humans makes up less than 1% of atomic hydrogen is 12 times lighter than carbon (C), 14 times consists almost entirely of p-H . The conversion of o- to p-hydrogen the Earth’s mass. In the region of the Earth’s lighter than nitrogen (N) and 16 times lighter than oxygen (O). 2 is an exothermic chemical reaction in which energy is released. crust, oceans and atmosphere, the mass Therefore, even if cryogenic liquid hydrogen is completely isolated, fraction of hydrogen is just 0.9 % (Mor- In addition to ordinary or light hydrogen 1H (protium), there are evaporation occurs unless all o-H is converted into p-H (Holle- timer/Müller 2010). The proportion of also two other hydrogen atoms (isotopes): heavy hydrogen (2H) 2 2 hydrogen in the Earth’s atmosphere is or deuterium (D) and super-heavy hydrogen (3H) or tritium (T), mann/Wiberg 2007). In the rest of this study the term “hydrogen” will mostly be used as a synonym for the H molecule. only 0.5 parts per million (ppm). with additional neutrons. As the neutron in the hydrogen nucleus is 2 roughly the same weight as the proton, deuterium is approximately Furthermore, hydrogen on Earth exists only 1.2 WHERE DOES HYDROGEN OCCUR? twice as heavy and tritium approximately three times as heavy as rarely in its pure form; in most cases it is protium. Almost all hydrogen (99.985 %) is ordinary hydrogen, Hydrogen is the first and most important element in the universe. found in chemically bonded form. The larg- only 0.015 % occurs as heavy hydrogen. The proportion of super- Its estimated mass fraction is in the order of 75 %. In the early uni- est proportion of hydrogen on Earth occurs heavy hydrogen is vanishingly small (Hollemann/Wiberg 2007). verse, some 13.8 billion years ago, hydrogen nuclei were formed as a compound with oxygen, in the form of by fusion at extremely high temperatures (nucleosynthesis). In the water or water vapour. Corresponding to Under standard conditions, i.e. ambient temperature and hot interior of stars, the subsequent stellar fusion of hydrogen to the relative atomic masses of hydrogen and atmospheric pressure of 1.013 bar, atomic hydrogen (H) does helium, also known as “hydrogen burning”, is the most important oxygen, water (H2O) consists of approxi- not occur. Instead, hydrogen exists in dimerised form, where two and richest source of energy in their life cycle. The age of a star mately 11.2 percent by weight hydrogen; hydrogen atoms firmly combine to form a hydrogen molecule (H2). can be determined from the distribution of the elements and the in other words, the mass ratio of hydrogen The molecular weight of a hydrogen molecule is then 2.016 g/mol. stellar mass. to oxygen is around 1:8.

1 HYDROGEN ISOTOPES 2 HYDROGEN MOLECULES Moreover, hydrogen occurs in almost all organic compounds. It is not only living creatures that are composed of organic e e e e e e compounds. Fossil energy sources also n n consist primarilyH O of Water carbon-hydrogen com- p p n p p p n CHp Methane 2 n 4 n 1 2 3 pounds. For example, the hydrocarbon 1 H 1 H 1 H

H2 Hydrogen H O Water methane, the main constituent of natural Protium Deuterium Tritium 12 2 3 H H 1 H 1 1 CH Methane PROTIUM DEUTERIUM TRITIUM 4

6 7 H2 Hydrogen 1 THE ELEMENT HYDROGEN Shell Hydrogen Study

+20° 3 PHASE DIAGRAM HYDROGEN Water will be the coal of the future. Pressure (bar) +10° Jules Verne 700 0 “The Mysterious Island“ GH2 1874 ‒10° 350 GH CcH 2 VISIONS OF A HYDROGEN ECONOMY 2 ‒20°

100 Solid ‒30° Supercritical fluid SH 2 ‒40° Critical point 13 bar, ‒240˚ Liquid 10 ‒50° LH Almost since its discovery, hydrogen has played an important During the 1970s, under the impression of dwindling and 2 part in contemporary visions of the future, especially in ever more expensive fossil fuels, the concept of a (solar) ‒60° Gaseous relation to the energy industry and locomotion. hydrogen economy was developed, with H2 as the central ‒70° energy carrier. Since the 1990s, hydrogen and fuel cells As early as 1874, the French science fiction writer Jules Verne have made huge technical progress in the mobility sector.

NIST 2017; own diagramNIST 2017; ‒80° (1828 – 1905) in his novel “L’Île mystérieuse” (The Mysteri- 1 After the turn of the century, not least against the background −260˚ −250˚ −240˚ −230˚ −220˚ +20˚ ous Island) saw hydrogen and oxygen as the energy sources of renewed global raw material shortages and increasingly Temperature (°C) ‒90° of the future. In his vision, hydrogen would be obtained by the urgent questions of sustainability, the prospects for a hydro- breaking down of water (via electrolysis). Water, resp. hydro- gen economy were considered once again (Rifkin 2002). The critical temperature and critical pressure characterise the the critical point, hydrogen becomes a supercritical fluid, -100° gen, would replace coal, which at the time was the dominant critical point of a substance. For hydrogen the critical point which is neither gaseous nor liquid. Compared with that energy source in the energy supply industry. More recently, the focus has increasingly been on hydrogen’s is approximately –240°C or 33.15 K and 13 bar. At the of methane, the vapour-pressure curve of hydrogen is very ‒110° role in a national and global energy transition. Within this critical point of a substance the liquid and gas phase merge. steep and short – over a small temperature and pressure In the 1960s, the successful use of hydrogen as a rocket context, the value added of hydrogen (from renewable ener- At the same time, the critical point marks the upper end of range. As a consequence, liquefaction takes place primarily -120° propellant and of fuel cells to operate auxiliary power units gies via electrolysis) in an increasingly electrified energy the vapour-pressure curve in the pressure-temperature phase by cooling and less so by compression. By contrast, the in space – especially in the context of the US Saturn/Apollo world has also been subject to discussion. Nevertheless, an diagram. The critical density at the critical point is 31 grams compressed storage of hydrogen (at 350 or 700 bar) ‒130° space travel programme – provided further impetus to the important role is envisaged for hydrogen – especially as per litre (g/l). always takes place as a supercritical fluid. fantasies surrounding hydrogen. Also in the 1960s, first a clean, storable and transportable energy store – in an ‒140° passenger cars were fitted with fuel cells as basic prototypes electricity-based energy future (Nitsch 2003; Ball/Wietschel The melting point, at which H changes from the liquid to the In connection with temperature and pressure changes, 2 ‒150° resp. technology demonstrators. 2009). solid state of aggregation, is –259.19°C or 13.9 K under a special feature of hydrogen that has to be taken into

normal pressure and is thus slightly lower again than the consideration is its negative Joule-Thomson coefficient: when ‒160° boiling point. This means that only the noble gas helium has air expands under normal conditions, it cools down – an 1.3 PROPERTIES OF HYDROGEN usefulness of a substance and the way in temperature scale. Below this temperature lower boiling and melting points than hydrogen. effect which is used in the liquefaction of gases, specifically ‒170° which it is handled; that applies in particu- hydrogen is liquid under normal pressure of in the Hampson-Linde cycle for the cryocooling of gases. Under normal or standard conditions, The triple or three phase point of a substance is the point in ‒180° lar also to the safe handling and storage of 1.013 bar, above this point it is gaseous. Hydrogen behaves quite differently: it heats up when its flow hydrogen is a colourless and odourless the phase diagram at which all three states of aggregation energy sources such as hydrogen. is throttled. Only below its inversion temperature of 202 K gas. Hydrogen is non-toxic and is not ‒190° The state of aggregation is dependent not are in thermodynamic equilibrium; for hydrogen this point is (approx. –71°C) does hydrogen demonstrate a “normal” causing environmental damage – in that PHYSICAL PROPERTIES only on temperature, however, but also on at –259.19°C and 0.077 bar. The triple point is also the Joule-Thomson effect. By contrast, for the main constituents of respect it is environmentally neutral. lowest point of the vapour-pressure curve. The vapour-pres- ‒200° Hydrogen – by which both here and pressure. Gases can thus also be liquefied air, nitrogen and oxygen, the inversion temperature is 621 K sure curve indicates pressure-temperature combinations at and 764 K respectively. In terms of the properties of substances, a below we mean dihydrogen or equilibrium by raising the pressure. However, there is ‒210° which the gas and liquid phases of hydrogen are in equi- distinction is made between physical and hydrogen mixtures (H ) – exists in gaseous a critical temperature above which a gas 2 librium. To the left of the vapour-pressure curve hydrogen is Density is a physical quantity that is defined by the ratio chemical properties. Physical properties are form under normal conditions. For a long can no longer be liquefied, no matter how ‒220° liquid, to the right it is gaseous. To the right of and above of mass per volume. Gases have a very low density in determined by measurement and experi- time hydrogen was believed to be a high the pressure. In the case of hydrogen mentation, while chemical properties are permanent gas, which cannot be converted the critical temperature is –239.96°C ‒230° observed by means of chemical reactions. into either of the other two states of aggre- (33.19 K). If hydrogen is to be liquefied, its Gaseous, cannot be liquefied ‒240° One of the most important chemical prop- gation, i.e. liquid or solid (Hollemann/ temperature must be below this point. Critical point ‒240° erties of energy sources is the behaviour Wiberg 2007). ‒250° of the substance when it is burned (redox Similarly, once it reaches a sufficiently Gaseous @ atmospheric pressure, can be liquefied under pressure Boiling point ‒253° behaviour), either in a hot conversion In fact its boiling point is very low, at high pressure, a gas can no longer be Liquid @ atmospheric pressure Triple point ‒259° Melting point ‒260° process or by cold electrochemical com- –252.76°C; this is close to the absolute liquefied, even by lowering the temperature Solid @ atmospheric pressure bustion. Physical and chemical properties zero temperature of –273.15°C and cor- further. This pressure is known as the critical of substances influence both the use and responds to 20.3 Kelvin (K) on the absolute pressure, and for hydrogen it is 13.1 bar. Absolute zero temperature: ‒273.15° = 0 K

8 9 1 THE ELEMENT HYDROGEN Shell Hydrogen Study

comparison to liquid and solid substances. 4 IGNITION RANGE OF FUELS At a temperature of 0°C or 273.15 K, the IN SUMMARY density of hydrogen in its gaseous state Hydrogen ture too len Hydrogen is the most common substance in the universe and Owing to its physical properties, hydrogen is an almost is 0.089 grams per litre (g/l). Since air gnton rnge ethne ture too rh the richest energy source for stars. permanent gas. Hydrogen gas only liquefies at very low is around 14 times heavier than gaseous temperatures (below –253°C). hydrogen, with a density of 1.29 g/l, Hydrogen (H) is the first element in the periodic table of rone modern chemistry and is also the smallest, lightest atom. As hydrogen has a very low density, it is usually stored hydrogen has a high buoyancy in the under pressure. Liquefaction increases its density by a atmosphere. Hydrogen volatilises quickly thnol Pure hydrogen occurs on Earth only in molecular form (H2). factor of 800. in the open air. Hydrogen on Earth is usually found in compounds, most etrol notably as water molecules (H2O). The characteristic property of hydrogen is its excellent Liquefaction plays an important part in the Hydrogen has long been regarded as an energy carrier of the flammability. Due to its chemical properties, hydrogen storage and transport of hydrogen as an odeel future. It is also discussed as the foundation of a sustainable has to be handled with care. energy source. In the liquid state at the boil- hydrogen economy. eel ing point, at –253°C (20.3 K) and 1.013 on dgret bar, hydrogen has a density of 70.79 g/l. At the melting point, at –259.2°C (13.9 K) and 1.013 bar, its density is 76.3 g/l concentration of 4 vol%, the upper limit at amounts of energy – in other words high (Hollemann/Wiberg 2007). 77 vol%. The liquid and gaseous fuels that temperatures – are needed to form new 2 SUPPLY PATHWAYS Liquefaction increases the density of are currently in use have much lower molecular bonds. Hydrogen exists almost hydrogen by a factor of around 800, and ignition ranges. Only ethanol, which is entirely in atomic form only above a tem- the storage volume falls correspondingly. contained in petrol for example, has a perature of 6,000 K. In addition to high For the purposes of comparison, when higher upper explosive limit, at 27 vol.%. temperatures, catalysts are also often used for chemical reactions involving hydrogen. Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) is liquefied, Its combustion properties make hydrogen the density or volume factor, depending an interesting combustion fuel: If hydrogen Molecular hydrogen (H ) is relatively inert. on the proportion of butane/propane, is were to be used in internal combustion 2 Nevertheless, by punctual heating of a 2:1 around 250; when methane is liquefied engines, the broad ignition limits would hydrogen/oxygen mixture (oxyhydrogen to form Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG), the allow for extremely lean air/hydrogen gas gas) to approximately 600°C, a chain factor is around 600 (Shell 2013, 2015). mixtures. While petrol engines run at a reaction can be started which leads to an Another relevant feature of hydrogen is its stoichiometric combustion air ratio (λ = 1) explosive propagation of the temperature extremely high diffusibility. As the lightest and modern diesel engines typically oper- Hydrogen naturally only exists in (chemi- from renewable energies becomes Depending on the production method, the rise throughout the entire gas mixture. gas, hydrogen can diffuse into another ate at λ = 2, lambda values of up to 10 cally) bound form, so it has to be produced increasingly available. hydrogen product gas that is obtained The water vapour formed by the high heat medium, passing through porous material would be possible with hydrogen-operated by means of specific processes in order to includes undesired substances (such as of reaction then achieves a much greater Figure 6 shows the basic process stages for or even metals (Hollemann/Wiberg combustion engines (Eichlseder/Klell be used for chemical or energy purposes. carbon monoxide, CO) and impurities; this volume than the original hydrogen/oxygen industrial hydrogen production. For the most 2007). This can also cause materials to 2012). Lean combustion is more efficient A number of suitable processes are availa- applies especially to the thermochemical mixture. The sudden propagation of the important processes various raw materials become brittle. In storage, the high diffu- than stoichiometric combustion and thus ble and are in use today. Most of today’s and biochemical methods. Depending on water vapour leads to a so-called can be used without fundamental changes sivity requires the use of special materials minimises fuel consumption. global hydrogen production is based on the intended use the product gas has to oxyhydrogen or Knallgas reaction. to the process. Hydrogen production pro- for the storage containers – for example fossil energy sources (see figure 5). undergo a subsequent purification; in some The autoignition temperature of pure hydro- cesses include steam reforming, currently the austenitic steels or coatings with diffusion cases the raw materials for the hydrogen gen is 585°C, which is higher than that of For that reason, to avoid an oxyhydrogen/ Only a small proportion of hydrogen is most important production process, as well barrier layers. Otherwise, diffusion losses of production also have to be prepared. conventional fuels. However, the minimum Knallgas reaction when working with produced by electrolysis, the electricity as partial oxidation, autothermal reforming the stored hydrogen can occur. ignition energy of 0.02 MJ is much lower hydrogen, an oxyhydrogen gas sample for which currently stems from a variety of and gasification of solid fuels. In addition, The processes for producing hydrogen than that of other fuels. Hydrogen is there- should always be taken or oxygen should CHEMICAL PROPERTIES sources. For the future it can be assumed the electrolysis of water with electricity from are described in more detail below, fore classified as an extremely flammable only be added to the hydrogen at the that hydrogen production from electrolysis various sources and the use of industrial followed by an analysis of the energy and The most characteristic chemical property gas. However, a simple electrostatic dis- moment of ignition (Hollemann/Wiberg will rise significantly if (surplus) electricity “residual hydrogen” is considered. greenhouse gas emissions balances for the of hydrogen is its flammability (Hollemann/ charge (with an energy of around 10 MJ) 2007). Likewise, in gas mixtures containing Wiberg 2007). When hydrogen is burned would also be sufficient to ignite almost any hydrogen and chlorine gas or fluorine, the 5 SHARE OF PRIMARY ENERGY CARRIERS IN GLOBAL HYDROGEN PRODUCTION in ambient air, the flame is scarcely visible other fuel. The maximum flame velocity of reaction to hydrogen chloride or hydrogen in daylight, since the flame is characterised hydrogen is 346 cm/s, which is around fluoride can result in explosive exothermic by low heat radiation and a high ultraviolet eight times higher than that of methane reactions. Electricity Coal Oil Gas component. In comparison with other fuels, (43 cm/s). it is striking that hydrogen is combustible in Its chemical properties make hydrogen an a very broad concentration spectrum. The Regarding the thermal behaviour of hydro- excellent combustion and automotive fuel. ignition range of hydrogen, marked by its gen, it has been found that because of the Nevertheless, handling hydrogen requires lower and upper explosive limit, is corre- strong bond between the hydrogen atoms care, and in particular compliance with spondingly large: the lower limit is at a of the hydrogen molecule, considerable safety regulations. teh on dgr

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teh egene rtellung 2 SUPPLY PATHWAYS Shell Hydrogen Study

The carbon monoxide content is further materials, rather than relying on light the preceding partial oxidation of the fuel. 6 PROCESSES FOR PRODUCING HYDROGEN reduced through further chemical conver- hydrocarbons (Zakkour/Cook 2010). As the feedstock is not fully converted, but S S sion processes such as CO methanation used for heat supply, this has a detrimental Autothermal reforming (ATR) and selective CO oxidation. The purity impact on the efficiency. Solr nd letrty of the product gas is further increased by Autothermal reforming is a combination ELECTROLYSIS Air or a mixture of oxygen and water subsequent CO washing and other of steam reforming and partial oxidation. 2 vapour or carbon dioxide is used as the physical purification steps (DWV 2015). The reforming of methane takes place in oxidant or gasifying agent. As in partial accordance with the following reaction lge ro If other starting materials such as heavy fuel oxidation, the product gas that is formed unlght equation: BIOCHEMICAL HYDROGEN oil are used, the steam reforming process is at its purest when oxygen is used, since oethne CONVERSION in principle proceeds in the same way. 4 CH4 + O2 + 2 H2O → 4 CO + 10 H2 the use of air introduces quite a high og However, the production of the synthesis proportion of nitrogen into the process. o thnol In the ATR process combining steam egetle l gas in the first step differs. reforming and partial oxidation, the high The composition of the resulting synthesis hydrogen yield is determined by the steam gas, in other words the proportion or purity Partial oxidation (POX) reforming step. The necessary process of hydrogen, is also influenced by the THERMOCHEMICAL Partial oxidation is understood to be the heat is supplied internally by the partial gasification temperature and pressure, by turl CONVERSION exothermic conversion of mainly heavy oxidation step. the cooling capacity of the reactor, and hydrocarbons (such as heavy fuel oil or by the residence time of the product gas in SMR The advantage of the autothermal reaction, Ste ethne reorng coal) with the aid of oxygen (O ). Thermal the reactor (Görner et al. 2015). Syng 2 which is not dependent on an external heat l partial oxidation takes place under high POX supply, is more or less offset by increased rtl odton pressure and at high temperatures from 2.2 BIOGENIC investment and operating costs for the air around 1,250°C to around 1,400°C. As PRODUCTION separation unit and a more complicated ol ATR heat is released, no external heat source is utotherl reorng flue gas purification process. needed other than the partial combustion of the raw material. The POX reaction GASIFICATION On a global scale, the production of equation for hexadecane, a long-chain hydrogen from biomass has so far been Gasification is a traditional method for different hydrogen supply pathways, based is used as an oxidant, the product gas also however, other light hydrocarbons such as alkane found in gas oil, looks like this: negligible. In the long term, however, from producing fuel gases. It denotes the on the Well-to-Tank approach which con- contains nitrogen. The reaction takes place liquefied petroleum gas or naphtha can the perspective of low-CO hydrogen C H + 8 O → 16 CO + 17 H reaction of a carbon carrier (such as coal) 2 siders the production of the primary energy at high temperatures (between approx. also be used (Zakkour/Cook 2010). The 16 34 2 2 production, it is conceivable that this with oxygen or an oxygen-containing source through to provision of the hydrogen 700°C and 900°C) and the conversion starting material has to be prepared first; As in steam reforming, a synthesis gas is manufacturing option could play a part – gasifying agent to form a synthesis gas. In in a storage system or (vehicle) tank. is assisted by a catalyst. In addition to the this usually involves removing sulphur, which produced that is converted to hydrogen provided that sustainability requirements for this process, the raw material that is used is raw material, reforming requires an oxidant, attacks the catalyst. In the next step, by means of the water gas shift reaction the biomass that is used can be reliably met The summary of the energy and green- first dried and broken down thermally in the which supplies the necessary oxygen. methane and water are converted into and gas treatment (Zakkour/Cook 2010). and that sufficient quantities are available. house gas balances is based on the Well- absence of air to form carbon and hydro- Based on the oxidant, three basic methods hydrogen by the following reactions: In this process, the longer the chain length to-Wheel balances of the Joint Research gen compounds, which are then partially In principle there are two methods for can be identified (Aicher et al. 2004): of the hydrocarbon used, the lower the Center of the European Commission, Eucar CH + H O → CO + 3 H combusted by oxidation (Eichlseder/Klell producing hydrogen from biomass: 4 2 2 hydrogen yield. and Concawe (JEC 2014); therefore the ■■ Steam reforming: Pure water vapour is 2012). In accordance with the following thermochemical or biochemical methods. CH4 + 2 H2O → CO2 + 4 H2 processes behind (JEC 2014) are briefly used as the oxidant. The reaction requires A substantial difference from steam reaction equation, the heated carbon and The possibility of generating electricity from A synthesis gas is formed, consisting water vapour produce a synthesis gas biomass and converting it into hydrogen by outlined. In addition, an overview of the the introduction of heat (“endothermic”). reforming is that O2 is used instead of predominantly of hydrogen and carbon electrolysis is covered under electrolysis. hydrogen manufacturing costs for the water vapour as the oxidant. This O is consisting of CO and H2. ■■ Partial oxidation: Oxygen or air is used 2 various processes is provided. monoxide, with small amounts of carbon usually produced in an air separation unit, in this method. The process releases heat C + H2O → CO + H2 dioxide, water vapour and residual THERMOCHEMICAL METHODS (“exothermic”). which considerably increases the energy hydrocarbons. Both the carbon and the consumption of partial oxidation. However, By the subsequent water gas shift reaction Thermochemical methods are in most cases 2.1 PRODUCTION ■■ CO again is converted to form CO and based on the gasification or pyrolysis of Autothermal reforming: This process is a H2 molecules can form a compound with this is offset to some extent by the extraction 2 further water vapour to H . The various FROM FOSSIL combination of steam reforming and par- oxygen. In this process as little hydrogen of heat from the reaction. In addition, the 2 solid or liquid biomass to form a synthesis ENERGY SOURCES tial oxidation and operates with a mixture as possible should oxidise to form water, reactor types are distinguished by the gas, followed by a further treatment to use of O2 rather than air more or less design of the gasifier. The gasification produce H (as with fossil fuels). The “solid of air and water vapour. The ratio of the so that a high yield of H2 can be achieved. eliminates the occurrence of nitrogen in the 2 REFORMING two oxidants is adjusted so that no heat Suitable catalysts can help with this (Aicher water gas shift reaction, resulting in a lower process itself can be performed under biomass” category includes primarily Reforming of fossil hydrocarbons is by far needs to be introduced or discharged et al. 2004). energy consumption (for separation and excess pressure or at atmospheric pressure. woody and stalky biomass, i.e. forest wood the most widespread method of hydrogen (“isothermal”). The higher the operating pressure, the or waste wood and straw, but also stalky In the next step, CO and remaining water purification). production. Reforming is the conversion of better the performance of the gasifier. energy crops such as miscanthus. Timber is are converted further to H and CO in the hydrocarbons and alcohols by chemical Steam reforming 2 2 All in all, partial oxidation is less efficient Gasification generally involves the input of most suitable for gasification, since stalky so-called water gas shift reaction (DWV processes into hydrogen, giving rise to the Steam methane reforming (SMR) than steam reforming; at the same time, heat (endothermic reaction = allothermal materials like straw contain too many impu- 2015). by-products water (vapour), carbon mon- The raw materials for steam reforming are however, it offers the advantage of being gasification). An autothermal process rities and, given the tendency to form ash,

oxide and carbon dioxide. If (ambient) air mostly natural gas and water; in principle, CO + H2O → CO2 + H2 able to convert a wider range of raw management, however, uses the heat from are not an ideal feedstock for gasification

12 13 14 further, or alternatively watercanbesplit further, oralternatively can likewise be fermented and processed possible.also Inthiscasethebiomass from biomassusingmicroorganisms is The biochemical production ofhydrogen BIOCHEMICAL PRODUCTION oftheproduct. balance the overall ciated with losses,which adverselyaffects each conversionstageisasso additional energiesitshouldsecondary benoted that withIn particular respect totheuseof (Hy-NOW 2012). require adjustmentstothereformer feed vegetableoilsorglycerolsometimes diesel, energy sourcessuch asbioethanol,bio possible.methods) isalso Liquid secondary bioglycerol (produced byphysiochemical or The useofvegetableoils,biodiesel desulphurisation stageisperformed. needcase ofbiogas,if be,apreliminary gas. wayasnatural in thesame Inthe in thereformer and converted tohydrogen canbeused gasquality natural directly Biogas and biomethaneprocessed to by fermentation etal. (Kaltschmitt 2016). suitable inprinciplefor producingbiogas All typesofmoist,greenbiomassare (produced fermentation). byalcoholic by anaerobicfermentation) orbioethanol include biogasorbiomethane(produced tion. energysources Suitablesecondary oxida convert them tohydrogenbypartial energysourcesorto biogenic secondary possibletoreformhowever, itisalso ofsolidAlongside thegasification biomass, production. which for reducesthepotential hydrogen istouseonlypureforestalternative wood, ontheefficiency. impact detrimental The pressure,whichout atnormal hasa carried to(JEC2014)isusually according vessel. Forthatreason,wood gasification whichnails, the pressure candamage tends tobecontaminated with stonesor complicated bythefact thatwastewood ofbiomassis High-pressure gasification short-rotation coppices(SRCs). i.e. forest wood orcoppiced wood from be used,untreated wood ismostsuitable, processes. thatcan Ofthevarioustimbers 2 SUPPLYPATHWAYS -

- - 2016). (Fritsche etal. etal. 2012;Kaltschmitt bycompetinguses butalso example, forrequirements, sustainability regarding and arelimited availability byvarious whosepotential renewable rawmaterial production,sincebiomassisa large-scale biomass. Thiscould lead torestrictionsfor volumesof methods requiresignificant biogenichydrogenproduction process, all With theexceptionofbiophotolytic increased considerably. threshold and therefore stillneed tobe yields arestillwellbelowamarketable sight, sinceconversionratesand hydrogen amounts.small Market maturityisnotyetin and scale laboratory areperformed invery the fact thatatpresenttheyexistonlyona biochemicalmethodsis Common toall orcyanobacteria. green algae and biophotolyticsplittingofwaterusing fermentation usingphotosyntheticbacteria, photo tation usingheterotrophicbacteria, fermenThe mostrelevantmethodsaredark some oftheenergytheyneed fromsunlight. exception ofoneprocess)drawatleast of variousmicroorganismsand (with the into hydrogen. Theyarebased ontheuse and starch and lignocellulosefrombiomass forof methodsavailable convertingsugar (Hy-NOW 2012). Thereareanumber into oxygenand hydrogenbybiophotolysis (H totheformationated, leading ofhydrogen the aqueoussolution. Thewaterisdissoci cathode (negativepole)loseselectrons to In analkaline electrolyser(cf. 7)the figure electrolysis (Eichlseder/Klell2012). (potassium hydroxide,KOH)for alkaline conductivecausticpotashexample solution or ionicconductorcanbealiquid,for separated byanelectrolyte. Theelectrolyte metal-coated electrodes,which are consists ofaDCsourceand twonoble- oxygen byelectricity. Theelectrolyser in thiscasewater,intohydrogenand downafeedstock,The electrolysisbreaks 2.3 2 ) and hydroxideions(OH ELECTROLYSIS – ). ). - - - 7 electrolysis (HTE). groupmost Thelatter as alkaline PEM),and high-temperature membrane known (AEM)electrolysis(also (PEM) electrolysisand anionexchange trolysis (AE),protonexchangemembrane alkalineelectrolysis (LTE),including elec which theyareoperated:low-temperature andelectrolyte materials thetemperature at Electrolysers aredifferentiated bythe needs. individual hydrogen productioncanbeadapted to combining electrolyticcellsand stacks, ofplant). systemcentral units(balance By cellsandElectrolysers consistofindividual to 80 electrolysers iscurrentlyintheregionof60 on themethod ofwater used,theefficiency ofhydrogen.duce anamount Depending ofelectricityusedby theamount topro ofelectrolysisisdeterminedThe efficiency towards theanode. Attheanode(positive The chargecarriersmoveintheelectrolyte mixing but allows thepassageofOH mixing butallows prevents theproductgasesH Oxygen risesattheanode. Amembrane are oxidised toform waterand oxygen. negative OH pole) theelectronsareabsorbed bythe 2 OH 2 H THEPRINCIPLEOFELECTROLYSIS 2 OH H ½ O O 2 O +½ 2 % (based value). onthecalorific O +2e 2 2 – – →H → O 2 + 2e + 2 – ANODE O +½ anions. TheOH – →H – 2 OH 2 H 2 e +2OH – 2 O – 2 +2e 2e – 2 2 H – -- and O – H 2 anions + 2 OH +

2 CATHODE O + 2e H – H 2 – ions. – from 2 - 2 → - 8 fluctuating power supply. flexible systems adapted tointermittentand produced, and notleastdeveloping for subsequentcompressionof the H pressurised systems to avoid theneed costs),introducing material (especially density and stacksize, reducingcosts withwhole, along its operatinglife, power oftheelectrolyser system asa efficiency lysers currentlyincludeincreasingthe Research prioritieswith regard toelectro- electrolysis methods. some characteristicfeatures ofthevarious appeared onthemarket. Table8shows century, whereasAEMhasonlyjust sincethebeginningof21 available PEM electrolysishasbeencommercially most oftheinstalled capacityworldwide. clear market leaderhere,accountingfor onthemarket,available and AEisthe Low-temperature electrolysersarecurrently fuels (E4tech 2014,IEA2015b). various applicationssuch assyntheticliquid and fromsteam gas directly CO and thepossibilityofproducingasynthesis include increased conversionefficiency maturity, itsadvantagesareexpected to available.cially Onceitreachesmarket stage and productsarenotyetcommer ( notably includessolid oxideelectrolysis SOE), butthisisstillatanadvanced R&D (SOE) Electrolysis Solid Oxide (AEM) Electrolysis Membrane Exchange Anion (PEM) Electrolysis Membrane Exchange Proton (AE) Electrolysis Alkaline ELECTROLYSERKEYFEATURES

Temperature°C 700 –900 60 –80 60 –80 60 –80 membrane membrane Solid state Potassium- Electrolyte 2 hydroxid Polymer Polymer ceramic , for usein Oxide Oxide 2

st -

0.01 – 240 0.01 –240 0.25 –760 Nm Nm Nm 0.1 – 1 0.1 –1 Until now at experimental Until nowatexperimental 3 3 3 stage inlaboratories H H H fuel”. hydrogen ofindustrial Thepotential “hydrogenastransportation surrounding increased and therewasintensediscussion forwork onfuelcelldrive-trains vehicles when,inandthe time around the1980s, for useinFCEVs,canbetraced back to hydrogen”),especially residual (“industrial by-product ofindustryproductionprocesses The high levelofinterestinhydrogenasa BY-PRODUCT 2.4 gas tohydrogen. conversionofnatural losses thanthedirect ity tohydrogenisassociated with greater gastoelectric account: convertingnatural hastobetaken processchain overall into electrolysis, thereduced ofthe efficiency gaspowerstationisusedby anatural for electricity. electricitygenerated Bycontrast,if supply, and surplusrenewable inparticular lysis requiresaninexpensiveelectricity producinghydrogenbyelectro- Ultimately, reformingthan steam (Schiller2012). energy prices,electrolysisismoreexpensive dependent onelectricityprices. Attoday’s production byelectrolysisisverymuch The economicattractivenessofhydrogen 2 2 2 /h /h /h Plant size HYDROGENASA 0.2 –1,150kW 1.8 –5,300kW 0.7 –4.5kW

65 –78 65 –82 Efficiency % 85 % N/A (lab) % % – 99.9998 % – - 99.9999 % - Purity H 99.4 % 99.9 % 99.5 % N/A - 2

2,300 €/kW 1,200 €/kW System costs industrial customers,whilethe “captive” industrial category supplieshydrogentoother down intothreecategories:the“merchant” map thehydrogensourceswere broken hydrogen productionsitesinEurope. Inthis duced other resultsamapshowing among etal.2 HyCom”(Maisonnier 2007)pro hydrogen available. TheEUproject“Roads residual ofindustrial theamount quantify havesoughtto A numberofstudies pay agood pricefor it. is notpossible,tofind customerswillingto that ing hydrogenintotheir processesor,if are nowkeen either tointegratetheaccru have risen,and the industriesconcerned energy pricesinGermanyand Europe (WI/Covestro 2015). Sincethen, however, integrated intootherproductionprocesses into theatmosphereratherthanbeing operationswerebeingindustrial released hydrogen asaby-productofvarious of amounts quitesignificant At thetime, hydrogen supplysystem. a basisorsteppingstonefor auniversal infrastructurewasregardeddistribution as widely available. Furthermore,theindustrial until renewablygenerated hydrogenwas was intended toserveasanentrypoint of studies. hydrogenfromindustry Residual fuel cellvehicles wasassessed inanumber for theuseofearlydemonstration fleetsof 1,900 – 1,900 – 1,000 – N/A N/A 20,000 – 60,000 – 60,000 h 90,000 h 1,000 h Lifespan approx approx N/A E4tech 2014;IEA2015b;owndiagram

industry for the last 100 industry for thelast100 Commercially available Commercially available for mediumand small Commercially used in Commercially used Experimental stage Maturity level applications applications Shell HydrogenStudy (<300 kW) for limited years

- - 15 2 SUPPLY PATHWAYS Shell Hydrogen Study

category retains hydrogen on site for its for example) but also in terms of the efficiency (in MJ primary energy / MJ SECTOR COUPLING: HYDROGEN AS A STORAGE MEDIUM AND POWER - TO - X own use. Only “by-product” hydrogen has size and location of the production unit: hydrogen produced) and the associated

no further use within the process or on site; depending on demand and on the supply specific greenhouse gas intensity (g CO2 In the course of the energy transition, the proportion of renewable carriers, the Power-to-X concept (PtX), can result into a number of only this category can be made available strategy, hydrogen is generated decen- equivalent / MJ hydrogen produced), energies in electricity generation has risen markedly. Wind power different utilisation pathways (Rieke 2013; Dena 2015; NREL for other applications, such as fuel cell tralised in small plants directly at the point where CO2 equivalent is referred to below and photovoltaics have seen the greatest expansion. However, the 2016; LBST/Hinico 2016): feeding small amounts of hydrogen into electric vehicles. of use or in large centralised plants and as CO2. availability of these intermittent and non-dispatchable renewable the natural gas network; hydrogen methanation with CO2 to form subsequently transported by pipeline or However, by-product hydrogen is also The results are shown in figures 10 and 11. energies (variable renewable energies, VREs) fluctuates over time. CH4 and introduction of the methane obtained into the natural gas lorry to the dispensing stations. At the same time, because of its physical properties, supplying network as a replacement gas (both Power-to-Gas). However, this widely used today. In the chemical industry All pathways are shown as being “central- it is used for additional processes such In practice there will also be combinations ised” in large production units, where “cen- electricity requires a constant balancing of supply and demand. latter option requires a concentrated CO2 source at the methanation as hydrogenation. It is at least used to of centralised and decentralised pro- tralised” still means domestic production. If the proportion of renewable energies exceeds roughly one- location. Finally, the stored hydrogen can be converted back into produce electricity and heat, as in the duction, in regional supply for example, The possibility of producing hydrogen on quarter of electricity generation, special/additional measures are electricity via fuel cells (Power-to-Power). steel industry for example. However, this but for simplification reasons they are a large scale using solar power in North necessary in order to integrate fluctuating renewable energy Other concepts include: using hydrogen from renewable energies by-product hydrogen could be replaced by not described here. Thermal conversion Africa or offshore wind power in Northern supplies. Otherwise it may be necessary to limit the production (“green hydrogen”) in fuel refining (hydrogenation) or for fuel natural gas as an energy source, and thus from the fossil fuels coal, oil and above Europe, for example, and shipping it to or use of renewable energies. production by means of synthesis into liquid fuels (Power-to-Liquids) be made available. Moreover, the layout all natural gas still dominates. As part Germany has been excluded from this Alongside other demand and supply measures, energy storage can and using the generated hydrogen as a basic chemical (Power-to- of new or retrofitted plant sites is such that of the process of decarbonising energy analysis. For various reasons, not only play an important part in improved system integration. Until now, Chemicals; Power-to-Plastics). all input and product streams are used, as production and energy consumption, the technical but also geopolitical, the impact a result of which the availability of individ- role of fossil fuels, especially coal, is being of implementing this option, which is more pumped-storage hydro power plants have dominated electricity stor- Power-to-X is currently still in the research and development stage. ual “by-products” is falling sharply overall. reduced. In fact, the specific greenhouse of a long-term objective, cannot yet be age capacity – although they account for less than 3 % of global Various projects explore fundamental questions of feasibility and electricity generation. Short-term electricity storage in batteries for gas emissions from hydrogen generated by assessed. The sensitivity analysis illustrates economic viability (BMVI 2014; Graf et al. 2014; Sundmacher The project “CO ReUse NRW” (WI/ 2 coal gasification are more than twice the the effects of decentralised production, small plants is developing dynamically. However, longer-term stor- 2014; Zuberbühler et al. 2014). Covestro 2015) provided a detailed ones from hydrogen produced by natural characterised firstly by the less efficient age of larger surplus amounts of electricity requires new types of insight into the production, distribution and One disadvantage of PtX concepts is, undoubtedly, the large num- gas reforming (JEC 2014). In the long term, production and secondly by the elimination storage, such as chemical storage in the form of hydrogen (IEA use of industrial hydrogen. The bulk of ber of conversion steps. This leads to overall low efficiencies along thermal conversion will increasingly be or at least the considerable shortening of 2016b). industrial hydrogen is produced specifically the entire supply and use pathways (IEA 2015b). On the other superseded by electrolysis (using electricity the transport route. Hydrogen can be obtained by electrolysis from electricity produced for its intended purpose (mostly chemical hand, hydrogen as an energy storage medium and/or its potential from renewable energies). with surplus renewables. If there is a corresponding energy demand, industry). Within this context, refineries too In considering the energy efficiency of the for conversion in further energy carriers allows for an accelerated the hydrogen can fulfil it directly. However, it can also be stored in have become net consumers of hydrogen. For that reason, this section examines only different hydrogen production and supply expansion and use of surplus renewable energies. Not least for that bulk tanks as pressurised gas and retrieved when supplies are low. Only a relatively small proportion of 9 % two main hydrogen production pathways: pathways, differences between the primary reason, an important role has been given to hydrogen as an energy of the total amount of hydrogen produced steam reforming from natural gas and energy sources are evident (figure 10). Finally, the hydrogen can be converted into other energy carriers. store and to PtX supply and use pathways towards a greenhouse can be considered to be available for electrolysis. No further consideration is The EU electricity mix/electrolysis pathway Converting renewable electricity via hydrogen into other energy gas neutral energy industry (UBA 2014). external applications. Therefore, little or no given to supply pathways based on coal stands out because the cumulated energy industrial hydrogen is available for other and (heavy fuel) oil. Energy and green- input is 4.6 to 5 times higher than that 9 POWER - TO - X PATHWAYS ethnton applications, such as transportation fuel. house gas balances are considered for the of the other pathways. By contrast, the selected pathways and their variants and differences between natural gas reforming By contrast, according to a survey by (Cox production costs are estimated. and electrolysis from variable renewable ethne 2011), in the USA there is still potential energies (in this case wind) in terms of the S tH in residual hydrogen. The most important The energy and greenhouse gas balances height of the bars are slight. source for this is the chlor-alkali electrolysis; for the above-mentioned hydrogen pro- however, landfill gas and biogenic gases duction pathways are presented and Nevertheless, the type of energy source are also regarded as a potential source analysed with reference to (JEC 2014). used must be taken into account: electro- H 2 of by-product hydrogen. In this context (JEC 2014) contains energy and lysis from renewable energies uses more

O2 H2 considerable importance is attached to the greenhouse gas balances for a large than 70 % renewable energies and

tH tH tH availability of gas processing plants. number of energy and fuels pathways. The consumes only small amounts of fossil and

H data is updated regularly and forms an nuclear resources (for transport and for grd oer generton oer letroly acknowledged basis for analysing energy production and dismantling of the wind 2.5 COMPARISON OF sources and fuels in the European context. energy converters used). By contrast, the SUPPLY PATHWAYS According to (JEC 2014) the primary proportion of renewable resources in the energy share (subdivided into fossil, nuclear gas reforming pathways is less than 5 %. Storge ern The previous sections of this chapter and renewable energy sources) and the One exception to this rule is the “biogas introduced various hydrogen production resulting greenhouse gas emissions for mix” pathway, half of which is supplied etrol eel technologies. These technologies can each conversion stage and transport mode by waste-based biogas and which thus S et uel be differentiated not only in terms of the are calculated and mapped. The results contains a higher proportion of renewable Synthe energy sources used (fossil or renewable, show for each pathway the specific energy energy.

16 17 2 SUPPLY PATHWAYS Shell Hydrogen Study

In terms of greenhouse gas emissions the 10 ENERGY INPUT FOR HYDROGEN SUPPLY 12 HYDROGEN PRODUCTION COSTS reforming pathways represent an average H g H SHno rueHhlen on dgr value which does not vary substantially according to the origin of the natural gas urrent roeted or the type of import (as Compressed Natu- enele n ral Gas, CNG, by pipeline or in liquefied uler form as LNG, Liquefied Natural Gas). The ol greenhouse gas intensity can be reduced significantly by adding processed biogas, so-called biomethane, which has similar properties to natural gas. However, this is very much dependent on the origin and the dgr on type of the raw materials from which it is og letrty enele letrty produced: The use of biomethane derived eorng eorng eorng letroly letroly entrled eorng eentrled eorng entrled letroly eentrled letroly entrled o eentrled o from municipal waste results in significantly lower greenhouse gas emissions than biomethane based on energy crops or slurry (DBFZ 2014). The addition of 11 GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS OF HYDROGEN SUPPLY biomethane to natural gas and its use in 2.6 PRODUCTION COSTS – et al. 2013; DBFZ 2007; Sattler 2010; The same is true for electrolysis: the spread g H hydrogen production generally occurs as CURRENT AND PROJECTED Smolenaars 2010; Tillmetz/Bünger 2010; of costs for centralised plants is smaller than a balance sheet calculation rather than by Trudewind/Wagner 2007). The pathways that for decentralised plants. One reason physically transporting the biomethane to Essential parameters of the various pro- in question are centralised and decentral- for this may be that decentralised plants are the reforming plant. entrled th eentrled th duction pathways also include, in addition ised natural gas reforming, centralised and frequently not used at optimum capacity, to the energy uses and greenhouse gas decentralised electrolysis of (wind) elec- and the variations in utilisation have an Even more relevant than the type of gas emissions described above, the production tricity, and centralised and decentralised even greater impact on production costs used for reforming is the greenhouse gas costs. These are not included in (JEC 2014) biomass gasification and reforming. The than they do in a centralised plant. intensity of the electricity used for electro- analysis has been supplemented with the lysis. In terms of the carbon footprint, the EU but have been added from other literature According to these figures, hydrogen from data from (LBST/Hinico 2015). references. The structure and components centralised and decentralised electrolysis electricity mix pathway and the electrolysis dgr on from renewable energies pathway differ by of the pathways in the literature differ in Finally, the timeliness of the data should be plants can be produced with production a factor of 17. some details, such as plant size and taken into consideration: most of the studies costs ranging from almost 6 €/kg H2 (for og letrty enele letrty capacity utilisation, raw material costs, etc., that were analysed quote data from the centralised plant) to nearly 8 €/kg H2 If solely renewable electricity is used, the eorng eorng eorng letroly letroly from the pathways considered above. methods that had been implemented at (for decentralised electrolysis). Another hydrogen that is produced is almost emis- the time of publication. Based on personal key input variable, along with capacity sion-free, with around 13 g CO /MJ H . 2 2 Here only the pure production costs are information from the authors, these values utilisation and full load hours achieved, is On the other hand, if the average Euro- parison: if hydrogen is to be produced by As a consequence of the high proportion considered; infrastructure and distribution are still up-to-date. Therefore they are the electricity price, which in the considered pean electricity mix is used for electrolysis, electrolysis from a partially decarbonised of coal used in its production, the German costs (for road transport) are covered reproduced in figure 12 as the current references varies between 6.5 and 10 EUR the greenhouse gas emissions produced electricity grid with the same greenhouse electricity mix has a higher CO2 intensity. elsewhere. Key controlled variables for status. The cost data from the cited studies cents/kWh. are some 2.2 times higher than in natural gas intensity as for the natural gas reform- However, the conclusions that can be the analysis and compilation of production are summarised in this figure. This has been The production costs for the centralised gas reforming. ing pathway, specific greenhouse gas drawn are not fundamentally different. costs are the costs or prices of the primary done by calculating a weighted average, biomass-based pathways, at an average Therefore, if hydrogen is to be made emissions from the electricity that is used energy sources (natural gas, biomass, elec- while the deviation from the minimum or There are also similar programmes and of around 3.3 €/kg H2 up to a maximum available sustainably and on a large scale, must be about 56 g CO2/MJ electricity. tricity, etc.) and energy costs for conversion; maximum value is shown in the shaded resulting studies in other regions of the of 7.4 €/kg H2, lie somewhere between only electrolysis using electricity generated Compared with the current levels of bars. In addition, three of the studies indi- world, for example in California and other the type, size, capacity and utilisation of those for natural gas reforming and from renewable energy sources offers the approximately 150 g CO2/MJ electricity, cate costs for the years 2020 (or 2019) states of the USA. The Well-to-Wheel the conversion plant and the conversion electrolysis. Here too the dependency on possibility of providing a low-CO fuel. the grid greenhouse gas intensity would and 2030 in two different scenarios; where 2 emissions for typical hydrogen production efficiency or yield of hydrogen. biomass production costs should be noted; However, if a reliable supply of larger therefore have to be reduced by approxi- available these are shown in yellow in the pathways were analysed by the Argonne depending on what sustainability require- amounts of electricity is needed for the mately two-thirds. figure. National Laboratory in the “Greenhouse (Grube/Höhlein 2013) compiled the ments are implemented, these costs could transport sector, surplus renewable elec- The values for the selected hydrogen pro- gases, Regulated Emissions, and Energy production costs for hydrogen generated It is obvious that the range of production rise sharply in future if sustainable biomass tricity is no longer sufficient for hydrogen duction pathways are taken from the JEC use in Transportation” model (GREET by various pathways. For their cost compi- costs from centralised natural gas reforming as a resource becomes scarce. In the short- production. Rather, the required electricity study (JEC 2014) and reflect the situation 2015). The values are in the same order lation they drew on a number of studies, is narrow. Production costs of between to medium-term outlook (2020 and 2030), must be produced specifically for that across Europe. It is assumed that these of magnitude as those from the JEC study mostly from 2010 to 2013 but including 1 and 2 EUR per kilogram of hydrogen the data situation becomes much sparser. purpose. values also apply to Germany. There are and therefore support the conclusions set two older studies from 2007: (Gökçek (average 1.4 €/kg) can therefore be For decentralised natural gas reforming The scale of the transition of electricity differences between the EU and Germany, out here. 2010; Kwapis/Klug 2010; Lemus/Duart regarded as very probable. The variations only one set of cost data is available, with generation that is needed shows a com- especially in regard to the electricity mix. 2010; Liberatore et al. 2012; Michaelis in decentralised reforming are much higher. no spread. For the biomass pathways the

18 19 2 SUPPLY PATHWAYS Shell Hydrogen Study

reference period, i.e. whether the figures gas reforming, centralised electrolysis and fully exploited by 2030, however. Photo- 13 ENERGY DENSITY OF FUELS are a projection of the anticipated costs centralised biomass pathways in particular biological hydrogen production and the oluetr energy denty l or the current situation, is not always are expected to offer significant cost-saving solar thermal cycle are innovative pro- transparent. The decentralised natural potential, which may not yet have been cesses but have not yet reached maturity.

eel Syneel IN SUMMARY odeel etrol

Hydrogen can be produced from a large number of primary Hydrogen generated by electrolysis from renewable energies LIQUID LIQUEFIED GASES energy sources and by various technical processes. The most produces the lowest greenhouse gas emissions. The primary oethnol important primary energy source for hydrogen production energy input for electrolysis based on conventional electricity today is natural gas, with a share of 70 %, followed by oil, coal is high, whereas that for natural gas and biogas reforming and HYDROGEN and electricity (as a secondary energy). Steam reforming (from for renewable electrolysis is low. However, electrolysis from NATURAL GAS H natural gas) is the most important method of hydrogen renewable electricity uses a high proportion of renewable r H r production. Electrolysis from electricity currently accounts for primary energy and only small amounts of fossil primary H r turl around 5 % of global hydrogen production. In addition, only energy. Hydrogen a small amount of unused residual hydrogen, generated as a by-product of industrial production processes, is (still) available. Of all the production methods and supply pathways considered, retr energy denty n g centralised hydrogen production is more cost-effective than The importance of renewable energies in hydrogen production decentralised production. Centralised natural gas reforming is is still low, although it will increase in future. Electrolysis from the most cost-effective method. For newer production pathways, 14 STORAGE METHODS renewable electricity is seen as offering huge potential for the in particular electrolysis from renewables, substantial cost PHYSICAL MATERIALS-BASED future. Hydrogen can also be produced from biomass, pro- reductions still need to be achieved. vided that there is sufficient sustainable biomass potential. Compressed Gaseous Hydrogen Liquefied Hydrogen CGH Metal Hydrides 2 LH (350, 700 bar) 2

3 STORAGE & TRANSPORTATION Liquid Organic Sorbents Cryo-compressed Hydrogen Slush Hydrogen Hydrogen Carriers (MOFs, Zeolites, CcH SH 2 2 LOHCs Nanotubes)

It can be seen that hydrogen as an energy tested over lengthy periods of time, include storage and cooled hydrogen storage. As A major advantage of hydrogen is that it can be produced Owing to its physical and chemical properties, the logistics carrier has by far the highest gravimetric physical storage methods based on either hydrogen has to be cooled down to very from (surplus) renewable energies, and unlike electricity it can costs (i.e. storage and transportation) for hydrogen are higher energy density (lower heating value), at compression or cooling or a combination low temperatures in order to liquefy, the also be stored in large amounts for extended periods of time. than those for other energy sources (such as liquid fuels). 120.1 MJ/kg. The higher heating value of the two (hybrid storage). In addition, term cryogenic hydrogen storage is also For that reason, hydrogen produced on an industrial scale This chapter provides an overview of storage technologies (not shown in figure 13) is even as high a large number of other new hydrogen used. Finally, if compression and cooling could play an important part in the energy transition. As a for hydrogen as an energy carrier. It then looks at transport as 141.88 MJ/kg. The mass-based storage technologies are being pursued are combined, this is also referred to as chemical energy store, hydrogen could act as means of sector options in connection with the corresponding storage methods. energy density (LHV) of hydrogen is thus or investigated. These technologies can be hybrid storage. coupling in integrated energy schemes. almost three times higher than that of liquid grouped together under the name materials- hydrocarbons. based storage technologies. These can High-pressure storage Compressed Gaseous Hydrogen, CGH include solids, liquids or surfaces. Figure 14 2 However, the volumetric energy density heat that is released in a (theoretically) of the energy source, so it is stated in shows an overview of the available hydro- From production through intermediate 3.1 STORAGE of hydrogen is comparatively low. Under complete combustion. The higher heating MJ/kg or kWh/kg, for example. Using gen storage methods. As yet only physical storage and on to distribution to the end ambient conditions the y-section is almost The way in which an energy carrier is value (HHV) additionally takes into account the density (kg/l), the mass-based calorific storage by compression and liquefaction user, hydrogen is handled at different gas on the zero-line, at just 0.01 MJ/l. There- stored is greatly influenced by its energy the heat of condensation contained in the value can also be converted into a volu- have any commercial relevance. pressures. A low-pressure storage tank fore, for practical handling purposes, the content. The energy content of an energy water vapour, although this cannot be used metric energy density, which is then stated operates at just 50 bar. For intermediate density of hydrogen must be increased source is determined by its calorific value by motor vehicles. in MJ/l or kWh/l. Figure 13 shows the PHYSICAL HYDROGEN STORAGE storage in high-pressure tanks or gas significantly for storage purposes. or more precisely by its lower and higher gravimetric and volumetric energy densities Physical storage methods are the most cylinders, pressures of up to 1,000 bar heating value. The lower heating value The calorific or heating value is a specific of hydrogen and other gaseous and liquid The most important hydrogen storage mature and the most frequently used. are technically possible. Only special solid (LHV) is defined as the amount of usable quantity and is usually based on the mass energy carriers and fuels. methods, which have been tried and A distinction is made between high-pressure steel or steel composite pressure vessels

20 21 3 STORAGE AND TRANSPORTATION Shell Hydrogen Study

are suitable for high-pressure storage genic hydrogen in the liquid state. Liquefied optimised so that boil-off no longer leads to The first field installations are already Slush Hydrogen (SH2) roughly equal proportions of solid and

(e-mobil bw 2013; EA NRW 2013). hydrogen (LH2) has a specific energy substantial losses. in operation. It is not yet clear whether An additional option for compressing liquid hydrogen, has – corresponding density of 8.5 MJ/l, which is higher than CcH will develop into the new storage liquefied hydrogen (LH ) is to cool it down to its solid hydrogen components – a When it comes to the industrial storage 2 2 that of compressed natural gas (CNG) Tanks for LH2 are used today primarily in standard for road transport. The advantage further, to its melting point. That is because 16 % higher storage density than liquid of hydrogen, salt caverns, exhausted oil space travel. Accordingly, the largest tank (approximately 7.2 MJ/l). As such, LH2 is of cold or cryogenic compression is a at the melting point, before it becomes hydrogen. Slush hydrogen has primarily and gas fields or aquifers can be used as some way behind the liquefied gases LPG is located at the Cape Canaveral rocket higher energy density in comparison to completely solid, hydrogen first changes been investigated as a fuel for space travel underground stores. Although being more launch site; it holds around 3,800 m3 of (25.3 MJ/l) and LNG (21 MJ/l). compressed hydrogen. However, cooling into a kind of slush or gel. Slush or gelled (Eichlseder/Klell 2012). expensive, cavern storage facilities are most liquid hydrogen (LBST 2010). requires an additional energy input. hydrogen (SH ), which is composed of suitable for hydrogen storage. Underground 2 Liquid hydrogen (LH2) is in demand today stores have been used for many years for in applications requiring high levels of Cold- and cryo-compressed natural gas and crude oil/oil products, purity, such as in the chip industry for exam- Hydrogen (CcH2) which are stored in bulk to balance ple. As an energy carrier, LH has a higher 2 In addition to separate compression or seasonal supply/demand fluctuations or energy density than gaseous hydrogen, but cooling, the two storage methods can be for crisis preparedness (IEA 2015b). it requires liquefaction at –253 °C, which combined. When a gas is cooled, it follows involves a complex technical plant and an To date, operational experience of from Gay-Lussac's gas law that the volume FUEL TANKS FOR FUEL CELL ELECTRIC VEHICLES extra economic cost. hydrogen storage caverns exists only on a of an (ideal) gas held at constant pressure in a few locations in the USA and Europe When storing liquid hydrogen, the tanks behaves proportionally to the temperature; (IEA 2015b). In particular, the underground and storage facilities have to be insulated in other words, if the temperature falls by natural gas stores in Europe and North in order to keep in check the evaporation one Kelvin, the volume of an (ideal) gas The efficient storage of hydrogen is regarded as an important In addition to the volume and weight of the fuel, the weight of America could potentially be used as large that occurs if heat is carried over into the drops by 1/273.15. This relationship also precondition for the spread of fuel cell technology in the trans- the tank system is relevant, since heavy tank systems increase reservoirs for hydrogen generated from stored content, due to conduction, radiation applies in principle to real gases. That is port sector. Since hydrogen has a low volumetric energy den- rolling, grade and acceleration resistance and hence the fuel surplus renewable energies. However, or convection. Existing storage facilities why hydrogen is cooled first. sity, in motor vehicles it is usually carried in compressed form in and energy consumption of a vehicle. Vehicle tanks for liquid only a relatively small proportion of these are rarely able to prevent such effects pressurised cylinders. 700 bar is now the established storage fuels have a very favourable ratio of transported energy con- are storage caverns; the most prominent Depending on how much the hydrogen is completely, i.e. they can only delay them pressure for passenger cars. By contrast, the storage space in tent to overall mass of tank system plus content. and common form of underground storage cooled, it is referred to as cold-compressed (EA NRW 2013). buses (on the roof) is less constrained than in passenger cars. consists of depleted gas reservoirs. In hydrogen (above 150 K) or cryo-com- Therefore buses can use high-pressure storage tanks at 350 Figure 16 shows a 55-litre tank for a modern compact/mid- addition, the natural gas stores are unevenly pressed hydrogen (CcH ). Cryo-com- LH2 tanks or storage vessels generally 2 bar. size car with a net weight of just 15 kilograms. The storage distributed at a regional level. have a double hull design, with a vacuum pressed hydrogen is cooled to tempera- density of petrol relative to the overall tank system including between the inner and outer container. tures close to the critical temperature, but it Fuel cell passenger cars currently have a range of around 500 End users, by contrast, require a more its energy content is therefore over 30 MJ/kg. With smaller To regulate a pressure rise caused still remains gaseous. The cooled hydrogen km or more than 300 miles. With the current vehicle technology, compact form of storage. According to the storage capacities and vehicle tanks for more efficient driv- by evaporating hydrogen in the inner is then compressed (US DOE 2006; BMW this requires around 4 to 6 kg of hydrogen, depending on the Boyle-Mariotte gas law, the volume of an etrains (such as petrol hybrid vehicles), the ratio would be container, small amounts of gas have to 2012). CcH is a further development of vehicle, driving style and driving conditions. A passenger car (ideal) gas at a given temperature behaves 2 (somewhat) less favourable (JEC 2013). be released (boil-off). Modern systems are hydrogen storage for mobility purposes. needs a tank capacity of around 100 to 150 litres to store 4 in an inversely proportional manner to to 6 kg of hydrogen at 700 bar. The petrol tanks on modern its pressure. Although real gases are not By contrast, the ratio of hydrogen energy content to hydro- compact and mid-size cars have a capacity of 50 to 60 litres, infinitely compressible, in this case too gen tank plus content is approx. 6 MJ/kg. In the medium to while executive cars and light commercial vehicles carry 70 to compression leads to a volume reduction. 15 HYDROGEN STORAGE DENSITY long term, the goal is to achieve a gravimetric system density 80 litres of fuel. of 9 MJ/kg (US Drive 2015). Similar to batteries in a hybrid Compressed (gaseous) hydrogen with gl gasoline vehicle, fuel cell vehicles also need a (smaller) storage pressures of 350 bar or 700 SH 16 STORAGE DENSITY OF TANK SYSTEMS H traction battery. Depending on the drivetrain configuration, bar – technically referred to as CH or 2 g the battery adds additional weight. Nevertheless, fuel cell H CGH2 – have become the norm for use in vehicles achieve ranges comparable to those of internal the mobility sector. Since hydrogen heats combustion engine cars because of their higher drive up when it is compressed, in some cases efficiency. it is handled at excess pressures or the g hydrogen gas is precooled. If hydrogen lulton on H Finally, the gravimetric storage density of hydrogen tank is compressed to 350 bar (CGH ), the 2 systems is significantly higher than that of battery electric volumetric energy density increases to 2.9 etrol vehicles. Current battery technology achieves storage MJ/l; when compressed to 700 bar the H densities of 0.3 MJ/kg, and 1.116 MJ/kg is considered specific energy density is 4.8 MJ/l. achievable in the medium to long term (VDE 2015). As a consequence, battery electric vehicles have much shorter tto Liquefied Hydrogen, LH2 r r r r r ranges and the vehicle weight is greater. As well as storing gaseous hydrogen under

pressure, it is also possible to store cryo- hlederlell on dgr

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There are thus clear differences between Materials-based hydrogen storage media Liquid organic hydrogen 17 HYDROGEN ROAD TRANSPORT the physical storage methods in terms of can be divided into three classes (FCTO carriers (LOHC) the storage density achieved (figure 15). 2017): first, hydride storage systems; Liquid organic hydrogen carriers (LOHCs) The highest densities, at 80 and 82 g H2/l second, liquid hydrogen carriers; and third, represent another option for binding respectively, are achieved by supercritical surface storage systems, which take up hydrogen chemically. LOHCs are chemical cryo-compressed hydrogen (CcH2) and a hydrogen by adsorption, i.e. attachment to compounds with high hydrogen absorption 50:50 liquid/solid mix of slush hydrogen the surface. capacities. They currently include, in TUBE TRAILER CONTAINER TRAILER LIQUID TRAILER (SH2) – albeit at cryogenic temperatures in particular, the carbazole derivative 200 – 250 bar, ≈ 500 kg, ambient temperature 500 bar, ≈ 1,000 kg, ambient temperature 1 – 4 bar, ≈ 4,000 kg, cryogenic temperature each case. Nevertheless liquid hydrogen The intermediate storage of hydrogen in N-ethylcarbazole, but also toluene, which (LH2) has a density of over 70 g/l at 1 bar. the form of hydrocarbons (natural gas, is converted to methylcyclohexane by By contrast, hydrogen compressed to 700 liquefied petroleum gas) or alcohols hydrogenation, dibenzyltoluene, ammonia 3.2 TRANSPORTATION per tanker is lower. Single tube trailers evaporated hydrogen is extracted from the bar (CGH2) has a density of approx. 40 (methanol), which can then be used boranes and formic acid (Von Wild et al. carry approximately 500 kg of hydrogen, container, normally at the filling station, and Today, the transport of compressed g/l at 15°C. directly or with the aid of a reformer in 2010). depending on the pressure and container supplied for another use or re-liquefied. gaseous or liquid hydrogen by lorry and of fuel cells, is not considered in any further material. Higher storage densities come at a price, compressed gaseous hydrogen by pipeline Similarly to lorry transport, LH can also Dehydrogenated LOHCs (unsaturated 2 however. The higher the storage density, detail here. to selected locations are the main transport be transported by ship or by rail, provided hydrocarbons) absorb hydrogen in the The largest tank volumes for gaseous the greater the amount of energy needed options used commercially – and they that suitable waterways, railway lines and presence of a catalyst and at pressures of hydrogen transport are currently 26 cubic for cooling and/or compression, and the Hydride storage systems are likely to remain so in the medium term. loading terminals are available. 30 to 50 bar and temperatures of approx. metres. Taking account of the low hydro- more complex the design of tank systems This section discusses the three transport In metal hydride storage systems the 150 to 200°C. The heat released by gen density factor at 500 bar, this results options CGH and LH by lorry and CGH and infrastructure. hydrogen forms interstitial compounds 2 2 2 in a load of around 1,100 kg hydrogen PIPELINE this process (exothermic) can be used by pipeline and compares their economic with metals. Here molecular hydrogen is per lorry. This figure extrapolates to A pipeline network would be the best Currently it takes in the region of 9 to 12 % elsewhere – for heating purposes or for advantages. first adsorbed on the metal surface and approximately 12,000 normal cubic metres option for the comprehensive and large- of the final energy made available in the preheating ahead of dehydrogenation, for of hydrogen. At 250 bar both the weight of scale use of hydrogen as an energy then incorporated in elemental form (H) COMPRESSED GAS CONTAINERS form of H to compress hydrogen from 1 example. The hydrogenated carbazole 3 2 into the metallic lattice with heat output hydrogen and its transport volume in Nm source. However, pipelines require high to 350 or 700 bar. Supplying hydrogen at derivative has comparable physicochem- Gaseous hydrogen can be transported in and released again with heat input. Metal would be roughly halved. levels of initial investment, which may pay 30 bar – from steam reforming for example ical properties to diesel fuel and can small to medium quantities in compressed hydrides are based on elemental metals off, but only with correspondingly large – takes approximately 4 to 5 % compres- be stored and transported accordingly gas containers by lorry. For transporting such as palladium, magnesium and lantha- LIQUID TRANSPORT volumes of hydrogen. Nevertheless, one sion energy. By contrast, the energy input (Teichmann et al. 2011). Discharge larger volumes, several pressurised gas num, intermetallic compounds, light metals As an alternative, hydrogen can be possibility for developing pipeline networks for liquefaction (cooling) is much higher, takes place by dehydrogenation, which cylinders or tubes are bundled together such as aluminium, or certain alloys. Palla- transported in liquid form in lorries or for hydrogen distribution is local or regional currently around 30 %. The energy input is requires a heat input of approximately on so-called CGH2 tube trailers. The large dium, for example, can absorb a hydrogen other means of transport. In comparison to networks, known as micro-networks. These 250 to 300°C (endothermic reaction). tubes are bundled together inside a subject to large spreads, depending on the pressure gas vessels, more hydrogen can could subsequently be combined into gas volume up to 900 times its own volume protective frame. method, quantity and external conditions. The released hydrogen may in some cases transregional networks. (Mortimer/Müller 2010). be carried with an LH2 trailer, as the density also need to be freed from LOHC vapour. Work is currently in progress to find more The tubes are usually made of steel and of liquid hydrogen is higher than that of economic methods with a significantly The storage density of metal hydride have a high net weight. This can lead to gaseous hydrogen. Since the density even Worldwide there are already (2016) Surface storage systems (sorbents) lower energy input. In the meantime, the storage systems so far was in the region of mass-related transport restrictions. The of liquid hydrogen is well below that of more than 4,500 km of hydrogen pipelines latest methods for hydrogen liquefaction 1.5 wt% at room temperature, which means Finally, hydrogen can be stored as a newest pressurised storage systems use liquid fuels, at approx. 800 kg/m3, in this in total, the vast majority of which are operated by hydrogen producers (HyARC involve an energy consumption of less than that 1.5 kg of hydrogen could be stored sorbate by attachment (adsorption) on lighter composite storage containers for case too only relatively moderate masses 2017). The longest pipelines are operated 20 %. The theoretical energy demand for in a storage mass of 100 kg. In recent materials with high specific surface areas. lorry transport. of hydrogen are transported. At a density 3 in the USA, in the states of Louisiana and compression of hydrogen to 700 bar or its years, complex hydrides have enabled the Such sorption materials include, among of 70.8 kg/m , around 3,500 kg of liquid The low density of hydrogen also has an 3 Texas, followed by Belgium and Germany liquefaction is in the region of 4 to 10 % of storage capacity to be increased to up to others, microporous organometallic hydrogen or almost 40,000 Nm can be impact on its transport: under standard 3 (see figure 18). the energy content (US DOE 2009). 5.5 wt% (i.e. 5.5 kg H in a 100 kg storage framework compounds (metal-organic carried at a loading volume of 50 m . 2 conditions (1.013 bar and 0°C), hydrogen mass) (EA NRW 2013). frameworks (MOFs)), microporous Another possibility for transporting and has a density of 0.0899 kg per cubic Over longer distances it is usually more MATERIALS-BASED H2 STORAGE crystalline aluminosilicates (zeolites) or 3 storing surplus renewable energy in the metre (m ), also called normal cubic metre cost-effective to transport hydrogen in liquid Substantial drawbacks to hydride storage An alternative to physical storage methods microscopically small carbon nanotubes. 3 form of hydrogen is to feed it into the public (Nm ). If hydrogen is compressed to 200 form, since a liquid hydrogen tank can is provided by hydrogen storage in solids are firstly the large amount of heat energy Adsorption materials in powder form can natural gas network (Hydrogen Enriched bar, the density under standard conditions hold substantially more hydrogen than a and liquids and on surfaces. Most of these used for discharging, and secondly – achieve high volumetric storage densities. Natural Gas or HENG). Until well into the increases to 15.6 kg hydrogen per cubic pressurised gas tank. For the purposes of storage methods are still in development, especially for applications in transport – The sorption temperatures are generally 20th century, hydrogen-rich town gas or meter, and at 500 bar it would reach liquid transport the hydrogen is loaded into however. Moreover, the storage densities the high mass and the slow absorption well below the discharge temperatures for 3 coke-oven gas with a hydrogen content 33 kg H2/m . insulated cryogenic tanks. that have been achieved are still not and release of hydrogen. Advantages liquid and solid storage materials. Adsorp- above 50 vol% was distributed to house-

adequate, the cost and time involved in include the filter effect of metallic storage, tion storage materials as hydrogen stores A tube trailer cannot store compressed LH2 trailers have a range of approximately holds in Germany, the USA and England, charging and discharging hydrogen are allowing high-purity hydrogen to be are still the furthest removed from practical gas as compactly as a tanker for liquid 4,000 km. Over the journey time the for example, via gas pipelines – although too high, and/or the process costs are too discharged, and the low potential of implementation in the field. fuels (petrol or diesel fuel). This means that cryogenic hydrogen heats up, causing not over long distances, for which as yet no expensive. accidental release. the available tank volume for hydrogen the pressure in the container to rise. The experience is available.

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18 HYROGEN PIPELINES PER COUNTRY

S 2,608 km

elgu 613 km PRODUCT QUALITY

erny 376 km Hydrogen is used in both gaseous and liquid form. Liquid While thermal processes are relatively robust in the face of hydrogen is purer than gaseous hydrogen, since the cryogenic (minor) fluctuations in fuel quality, fuel cells – depending on rne 303 km temperatures cause a number of accompanying substances to type – may react very sensitively to impurities and accompanying freeze and drop out. The hydrogen quality is differentiated by substances in the hydrogen. This is especially true of fuel cells degree of purity. Hydrogen is available up to a purity grade of with noble metal catalysts. In this case impurities and accompa- etherlnd 237 km 7.0; this corresponds to a purity of 99.99999 %. What should nying substances can lead to irreversible loss of performance in be the quality requirements for hydrogen as an energy carrier? the fuel cells. nd 147 km Impurities and accompanying substances in hydrogen are High-temperature fuel cells (MOFC, SOFC) are less sensitive. dependent on the manufacturing process. Thermochemical The hydrogen used in low-temperature fuel cells with noble ther 258 km production methods may give rise to more accompanying metal catalysts must have a high purity. For that reason, Hy on dgr substances which, depending on the subsequent application, ISO standard 14687 (published in 1999) established quality require the hydrogen to undergo a multistage post-production requirements for hydrogen for use in PEM fuel cells. ISO purification treatment. Hydrogen from electrolysis contains standard 14687 was last revised in 2012. Infrastructure elements that were installed at that are still considered to be critical and to cylinders. This option is relatively expensive exceptionally few undesired accompanying substances – the time, such as pipelines, gas installations, be generally unsuitable for operation with for larger amounts, since the greater the For use in PEM fuel cells in motor vehicles, ISO 14687 Part 2 principally water vapour (H O). seals, gas appliances etc., were designed these hydrogen concentrations. For CNG volume of hydrogen to be transported, the 2 requires a hydrogen purity degree of 3.7 or a hydrogen content for the hydrogen-rich gas and were later vehicles, the currently authorised limit value larger the number of pressure cylinders Hydrogen as a feedstock has long been used for industrial of at least 99.97 %. Furthermore, specific concentration values modified with the switch to natural gas. for the proportion of hydrogen used is only required. However, in comparison to processes, either as a feed material for chemical production for a number of undesired substances must not be exceeded. It can be assumed that many of the gas 2 vol%, depending on the materials built in liquefaction or to a pipeline network, there through to semiconductor production, or for energy purposes as These substances include in particular sulphur compounds, transport networks, distribution lines and (UNECE 2013). are virtually no fixed costs, so this is the a supplementary energy source in thermal processes. Its use in carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), ammonia storage facilities that were operated in the best option for small amounts and short Given their length, the large gas networks fuel cells is relatively new. (NH3), formaldehyde (CH2O) and hydrocarbons. past are still in use today (Müller-Syring et in many industrial countries could store distances (Yang/Ogden 2007). It is also a al. 2013). In Leeds (UK), for instance, the considerable amounts of hydrogen. flexible option, since it is available for any possibility has been explored of converting A number of different technical methods route and at any time and the necessary the existing natural gas network in the region are available for recovering hydrogen amounts can also be increased (albeit with (used primarily for municipal heating supply) transported by natural gas pipeline from a additional operating costs) and reduced. entirely to hydrogen (Sadler et al. 2016). natural gas/hydrogen mixed gas (NREL If it is available, liquid hydrogen trucking is Many countries have looked at adding 2013b): pressure swing adsorption (PSA), SAFETY the preferred option for larger volumes over hydrogen into the existing natural gas the membrane process, or electrochemical larger distances. The additional cost for Hydrogen is a combustible gas. And if combustible gases are First of all, hydrogen by itself is not explosive; it is not self-igniting, networks. For the USA, according to (NREL gas separation. However, all separation hydrogen liquefaction is then offset by the released, they can form explosive mixtures with air. Hydrogen decayable or oxidising. Moreover, hydrogen is not toxic, 2013b), it would be possible to introduce processes require additional technical lower trucking cost. is known from chemistry lessons in particular for the so-called corrosive, radioactive, foul-smelling, water-polluting or even amounts from 5 vol% to 15 vol% hydrogen effort and energy input. oxyhydrogen or Knallgas explosion. It is therefore legitimate to carcinogenic. Hydrogen can however displace atmospheric without substantial negative impact on end For the transport of very large hydrogen ask (DWV 2011): How safe is hydrogen? What factors have oxygen and as such have an asphyxiating effect. Its most obvious users or the pipeline infrastructure. At the TRANSPORT ECONOMY volumes a comprehensive pipeline network to be taken into account to ensure hydrogen is handled safely? safety-related feature is its high flammability and the broad The various transport possibilities each same time, the larger additions of hydrogen is ideal. This option is dominated by the ignition limits in hydrogen-air mixtures from 4 to 77 %. would in some cases require expensive require specific infrastructure and also Safety-related information about substances and mixtures is costs of building the pipeline infrastructure. conversions of appliances. involve different fixed and operating costs summarised in safety data sheets. ISO Technical Report 15916 Yet hydrogen cannot burn on its own. It requires an oxidant Once it has been built, the increase in as well as varying levels of energy input (2015) contains international guidelines for the safe handling (air/oxygen) to do so, along with an ignition source, such as an In Germany this limit has been set some- specific transport costs for larger volumes and transport capacity. Depending on the and storage of gaseous and liquid hydrogen. Safety require- electric spark. If hydrogen in pure form is brought together with what lower, at up to 10 vol% (Müller-Syring is negligible. A pipeline is thus the most transport task (i.e. the amount of hydrogen air/oxygen and an ignition source, it burns almost et al. 2013; Müller-Syring/Henel 2014). cost-effective choice for large transport vol- ments for specific applications are laid down in other ISO to be transported, the distance, the priority invisibly. For the safe handling of hydrogen, it follows that: In principle, gas at concentrations of up umes, whereas for small amounts the fixed standards referenced in that report; they include, for example, of low costs, etc.), the most suitable option to 10 vol% hydrogen can be transported costs are very difficult to recover (Yang/ ISO 19880 (2016), which describes safety and performance Unlike liquid fuels hydrogen is stored and transported in pure must therefore be chosen in each case. in the existing natural gas network without Ogden 2007). This conclusion applies to requirements for compressed hydrogen refuelling stations for form and in closed resp. completely sealed systems/tanks. the risk of damage to gas installations, If hydrogen is required in small amounts on all gaseous and liquid substances to be passenger cars and other motor vehicles. Hydrogen pressure tanks, which are most commonly used, distribution infrastructure, etc. However, a a laboratory scale, it is typically transported transported, irrespective of the specific number of components have been listed by lorry in gaseous form in pressure properties of hydrogen.

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4.1 MATERIAL AND INDUSTRIAL AMMONIA (FERTILISERS) Firstly, hydrogen occurs as a by-product in the catalytic reforming of naphtha. With should have high safety margins and be fitted with relief valves. Since hydrogen molecules are very small, they can diffuse APPLICATIONS The most important hydrogen-nitrogen com- the hydrogen obtained from reforming, the Ignition sources must be avoided. through many materials. For steel tanks this is less of a pound is ammonia (NH3), also known as Hydrogen is a highly versatile basic chem- oil products, which still have a high sulphur problem. Modern composite materials can be protected azane. Technically, ammonia is obtained Since hydrogen is lighter than air, it escapes upwards. ical, which is used in chemical production content after distillation, are desulphurised against hydrogen diffusion and material embrittlement by on a large scale by the Haber-Bosch Therefore hydrogen should either be stored in the open air and industry to produce, process or refine by hydrotreating in the presence of a means of appropriate coatings, materials and suitable process. This process combines hydrogen or, if in enclosed spaces, with good aeration and ventilation. intermediates and/or end products. It is catalyst. Here the oil products are heated operating conditions. and nitrogen together directly by synthesis. Hydrogen sensors also increase safety. estimated by (Zakkour/Cook 2010) that To this end, the starting materials nitrogen together with hydrogen, and the hydrogen between 45 Mt/a and 50 Mt/a of hydro- and hydrogen must first be obtained. In sulphide that forms from sulphur and hydro- gen are produced worldwide, and around the case of nitrogen this is achieved by gen is drawn off. 7.8 Mt/a are used in Europe (Le Duigou et low-temperature separation of air, while al. 2011). hydrogen originates today from natural gas In hydrocracking, by contrast, the aim is steam reforming. to increase the product yield. To this end, IN SUMMARY 19 GLOBAL USAGE OF HYDROGEN long-chain hydrocarbons are heated and Ammonia is synthesised at temperatures converted into shorter-chain hydrocarbons of 500°C and pressures of 200 bar. As Hydrogen has only a very low volumetric energy density, which storage facilities hydrogen can take on an important role as a ethnol with the aid of hydrogen and in the triple-bonded atmospheric nitrogen (N ) is means that it has to be compressed for storage and transporta- buffer store for electricity from surplus renewable energies. 2 presence of catalysts. Furthermore, hydro- very unreactive, the presence of an iron- tion purposes. ther cracking makes it easier to remove product At present, hydrogen is generally transported by lorry in based catalyst is required. The elements impurities. Since the amount of hydrogen The most important commercial storage method – especially for pressurised gas containers, and in some cases also in cryogenic hydrogen and nitrogen react together in obtained from naphtha reforming is no end users – is the storage of hydrogen as a compressed gas. liquid tanks. Moreover, local/regional hydrogen pipeline the proportion 3:1 in accordance with the longer sufficient for hydrotreatment and A higher storage density can be achieved by hydrogen networks are available in some locations. following reaction equation: hydrocracking in refineries, the necessary liquefaction. Novel materials-based storage media (metal 3 H + N → 2 NH hydrogen must be specifically produced – hydrides, liquids or sorbents) are still at the R&D stage. In the long-term, the natural gas supply infrastructure (pipelines 2 2 3 and underground storage facilities) could also be used for the by natural gas steam reforming or partial The yield of the Haber process, i.e. The storage of hydrogen (e.g. for compression or liquefaction) storage and transportation of hydrogen. enng oxidation of (heavy) fuel oil. In the future, on the conversion rate of nitrogen (N ) to requires energy; work is in progress on more efficient storage 2 the hydrogen needed for fuel production ammonia (NH ) is modest, at below 20 %; methods. Liquid hydrogen is suitable for long-distance transport, com- 3 could also be produced by electrolysis from ouroo on dgr so substantial recycling of unreacted gases pressed gaseous hydrogen is suitable for shorter distances in renewable energies (“green hydrogen”). Unlike electricity, hydrogen can be successfully stored in large smaller amounts, while pipelines are advantageous for large occurs. amounts for extended periods of time. In long-term underground volumes. It is expected that there will be a further Hydrogen is used in large quantities for Ammonia itself is a colourless gas with a rise in hydrogen demand in refineries chemical product synthesis, especially to pungent odour. It is readily water-soluble. worldwide. One reason for this trend form ammonia and methanol. Refineries, Almost 90 % of ammonia goes into fertiliser is the endeavour to achieve greater where hydrogen is used for the processing production. For this purpose, a large part of processing depths for each barrel of crude of intermediate oil products, are another the ammonia is converted into solid fertiliser oil. Another are the worldwide increasing area of use. Thus, about 55 % of the hydro- salts or, after catalytic oxidation, into nitric quality requirements for fuels (e.g. freedom gen produced around the world is used acid (HNO3) and its salts (nitrates) (Holle- from sulphur and metals), especially in the for ammonia synthesis, 25 % in refineries mann/Wiberg 2007; Mortimer/Müller emerging markets (IEA 2016b); better fuels 4 APPLICATIONS and about 10 % for methanol production. 2010). + – are needed to comply with more stringent The other applications worldwide account Owing to its high energy of evaporation, engine standards and stricter exhaust gas for only about 10 % of global hydrogen ammonia is also used in refrigeration plants regulations. production. as an environmentally friendly and inexpen- sively produced refrigerant; its technical Finally, not only mineral oils, but also Since hydrogen practically only exists on Earth in a combined reaction-promoting catalysts. Its use as an energy source involves It is not always possible to draw final name is R-717. vegetable oils can be hydrogenated. form, in order to be used it must first be produced by means of using the energy contained in hydrogen to produce higher-value conclusions from the amount of hydrogen The latter can either be hydrogenated in an elaborate process. But what exactly is hydrogen produced energy (electricity), heat and (finally) also mechanical energy. used about its relevance in specific pro- REFINERIES refineries together with fossil intermediates for? What are its most important areas of application? Here too there are a number of different usage pathways, which duction processes and/or its commercial In refineries, crude oil is processed by (co-hydrogenation) or in separate biofuel are in turn dependent on the energy conversion technology used. importance in a given application area. In fact there are many possible applications for the element Only a small part of global hydrogen various methods into oil products such as plants. Hydrogenated Vegetable Oil hydrogen. It has two main areas of use: material applications This chapter begins by describing the most important material production (approx. 4 %) is traded freely naphtha, petrol and diesel fuels, heating (HVO) is a fungible paraffinic fuel com- and energy applications. Material applications of hydrogen hydrogen applications in industry. It then looks at the options oil and aviation fuels. Following distillation (Yergin et al. 2009). parable to Diesel fuel. The hydrogenation involve the further processing or refining of other substances for energy usage and analyses the most important conversion (heating), other refining processes are used process is also used in food chemistry to or intermediates with the aid of or by adding hydrogen. technology – namely the fuel cell and its various design types – This section briefly describes the most in order to obtain the desired products harden oils and fats and in the plastics In most cases special processes are required, which bring in more detail. important industrial processes and areas and product qualities. Hydrogen plays an industry for polymer production. about the desired results through pressure, temperature and of material use of hydrogen. important part in some refinery processes.

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METHANOL flat glass production (hydrogen used as an than that, only hydrogen accruing as a 20 PRINCIPLE OF THE FUEL CELL Hydrogen is also an important basic inerting or protective gas), the electronics by-product in industry is still occasionally >> The fuel cell is a greater achievement substance for producing methanol industry (used as a protective and carrier co-combusted, if no economic use can be of civilisation than the steam engine and gas, in deposition processes, for cleaning, found for it. e e (CH3OH). The production of methanol will soon banish the Siemens generator (methanol synthesis) takes place by means in etching, in reduction processes, etc.), into the museum. << Given the technical progress made in fuel of the catalytic hydrogenation of carbon and applications in electricity generation, cell technology in recent years, but also – monoxide (Hollemann/Wiberg 2007). for example for generator cooling or Wilhelm Ostwald (Nobel prize winner) at the + because of the technical requirements nd for corrosion prevention in power plant 2 annual meeting of the Association of H Here a mixture of carbon monoxide and H applying to hydrogen-powered heat German Electrical Engineers in 1884 hydrogen – also known as water gas or pipelines (LBST 2010). engines, the use of hydrogen as a fuel is (Verband Deutscher Elektrotechniker) synthesis gas – is passed over suitable The direct reduction of iron ore – i.e. the now focused almost entirely on the fuel cell. catalysts. Under pressure and at elevated separation of oxygen from the iron ore temperature, methanol is formed almost using hydrogen and synthesis gas – could exclusively, in accordance with the follow- FUEL CELL develop into an important industrial process waste heat is at a sufficiently high temper- ing reaction equation: The fuel cell principle was discovered as + in steel manufacturing, because in the tradi- ature level, a combined heat and power early as 1838/39. At the time, however, CO + 2 H → CH OH tional blast furnace method large amounts power process can be added downstream. H2 + ½ O2 = H2O HEAT 2 3 the fuel cell was unable to make any of carbon are released (LBST 2010). While That is the case with the high-temperature Methanol or methyl alcohol is a simple inroads against the steam engine/genera- direct reduction with natural gas is now fuel cells (SOFC and MCFC); this gives rise alcohol and highly toxic. Structurally its tor combination. Unlike heat engines, a fuel well-established in steel production (World to much higher overall efficiencies than in + 2– composition is similar to that of methane cell can convert chemically bound energy In addition to the schematic representation 4 H + 2 O → 2 H2O pure thermal engines. Steel Association 2015), corresponding shown here, the followingegene elements rtellung (CH4), but one hydrogen atom is into electrical energy directly, i.e. without The side on which the reaction gases production methods based on hydrogen so are also needed to operate a fuel cell: substituted by a hydroxyl group (OH). detouring via a thermal power process. The direct conversion of chemical energy is accumulate and the type of ion transport far exist only on a pilot scale. conditioning of fuel, air and waste gas, already known from batteries. These have through the electrolyte that is needed to Methanol can be used directly as a fuel The optimum efficiency of heat engines is cooling circuit, power circuit, humidifier a finite internal store of energy. A fuel cell close the circuit are dependent on the cell in internal combustion engines. It is also 4.2 ENERGY APPLICATIONS denoted by the Carnot efficiency (Bosch line, measurement and control technology, can provide a continuous supply of elec- type (see figure 22). used in direct methanol fuel cells or, after In terms of energy applications, hydrogen 2014). This is dependent on the ratio of safety equipment and additional equipment tricity for as long as the cell is fed with fuel. reforming, in PEM fuel cells. Fuel additives is above all a secondary energy source the (upper) combustion temperature to the for start-up. In the simplest case the fuel is hydrogen, Finally, the gas diffusion layer ensures a are produced from methanol, and it is and chemical energy store. The energy it (lower) incoming air temperature. In fact, uniform distribution of the inflowing gases which combines with oxygen in a reaction A fuel cell system consists of individual fuel used to transesterify vegetable oils to form contains can be used either in thermally heat engines cannot convert the entire heat and reaction products along with the to form water. By spatial separation into cells connected in series – also known methyl esters (biodiesel). Methanol is also operating heat engines or in galvanic (fuel) of the combustion process into mechanical removal of electrons and process heat. two half-cells – by means of an electrolyte, as stacks. The core component of the fuel a central chemical raw material, from cells. energy, only a part of it. membrane and/or diaphragm – the two which important chemical intermediates cell is the membrane electrode assembly substances are unable to react directly with When hydrogen (H2) is burned with pure The generation of electricity via heat (MEA), which determines the performance FUEL CELL TYPES like formaldehyde (CH2O), acetic acid oxygen (O ), water is formed in accord- each other, so a controlled reaction can (C H O ) and others are synthesised. 2 engines also requires the use of a genera- of the fuel cell. It consists of two porous, Fuel cells are categorised primarily by the 2 4 2 occur. The demand for methanol has been rising ance with the following reaction equation: tor. Moreover, real heat engines operated catalyst-doped electrodes (cathode and type of electrolyte and the temperature at by petrol or diesel processes remain well anode), an electrolyte (ionic conductor) which the cell is operated. Five groups of steadily since 2009. A further growth in 2 H2 + O2 → 2 H2O Depending on the fuel cell type, the below theoretical Carnot efficiencies. And arranged between them, and the gas fuel cells are differentiated by electrolyte methanol demand is expected (Johnson temperatures reached during catalytic In contrast to the combustion of hydro- when operated with fossil fuels they emit diffusion layers. type, and three ranges by temperature: 2012). combustion are well below the hydrogen carbons, no carbon dioxide is formed in both air pollutants and greenhouse gases. low-temperature at less than approximately combustion temperatures, at approx. 60°C The electrolyte separates the gases from OTHER APPLICATIONS this process. If hydrogen is burned with 100°C, medium-temperature above to 1,000°C. The process is also referred each other, but is permeable for certain air, nitrogen oxides are also produced. In fuel cells, the energy contained in hydro- 100°C, and high-temperature above The other applications, which in total to as cold combustion. The formation of Very high temperatures are reached in gen is converted into electrical and heat ions (electrically charged particles). The make up around 10 % of hydrogen usage, 500°C. The following section briefly nitrogen oxides (NOx) in the presence hydrogen gas supplied to the anode side is hydrogen combustion – above 2,000°C energy. In this process, 286 kilojoules of presents the most important fuel cell types consist of two groups: of air only begins at temperatures above split into ions due to the catalyst action and to 3,000°C, depending on the ratio and energy are released per mol of hydrogen. by electrolyte, along with their main areas 1,500°C, so this pollutant issue is avoided gives off electrons: Firstly, hydrogen is used to produce a oxygen content of combustion air. The conversion of this released energy of application, advantages and disadvan- in catalytic combustion (Weber 1988). (reaction enthalpy) into electrical energy + – large number of other important chemical Although hydrogen is generally a clean 2 H2 → 4 H + 4e tages, and the market development status. determines the maximum efficiency of a compounds. These include (according to and potent fuel with high energy content These electrons are directed to the cathode Table 21 contains a summary of important fuel cell. In theory, fuel cells can reach cell STRUCTURE & FUNCTIONING LBST 2010) base materials for paints and and attractive combustion properties, via an external circuit, in which they per- performance parameters of fuel cells. efficiencies of over 80 %. However, owing While electrolysis breaks down water synthetic fibres, various raw materials and hydrogen's use for energy purposes form electrical work. There they cause the to voltage losses the efficiencies that are into its constituents oxygen and hydrogen In general, the necessary purity of the precursors for nylon production and polyure- now rarely lies in (hot) combustion. oxygen to ionise in accordance with the actually achievable are lower (Eichlseder/ using direct current, the reverse process hydrogen used decreases as the tempera- thane elastomer production, and use for the There has been little further research and following reaction equation: Klell 2012). of electrolysis, i.e. the recombination of ture rises – the lowest temperatures require plasticisation and elasticisation of plastics. development in hydrogen-fuelled internal – 2– oxygen and hydrogen to form water with O2 + 4 e → 2 O the purest hydrogen. The efficiencies that combustion engines in the recent past. Secondly, hydrogen is needed in other Since a fuel cell produces waste heat as production of direct current takes place in a Lastly, the free oxygen and hydrogen can be achieved by the fuel cells are industrial applications; these include Only in space travel hydrogen is still used well as electricity, it can also be used in fuel cell. The basic structure and operation radicals combine with heat output to form dependent among other things on the metalworking (primarily in metal alloying), as a propellant for rocket engines. Other combined heat and power processes. If the of a fuel cell are illustrated in figure 20. electrically neutral water: operation with air or pure oxygen.

30 31 4 APPLICATIONS Shell Hydrogen Study

In addition, the overall efficiency increases Of all the fuel cell types, PEMFC systems approximately 200°C), while at the PAFCs are low. Their electrical efficiency Unlike PAFCs, MCFCs have high electrical from decentralised power supply (a few if the fuel cell is used not only for electricity have the highest potential for cost reduction same time eliminating the complex water is relatively low (40 %), although by using efficiencies of over 60 % (stack) or around kilowatts) up to the power plant sector generation but rather in combined heat and with regard to production volume. In the management process. waste heat higher overall efficiencies 55 % (system). Electrical efficiencies of (several megawatts). Owing to their high power (CHP) systems, i.e. which utilise the long-term, production costs of 30 $/kWel (80 %) can be achieved than with AFCs approximately 65 % and overall efficien- operating temperature, SOFCs require Furthermore, the carbon monoxide and electricity as well as the heat produced. are considered to be achievable, com- and PEMFCs. PAFCs are less sensitive to cies of 85 % can be achieved by using the relatively long start-up times. Like MCFCs, carbon dioxide tolerance and the overall parable to those for internal combustion carbon monoxide, but they require a higher waste heat by means of a downstream SOFCs have high electrical efficiencies efficiency are higher – especially when Alkaline fuel cell (AFC) engine drive-trains. Today, the service noble metal loading. thermal power process for additional (around 60 %, or up to 70 % with a it comes to waste heat utilisation. The use The alkaline fuel cell is the pioneer among life of PEMFCs is approximately 5,000 electricity generation. downstream thermal power process) and of heat- and acid-resistant materials gives PAFCs also require a complex water fuel cells. It was first used at an early operating hours which is sufficient for a high overall efficiencies (up to 85 %). The rise to higher production costs, however. In management process and have high The high operating temperature allows stage of space travel – for example for travel distance of around 100,000 miles high operating temperature allows for the addition, the HT-PEMFC is technologically material requirements. Because of their the use not only of hydrogen but also of the on-board power supply for the Apollo or 150,000 to 200,000 km (IEA 2015b). internal reforming of hydrogen-rich gases less mature than the LT-PEMFC. aggressive electrolyte, this cell type is less hydrogen-containing gases (such as mission in the 1960s. In its initial phase, or liquid fuels. Once again, however, if The LT-PEMFC currently dominates the suitable for the small output range (in the natural gas or biogas) or methanol in the AFC was used almost exclusively for A special application of the PEMFC is hydrocarbons are used, carbon dioxide world market for fuel cells, in terms of both building sector) and mobility applications; conjunction with an internal reforming mobility applications, but it is also being the direct methanol fuel cell (DMFC). The emissions are also produced. Expensive the number of installed systems and the in the stationary sector, however, they have process. If hydrocarbons are used, how- tested in stationary applications. DMFC operates in a similar temperature noble metal catalysts are not necessary output of the fuel cells (E4tech 2016). had a high degree of technological matu- ever, carbon dioxide emissions are also range (50 to 120°C) to the LT-PEMFC. for SOFCs, but they do require high-tem- rity for some time now. Further potential produced. Expensive noble metal catalysts The AFC is a low-temperature fuel cell. Key A further development of the low-tempera- It can use the hydrogen contained in perature-resistant materials. SOFCs are for cost reduction is considered to be low, are not necessary for MCFCs, but they advantages include the rapid attainment ture PEMFC is the high-temperature methanol (CH3OH) directly, and then not only tolerant of carbon monoxide but however. They are used mostly in large do require high-temperature-resistant and of the low operating temperature and PEMFC. The HT-PEMFC uses a novel, benefits from the high storage density of they are also sulphur-tolerant. Compared stationary fuel cells (such as small power corrosion-resistant materials. MCFCs are the compact design. The use of a simple acid-doped membrane and therefore methanol. However, the efficiency of the with MCFCs, SOFCs are characterised by plants), but in low numbers. used primarily in the power plant sector – electrolyte (potassium hydroxide solution) does not need water for its conduction DMFC is relatively low (20 %). It is mostly lower investment costs and a much longer in low numbers. and low-cost catalysts (base metals) leads mechanism. This enables higher operating used in small devices. Overall, it plays only service life. Molten carbonate fuel cell (MCFC) to low investment costs. temperatures to be achieved (up to a minor role in the fuel cell market. The molten carbonate fuel cell (MCFC) is Oxide ceramic fuel cell / In recent years SOFCs have developed Phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC) Solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) The main problem with the AFC is that it categorised as a high-temperature cell. A into the second most important fuel cell has a very low carbon dioxide tolerance >> PEM is likely to be the leading The phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC) is cat- carbonate melt is used as the electrolyte. The solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) is a high- type after the PEMFC, in terms of both and is therefore dependent on a supply of technology way into the future. << egorised in the medium temperature range The operating temperature for MCFCs temperature cell (approx. 500 –1,000°C), numbers and installed capacity. Incentive very pure gases, especially pure oxygen. (approx. 160–220°C). PAFCs cover a is 600 to 700°C. Like PAFCs, MCFCs the electrolyte for which consists of a schemes for stationary fuel cells for E4tech 2016 Despite further developments such as the broad output spectrum up into the MW cover a broad output spectrum up to the solid porous ceramic material. SOFCs domestic energy supply have contributed alkaline membrane fuel cell (AMFC), the range. The power density and flexibility of MW range, and require a lot of space. cover a broad range of applications, to this success (E4tech 2016). AFC is inferior to the PEMFC in terms of output and durability. 21 FIVE TYPES OF FUEL CELL EXPLAINED

Polymer electrolyte fuel cell / Proton Temperature Efficiency  Investment costs Life expectancy Fuel cell type Electrolyte Electrical performance Fuel Oxidant el Market development Application exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) range °C (HS) USD/kWel (h) The polymer electrolyte membrane is also

a low-temperature (LT) fuel cell, which Potassium O2 Established for decades, but AFC 60 – 90 Up to 250 kW H2 50 – 60 % 200 to 700 5,000 to 8,000 Space travel, submarines operates at temperatures of around 80°C. hydroxide (pure) limited to specialised applications Unlike the AFC, the PEMFC has a solid polymer membrane as the electrolyte. In H , gas, syngas, 30 – 60 % 3,000 to 4,000 60,000 Vehicle drivetrains, space travel, 50 – 90 (LT) Polymer From 500 W to 2 Early market / mature contrast to the AFC, this avoids an elab- PEMFC biogas, methanol O (depending on size and (stationary) (stationary) micro + block-type CHP, up to 180 (HT) membrane 400 kW 2 leading fuel cell type orate preparation of the electrolyte. The (external reforming) application) ~500 (mobile) 5,000 (mobile) backup power PEMFC has a high power density and a small volume, making it especially suitable H , gas, syngas, Up to several 2 30,000 to Mature Decentralised power generation, for mobility applications. PAFC 160 – 220 Phosphoric acid biogas, methanol O 30 – 40 % 4,000 to 5,000 10 MW 2 60,000 (low volume) block-type CHP (external reforming) The noble metal catalyst (platinum) leads to high construction costs. Since the catalyst is From a couple of H , gas, syngas, 2 20,000 to Early market / market introduction Power plants (base load), CHP MCFC 600 – 700 Carbonate melt 100 kW to biogas, methanol O 55 – 60 % 4,000 to 6,000 also poisoned by sulphur and carbon 2 40,000 (especially for bigger plants) (process heat/steam) monoxide, the PEMFC requires pure several MW (internal reforming) hydrogen. Unlike the AFC, however, it can H , gas, syngas, operate with air rather than with pure Solid ceramic From a couple of kW 2 Mature Power plants, CHP (process heat/ SOFC 700 –1,000 biogas, methanol O 50 – 70 % 3,000 to 4,000 up to 90,000 oxide to several MW 2 (volumes rising) steam), micro + block-type CHP oxygen. The LT-PEMFC additionally requires (internal reforming) a complex water management process. Wagner 1996; Drenckhahn/Hassmann 1993, updated with IEA 2015b, EA NRW 2017 (www.brennstoffzelle-nrw.de) and own additions

32 33 4 APPLICATIONS Shell Hydrogen Study

Figure 22 shows the most important 22 WORKING PRINCIPLE 2e– 2e– fuel cell types by points of origin of OF SELECTED FUEL CELLS Residual gas O2/N2 5 STATIONARY ENERGY the reaction products on the anode or gas H2O cathode side and the direction and type ANODE ELECTROLYTE CATHODE Residual gas O /N Residual gas H2/CO 2 2 APPLICATIONS of ion transport through the electrolyte. + – Reaction gas H O/CO Reaction gas H2O Between them, the various fuel cell 2 2 types cover a wide temperature range. Low operating temperatures allow for

a dynamic load response, while high H2 The use of hydrogen for energy purposes occurs mainly in the most important drivers of global market development for fuel temperatures favour continuous loads. SOFC CO fuel cells. In 2015 and 2016 some 50,000 fuel cell systems cell technology (US DOE 2016). 2- O In addition, the electrolytes of the HT fuel 1000˚C O 2 were delivered worldwide, with a total generating capacity of CO cells are more resistant to impurities and 2 approximately 200 MW (nominal electric output). Fuel cells generate both electricity and (by-product) heat. The com- to variations in fuel quality. mon production and use of electricity and heat is also known as H2O Around 80 % of the fuel cell systems supplied and 60 % of cogeneration or combined heat and power (CHP). In some cases As combustion gases, either hydrogen is the fuel cell capacities shipped were stationary applications only electricity generation is of interest, especially in the case of H2 O2 oxidised to water or carbon monoxide (E4tech 2016). Although transport applications are surpassing backup power units. Sometimes a relevant additional value is also

to carbon dioxide. In the PEMFC and MCFC CO 2- CO2 CO3 the stationary sector now, stationary fuel cells are still among seen in use of the by-product heat e.g. in the residential sector. PAFC the occurring water is drawn off at 650˚C CO2 the cathode. In the case of the AFC and In comparison to conventional thermal stationary sector, in some cases also for the high-temperature SOFC and MCFC H2O 5.1 ELECTRICITY GENERATION cells, by contrast, the reaction products Stationary fuel cells can be used for decen- power plants, fuel cells have much higher cooling. In addition to hydrogen, methanol, electrical efficiencies of up to 60 %, even natural gas and liquefied petroleum gas of the fuels supplied on the anode side H2O PAFC + tralised power supply in off-grid areas. The H2 H leave the cell again on the same side. 200˚C market for backup power applications for small plants. This is advantageous from are used as fuels (HMWEVL 2016). O2 A special feature of the AFC is that it (BUP) is becoming increasingly important. an exergetic perspective, since a lot of gives off product water via the electro- Backup applications include firstly high-value electricity and little heat are H2O 5.2 DOMESTIC ENERGY PEM + produced. lyte, causing the electrolyte to be diluted H2 H emergency power supply and secondly 80˚C If, in addition to the generated electricity, (Wendt/Plzak 1990). O2 uninterruptible power supply (UPS). In ongoing operation, fuel cell backups are the heat that is produced is also used, the characterised by the following advantages: process is referred to as combined heat Air or pure oxygen is supplied at the H Emergency generator sets are used for AFC 2 long autonomous operation and service cathode as oxidant. Correspondingly, - maintaining operation in the event of and power (CHP). If such plants are used 80˚C OH O2 H O life, low maintenance costs due to the nitrogen and oxygen occur as residual 2 lengthy power outages. In such cases the in the domestic heating sector, they are gases at the cathode outlet. The fuel for switchover from the mains power supply is lack of moving parts, and quiet, (locally) also described as micro-CHP or mini-CHP the fuel cell can either be used directly usually (briefly) interrupted. emission-free electricity generation (FCTO plants (Shell/BDH 2013) because of their 2014a, HMWEVL 2016). in the fuel cell or prepared from various Fuel gas Oxygen O smaller outputs. 2 Uninterruptible power supplies, on the other hydrogen-rich intermediates such as hand, are used to protect highly sensitive The backup capacity of stationary fuel CHP plants can be operated with two natural gas, methanol or synthesis gas technical systems against mains supply cells varies from a few kW to over 1 GWe. strategies: The plant covers either most via reforming. Depending on the operat- WBZU 2008; own diagram fluctuations and short-term outages, so as to Fuel cells with low-wattage electrical of the electricity or of the heat demand. If ing temperature, reforming takes place HEAT ensure continuous operation. Areas of use outputs are often portable fuel cells, which electricity prices are high, an electricity-led internally or externally. include in particular telecommunications offer weight advantages over recharge- mode of operation is appropriate. In this and IT systems, such as radio towers or able batteries and generators. A variety way the purchase of electricity from the IN SUMMARY data processing centres. of different fuel cell types are used in the grid can be minimised, or the generated

Hydrogen is a highly versatile basic chemical. The most impor- huge technical progress in recent years and offer much higher tant material applications in industry are ammonia synthesis electrical and overall efficiencies than thermal engines. (fertilisers) and methanol synthesis. Another important use is the The world market for fuel cells is currently dominated by refining of oil and intermediates in refineries – called hydro- the low-temperature polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell treating and hydrocracking – as well as the hydrogenation of (PEMFC), which because of its power density, flexibility and vegetable oils in (bio-) refineries. cost reduction potential is most suitable for mobility purposes. Although it is possible to use hydrogen as an energy source in The solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) has developed into the second heat engines (such as the internal combustion engine), that most important fuel cell type. This high-temperature fuel cell is rarely occurs now. used for continuous domestic energy or electricity supply and

The fuel cell is now the leading conversion technology of in the power plant sector. u oer hydrogen usage for energy purposes. Fuel cells have made

34 35 5 STATIONARY ENERGY APPLICATIONS Shell Hydrogen Study

23 FUEL CELL SYSTEM AS A PART OF DOMESTIC ENERGY SUPPLY THE ECONOMICS OF A FUEL CELL HEATING SYSTEM letrl eeny u to Using key data and own assumptions from the Shell BDH in the building; here 70 % of the electricity generated by the fuel Syte eeny 45% u to domestic heating study (2013), this section analyses the eco- cell is consumed in the house. As such, less electricity has to be 95% nomics of an investment in a micro-CHP fuel cell heating system drawn from the grid. The electricity that is generated by the fuel for residential heating in comparison with a gas condensing cell and not consumed internally is fed into the grid. boiler and an electric heat pump. For this purpose a simplified In all three cases, the cost of ownership for energy are made up (total) cost of ownership (TCO) approach is applied. The cost of uel ell of the acquisition and installation costs for the heating system, ownership analysis focuses on the investment cost for the heat- the natural gas purchase costs, and the costs for domestic elec- ing equipment (including installation) and the costs of purchas- Het tricity supply via grid connection. For the fuel cell heating system ing energy (for heat generation and electricity). this means that the costs for domestic electricity fall because of turl oer A reference building with a living area of approximately the consumption of the self-generated electricity. This reduction is 150 m² is considered. In the reference building chosen, the heat (partially) offset by a higher natural gas consumption, however. required for domestic hot water and heating was previously Figure 24 shows the heating and electricity costs in EUR over generated by a low-temperature natural gas boiler. The specific time, i.e. the costs for acquiring each heating system (on the CHP electricity can be fed into the Specifically for domestic energy supply, associated higher electrical efficiency. In energy consumption of 150 kWh per square metre for living Y-axis intersection), and for the total operating costs (including electricity grid and reimbursed. there are large demonstration projects combined mode, i.e. electrical and thermal, space results in an annual natural gas consumption of 22,500 acquisition cost) for three system options over 20 years of running in Germany (“Callux”) and in 12 fuel cells can achieve efficiencies of up kWh. The annual domestic electricity consumption (4,000 kWh) The heat produced as a by-product of com- service (X-axis). The calculation does not take account of any EU member states (“ene.field”), in which to 95 %. The electrical efficiency is up to is drawn from the general electricity grid. The assumed electricity bined heat and power is used to cover part grants for heating appliances or any tax exemptions or feed-in more than 1,500 PEM and SO fuel cell 45 %. Furthermore, fuel cell systems are price is 0.30 €/kWh, the natural gas price 0.065 €/kWh. of the buildings heat demand. The mostly remunerations for the electricity. systems are operating in houses and apart- characterised by high efficiencies over electricity-led mode of operation results in The low-temperature boiler which has been used for central Owing to the low acquisition costs, the ownership costs for the ment buildings. In the meantime, the first fuel all load points, they are quiet, have low a low thermal output from fuel cell heating heating so far is outdated by now. The owner needs to gas condensing boiler are the lowest today. The acquisition cell systems for domestic energy supply maintenance costs and operate (locally) systems. The remaining heat requirement modernise the heating system and considers three options: costs for the fuel cell heating system are the highest. However, are commercially available in Europe. emission-free (ASUE 2016). of the building is covered by an additional a micro-CHP fuel cell heating system, a gas condensing boiler given the high proportion of self-generated electricity that is con- Meanwhile, almost 200,000 gas-fuelled heating system, e.g. a condensing boiler. One disadvantage is that, because of heating system and an electric heat pump. The life time of all sumed, it has the lowest operating fuel and electricity costs. As PEM and SO fuel cell systems for domestic For that reason, fuel cells are particularly higher purchase costs, fuel cell heating three heating types is assumed to be 20 years. such, the fuel cell heating system would be more cost-effective energy supply have been installed and suitable for buildings with a low space systems – without incentive schemes – are than an electric heat pump after just under 10 years of service. funded in Japan through the state “Ene- Gas condensing boiler: The low-temperature gas boiler is heating requirement, such as low-energy or currently not yet economically viable as Farm” project; the Japanese government replaced by a gas condensing boiler. The costs for this system If the purchase costs of a fuel cell heating system were to fall, nearly zero-energy buildings. In buildings compared with condensing boilers. It can wants to have installed 1.4 million systems and its installation amount to 7,000 €. The boiler runs on due to falling production costs or to direct subsidies as in Japan, with a higher space heating requirement, be assumed, however, that as numbers by 2020 and 5.3 million by 2030 (HMW- natural gas. The replacement reduces the natural gas consump- for example, the fuel cell heating system would even be more hybrid fuel cell heating systems, comprising increase and as synergy effects with PEM EVL 2016, E4tech 2016). tion to 20,100 kWh. As previously, all the domestic electricity cost-effective than the gas condensing boiler heating system a fuel cell and a condensing boiler to fuel cells from automotive applications take consumed is drawn from the grid. after just a few years. cover peak heating requirements, are used. Probably the biggest advantage of fuel hold, the purchase costs of fuel cell systems Heat pump: The low-temperature gas boiler is replaced by an In principle, the greater the spread between the electricity and cells over thermal power processes is the for domestic energy supply will continue electric air sourced heat pump (ASHP). The costs for the heat gas price and the higher the proportion of self-generated elec- Stationary fuel cells in the output range up direct electrochemical conversion during to fall. pump and its installation amount to 12,000 €. Operating the tricity that is used, the faster a fuel cell heating system pays off. to 10 kWe are usually PEM or SO fuel electricity and heat generation and the cells. The typical CHP output range for heat pump requires 7,200 kWh of heat pump electricity per houses and apartment buildings is 0.7 to year. The heat pump electricity tariff is 0.21 €/kWh. Again, all 24 DOMESTIC ENERGY COSTS COMPARED the domestic electricity consumed is drawn from the grid via the 5 kWe. If fuel cell systems are operated IN SUMMARY with natural gas as the fuel, an existing existing house connection. r oured het u tody natural gas infrastructure can be used. Stationary fuel cells are an important driver of global market development for fuel cells. Fuel cell heating system: The low-temperature gas boiler is r oured het u uture However, the fuel must be reformed first. replaced by a new micro-CHP fuel cell heating system. The costs Fuel cells are increasingly being used as an alternative to generators and rechargeable ondenng oler In the case of PEM fuel cells, reforming for this system amount to 20,000 €. The fuel cell heating batteries as a backup power supply. takes place externally. Owing to the higher system consists of a fuel cell for simultaneous electricity and temperatures, internal reforming is possible Fuel cells generate both power and heat. Major demonstration projects for fuel cell heat generation (electricity output 0.75 kW, heat output 1 kW). in SO fuel cells. heating systems have already been introduced in Germany, Europe and Japan, under A natural gas condensing boiler that is additionally integrated the names “Callux”, “ene.field” and “Ene-Farm”. The first commercial micro-CHP plants into the heating system supplies the extra heat required to heat roH uel ell tody In the USA and in Europe, a number of based on PEMFC and SOFC fuel cells are now available. the building and for domestic hot water generation. The fuel cell roH uel ell uture funded projects are running, in which heating system runs on natural gas. As electricity prices are high pure hydrogen – from surplus renewable Owing to their high overall efficiency, micro-CHP fuel cell systems are a promising new compared to the natural gas price, the most economic operating energies or as an industrial by-product – is option for a sustainable residential energy supply. strategy of the fuel cell is to cover most of the electricity needed ody being trialled or used in stationary fuel cells Depending on the market development, the use of fuel cell-based micro-CHP or mini-CHP er o ere (HMWEVL 2016). units in the building/residential sector will require further funding.

36 37 6 MOBILITY Shell Hydrogen Study 6 MOBILITY APPLICATIONS

Hydrogen can serve as an energy source for mobility purposes. technology readiness of fuel cell technology, while not means. The exception is space travel, which can be regarded Less expensive alternatives to LH2/LOX are As such hydrogen can be used as a combustion fuel in the sufficient in itself, is a necessary prerequisite for market both historically and technically as having provided the solid fuels and liquid fuels – such as Rocket internal combustion engine, currently the dominant energy success in the respective mobility application areas. impetus for the development of hydrogen as a fuel for Propellant-1 (RP-1), a highly refined light converter in road transport. However, the most important transportation and fuel cell technology. middle distillate from the jet fuel family (JP-4). The technological potential for the fuel cell/hydrogen com- and promising combination for the future of the energy and Liquid hydrocarbons (RP-1) or solid rocket bination is assessed with respect to the requirements of each mobility industry is the fuel cell as energy converter and propellants have a higher volumetric density specific means of transport. Advantages and disadvantages hydrogen as energy source. The rocket propellant LH /LOX has been than hydrogen, and this has a beneficial of hydrogen and fuel cell transport applications in comparison 2 impact on the size of the fuel tank. They This chapter examines the technical foundations for the use with relevant alternative drive/fuel combinations are discussed. tried and tested extensively in space travel and has a high level of technical maturity. are also usually less expensive and easier of hydrogen and fuel cells in the mobility sector, looking at The chapter concludes with a summary of technology readi- SPACE TRAVEL It has the great advantage that as well to handle than hydrogen. However, their each means of transport. Of particular interest is the state of ness and the outlook for potential use of hydrogen (as a fuel) as being light, its high exit velocity of over specific impulse is much lower and, unlike technology development or readiness, because an adequate and fuel cells in transport. 4000 m/s (in a vacuum) also generates hydrogen in combination with oxygen, when they are burned they also produce The use of hydrogen – both as a propel- a high specific impulse. Moreover, the combination of LH /LOX as a propellant is greenhouse gases and air pollutants, some Until recently hydrogen was regarded as hydrogen in internal combustion engines lant and as an on-board power source for 2 6.1 APPLICATION OPTIONS also environmentally advantageous, since it of which – in the case of solid fuel rockets – a promising alternative fuel for internal is that, in contrast to fuel cell systems, the spaceships – has a long tradition in space AND MEANS OF TRANSPORT burns to form mostly water. also contain toxic substances. combustion engines. In principle, heat efficiency of hot hydrogen combustion travel. Cryogenic liquid hydrogen (LH2) engines have multi-fuel capability; i.e. they is (fundamentally) no higher than that of has been used as a rocket propellant and The application options for hydrogen as a Owing to their advantages in space, LH2/ Other than as a rocket propellant, hydro- fuel for mobility can be differentiated firstly can process different liquid and gaseous conventionally operated petrol and diesel energy store for the on-board power supply LOX are used primarily for the upper and gen has been used in space travel for more by the chemical form or bonding of hydro- fuels. And hydrogen is highly suited to use engines (Eichlseder/Klell 2014). since the 1950s/1960s. The propulsion main stages of rocket propulsion systems. than forty years in fuel cells. In most cases gen and secondly by the energy converter in internal combustion engines because and power supply systems used in space Thus the main and upper stages of the these are alkaline fuel cells (AFCs), which For that reason, and also because of the by means of which the energy stored in the of its material and combustion properties. travel have to satisfy strict requirements European Ariane 5 launch vehicle carry run on the liquid hydrogen and oxygen that Its broad ignition range and high flame technical advances that have been made hydrogen is made available. in terms of robustness, performance and around 185 t of LH2/LOX in total, in order is carried anyway for propulsion purposes. in mobile fuel cell technology, for all velocity allow for improved combustion safety. to deliver a payload of up to around 20 or They supply both electricity and heat as practical purposes only cold combustion is In direct use, (pure) molecular hydrogen engine efficiencies. A further advantage of 10 t into a lower or higher orbit of the Earth well as water for the on-board systems on now used in fuel cell systems in the mobility (H2) is used by the transportation means hydrogen as a fuel lies in its carbon-free In order to use hydrogen as a rocket (Airanespace 2016). spaceships. directly, i.e. without further conversion, as combustion and significantly reduced sector. The electrical energy generated propellant, an oxidant must be carried an energy source. In this case hydrogen air pollutant emissions in comparison to from hydrogen in fuel cells can be used on-board too, since there is no atmospheric SPACE TRAVEL AT A GLANCE to drive motor vehicles or other means of can be used both in internal combustion hydrocarbon fuels. oxygen available in space. In most cases transport. Moreover, small fuel cells can engines and in fuel cells (fuel cell systems). cryogenic liquid oxygen (LOX) is used. The Market maturity Established as a rocket propellant since the 1950s/1960s – with Up to about ten years ago, buses, vans also supply electricity for ancillary compo- propellant and oxidant are stored in sepa- excellent reliability. Small “market” for launch vehicles with few In indirect use, hydrogen is used to pro- and cars with hydrogen-propelled internal nents or auxiliary power units in vehicles rate tanks. For the purposes of combustion applications. duce final energy sources or is converted combustion engines were being developed or other means of transport. This applies in the propellant and oxidant are pumped Requirements Reliable, high-performance technology. by means of additional conversion steps as prototypes and low-volume production particular to larger means of transport such into gaseous or liquid hydrogen-containing vehicles. A number of different engine con- into a combustion chamber, mixed together as ships or aircraft, which in some cases Advantages High specific impulse; clean combustion. fuels. Such PtG (Power-to-Gas) and PtL cepts and fuel mixing strategies were tested and ignited by means of an ignition source. require considerable amounts of energy or (Power-to-Liquids) fuels can then in turn in this context. In the case of passenger Combustion of the gas mixture produces Disadvantages Cooling (cryogenic); large tank volumes; high pump capacity electricity for ancillary components. be used in heat engines. Use in fuel cells cars and similar vehicles, only spark-ignition a large amount of heat. The expansion of of fuel pumps. would also be possible (in some cases), engines were used. In some cases they At the heart of the discussion are the state the reaction products and their expulsion Alternatives Liquid propellants (RP-1), gaseous propellants (methane) using a reformer, but it is not economically could even run on petrol too (bivalent of and prospects for hydrogen and fuel through a nozzle generates thrust, which or solid propellants. viable. engine). However, a disadvantage of using cell systems for powering transportation ultimately propels the rocket.

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AVIATION Submarines are a niche application of been developed in the USA and Germany. emissions, low operating temperatures and fuel cells. For instance, electrolysers have The submarines developed in Germany use air-independent operation. However, the been used in submarines for some time PEM fuel cells and metal hydride hydrogen “market” for submarines is very small, and now to produce oxygen for breathing air. stores. In terms of submarine applications, even in the future it will not grow beyond a Submarines operated with fuel cells have fuel cells are characterised by low noise niche size. In civil aviation, hydrogen-powered fuel operations aviation fuel can be saved and or small sports aircraft with a mass of up cells are regarded as potential energy emissions reduced. Furthermore, multifunc- to 1.5 t (DLR 2015). These miniature and NAUTICAL APPLICATIONS AT A GLANCE providers for aircraft as they have been tional fuel cells can contribute to the supply small propeller aircraft were fitted with in space travel for some time now. Thus, of water, air humidification and the inerting PEM fuel cells and lithium batteries for the Market maturity Use of fuel cells for on-board power generation being trialled. Concepts for small ship/boat propulsion systems; fuel cell modules can supply electricity to of fuels (Renouard-Valleta et al. 2012). drive. The custom-built electric planes were propulsion systems for commercial maritime shipping unlikely. the aircraft electrical system as emergency able to demonstrate the basic feasibility Requirements Low emissions combined with low prices for drive-trains and fuels. The ideas and concepts for hydrogen in generator sets or as an auxiliary power of hydrogen-powered fuel cells in flight aviation extend to the support and/or com- unit. More advanced concepts include operations over short distances. Advantages Higher efficiency, lower emissions. plete drive of the flight operation. Individual starting of the main engine and the nose Disadvantages Expensive propulsion technology and fuel. jet engines have occasionally been tested The use of fuel cell technology as the sole wheel drive for airfield movements by with hydrogen in the past. More recently, or main drive and fuel for full-sized commer- Alternatives Diesel engine with heavy fuel oil, marine diesel, (commercial) diesel fuel; gas turbine with LNG/CNG. commercial aircraft. electric aviation has been boosted by a cial aircraft in national and international air Since fuel cells produce electricity more number of small demonstration aircraft – services is not yet in sight, however. efficiently than aircraft engines, in ground the size of unmanned drones, motor gliders

AVIATION AT A GLANCE RAIL / HYDRAIL

Market maturity Demonstration projects for on-board power supply. The first miniature/small aircraft have demonstrated the feasibility of electric aviation. Use in larger commercial aircraft not yet in sight. The main drive sources for rail vehicles is needed for electrification of the lines diesel-electric or diesel-hydraulic. The Requirements High reliability in flight operations; compact, weight-saving storage. are either diesel drives (diesel-electric, cannot always be justified. Moreover, shunting locomotives are mostly either Advantages Efficient energy converter and clean fuel; multifunctional. diesel-hydraulic) or all-electric. The energy overhead lines cannot be used for shunting one-off vehicles or conversions of diesel intensity of electric rail vehicles is around if cranes are also in use for moving locomotives. Moreover, individual shunting Disadvantages Large storage volume, significantly more expensive than fossil fuels. half that of diesel rail vehicles (IEA/UIC transport goods. In subsurface mining, by locomotives have been fitted out and used Alternatives Jet engines with kerosene type aviation fuel (Jet A1) or paraffinic fuels (such as GTL); 2015). An increase in line electrification contrast, traction vehicles have to operate for transport purposes below ground in the piston engines with gasoline type aviation fuel (Avgas). in conjunction with a decarbonisation of without air pollutants. mining industry. railway electricity production would there- For light rail vehicles there is a funded fore be a possible energy and climate Rail vehicles that use hydrogen as an test track for regional fuel cell trains in strategy for rail. energy store and energy source can offer an additional alternative. Fuel Northern Germany; 50 local trains are NAUTICAL APPLICATIONS The proportion of electric traction is cell-powered rail vehicles combine the scheduled to be brought into service in already high in some regions of the world. advantage of pollutant-free operation various regions of Germany by 2021 Electrification levels have reached 60 to with the advantage of low infrastructure (Ernst & Young et al. 2016). In addition, 80 % in Europe and Asia, and the average costs, comparable with those for diesel a fuel cell-powered tram – also known as In the shipping industry diesel engines are comparable diesel-generator sets, in the ferries or recreational craft. The low- and for EU member states is around 60 %. a hydrogen trolley or hydrolley – which used almost exclusively today. Ocean- partial load range in particular and through high-temperature fuel cell (PEMFC) and operation. Worldwide, however, the proportion of has been developed in China operates going vessels use either heavy fuel oil or the possibility of combined heat and the solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) are seen electrified railways is only around one-third. The term hydrail as a short form of on a tram line in the Chinese coastal city marine diesel as fuel, while inland water- power generation. Air pollutant and noise as the most promising fuel cell types for hydrogen rail has been coined to describe way vessels – within the EU for example emissions in ports can be reduced. In many nautical applications (EMSA 2017). Over 50 % of the railways in India are of Quingdao. Other tram lines are at the hydrogen-based rail vehicles. Hydrail – use commercial diesel fuel. To date the cases the fuel cells are operated not with As yet, however, no fuel cells have been electrified, around 40 % in China, a good planning stage. applications can be reasonable in loca- only relevant alternative drive option for hydrogen but with other fuels, including scaled for and used on large merchant 20 % in Africa, but only a few percent in tions where an electric rail infrastructure Light passenger rail vehicles frequently the shipping industry is the use of liquefied methanol, natural gas or diesel fuel. These vessels. North America (IEA/UIC 2015). cover only short distances each day, for natural gas (LNG) or compressed natural offer the advantages of greater availability, cannot be built or where pollutant-free In electric locomotives, motive power is which large energy stores are not required. gas (CNG) to fuel ships. lower price and easier storage. They are Moreover, in comparison to the efficient, operation is required. supplied via stationary current conductors The expensive combination of fuel cell converted into hydrogen with the aid of slow-running diesel engine, which runs on (overhead lines, conductor rails) and cur- To date, two types of fuel cell-powered and on-board hydrogen tank can pay off, As in aviation, fuel cells are currently being internal or external reformers. heavy fuel oil, the power train and fuel are tested as energy providers for the on-board still far too expensive. In addition, interna- rent collectors on the vehicles. However, rail vehicles have been developed and if the costs of setting up and maintaining power supply. The functional capability of The use of hydrogen-powered fuel cells tional technical standards still need to be for technical, economic or other reasons, tested: shunting locomotives and railcars overhead lines are avoided. In the long- fuel cell modules has been tested success- for ship propulsion, by contrast, is still developed in order to use gaseous fuels not every railway line can be electrified. for public (local) rail passenger transport. term, it might also be possible for parts of fully under maritime conditions (e4ships at an early design or trial phase – with (such as hydrogen) (Würsig/Marquardt Especially on lines with a low transport Heavy locomotives for (long-distance) the infrastructure to be shared with fuel cell 2016). Fuel cells work more efficiently than applications in smaller passenger ships, 2016). volume, the high up-front investment that rail freight transport are either all-electric, buses.

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RAIL / HYDRAIL AT A GLANCE BUSES

Market maturity To date, demonstration projects for light rail vehicles (based on bus technology). Various shunting locomotives as pilot projects/one-off vehicles. In terms of road transport, buses in the reduced and the reliable operating times flexibility as diesel buses in day-to-day public transport network are the most increased (Hua et al. 2013). operation. While some older municipal Requirements Sufficient and reliable hydrogen supply. thoroughly tested area of application for buses still consume well over 20 kg of hydrogen and fuel cells. Since the early Depending on annual production numbers, hydrogen (rather than 40 litres of diesel) Advantages Lower infrastructure costs (no overhead lines/conductor rails); production costs for FCEBs should continue (locally) emission-free operation, dependent on hydrogen production. 1990s, several hundred buses have been per 100 km, newer fuel cell buses now use and are being operated with hydrogen to fall, however, in future projects. The only 8 to 9 kg per 100 km, giving FCEBs Disadvantages Expensive drive system; additional tank space. worldwide – predominantly in North production costs for 12-metre buses are an energy efficiency advantage of around America, Europe and increasingly also in projected to fall to around 650,000 EUR 40 % as compared with diesel buses. Alternatives Diesel (-electric/-hydraulic) with diesel or PtX fuels; electric traction. Asia. by 2020 and to approx. 350,000 EUR by 2030, bringing them within reach of diesel In order to develop the market, demonstra- Although hydrogen was initially still used in hybrid buses (RB 2015; Klingenberg 2016). tion projects with large fleets in long-term buses with internal combustion engines, bus use are planned. The FCEB fleet in Europe developers are now concentrating almost Modern fuel cell buses draw their energy is expected to expand from 90 to between INDUSTRIAL TRUCKS (FORKLIFTS/TOW TRUCKS) entirely on fuel cell electric buses (FCEB). from two fuel cell stacks, each with an 300 and 400 vehicles by 2020. The first The use of small FCEB fleets is being output of approx. 100 kW. They also have large fleets have also been announced in promoted in urban areas as a way of a relatively small traction battery and are China (RB 2015). Industrial trucks are another area of use Fuel cell industrial trucks are especially On the way towards commercialisation, contributing to technological development able to recover brake energy. In addition, The use of fuel cells and hydrogen in for fuel cell technology. Industrial trucks suitable for indoor operation, because they industrial trucks for material handling rep- and to clean air policy. they carry approximately 30 to 50 kg of municipal buses has made a substantial can run on the ground or on a rail system. produce no local pollutant emissions and resent an early market application of fuel compressed hydrogen on board, stored Fuel cell buses have now reached a high contribution to the technical and economic The most common types are forklifts and only low noise emissions. Fuel cell vehicles cell technology. The USA has the largest in pressure tanks at 350 bar. On the other level of technical maturity, although they are development of this drive technology in tow trucks, which are used in intralogistics, have advantages over battery-operated hydrogen-powered industrial truck fleet at hand, some battery electric bus models not yet in series production. Owing to the road transport. For that reason, the use of i.e. for handling flows of materials within industrial trucks in terms of refuelling. present. With various incentive schemes in have large traction batteries and only small small numbers, until now they have still been fuel cell technology and hydrogen in buses a company. In many cases industrial Instead of having to replace the battery, the place, there are currently some 11,000 fuel cell stacks, which are used as range much more expensive, at around 1 million extenders. is also regarded as a model which can be trucks operate in enclosed areas, but they trucks can be refuelled within two to three fuel cell vehicles in use in the USA, with an EUR, than standard diesel buses, which cost transferred to other commercial vehicles are also used outdoors – at airports for minutes. average fleet size of over 100 units. in the region of 250,000 EUR. The main- Fuel cell buses now have a range of 300 (ARB 2015). example. Worldwide more than 10 million tenance costs have also been significantly to 450 km and so offer almost the same industrial trucks are used every day, and the They take up less space and are cheaper In Europe there are around 140 fuel cell fleet is growing (Günthner/Micheli 2015). to maintain and repair. Fuel cell industrial industrial trucks in operation at present. In BUSES AT A GLANCE trucks allow for uninterrupted use and are order to drive commercialisation forward, Industrial trucks are available with both therefore particularly suitable for multi-shift a further 200 fuel cell-operated material Market maturity Technology tried and tested in numerous small fleets worldwide (Europe, North America, Asia), larger projects electric drives and internal combustion fleet operation in material handling (FCTO handling vehicles are set to be brought with several hundred buses at the planning stage; currently only in publicly funded transport projects, studies on engines. In the case of electric drives for 2014b). In the case of larger industrial into circulation in small fleets at 10 to 20 commercial use (CFCP 2013; RB 2015). indoor use, lead-acid batteries are still truck fleets in multi-shift operation, (mod- selected locations as part of the HyLIFT Requirements Flexible, reliable use in scheduled services with short downtimes (for refuelling/charging); ideally no space and weight widely used. Internal combustion engine erate) cost reductions can be achieved Europe project. In Asia there are as yet restrictions for passenger transport. industrial trucks are often low-emission gas in comparison to battery technology, and only prototypes in Japan (FCTO 2016; Advantages Range 300 to 450 km, no public infrastructure needed for municipal buses, range still too short for coaches; vehicles (liquefied petroleum gas) or petrol productivity in material handling can also Landinger 2016). no air pollutants, low noise emissions, little additional weight from hydrogen tanks. or diesel vehicles. be increased (NREL 2013a). Disadvantages Vehicles still more expensive than the reference technology of diesel buses.

INDUSTRIAL TRUCKS AT A GLANCE Alternatives Gas buses, diesel hybrid buses, electric buses.

Market maturity Over 11,000 fuel cell material handling vehicles in North America; demonstration fleets in Europe; prototypes in Japan. LORRIES AND LIGHT COMMERCIAL VEHICLES Requirements Hydrogen supply (in some cases outdoors) for larger vehicle fleets, multi-shift use.

Advantages Continuous operation, high material handling productivity, (locally) emission-free operation. Almost all lorries are fitted with diesel and even then only in small numbers as unacceptable level. However, a gradual engines; this is especially true of the heavy yet. Electric drives have so far been unable increase in hybridisation/electrification is Disadvantages Lightweight drive, requires extra weights. goods vehicles used for long-distance road to achieve significant numbers in lorries anticipated in the future for light commercial haulage. Alternative drives and fuels – because of the weight and volume of the vehicles and small lorries (Shell 2016). In Alternatives Battery electric vehicles (indoors); gas, petrol, diesel (outdoors). mostly gas vehicles (CNG and LPG) – are batteries needed to provide the necessary terms of lorries, in California and Germany only used for light commercial vehicles, range reduces the payload to an there are as yet just a few publicly funded

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vehicles which draw their drive energy from The use of fuel cells in long-distance possible range and an adequate refuelling PASSENGER CARS hydrogen-powered fuel cells. road haulage, i.e. for 40-ton trucks in station infrastructure (ARB 2015; Wietschel the EU or class 7/8 trucks in the USA, is et. al 2016). In principle, the wealth of experience and farther behind. Meanwhile, concepts or Along with battery electric vehicles, Although hydrogen is a clean fuel with Virtually all fuel cell passenger cars today concepts in bus applications can be drawn Finally, the use of fuel cells to supply prototypes for heavier lorries are available. hydrogen-powered fuel cell passenger cars excellent physicochemical properties, it has are equipped with PEM fuel cells, in both on regarding the use of fuel cells goods auxiliary equipment with electricity is also However, vehicles of the 300 to 350 kW are the only zero-emission alternative drive been unable to gain acceptance as a fuel series and parallel configurations (cf. the vehicles. The prototypes are mostly light to discussed. Here reformers convert diesel output class would still need to be tested in option for motorised private transport. The for motorised road transport. For passenger box on fuel cells in passenger cars, p. 48). medium lorries, which because of their low fuel into hydrogen, which is used efficiently long-term use over long distances. first fuel cell passenger cars were tested cars the focus is now almost entirely on The prices for medium-sized vehicles fitted noise emissions and absence of pollutants and with few or no air pollutants by appro- back in the 1960s as demonstration pro- hydrogen-powered fuel cells as a source of with fuel cells are still well above those for are intended for use in urban delivery Prerequisites for use in long-distance road priately dimensioned fuel cells to operate jects. A new boost to fuel cell development drive energy. passenger cars with internal combustion services. As a rule they are generally haulage are considered to be the mini- refrigeration systems and the like. came in the 1990s. In most cases the fuel engines – at around 60,000 EUR/USD battery electric vehicles, which have been mising of losses in payload (and volume), cell test vehicles were converted cars that (IEA 2015b). In some cases, fuel cell fitted with a fuel cell as a range extender. competitive fuel prices, the maximum had originally been fitted with an internal >> FCEVs are ready for production. << passenger cars can be leased (with combustion engine. At the time, however, leasing rates similar to combustion-engined LORRIES AND LIGHT COMMERCIAL VEHICLES AT A GLANCE IEA HIA 2016 the early test models were still not competi- vehicles). With the launch of FCEV series Market maturity Vehicles mostly in the USA (around 50), with individual examples in Germany/EU. Concepts and prototypes tive, either technically or economically. production, vehicle cost and prices are primarily for smaller lorries in urban areas with air quality issues, but also first concepts/prototypes for heavy expected to fall substantially. goods vehicles. In addition, up until about 10 years ago There is now a wealth of practical expe- petrol engine prototypes were still being rience available with fuel cell prototype The fuel cell stacks in the latest fuel cell Requirements Space-saving hydrogen storage; reliable supply; reduction in total cost of ownership. tested with hydrogen as an alternative passenger cars. A number of major car models have an output of 100 kW or more. Advantages Higher efficiency, no air pollutants, low noise emissions. energy and low-emission fuel. These were manufacturers are starting to offer early As compared with battery electric cars they vehicles with modified bivalent engines, series-production vehicles which are now have a greater range – of around 400 to Disadvantages Expensive drive technology/fuel; still shorter range than diesel; low density of refuelling stations. which could run on both petrol and hydro- just as good as conventional internal com- 500 kilometres today – with a lower vehicle Alternatives Diesel vehicles; LNG/CNG and battery-electric commercial vehicles (BEVs). gen (Eichlseder/Klell 2012). Owing to the bustion engine cars in terms of functionality. weight and much shorter refuelling times of fuel, hydrogen-powered internal combustion The number of fuel cell cars manufactured three to five minutes (US DOE 2016). They engines not only achieve somewhat higher over the coming years is projected to range usually carry 4 to 7 kg of hydrogen on efficiencies than in petrol operation, they from several hundred up to thousands of board, stored in pressure tanks at 700 bar. MOTORCYCLES also emit much lower levels of pollutants. units (US DOE 2016).

Light motorcycles were an early commer- pollutant and low noise emission travel. In partly because of the higher purchase/ PASSENGER CARS AT A GLANCE cial application of fuel cell technology in the past, however, they suffered from the running costs for the fuel cell technology motorised private transport. In emerging low storage density and hence range of and the inadequate hydrogen supply Market maturity Technology proven worldwide (Europe, North America, Asia) through prototypes/small fleets, first production vehicles and developing economies, motor scooters batteries. Due to technical advances in infrastructure (Wing 2012). In addition, in moderate numbers. Incentive schemes for passenger car purchase still necessary. and small motorcycles are an indicator battery technology, however, the typical battery technology can cover the moderate of an increase in motorisation. However, daily distances travelled in cities can now performance requirements for electric motor- Requirements Comparable to internal combustion engine vehicles in terms of equipment, performance, range; sufficiently dense hydrogen refuelling infrastructure. two-stroke or four-stroke motorcycle engines often be covered. cycles and mopeds in urban commuter running on fossil fuels lead to increased traffic. As a result there are now only a The last two decades saw a succession Advantages Pollutant-free driving; range and performance close to petrol cars. air pollutant and noise emissions in few current prototypes, including a motor of two-wheel prototypes equipped with a conurbations. scooter with pan-European approval as a Disadvantages Still much more expensive than internal combustion engine cars; poor refuelling station infrastructure. variety of fuel cell types and storage production vehicle (Suzuki 2011). Electric scooters and motorcycles, by systems. The commercial implementation of Alternatives Internal combustion engine cars; battery electric cars. contrast, offer the advantage of zero- fuel cell motorcycles foundered, however,

MOTORCYCLES AT A GLANCE 6.2 TECHNOLOGY READINESS operating principle (TRL 1) through a proof Market maturity Only prototypes so far; were regarded as an early commercial application, but e-bikes advanced faster. Finally, the degree of technical readiness this section concentrates only on TR levels Hydrogen to extend the range of heavy motorcycles in future. or the state of development of hydrogen- of concept (TRL 3) up to TRL 9 (technology 5/6 (experimental setup in operational powered drives – mostly fuel cell vehicles established in the market). In almost all environment/prototype) upwards. The Requirements Low purchase/running costs; adequate range; simple storage. – is assessed. Hydrogen-powered vehicles the vehicle categories considered, there ultimate objective of technological devel- Advantages Fuel cell motorcycles are zero-pollutant and low-noise. Longer range in comparison to all-electric motorcycles. are categorised by reference to the are at least experimental setups or (small) opment is TRL 9, a technology established Disadvantages Expensive, especially in comparison to cheap internal combustion engines; inadequate hydrogen supply Technology Readiness Levels (TRL) devised prototypes which have been tested – if not in the market – like internal combustion infrastructure. by NASA (NASA 1995; DOD 2011; ISO necessarily to scale – in their operational engine drives in road transport. The prereq- environment with hydrogen and/or fuel Alternatives Motorcycles with internal combustion engine; e-bikes and e-scooters. 2013). The Technology Readiness Levels uisite for this is an approved, functioning range from the basic description of the cell technology. For that reason, the rest of technology (TRL 8).

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What is the technological maturity of the TRL Definition of Technology Readiness Levels Private users want transportation means to criteria include comfort, safety, prestige vehicle. In addition, usage restrictions and individual means of transport in terms of provide a (passenger) transport service, and environmental characteristics such as availabilities of drive/fuel combinations 5 Experimental setup in operational environment – key technology elements tested hydrogen and fuel cells today? and generally one that is as cost-effective specific emissions; in some cases people are taken into account in regard to vehicle in a relevant environment as possible. For that reason, purchase and are prepared to pay a high premium for acquisition and maintenance. The highest Technological Readiness 6 Prototype in operational environment – technical feasibility demonstrated in the maintenance costs and energy consump- such criteria, especially pioneer users. Levels, TRL 8 or 9, are achieved by fuel area of application tion play a part. Therefore, the resources Since economic efficiency and energy cell industrial trucks, for which extensive In commercial transport the most important and environmental balances are relevant 7 Prototype in use – demonstration almost to scale in the operational environment and time involved in using the transportation experience in the field is already available means should not be too high. However, factors, in addition to technology readiness, for both private and commercial users, in large numbers, especially in North 8 Qualified system with proof of functional capability in area of use – product other selection criteria might be as are economic criteria arising from the these are assessed in more detail below America. Cars are at TRL 8 and buses at 9 Qualified system with proof of successful use – product important as economics. Non-economic acquisition and operating costs for a in respect of passenger cars. TRL 7 to 8. The longest and most extensive operational experience that is available relates to hydrogen and fuel cell buses. for heavy goods vehicles first concepts are decades, but it is a small niche market with IN SUMMARY Moreover, the first passenger cars with available. few applications over time. Nonetheless, Space travel provided the impetus for the development of Buses have undergone more intensive testing with hydrogen and a fuel cell drive are now available as the technology itself should be categorised The use of fuel cell technology for ship and hydrogen as a transport fuel and of fuel cell technology. fuel cells than any other form of transport. Light rail and road vehi- series-production vehicles. at TRL 9. aircraft propulsion systems is currently at In the transport sector hydrogen is now used almost exclusively cles for the transport of goods may benefit from bus technology. TRL 5 to TRL 6, with only small prototypes The technology components and opera- Technology readiness is an important in fuel cells. Of all modes of transport, industrial trucks have the largest to date. There are no equivalent concepts tional experience relating to fuel cell buses prerequisite for the commercial success of Hydrogen fuel cell systems are suitable for virtually all means of numbers of fuel cell electric vehicles. as yet for merchant ships and commercial can in principle be transferred to lorries and new technologies. However, a high level transport. Commercial aircraft and merchant ships can use fuel cells as an aircraft. Fuel cells are successfully used light rail vehicles. While local trains have of technology readiness, while a necessary efficient and clean energy provider for auxiliary power units. as auxiliary power units (APUs), however, Passenger cars, buses and material handling vehicles have tech- already reached a relatively high technol- condition, is not sufficient in itself for market these are still one-off products for experi- nically reached series-production readiness, are not far off that The most important advantages of hydrogen and fuel cells in ogy readiness (TRL 7), the technology for success. Depending on the technology mental purposes (TRL 6). point, or are already in the early stages of commercialisation. road transport are the higher efficiency of the energy converter, shunting locomotives is still lagging behind user, there are other important factors Fuel cell passenger cars now offer the same features as those zero-pollutant operation (in fuel cells) and functionality somewhat (TRL 6 to 7). In terms of lorries, Lastly, rocket propulsion systems are affecting the purchase, maintenance or powered by internal combustion engines. comparable to established IC engined vehicles. the lighter vehicle classes are also at the difficult to categorise. Hydrogen-fuelled use of a means of transport with a specific early prototype stage (TRL 6 to 7), whereas rockets have been used in space travel for drive/fuel combination. 25 TECHNOLOGY READINESS LEVELS OF MOBILITY APPLICATIONS FOR HYDROGEN/FUEL CELLS 7 CAR OWNERSHIP COSTS

9 Se rel 8-9 There are many factors determining the choice and operation the (substantial) purchase costs of the vehicle, running costs, or terl Hndlng of a vehicle. They include technical parameters (such as range costs relating to a specific mileage or transport capacity. This 8 or engine power), ecological parameters (such as emissions), chapter looks at the economics of hydrogen-powered fuel cell enger r regulatory parameters (such as usage restrictions/driving bans) passenger cars and compares fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEV) 7-8 or qualitative parameters (such as comfort or prestige). An with competing drive/fuel combinations – namely petrol cars, ue important factor in deciding whether to buy or keep a car is petrol hybrids and battery electric passenger cars. 7 economic in nature, i.e. the costs involved. These can include ght l 6-7 6-7 6-7 An analysis tool to assess the economic ments plus interest. If the car is to be sold The TCO estimate is complex and it is Shuntng oo otoryle orre viability of different fuel-drive-train combina- again, the depreciation over the desired appropriate primarily for rational economic tions is the total cost of ownership (TCO) ownership period or the trade-in value must operators. For the analysis of financial approach as established in commercial also be estimated. Vehicle tax and car decisions of private households, however, 5-6 5-6 road transport. TCO analysis takes account insurance are included in the fixed costs. ton Shng a simple comparison of the most important of all the direct and indirect costs of vehicle In addition, workshop costs (for mainte- differentiating cost items is usually sufficient. ownership for the purposes of providing nance and wear-and-tear repairs) must The key cost differentiators are the purchase a desired passenger or goods transport be taken into account (ADAC 2016). price of the vehicle and the fuel costs for service. Furthermore, assumptions have to be made its operation. If the ownership costs for different drive types are similar, they are The fixed TCO costs include the acquisition about key cost items – regarding insurance costs for a car, i.e. the purchase price tariff or depreciation for example. Finally, assumed to have little influence on (usually for the basic version of a vehicle) the running TCO costs include spending on purchase and operation decisions; if they or, if financing is used, the instalment pay- fuel or energy and consumables. differ significantly, the ownership costs can

46 47 7 CAR OWNERSHIP COSTS Shell Hydrogen Study

tip the balance for or against a drive/fuel technology for zero-emission vehicles in should be noted that under the EU directive 2014a), while the regulations in Japan and 26 FUEL COSTS AT EUROPEAN FUEL PRICES, PASSENGER CARS 2020+

combination. A simplified ownership cost the medium term. Therefore, the fuel cell to reduce CO2 emissions from new pas- China are somewhat less strict. In order g H comparison for a fuel cell passenger car is passenger car is compared with an internal senger cars (333/2014/EU), (European) for a petrol car to emit only 95 g CO , it 2 th set out below. The vehicle in question is a combustion engine C-segment car – both vehicle manufacturers are required to must have a fuel consumption amounting C segment (compact class/lower medium) a petrol-only and a hybrid petrol vehicle. to around 4 l/100 km. That would be a g reduce the specific CO2 emissions from their l passenger car, Europe’s best-selling car In addition, fuel cell passenger cars are newly registered vehicles to an average challenge for a simple petrol C-segment g th class. The fuel cell electric vehicle should compared with battery electric vehicles, of just 95 g CO /km (based on the New car, but not for a hybrid petrol car. th 2 l be a fuel cell-dominant system, rather than since they are the only relevant alternative European Driving Cycle). Similar CO2 limits The assumptions regarding vehicle equip- g H having a fuel cell range extender fitted. in the zero-emission drives sector. apply in Korea and the USA with maximum ment and (standard) fuel consumption are permissible values of 97 and 88 g CO /km It is assumed that low-pollutant, hybrid The ownership cost analysis considers 2 based on (JEC 2013) for “2020 plus” th petrol car concepts will be the competing passenger car models of the 2020s. It with effect from 2020 and 2025 (ICCT category vehicles; these passenger cars are already characterised by high efficiency Hydrogen etrol letrty etrol etrol and low fuel consumption figures. The Hyrd standard fuel consumption figures were FUEL CELL CONCEPTS FOR PASSENGER CARS otl lege n converted into real fuel consumption figures uroen uel re enger r 27 OWNERSHIP COSTS COMPARED: FCEV AND PETROL POWERED For automotive applications, low-temperature polymer electrolyte to be heated, vehicles with fuel cells can draw heat from the mainly by reference to (ICCT 2016) and membrane fuel cells are now used almost exclusively. In the PEM fuel cell stack’s coolant circuit, thereby avoiding power losses sources cited therein. Passenger car pur- chase costs by drive type up to 2030 were fuel cell, hydrogen is converted with oxygen to water. The tech- for auxiliary air heaters of up to around 5 kW as compared g H nology has a high degree of maturity and is characterised by with battery electric vehicles (Tschöke 2010). However, as the taken from an ambitious climate protection a simple setup, fast response to load changes, good cold start PEM fuel cell operating temperature of 80 to 85°C cannot be scenario (2DS) in (IEA 2015b). The fuel prices for the alternative drive systems were properties and a high power density (Günthner/Micheli 2015). exceeded significantly, additional electrical power for cooling etrol Hyrd the stack is needed. Moreover, operation in extremely hot varied in order to estimate sensitivities. The Fuel cell stacks are formed from several hundred cells in order l regions represents a technical challenge (Reif 2010). assumed values are not future projections to build a vehicle powertrain. Power outputs of 100 kW or but only assumptions for the purposes of etrol more can be achieved in this way. The catalytic coating of the In addition to the fuel cell stack, a fuel cell vehicle also has the ownership cost analysis. l electrodes with platinum materials is a costly feature of PEM fuel a traction battery (usually lithium-ion or nickel-metal hydride g H cells. In order to lower costs, the aim of fuel cell production is rechargeable batteries). Electrical energy from the fuel cell or The ownership costs for each drive/fuel to reduce the platinum content without adversely affecting the from regenerative operation of the powertrain (recuperation) cost combination are compared with one can be temporarily stored in this battery. The traction battery another in an XY chart (figures 27 and 28). function of the fuel cell. also serves to cover short-term power peaks. The traction battery The X-axis shows the total mileage over A range of control systems are also needed to operate the fuel is operated at a much higher voltage than the current vehicle the lifetime of the passenger car, while the cell system. These include a hydrogen air management system to electrical system (12 V). Y-axis shows the ownership costs (purchase supply the fuel cell stack, a thermal management system, particu- and fuel/energy costs) accrued in total otl lege n The electric powertrain of fuel cell electric vehicles, i.e. electric larly for cooling the stack, and a system to manage the electric over a given mileage. The point where an motors and power electronics, is no different from the drive for drive and vehicle electrical system. All of these auxiliary consum- ownership cost curve intersects with the battery electric vehicles. If the fuel cell stacks feed electrical ers require several kilowatts of parasitic power and thus have a Y-axis indicates the purchase costs for a energy directly into the electric motor as and when required, this 28 OWNERSHIP COSTS COMPARED: FCEV AND BEV detrimental effect on the system efficiency (Reif 2010). given passenger car drive/fuel configura- is described as a fuel cell-dominant system. If the fuel cell stack tion. The gradient of the ownership cost Fuel cells achieve their highest efficiency under low loads. At only supplies the traction battery, which in turn is the sole energy curve reflects the fuel or energy costs for g H part load they can achieve efficiencies roughly twice those of supply for the electric motor, this type of vehicle is referred to as a car drive type as a function of mileage, heat engines. In addition, if the passenger compartment needs a battery electric vehicle with range extender. based on European energy and fuel prices. BEV WITH RANGE-EXTENDER FUEL CELL-DOMINANT SYSTEM It should be noted that the fuel or energy costs for operating the vehicle are deter- th ttery mined not only by the fuel prices (in €/litre ttery onerter onerter or MJ) but also by the efficiency of the car g H drive in question. Concerning the cost per unit of energy in €/MJ, hydrogen – like th onerter electricity – is more expensive than fossil fuels today (petrol at 1.5 €/l, figure 26). letr otor letr otor However, since both fuel cell electric Hydrogen tn uel ell vehicles and battery electric vehicles are uel ell Hydrogen tn more efficient than petrol vehicles, their MJ/ otl lege n km consumption­ is lower. At European fuel g H 48 49

etrol Hyrd l

etrol l

g H

otl lege n 7 CAR OWNERSHIP COSTS Sndn prices, and for passenger cars of 2020 and lower than those for a petrol car after just vehicles and in more established and also H olty beyond, the energy costs based on mileage 50,000 to 60,000 km. With virtual cost lower purchase prices. Furthermore, all- 37 (in €/km) for electric drives are lower than parity, non-economic advantages – such electric drives are even more efficient than et o uroe HyS 30 S those for petrol vehicles. Only petrol-hydrids as the possibility of (locally) emission-free fuel cell electric vehicles. totl 91 61 lol lol H would be able to compete with FCEVs driving in cities – could tip the balance in 281 4138 FCEV Stations S and BEVs at today’s fuel prices; petrol-only favour of purchasing an FCEV. The extent to which BEV energy costs per vehicles always display substantially higher kilometre are higher or lower than those for In addition, fossil fuels could also become running fuel cost than EV drives. FCEVs depends on the electricity prices. (relatively) more expensive, and this would Depending on the purchase category – likewise increase the economic attractive- FCEVs VERSUS PETROL CARS domestic electricity versus off-peak or ness of an FCEV as compared with a petrol Until now, FCEVs have still not been suffi- preferential electricity tariff – the retail car. However, a more efficient hybrid ciently attractive to many consumers in cost prices for electricity can fluctuate. High petrol car could (partially) compensate terms because of their high purchase price domestic electricity prices make running for the higher fuel prices. By contrast, in comparison to petrol and diesel cars. In battery electric cars more expensive, while lower fossil fuel prices – which prevail for the future, cars driven by an internal com- low electricity tariffs make it cheaper. example in the USA or which could be bustion engine will be more expensive – in Overall, however, the distance-based induced by lower crude oil prices in a 2°C energy costs of both electric variants are part because of higher costs for drivetrain 29 climate action scenario (IEA 2016b) – may still similar, and this is reflected in similar technology (such as direct injection, hybrid HYDROGEN INFRASTRUCTURE ACTIVITIES diminish the economic advantage of an gradients of the ownership cost curves. systems) and because of more complex AFDC 2017, CaFCP 2017, HyARC 2017; Status Q1 2017 FCEV in terms of mileage-dependent fuel exhaust emission control systems. costs. Because of the lower specific hydro- If the gap in purchase costs between FCEVs On the other hand, fuel cell electric vehicles gen consumption (in MJ/km), variations in and BEVs could be more or less closed, the will become less expensive because of the hydrogen retail price have less of an costs for fuel cell electric vehicles and technological development, learning curve impact in the ownership cost comparison battery vehicles (per vehicle kilometre) effects and effects of scale in production with internal combustion drives than would be very similar. Under these circum- 8 REFUELLING INFRASTRUCTURE (IEA 2015b). The hydrogen consumer changes in fossil fuel prices. stances, because of advantages in terms of prices could also fall as a result of a more comfort, range and charging time, some cost-efficient hydrogen supply and retail FCEVs VERSUS BEVs potential buyers would probably be The development of a hydrogen economy for the automotive of the (public) hydrogen infrastructure for road transport. It then infrastructure. If the purchase price for a Battery electric vehicles currently have a inclined to opt for fuel cell electric vehicles. industry will require a new infrastructure. This infrastructure will assesses the building blocks for a future hydrogen infrastructure, fuel cell electric vehicle were to fall by head start of several years over fuel cell Conversely, improving the range and consist of fuel production, storage and distribution facilities. including hydrogen refuelling station concepts and refuelling half, combined with a moderate reduction electric vehicles in terms of technology and charging time performance of BEVs would In the transport sector, the new hydrogen infrastructure will also station technology, possible supply and distribution pathways. in hydrogen refuelling station prices, the market development. This lead is expressed increase their purchase costs, thereby have to provide a hydrogen supply network for fuel electric cell Finally, the economics of a future hydrogen infrastructure for ownership costs for an FCEV would be in a greater variety of battery electric reducing their economic advantage. vehicles. This chapter looks at the current state and expansion road transport are discussed.

IN SUMMARY 8.1 STATIONS AND VEHICLES ning of 2017 are located either in Japan or or differences in the statistics for hydrogen According to a recent survey (HyARC in the USA – with over 90 % of the vehicles refuelling stations and for fuel cell electric An important factor in deciding whether to buy or keep a result of stricter air quality regulations. As a consequence, 2017), at the beginning of 2017 there are in the USA being concentrated in California. vehicles may occur. passenger car is the ownership costs involved. These include (locally) emission-free fuel cell electric vehicles powered by around 280 active hydrogen refuelling Also more than 90 % of the fuel cell vehicles the car purchase costs, running costs, or ownership costs hydrogen are becoming increasingly attractive in comparison stations worldwide. According to this survey, are passenger cars, the second biggest 8.2 LOCATION SOLUTIONS vehicle class being fuel cell electric buses relating to a mileage or transport capacity. to cars with an internal combustion engine, and not on cost Japan has the largest number of refuelling A hydrogen refuelling station comprises (HyARC 2017). grounds alone. stations, with 91, followed by the US with facilities for the delivery, storage and refuel- At today’s cost structures fuel cell passenger cars are not yet 61 stations the majority of which (30) are ling of hydrogen. All other components of a competitive. But in an ambitious climate scenario involving If the gap between the purchase costs of fuel cell cars and While only a moderate number of new in California (CaFCP 2017). In Europe, typical refuelling station, such as refuelling rapid technological advances and market development, battery electric cars can be closed as production numbers hydrogen refuelling stations were built over Western Europe and in particular Germany points for other fuels, parking areas, sales automotive fuel cell technology would quickly become much increase, fuel cell cars can also offer an alternative to (locally) the last decade, the number of new stations is leading with 37 stations. One fourth of the areas, car washes, etc., have been more cost-effective. In addition, production costs for hydrogen emission-free battery electric vehicles. That is because, with opening each year has risen markedly in hydrogen refuelling stations are non-public excluded from the following consideration (from renewables) could fall in the medium to long-term, and comparable ownership costs, fuel cell electric vehicles offer recent years. As of the beginning of 2017, (HyARC 2017). because they are similar to those of a – with lower hydrogen infrastructure costs – it could be further advantages over battery electric vehicles, such as a further 140 refuelling stations worldwide conventional refuelling station. Generally, distributed more cheaply as a fuel. greater comfort, longer range and shorter charging times. The geographical distribution of hydrogen were in planning, under construction or there are three different location solutions By contrast, if battery electric vehicles are improved in terms stations largely corresponds to the number in commissioning. At the same time, the for hydrogen refuelling stations: At the same time, internal combustion drive systems are of comfort, range or charging time, they will become more of hydrogen-fuelled motor vehicles. Most of start of commercialisation is leading to a becoming more expensive, and in urban and metropolitan expensive and will lose any economic advantages they may the approximately 4,200 fuel cell electric growth in the fuel cell electric vehicle fleet. A hydrogen facility can be integrated into areas they are often subject to local usage restrictions as a have over fuel cell electric vehicles. vehicles that were registered at the begin- As a consequence, significant variations an existing refuelling station as an additional

50 51 8 REFUELLING INFRASTRUCTURE Shell Hydrogen Study

fuel offering. The main precondition for this new, standalone facility. In this case a Mobile refuelling stations are used in gaseous hydrogen, liquid hydrogen is trans- connection devices) and the hydrogen 8.5 REFUELLING STATION SIZES is that there is sufficient space on the exist- previously unused site has to be developed. places where (as yet) there is no perma- ferred via a liquid pump to an evaporator, fuel quality standard ISO 14687-2 for Regardless of the way in which hydrogen ing site for the required hydrogen facilities There is no need to work within the con- nent hydrogen refuelling station and only from where it can be introduced directly PEM fuel cell electric vehicles (EP/Council is supplied and delivered, refuelling stations and that the delivery, storage and dispens- straints of existing site infrastructure. relatively small amounts of hydrogen are into the vehicle without being cooled. 2014a). can be differentiated by size. H Mobility ing of hydrogen alongside other liquid or dispensed locally. In this case, transportable 2 Dispenser: Refuelling itself is carried out Hydrogen fuelling must take place within (H M 2010) classifies four sizes of refuel- gaseous fuels is possible from both a For public hydrogen refuelling stations, containers or truck trailers are used as ² using the dispenser, a device or machine hydrogen storage system limits. The ling stations, “very small (XS)”, “small (S)”, technical and a regulatory perspective. however, the typical refuelling station liquid or compressed gas storage tanks. to pump liquid or gaseous fuels into the Worldwide Hydrogen Fueling Protocol “medium (M)” and “large (L)”, depending components expected by customers, such Mobile hydrogen refuelling stations are vehicle. The dispenser includes the fuelling SAE J2601 fuels all hydrogen storage on the number of refuelling operations or A hydrogen refuelling station can also be as sales areas and other services, also thus primarily an instrument for a market nozzle, which delivers the compressed systems quickly to a high state of charge the volume of hydrogen sold (table 31). In established like a greenfield project as a need to be taken into consideration. launch or for demonstration projects. hydrogen into the vehicle’s pressure tank. (SOC) without violating the storage system principle, XL stations with even higher output 30 COMPONENTS OF A HYDROGEN REFUELLING STATION It is designed for the pressure of the hydro- operating limits of internal tank temperature data are also conceivable; no stations gen tank, i.e. 350 or 700 bar. Another or pressure. SAE J2601 was adopted as of this size are expected for the moment, UPSTREAM REFUELLING STATION important element is the user interface, a standard in 2014. SAE J2601 (in combi- however. The XS refuelling stations are which contains various displays showing nation with SAE J2799) is being used as a usually research stations, in which economic H O pressure, fill level or measured quantity. basis for fuelling light duty fuel cell electric optimisation is not a priority. The commer- 2 2 1 2 3 4 5 vehicles with 350 or 700 bar worldwide. cialisation of hydrogen refuelling stations H 2 Finally, the hydrogen can be produced only starts with size S or M.

ANODE SAE J2601 defines pressure tolerances and KATHODE either locally at the refuelling station or temperature windows for safe and conven- H2O centrally in another location and then The hydrogen station equipment has to be ient hydrogen refuelling. Apart from light delivered. In the case of decentralised sized accurately for the station. A modular Electrolyser Low-Pressure Storage Compressor High-Pressure Storage Precooling Dispenser duty vehicles part 2 and 3 of SAE J2601 hydrogen production at the refuelling design enables smaller hydrogen refuelling also cover heavy duty vehicles and forklifts. station, the production concept has to be stations gradually to be expanded into 8.3 REFUELLING STATION used to refuel the customer vehicle. The that no contamination with lubricants occurs decided. The options are a reformer for Finally, SAE J2600 (Compressed Hydrogen larger ones if the hydrogen demand also MODULES hydrogen from the low-pressure storage during compression. producing hydrogen from natural gas (or Surface Vehicle Fueling Connection Devices) increases in line with rising vehicle numbers. biomethane) or an electrolyser for produc- and SAE J2799 (Hydrogen Surface Vehicle Nonetheless, over the course of the Certain technical components are neces- tank can be transferred via a high-pressure Precooling system: The SAE J2601 fuelling ing hydrogen from (renewable) electricity. to Station Communications Hardware and development of hydrogen refuelling stations, sary for the construction of a hydrogen compressor to the high-pressure storage protocol, which covers hydrogen vehicle Software) must be complied with in regard structural changes may occur that require a refuelling station. For all refuelling stations tank. The pressure there is high enough to refuelling, aims to ensure that a vehicle’s to dispenser design. While the fuelling shift to a different refuelling station concept. these include adequately sized storage refuel the vehicle. Another possibility is to 8.4 STANDARDS use a medium-pressure storage tank. From hydrogen tank does not heat up above nozzle is standardised, the design of the facilities for hydrogen, compressors which To ensure a high capacity utilisation of the there the customer’s vehicle tank can be 85°C even during fast refuelling. Since To ensure safe operation, a large number user interface is left to the refuelling station bring the hydrogen to the desired gas refuelling station and hence to achieve as filled until pressure balance is reached. To hydrogen is compressed during refuelling, of technical standards must be adhered operator. Depending on specific site-related pressure level, a precooling system, and steady a throughput as possible, hydrogen fill up the tank completely, refuelling can it heats up. Depending on ambient temper- to when building and operating hydrogen or technological issues, other national or dispensers for delivering the fuel. Refuelling should be delivered in accordance with then either be continued from the high-pres- ature, fuel delivery temperature and target refuelling stations. Work is still ongoing on local standards may also apply. stations can be set up more quickly and need. If an hydrogen refuelling station sure storage tank (cascade refuelling) pressure in the vehicle tank, precooling hydrogen-specific codes and standards for less expensively by standardising or modu- An overview of technical standards for the is serving bus fleets used in local public or hydrogen from the medium-pressure (normally) is necessary to stay in within the automotive hydrogen economy, since larising these components – which are also automotive hydrogen infrastructure can transport, its throughput rises significantly. As storage tank can be compressed to the limits (overpressure/overheat) of the in some cases regulations not designed known as functional modules (H2M 2010). be found online, for example at www. delivery volumes rise, the supply of liquid the necessary pressure using a booster vehicle’s fuel storage system. For 700 bar for hydrogen make building and operating hyapproval.org, www.hyweb.de or hydrogen (station size L or XL) will become Hydrogen storage tanks: The storage compressor. refuelling hydrogen is generally precooled refuelling stations more difficult and more www.fuelcellstandards.com. economically viable. tanks must hold enough hydrogen to meet to -40°C (according to SAE J2601). Higher expensive (HMUELV 2013). Technical customer demand. To this end hydrogen Compressors: A number of different precooling temperatures are possible, but standards published by the International is stored in low-pressure tanks, currently at compressors can be used to achieve the may lead to longer refuelling times. Organization for Standardization (ISO) necessary compression. Customary types or the Society of Automotive Engineers 31 CLASSES OF HYDROGEN REFUELLING STATIONS BY SIZE between 20 and 200 bar (in future up to H2M 2010 500 bar), for several days. If the hydrogen are piston, compressed air, diaphragm The low temperature required is usually (SAE) specify concrete requirements for the or ionic compressors, which are selected generated by means of a compression hydrogen refuelling station infrastructure. Very small Small Medium Large is delivered by compressed hydrogen XS S M L gas trailer, this can be used on site as a according to the design of the refuelling refrigerating machine and a suitable heat station (capacity utilisation, energy con- exchanger. Precooling adds complexity to The most important technical standard is low-pressure storage tank. The quantities to Dispenser 1 1 2 4 be stored are calculated on the basis of the sumption, cost-effectiveness, etc.). Hydro- the station and increases its energy con- ISO 19880 (Gaseous Hydrogen Fuelling gen compression is a way of overcoming sumption. Further optimisation of the pro- Stations). Other ISO standards are relevant number of anticipated refuelling operations Max throughput per day 80 kg 212 kg 420 kg 1,000 kg per day and can be adapted with a modu- the pressure difference between storage cess is currently an area of development. for construction and also operation. For (from 50 to 200 bar) and refuelling (up to instance, the EU alternative fuels infrastruc- lar expansion of the refuelling station. Max no. of 20 38 75 180 1,000 bar). The refuelling process should In the case of a liquid hydrogen refuelling ture directive (AFID) requires compliance refuellings per day

Medium- and high-pressure storage tanks, not exceed the target time of three to five station, cryogenic hydrogen (LH2) is deliv- not only with ISO 19880 (formerly Max no. of FCEVs with pressure stages of 200 to 450 bar minutes. Since the fuel cell in the vehicle is ered and stored in a liquid tank. If the fuel ISO 20100) but also with ISO 17268 100 400 800 1,600 supplied per station and 800 to 1,000 bar respectively, are operated with pure hydrogen, it is important cell electric vehicle is to be refuelled with (Gaseous hydrogen land vehicle refuelling

52 53 8 REFUELLING INFRASTRUCTURE Shell Hydrogen Study

32 SELECTED HYDROGEN SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION PATHWAYS centrally by electrolysis and transported 33 HYDROGEN SITE CAPITAL COSTS Substantial potential for cost reduction to the refuelling station via pipelines. The in $/kg H + day amounting to around 50 % is anticipated 2 PATH 1 PATH 2 PATH 3 PATH 4 – OUTLOOK space requirement can then be neglected; between 2017 and 2025, thanks to Dispenser 1 1 4 8 virtually any number of vehicles can be regulatory and technical standardisation Capacity 80 kg/day 80 kg/day 320 kg/day 700 kg/day served. As in the previous case, the size and effects of scale (CEC/CARB 2017). and number of dispensers need to be letroly Nevertheless, financing a new hydrogen Production Central reforming On-site electrolysis Central reforming Central electrolysis or electrolysis adapted accordingly. refuelling station infrastructure remains an Supply Gaseous Gaseous Liquid Gaseous economic challenge, because in the early

8.7 COSTS & FINANCING market development stage hydrogen dis- Transport CGH – tube trailer (lorry) N/A LH -trailer (lorry) Pipeline 2 2 As comprehensive an infrastructure as g g g pensers have only a few vehicles to serve, H dy H dy H dy Transport capacity 500 kg per delivery N/A 3.5 t per delivery Unlimited possible is an important factor for the and low throughput can lead to under-utili- Low-presure storage Approx. 200 - 300 % of Approx. 50 - 70 % of Approx. 200 - 700 % of N/A acceptance and market success of a sation. If the full cost were to be passed on, daily fuel volumes daily fuel volumes daily fuel volumes hydrogen retail prices would have to be new technology – and that is also true of hydrogen refuelling stations, ranging from High-presure storage 30 - 50 kg/dispenser 30 - 50 kg/dispenser N/A 30 - 50 kg/dispenser very high. This conflicts with the fact, that the hydrogen and fuel cell vehicles. However, 1 million to 10 million USD. The costs for the product offered to the consumer must be Refuelling Dispenser 80 kg/day Dispenser 80 kg/day Dispenser 80 kg/day Dispenser 80 kg/day building that infrastructure requires high most important refuelling station concepts 20 refuellings 20 refuellings 20 refuellings 20 refuellings economically attractive too. initial capital investment. The question is how with daily capacities of around 200 to Refuelling gas pressure 700 bar 700 bar 700 bar 700 bar high these investment costs will be and how 300 kg hydrogen are between 2 and To keep capital requirement and investment Space requirements Medium High Low Very low a hydrogen refuelling station infrastructure around 3 million USD, with expenditure on can be built as efficiently as possible. risks as low as possible, an optimum roll-out Capitical costs per site High High Medium Low fixed assets amounting to 1.5 to 2 million (specific per kg H ) (including electrolyser) (high including pipeline infrastructure) strategy for a future hydrogen refuelling 2 There are a number of information problems USD. For Germany, lower costs of around station infrastructure is needed. Key Hydrogen cost Low High Medium Low associated with estimating refuelling 1 million EUR per refuelling station are cited elements of such an infrastructure strategy station costs: firstly, the costs of setting up a (Bonhoff 2016). are spatial network planning, the choice hydrogen refuelling station depend on the The space required for delivering, storing (natural gas, biogas, naphtha). Normally, Table 32 shows four typical hydrogen sup- As a metric, capital costs based on daily of optimum refuelling station concepts and location solution, the size of the refuelling and dispensing hydrogen at the refuelling hydrogen produced on site is in gaseous ply and distribution pathways. All pathways dispensing capacity have emerged. In sizes, the coordination of infrastructure and station and local conditions. For competition station is a factor that must be considered, form at a pressure of less than 50 bar, so it assume the purchase of compressed hydro- absolute terms, investment costs for smaller vehicle fleet, and the standardisation of reasons, cost data is often confidential and especially in inner city areas. Of the various has to be compressed further for refuelling. gen at 700 bar; the dispenser is the same hydrogen refuelling stations are lower than technical and regulatory solutions. supply concepts, on-site production requires Centrally produced hydrogen can be in all cases. Refuelling should take between is not published. Furthermore, the hydrogen for large ones. However, the capacity- stations that have been built to date have the most space, since the electrolyser or delivered in gaseous form as CGH2 or in three and five minutes for a full tank. The specific capital costs range from almost To overcome the technical and economic mostly been designed as one-off projects. reformer is located on the refuelling station liquid form as LH2, with CGH2 dominating. four supply pathways map a time line: the 15,000 USD per kg and per day for small market barriers of a hydrogen-based infra- premises. At the same time, the storage first two pathways are already relevant in Past building outlay therefore is not a relia- stations to approximately 3,000 USD per structure, hydrogen initiatives have been In the case of gaseous hydrogen, the requirement is lower, since hydrogen the short- and medium-term and differ in ble indicator for future construction costs in kg and day for large stations supplied with established in leading automotive regions pressure stage at which the vehicles are can be produced to a greater extent on terms of the type of hydrogen supply: in the a more developed market. And lastly, there liquid hydrogen. These low capital costs (see box on global hydrogen mobility served is important. At present, refuelling demand. On the other hand, optimisation first case hydrogen is delivered in gaseous are currently only a few publications on are only achievable with high capacity initiatives). In addition, state funding to stations operate at the two pressure stages work has already reduced the space form, in the second pathway it is produced hydrogen refuelling station costs. utilisation, however. Refuelling stations with promote market development is available of 350 bar and 700 bar, and at the current needed for the hydrogen handling equip- on site. The first refuelling station would In-depth studies on hydrogen refuelling sta- on-site hydrogen electrolysis are much more in Europe, North America and Asia for the stage of development the split is roughly ment. Whereas a few years ago hydrogen currently be limited to a trailer delivery and tion costs are only available from California expensive than centrally supplied stations purchase of fuel cell electric vehicles and equal (HyARC 2017). Around 20 % of facilities were still housed in 40-foot hence to approximately 500 kg hydrogen so far (NREL 2013c; EVTC 2014; CEC/ – specifically, over 20,000 USD per kg for building hydrogen refuelling stations all refuelling stations currently offer both containers (corresponding to 12 m), smaller per day. With on-site production there CARB 2017). According to these studies, and day, which is attributable to the high (IEA 2015b). pressure stages, but the trend is towards the containers measuring 11 feet (3.3 m) are would be no delivery restrictions, although there is a big spread in investment costs for investment costs for the electrolyser. today sufficient. higher pressure stage, with the advantages the electrolyser must reliably produce of a larger volume of hydrogen stored and the required amounts of hydrogen. The hence an improved vehicle range. Over 8.6 DISTRIBUTION investment costs are also higher. On-site IN SUMMARY 90 % of refuelling operations for fuel cell production can be scaled up if necessary. In terms of hydrogen supply, there are electric vehicles are with gaseous hydro- However, functional modules such as the two different options available for retail As of the beginning of 2017, there are 281 hydrogen refuelling By choosing appropriate refuelling station sizes and refuelling gen. Currently only a few refuelling stations storage tanks, compressor or dispenser sites: the delivery of externally produced stations and more than 4,000 hydrogen-powered vehicles world- station supply concepts, the hydrogen refuelling station network offer both possibilities or concentrate on need to be resized in some circumstances. hydrogen to the stations, or decentralised liquid refuelling (HyARC 2017). wide. Hydrogen refuelling stations and fuel cell vehicle fleets are can be adapted to the given demand. production on site. Currently, most refuelling Hydrogen pathways 3 and 4 are only concentrated in the USA, Western Europe and Asia/Japan. Building a refuelling station infrastructure requires high capital stations are supplied with centrally pro- The supply options for hydrogen (delivery relevant in the mid- to long-term or for a investment. In the early stages of market growth, there will be a duced hydrogen (HyARC 2017). When as CGH2 or LH2, in trailers or by pipeline; larger hydrogen requirement. Pathway 3 is Hydrogen refuelling stations comprise the following technical it comes to on-site hydrogen production, on-site production) can be combined with based on a liquid delivery, which can bring components: storage tanks, compressor, precooler/evaporator need for synchronisation with the development of the fuel cell at the refuelling stations that are operating the dispensing options (gaseous at 350 or larger amounts to the refuelling station and and dispenser. A modular structure and internationally agreed, electric vehicle fleet and further (short-term) financial support for around the world electrolysis ranks ahead 700 bar; liquid) and the size and design of can manage with less space. Only in the hydrogen-specific standards contribute significantly to a safe and infrastructure expansion of the reforming of gases and other fuels the refuelling station (storage concepts, etc.). longer term will hydrogen be produced efficient expansion of the refuelling station network.

54 55 8 REFUELLING INFRASTRUCTURE Shell Hydrogen Study

GLOBAL HYDROGEN MOBILITY INITIATIVES 9 ENERGY & ENVIRONMENTAL BALANCES,

Germany (H Mobility / CEP) Moreover, in 2014 the EU established minimum requirements for 2 SCENARIOS FOR FCEVs The Clean Energy Partnership (CEP) industry consortium the infrastructure for alternative fuels, including hydrogen, through (www.cleanenergypartnership.de) for the development of an the AFID directive (2014/94/EU). This directive requires the EU automotive hydrogen economy in Germany was established as member states to provide a reasonable number of hydrogen early as 2002. Between 2012 and 2016 the CEP undertook the refuelling stations by 2025 in order to secure the movement of The transport sector currently (2014) consumes around 28 % This chapter examines the energy and greenhouse gas balances task of creating a basic hydrogen supply network, with 50 hydrogen-powered fuel cell electric vehicles (EP/Council 2014a). refuelling stations in Germany (CEP 2016). of the global final energy consumption and causes 23 % of the for hydrogen-powered fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEV) and energy-related greenhouse gas emissions (IEA 2016a). Around discusses their potential contribution to more environmentally USA/California (H2USA; CaFCP) The operating company H Mobility (www.h2-mobility.de) 2 There are a number of hydrogen initiatives in the USA, including three-quarters of global transport emissions come from road friendly mobility. The other air pollutant and noise emissions as was established in 2014. H Mobility is a joint venture which is 2 the nationwide public-private initiative H USA (www.h2usa.org). transport. Road transport worldwide was responsible for around well as other external effects of motorised private transport are engaged in building and operating a network of hydrogen refuel- 2 The state of California is leading the way in terms of the hydro- 5.7 gigatonnes of carbon dioxide emissions (CO2) in 2014. This not assessed. ling stations in Germany. H2 Mobility is also sourcing the hydrogen gen refuelling station infrastructure and fuel cell electric vehicle corresponds to a share of 17.5 % of the energy-related CO2 for its entire network, where possible from renewable energies. Firstly, the analysis considers the drive efficiencies of passenger development. California is accelerating the phasing-in of so-called emissions worldwide. cars of different drive types in various regions of the world H Mobility’s plan is to set up the first 100 hydrogen stations by 2 zero-emission vehicles within the vehicle fleet; just as battery Between 1990 and 2014, road traffic-related CO emissions (EU and USA) and resulting specific fuel consumption figures, 2018/2019, unconditionally and irrespective of fuel cell electric 2 electric vehicles fuel cell electric vehicles are regarded as ZEVs. grew by 71 % worldwide; emissions from road traffic in the on the basis of (JEC 2013) and (GREET 2015). By reference to vehicle numbers; preferred locations are the metropolitan areas The California Fuel Cell Partnership CaFCP (www.cafcp.com) industrial nations (OECD) also increased over this period by (JEC 2014) and again to (GREET 2015), specific greenhouse and hydrogen corridors along the motorways. Depending on the 30 % (IEA 2016a). Despite measures to avoid traffic or to shift gas factors for fuels are derived and used to determine the registration figures for fuel cell vehicles, a comprehensive hydro- was established in 1999 under the leadership of the California it to public transport or more environmentally sustainable modes specific greenhouse gas emissions of drive types. gen infrastructure with 400 hydrogen refuelling stations in Air Resources Board and the California Energy Commission. The CaFCP has already set up a number of multi-annual pro- of transport, road traffic worldwide is still increasing. Therefore, Germany should then be established by 2023. Simple scenario assumptions for possible FCEV fleet growth reducing the energy, especially the fuel consumption, and the grammes, most recently (2012) a roadmap for the five-year figures in the leading hydrogen regions (USA, Western Europe, As of the beginning of 2017 there were 35 to 40 CEP hydrogen environmental impact of motor vehicles is all the more important. period to 2017. Accordingly, over 84 refuelling stations should Japan) are outlined, on the basis of an ambitious automotive refuelling stations operating in Germany. The CEP refuelling be available by then, corresponding to a demand of around Overall the energy consumption and the environmental impact hydrogen scenario in (IEA 2015b). stations are being transferred to H2 Mobility. As a national 53,000 vehicles (CaFCP 2012). More than 30 hydrogen stations of motor vehicles are determined by, along with the vehicle hydrogen lighthouse project, the CEP will pursue tasks involved Finally, extrapolated consumption, emission and fleet data were set up in 2016, and another 20 are under construction or mileage, their specific energy consumption. Fuel consumption in developing hydrogen technology and standards. along with other assumptions are used to estimate automotive going through approval procedures (CaFCP 2016). is substantially predetermined by the choice of drive type. hydrogen fuel consumption and potential savings of fossil fuels EU/Europe (FCH JU, H ME, EU AFID directive) The drive also influences the greenhouse gas emissions and, 2 Japan (HySUT) and greenhouse gas emissions to 2050. In Europe there are a whole host of project-based, cross-border together with the energy conversion process, the resulting air The governmental organisation New Energy and Industrial hydrogen/fuel cell initiatives – for example between European pollutant emissions. Technology Development Organisation (NEDO) is also driving cities or for bus fleets. An important initiative is the Fuel Cells and forward the development and commercialisation of hydrogen Hydrogen Joint Undertaking (FCH JU), a partnership between the technology in Japan. The relevant hydrogen technologies include EU Commission, industry and research institutes. Its aim is to make 9.1 EFFICIENCY AND FUEL CONSUMPTION domestic use (Ene-Farm) and use in power plants and transport. the fuel cell and hydrogen pillars of the future European energy The specific energy consumption per km of passenger cars. Fuel cell electric vehicles sumption figures were converted into real The Association of Hydrogen Supply and Utilisation Technology and transport system (www.fch.europa.eu). The second phase of a motor vehicle is determined by its weight at least achieve TtW efficiencies of up to specific fuel consumption by using real-world HySUT (www.hysut.or.jp/en/) was founded in 2009 under the the initiative (FCH JU 2) is scheduled to run until 2020, with pro- and form, by environmental and driving 50 %, while battery electric vehicles can fuel consumption factors (ICCT 2016). umbrella of the NEDO. Its original aim was to promote the jects running until 2024. conditions and by the efficiency of the drive reach around 70 % (Kücücay 2014). technical preconditions for a future hydrogen infrastructure. An estimate of technological progress and Furthermore, the national hydrogen initiatives from Germany, type. The passenger car considered is an Like the vehicle ownership cost calculation, associated specific efficiency improvements Great Britain, Scandinavia and France have established a Euro- Following a reorganisation in 2016, HySUT is now engaged average passenger car in the respective the scenario assumptions regarding the and greenhouse gas emission reductions pean hydrogen platform called Hydrogen Mobility Europe in the commercialisation of the hydrogen supply system and of region, i.e. is a C segment passenger car European vehicle fleet development are for passenger cars extending beyond the (www.h2me.eu). Hydrogen Mobility Europe consists of two hydrogen-powered fuel cell electric vehicles. Areas of interest also for Europa and Japan and a mid-sized based on the specific fuel consumption fig- 2020s up to 2050 was provided in (AEA project parts: H M1 and H M2. The goal is to develop a pan- include issues surrounding technology/consumer acceptance and light duty vehicle (LDV) for the US. The 2 2 ures from (JEC 2013). These are recorded 2012). ICE passenger cars may achieve European infrastructure of hydrogen refuelling stations and demonstration projects. The technology and market demonstration efficiencies of different drive types vary in the New European Driving Cycle NEDC. specific fuel savings of up to 50 % by 2050, fuel cell electric vehicle fleets in a coordinated manner. Today, phase was followed in 2016 by early commercialisation. This is significantly. In particular, electric drive types, both battery electric and fuel cell It is assumed that consumption figures of as compared with the reference technology H2M involves more than 40 Partners from 9 countries, drawing due to be completed in 2025, with a move to full commercialisa- electric vehicles, have much higher efficien- newly registered vehicles will disseminate in 2010. These specific efficiency improve- together their expertise from across the transport, hydrogen and tion from 2026. The number of hydrogen-powered vehicles has cies than internal combustion engines. into the passenger car fleets in the long ments were applied to the JEC fuel con- energy industries. In addition, Denmark, Norway and Sweden increased steadily. As of the beginning of 2017 there are already term. It should be noted that JEC standard sumption figures up to 2050. However, are represented in the Scandinavian Hydrogen High­way Partner- around 90 refuelling stations operating in Japan, and this number Thus, the Tank-to-Wheel (TtW) efficiencies consumption figures for the 2020s and the efficiency improvements for the petrol ship SHHP (www.scandinavianhydrogen.org). is scheduled to rise to 160 by 2020. of conventional petrol passenger cars are beyond assume significant improvements in drives from 2040 onwards is limited due to only about 20 %, and 30 % for hybrid petrol efficiency. The standard specific fuel con- technological restrictions.

56 57 9 BALANCES AND SCENARIOS Shell Hydrogen Study

The fuel consumption figures for Japan fuel production pathways and fuel-specific assumed to be constant over the period 34 SPECIFIC WELL-TO-WHEEL PASSENGER CAR GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS were assumed to be the same as for combustion factors from the last edition of up to 2050. Since the specifications for “REAL WORLD” DRIVING CONDITIONS, EUROPE

Europe. The specific energy consumption the Well-to-Wheels study by the European petrol are standardised, unchanged CO2 g of US passenger cars was based on the research platform of Joint Research Centre emission factors for its combustion (g CO2/ values from (GREET 2015), which are of the European Commission, Eucar and MJ) are assumed. ntoheel somewhat higher than European consump- Concawe (JEC 2014) for Europe. The ellton tion figures. basic data from the JEC study was also For all regions under consideration, petrol taken into consideration by the European containing 10 % bioethanol is assumed 9.2 GREENHOUSE GAS Commission in establishing typical and for the medium to long term. For the EU EMISSIONS standard values for reducing greenhouse (and Japan), the bioethanol blends meet gas emissions for biofuels in the EU Renew- the sustainability requirements of the EU In order to compare the carbon dioxide emissions of passenger cars, relevant able Energy Directive 28/2009/EC (EP/ Renewable Energy Directive 28/2009/ energy-related greenhouse gas factors Council 2009a) and the EU Fuel Quality EC (EP/Council 2009a) and of the EU Directive 30/2009/EC (EP/Council Fuel Quality directive 30/2009/EC (EP/ (in g CO2/MJ) are in a first step compiled 2009b) as well as the associated directive for hydrogen, petrol and electricity. For this Council 2009b). For petrol in the USA PETROL PETROL HYBRID BATTERY ELECTRIC VEHICLE FUEL CELL ELECTRIC VEHICLE purpose, the greenhouse gas emissions for 2015/652/EU (Council 2015) which lays the WtT emission factors for E10 from the letrty Hydrogen the entire fuel and energy supply chains down methods for calculating the green- GREET model (GREET 2015) apply. are taken into account. In a second step house gas intensity of fuels and energy distance-related greenhouse gas emissions supplied other than biofuels and reporting Electricity the basis of surplus renewable electricity is gas reductions are achieved primarily for the growing FCEV fleet is generated by suppliers. The same greenhouse gas (in g CO2/100 km) for the vehicles are Depending on the type of primary energy gaining ground, reaching 100 % by 2050, due to improvements in the powertrain entirely from renewable sources (e.g. wind calculated and discussed. factors have been assumed to be valid for source used and the conversion technolo- to enable greenhouse gas emissions to technology, since the assumed fuel mix is power) and only the electrical energy Japan. gies for generating electricity, the carbon fall by 80 % as compared with 1990. The virtually unchanged over the considered needed at the refuelling station to compress GREENHOUSE GAS FACTORS dioxide emissions in electricity generation calculation of the greenhouse gas emission time horizon. For the electric drives the the hydrogen is taken from the electricity For the USA the greenhouse gas factors FOR TRANSPORT FUELS vary widely. For electricity a clear change factors of the hydrogen mix over time is emission reductions are achieved through a mix according to the IEA 450 scenario. As are taken from “Greenhouse gases, Regarding greenhouse gas emissions, a in the generation structure and hence also based on the emission factors from (JEC combination of technological improvements a consequence, the WtW greenhouse gas Regulated Emissions, and Energy use in distinction must be drawn between Tank-to- in its specific emission factor is anticipated 2014) for the individual supply pathways. and the switch to renewable sources for emissions of the FCEV are slightly lower Transportation Model”, “GREET model” for Wheel emissions (TtW), which arise from because of a growing proportion of renew- For the USA the corresponding supply electricity and hydrogen production. than those of the BEV. short, published by the Argonne National burning a fuel in the engine, and Well-to- able electricity generation in the electricity pathways from (GREET 2015) are used. Laboratory of the Department of Energy Generally, electric drives generate much The introduction of electric drives, particu- Tank emissions (WtT), which are caused generation mix by 2050. (DOE) of the US federal government lower WtW greenhouse gas emissions larly with a fuel cell, into the vehicle fleet upstream by the production and supply of GREENHOUSE GAS (GREET 2015). The GREET model is used than internal combustion engines. This provides an important lever for reducing the fuel. Well-to-Wheel emissions (WtW) The 450 scenario developed by the FACTORS FOR VEHICLES in modified form to establish the fuel path- advantage will be even more pronounced the greenhouse gas emissions of motorised are used to assess the entire supply chain International Energy Agency (IEA 2016b) If the varying drive efficiencies are also ways of the Low Carbon Fuel Standard by 2050, since the efficiency potential of private transport if vehicle electricity and for the fuel including its use, i.e. from the describes the preconditions that must be taken into consideration, the distance- (LCFS) in California (CCR 2017). internal combustion engine drivetrains is hydrogen are also produced with a low source of primary energy to conversion into met by the energy sector overall and by related CO emissions in g CO /km can be 2 2 technically limited. greenhouse gas output. kinetic energy for propulsion. the electricity sector in particular in order estimated for the different drive types. Figure For the scenario calculations CO2 emission to achieve the 2°C climate action goal. 34 compares the WtW emissions for fuel Burning fossil energy sources produces car- factors were determined for three fuel For the electric drives it can be seen that The greenhouse gas emission factors for cell electric vehicles with the WtW emis- 9.3 SCENARIOS FOR FCEVs bon dioxide, which largely determines the types: petrol, as only petrol cars are con- up to 2030, the greenhouse gas emissions the European, Japanese and US American sions for vehicles with an internal combustion In addition to the 450 scenario in its greenhouse gas balance of motor vehicles sidered as the internal combustion engine of FCEVs are still somewhat higher as electricity mix are derived from the ambitious engine (petrol) and battery electric drives. World Energy Outlook, the International with an internal combustion engine. Other reference, electricity for battery electric compared with BEVs because a significant 450 scenario and are extrapolated to Energy Agency in its Energy Technology greenhouse gases can also arise upstream vehicles (BEVs), and hydrogen for fuel cell For the internal combustion engine vehicles proportion of hydrogen is still reformed 2050. In particular, the IEA 450 scenario Perspectives (ETP) has developed a second in the supply chains of all fuel types or electric vehicles (FCEVs). (petrol and petrol hybrid) it can be seen from natural gas; in 2050 this pattern is requires a major decarbonisation of the technology-oriented 2DS scenario, which energy sources. The most important of these that over 80 % of the WtW greenhouse reversed. For BEVs the greenhouse gas electricity sector through a strong expan- likewise describes how the 2°C goal can other greenhouse gases (methane, CH gas emissions arise during combustion emission factor for the electricity is based 4 Petrol sion of renewable energies. be met (IEA 2015a). While “450” denotes and nitrous oxide, N O) are also taken into in the engine (TtW) and only up to 20 % on the then low greenhouse gas electricity 2 The WtT emission factors from the JEC 450 parts per million CO (the maximum consideration in the overall greenhouse during production of the fuels (WtT). In mix according to the IEA 450 scenario (IEA 2 study (JEC 2014) for petrol were modified Hydrogen atmospheric CO concentration for the 2°C gas balances. Where reference is made the case of the electric drives (BEVs and 2016b). However, in the 450 scenario 2 in accordance with a recalculation of There are also different supply pathways scenario) and considers a projection to to CO , the other greenhouse gases are FCEVs) only the WtT greenhouse gas electricity is still assumed to contain a small 2 the greenhouse gas intensity of crude oil for hydrogen: Today, hydrogen is primarily 2040, 2DS stands for 2 Degree Scenario also included in CO equivalents. The terms emissions are relevant, since no emissions proportion of fossil electricity generation, 2 imports into the EU (ICCT 2014b) and obtained by steam reforming of natural and extends as far as 2050. Both scenarios “greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions” and occur while the vehicle is running. leading to greenhouse gas emissions. thus correspond to the values in the above gas. In the mid-term, a growing proportion assume a rapidly accelerating technological “carbon dioxide (CO ) emissions” are used 2 mentioned EU directive laying down of biogas from municipal waste is assumed, For all the drive types under consideration, On the other hand, hydrogen can be spe- improvement and set high requirements for synonymously below. calculation methods for the EU Fuel Quality up to 10 % by 2030 and dropping down the mileage-related WtW greenhouse cifically produced from surplus renewable reducing emissions in the conversion and The specific greenhouse gas emission Directive (Council 2015). Moreover, again to 0 % in 2050. In the longer term, gas emissions decrease over time: in the electricity where this accrues and can be consumption sectors of the energy system, factors were compiled on the basis of the the WtT emission factors for petrol are hydrogen generation by electrolysis on case of the petrol cars the greenhouse stored for further use. Therefore, hydrogen and thus also in transport, by 2050.

58 59 9 BALANCES AND SCENARIOS Shell Hydrogen Study

In the 2DS scenario, the IEA expects 35 NUMBER OF FCEVs IN SELECTED MARKETS it rises to 1 mln t in 2030, to a little over 38 WELL-TO-WHEEL GHG SAVINGS OF FCEVs COMPARED TO PETROL VEHICLES hydrogen and fuel cell technology to 5 mln t in 2040 and to 10 mln t in 2050. ln ehle contribute substantially to the energy and This corresponds to an energy equivalent ln t climate goals. In the transport sector, the n of around 1,200 petajoules or to the S fuel cell drive can contribute significantly energy content of 27 mln t of petrol. If in to reducing the greenhouse gas emissions addition the much higher efficiency of fuel t of motorised private transport. Depending cell vehicles in comparison to petrol drives on the way in which the hydrogen is is also taken into account, the use of fuel produced, and especially if it is produced cell electric vehicles can lead to savings from renewable energy sources, in a of up to 38 mln t of petrol compared to n S WtW consideration the greenhouse gas hybridised petrol vehicles and up to emissions of a fuel cell electric passenger 68 mln t compared to a pure petrol drive. car can be reduced by more than 90 % as compared with a petrol engine vehicle. If this hydrogen is to be obtained by electrolysis from renewable electricity, the FCEVs save 100 % of TtW emissions. For International Energy Agency (IEA 2016b) 36 NEW REGISTRATIONS OF FCEVs IN SELECTED MARKETS The IEA has published a “technology requirements for hydrogen production are that reason in the cumulative consideration for 2014. This scenario is the “baseline roadmap” for hydrogen and fuel cell ln ehle as follows: for the USA this would mean a up to 2050 this proportion is larger than scenario” in (IEA 2016b) and describes the electric vehicles (IEA 2015b), which is wind and solar electricity requirement of the WtW savings, in which, taken as a development of the energy sector based on n based on the 2DS scenario and, in a over 330 TWh. For EU4 the figure would whole, higher WtT emissions from FCEVs the confirmed climate action commitments variant of that scenario, examines how still be more than 100 TWh and for Japan compare with lower WtT emissions from by governments with regard to energy and an accelerated introduction of hydrogen t more than 40 TWh. For the purposes of petrol drives. greenhouse gas savings, and thus reflects technologies can contribute to achieving the comparison, (IEA 2016b) anticipates in the the current situation. The NPS shows annual 2°C goal (2DS high H ). 2 450 scenario a reduced electricity pro- The emission reductions achieved in the traffic-related emissions of approx. 1,700 S duction in 2040, compared with today's 2DS high H scenario can be ranked mln t CO for the USA, around 860 mln t For the transport sector in the USA, Japan 2 2 figures, of 4,752 TWh for the USA, 3,314 by reference to the total traffic-related CO2 for the EU and around 210 mln t and the four major Western European TWh for the EU and 864 TWh for Japan. greenhouse gas emissions of the New CO2 for Japan. Only TtW emissions are markets of Germany, France, Great Britain Policies Scenario (NPS) developed by the considered in this scenario. and Italy (EU4), the 2DS high H scenario 2 With a growing proportion of hydrogen describes an increase in the number of from renewable sources by 2050, the rise FCEVs to well over 100 million vehicles 37 ANNUAL H DEMAND OF FCEVs ACCORDING TO 2DS HIGH H SCENARIO in fuel cell electric vehicles offers a signif- by 2050. This assumes a rapid market 2 2 IN SUMMARY ln t H icant greenhouse gas savings potential in expansion for fuel cell electric vehicles in the vehicle fleet. Assuming that the FCEVs Hydrogen-powered fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) are much more efficient than the three automotive regions. According will primarily replace cars with a petrol to this scenario, 1 million new FCEVs will passenger cars driven by an internal combustion engine. Hence, FCEVs can make an n S drive, this suggests a WtW greenhouse have to be registered in both the USA important contribution to the diversification of the energy supply and to energy savings in gas savings potential of over 190 mln t per and EU4 by 2030 in order to achieve the motorised road transport. year and a TtW greenhouse gas savings 2DS goals. In total, there would then be Hydrogen generated from renewable energy sources (like wind or biogas) produces very potential of over 180 mln t per year in the almost 10 million new FCEVs in the three low specific greenhouse gas emissions. Coupled with the more efficient drive of FCEVs, three regions of interest in 2050 (figure market regions in 2050. As a comparison, this results in up to 90 % lower distance-related greenhouse gas emissions as compared 38). approx. 74 million new passenger cars are to internal combustion engine vehicles running on fossil fuels. Depending on the supply registered each year worldwide at present This savings potential is broken down across chain, FCEVs produce (slightly) higher/lower specific greenhouse gas emissions than (VDA 2016); in 2050 the annual number the three regions as follows: in the USA battery electric vehicles (BEVs). of newly registered passenger cars would As a comparison, there are currently over populated Japan 9,000 km/year. These WtW savings of up to 125 mln t CO2 per be expected to be over 100 million cars. 1 billion passenger cars worldwide (VDA average annual mileages are assumed An ambitious 2DS high H2 scenario developed by the International Energy Agency, in year and TtW savings of up to 120 mln t 2016), and the number is expected to for all vehicles considered, independent line with the climate action goal of limiting the global temperature rise to 2°C, projects CO are possible. In EU 4 WtW savings of Figures 35 and 36 show the development reach around 2 billion vehicles by 2050. of their drive type. Moreover, annual 2 that the number of fuel cell vehicles in three key markets (USA, selected European up to 49 mln t CO and TtW savings of up of the FCEV fleets in the three regions in mileages are assumed to remain constant 2 passenger car markets and Japan) will increase to some 113 mln units by 2050. This is The energy demand of FCEVs can be to 45 mln t CO are possible, and finally question. The biggest absolute rise, to until 2050. The calculated annual hydro- 2 based on new FCEV registrations rising to 1 mln each in the EU and USA in 2030 and calculated by multiplying annual mileage in Japan WtW savings of 18 mln t CO almost 60 million FCEVs in 2050, takes gen demand for the number of vehicles 2 to around 10 mln in all the regions in question in 2050. place in the USA. Around 35 million fuel cell with specific energy consumption figures. and TtW savings of 14 mln t of CO2 are according to the 2DS high H2 scenario is The typical annual mileages differ substan- achievable. Taken over the entire period up Based on these FCEV fleet scenarios, a hydrogen consumption of around 10 mln t of vehicles are anticipated in the four Euro- shown in figure 37. pean countries (EU4) and some 20 million tially in the markets in question. For the USA to 2050, savings of over 1.5 gigatonnes hydrogen (per year) has been estimated for the 113 mln FCEVs in 2050. If efficient petrol in Japan in 2050. In total, around 11 million a mileage of approximately 18,000 km/ While the hydrogen demand in Japan WtW and around 1.6 gigatonnes TtW are cars are superseded by FCEVs, this will lead to savings – depending on the petrol vehicle fuel cell passenger cars will be registered year is assumed, for Europe approximately develops moderately, it rises significantly possible in the three regions, as compared type (hybrid or petrol only) – of 38 to 68 mln t of petrol and over 190 mln t of traffic-

in 2030 and around 113 million in 2050. 13,000 km/year and for the densly for EU4 and especially for the USA. In total with petrol alternatives. related CO2 emissions in 2050.

60 61 SUMMARY Shell Hydrogen Study

from surplus renewable power is seen as As the main hydrogen supply pathways, Of all the production methods considered, HYDROGEN – ENERGY OF THE FUTURE offering huge potential for the future. steam reforming of natural gas and biogas centralised hydrogen production is more and electrolysis have been analysed and cost-effective than production in smaller, Alkaline electrolysis has been used in the compared in terms of energy input, green- decentralised plants. Centralised natural industry for more than a century. Alternative house gas emissions and production costs: gas reforming is most cost-effective of all, electrolysis methods offering improved Electrolysis based on conventional electricity with production costs of 1 to 2 EUR per Over the years Shell has published a number of scenario studies Shell has been involved in hydrogen production as well as in performance parameters (regarding conver- (grid mix) requires high primary energy kilogram of hydrogen. on key energy issues. These have included studies on important hydrogen research, development and application for decades, sion efficiency, flexibility and cost) are input. By contrast, natural gas and biogas energy consumption sectors such as passenger cars and com- with a dedicated business unit, Shell Hydrogen. Now, in currently in development. Electrolysis is significantly more expensive, reforming and electrolysis based on renew- mercial vehicles (lorries and buses), and the supply of energy cooperation with the German research institute and think-tank and its commercial viability largely depends Hydrogen production from biomass, while able electricity require little primary energy. and heat to private households, as well as studies on the state of Wuppertal Institute, Shell has conducted a study on hydrogen on electricity prices. The costs of biomass- technically feasible, is still insignificant on a Moreover, electrolysis of renewable elec- and prospects for individual energy sources and fuels, including as a future energy carrier. based hydrogen production are between global scale, and while thermochemical tricity uses only minimal amounts of fossil biofuels, natural gas and liquefied petroleum gas. natural gas reforming and electrolysis. The Shell Hydrogen Study looks at the current state of methods such as biomass gasification and resources. H2 originating from electrolysis Hydrogen is an element that receives significant attention. As an hydrogen supply pathways and application technologies biogas reforming are already in use, bio- with electricity from renewables produces In the future, decentralised natural gas energy source, hydrogen has long been considered a possible and explores the potential and prospects for hydrogen as an chemical processes are still in their infancy. the lowest greenhouse gas emissions, reforming, centralised electrolysis and centralised biomass routes are expected to basis for a sustainable energy future. But it cannot be viewed in energy source. The study also examines non-energy uses and The availability of biomass has to be whereas H2 obtained from gas reforming isolation, since it is both in competition with and interdependent non-automotive applications, but its focus is, as indicated by its checked against sustainability requirements, – natural gas or biogas – is better than offer the greatest cost-saving potential. since it is a limited resource. hydrogen from grid-based electrolysis. on other energies and the technologies that use them. The subtitle Sustainable Mobility Through Fuel Cells and H2, on the question is whether hydrogen can be an important energy use of hydrogen in road transport and specifically in fuel cell carrier of the future. electric vehicles. STORAGE & TRANSPORTATION The higher the storage density, the greater gies are still at the research and develop- the amount of energy needed for cooling ment stage. THE ELEMENT HYDROGEN smallest, lightest atom. Pure hydrogen to find sustainable energy sources. More and compression, which is why more effi- occurs on Earth only in molecular form (H2). recently, the focus has been on hydrogen’s At present, hydrogen is generally trans- cient storage methods are being explored. 1 Hydrogen on Earth is usually found in role in an increasingly electricity-based 3 ported by lorry in pressurised gas tanks, H2O Water CH4 Methane compounds, most notably as water mole- energy economy. Unlike electricity, hydrogen can be success- and in some cases also in cryogenic liquid

H2 Hydrogen H2O Water CH Methanecules (H2O). fully stored in large amounts for extended tanks. However, each lorry trailer can only 4 Owing to its special physical properties, th The specific physical and chemical proper- periods. Low-pressure underground storage carry around 0.5 to 1 t of gaseous hydro- H Hydrogen First discovered in the 18 century, hydro- hydrogen is an almost permanent gas, since 2 ties of hydrogen lead to higher logistics facilities such as caverns can be filled with gen or up to 4 t of liquid hydrogen. gen was originally known as “inflammable it only liquefies at very low temperatures costs (storage and transportation) than for hydrogen from surplus renewable electricity air”. By the 19th century hydrogen was (below –253°C). It has a low density, so it Regional hydrogen pipelines are available other energy carriers. Hydrogen has a very and used as buffer stores for the electricity featuring in contemporary visions of the is usually stored under pressure. Liquefaction in some locations, the longest being in the low volumetric energy density, which means sector. As yet, however, there are very few future, especially in relation to the energy increases its density by a factor of 800. The USA and Western Europe. In the long-term, Hydrogen was the first element created that it has to be compressed for storage and underground hydrogen storage facilities in industry and locomotion. In the 1960s and most characteristic property of hydrogen is the natural gas supply infrastructure (pipe- after the Big Bang. It is the most common transportation purposes. use. 1970s space travel and the increasing its flammability. It also has by far the highest lines and underground storage facilities) substance in the universe and the richest scarcity of resources further intensified the gravimetric energy density of all energy Commercially most important is the hydro- Novel storage media are materials-based could also be used for the storage and energy source for stars like the sun. aura of excitement surrounding hydrogen. sources in use today. Due to its chemical gen storage as compressed gas. For end hydrogen storage technologies. These transportation of hydrogen. In terms of Hydrogen (H) is the first element in the Since the 1990s the interest in hydrogen properties, hydrogen has to be handled users, high-pressure storage tanks of varying include metal hydrides, chemical hydrogen transport costs, liquid hydrogen is suitable periodic table of chemistry and is also the has been boosted by the growing urgency with care. design (350, 700 bar) are available. storage materials (such as liquid organic for long-distance transport, compressed A higher density for storage can be hydrogen carriers) or sorbents (such as gaseous hydrogen is suitable for shorter achieved by liquefaction, although this metallic organic frameworks, zeolites and distances in smaller amounts, while pipelines involves cooling the hydrogen to –253°C. carbon nanotubes). Most of these technolo- are advantageous for large volumes.

SUPPLY PATHWAYS and various primary energy sources – both mal reforming and gasification, which fossil and renewable fuels, in solid, liquid or generally use fossil primary energy sources. APPLICATIONS industry are ammonia synthesis, primarily gen into heat, power or electricity. gaseous form – can be used in these techni- Some unused residual hydrogen is availa- used for the production of nitrogenous However, hydrogen is now rarely used cal production processes. ble for energy use as a by-product of fertilisers, and methanol synthesis. Also, as an energy source in heat engines. 2 industrial production processes. The most important primary energy source hydrogen is a by-product of crude oil for hydrogen production currently is natural To date, only small amounts of hydrogen 4 + – refining in refineries, in particular catalytic For energy applications, fuel cells have gas, at 70 %, followed by oil, coal and have been generated from renewable reforming of naphthas, on the other hand it become the main focus of hydrogen usage. Since hydrogen usually exists on Earth as electricity (as a secondary energy energies, although that amount is set to is used for the processing and refining of oil Fuel cells offer much higher electrical part of a compound, it has to be synthesised resource). Steam reforming (from natural increase in future. Electrolysis currently Hydrogen is a highly versatile basic chemi- products in refineries – in processes such efficiency and overall efficiency than heat in specific processes in order to be used as gas) is the most commonly used method for accounts for around 5 % of global hydrogen cal with two main areas of use: material as hydrotreating and hydrocracking, for engines. The fuel cell principle was a material or energy source. This can be hydrogen production. Other production production, but most of this is still based on applications and energy applications. The example. Energy applications involve discovered back in the 19th century: with a achieved by different technical methods, methods include partial oxidation, autother- conventional electricity sources. Electrolysis most important material applications in converting the energy contained in hydro- continuous supply of fuel, chemical energy

62 63 SUMMARY Shell Hydrogen Study

is converted directly into electrical energy. while high temperature cells favour reduction potential are most suitable for VEHICLE advances and effects of scale in production comparison to passenger cars with internal As the reverse process of electrolysis, H2 continuous loads and are more resilient mobility applications. A parallel develop- OWNERSHIP and market development, automotive fuel combustion engines, and not on cost and oxygen are recombined into H2O – to fluctuations in fuel quality. In addition, ment is the solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC), COSTS cell technology would quickly become grounds alone. producing DC electricity at the same time. after external or internal reforming, some which is used for continuous domestic much more cost-effective. In addition, pro- Once the gap between the purchase cost fuel cell types can also use other fuels energy supply and in power plants. 7 duction costs for H could fall in the medium- Fuel cells have seen some major technical 2 of fuel cell passenger cars and battery containing hydrogen (such as natural gas to long-term, and this combined with lower advances, especially in recent years. The The catalysts used on the electrodes of the electric vehicles closes with increasing or methanol). technology and infrastructure costs would many different cell types now available are fuel cells have a huge influence on system production numbers, fuel cell passenger One of the most important considerations allow hydrogen to be distributed and distinguished in terms of the electrolytes The world market is currently dominated by costs and performance. Work on cost cars offer a real alternative to (locally) when it comes to buying or keeping a marketed more cheaply as a fuel. emission-free battery electric vehicles. That (ionic conductors) they use and their low-temperature polymer electrolyte mem- savings and more affordable catalyst vehicle is economic in nature: the ownership At the same time, vehicles with internal is because, with comparable ownership operating temperature. Low temperature brane fuel cells (PEMFCs), which because materials is ongoing. costs involved. These include the purchase combustion drive-trains are becoming more costs, fuel cell electric vehicles also offer cells allow for a dynamic load response, of their power density, flexibility and cost cost, ongoing costs for fuel, or costs relating expensive, mainly due to more complex additional advantages over battery electric to mileage or transport performance. Once exhaust gas treatment. In urban and vehicles, such as greater comfort, longer the costs for vehicles with different drive- metropolitan areas in particular IC engine range and shorter charging times. By trains are sufficiently similar, other, non-eco- STATIONARY ENERGY uninterruptible power supplies (UPS). Since fuel cell systems have already been intro- vehicles are increasingly subject to local contrast, if battery electric vehicles were to nomic decision factors come into play. APPLICATIONS fuel cells generate electricity and heat, their duced in Germany, Europe and Japan, usage restrictions as a result of stricter rules be improved in terms of comfort, i.e. range use in combined heat and power (CHP) under the names “Callux”, “ene.field” and Under existing purchase and fuel cost on air quality and tailpipe emissions. As a or charging time, they would become more units for electricity and heating supply in the “Ene-Farm”. By the end of 2016, almost structures, fuel cell passenger cars are not consequence, (locally) emission-free fuel expensive and would lose their economic power plant sector and the building sector 200,000 micro-CHP units had been yet competitive. But in an ambitious climate cell passenger cars powered by hydrogen advantage over fuel cell electric vehicles. 5 is increasing. installed in Japan under the Ene-Farm action scenario involving rapid technological are becoming increasingly attractive in programme; by 2030 the Japanese Micro-CHP fuel cell systems, due to their government wants to have installed 5.3 high overall efficiency, are a promising new million CHP units. option for energy-efficient domestic energy REFUELLING STATION Hydrogen refuelling stations comprise the capacity, design and utilisation. By choosing Stationary fuel cells are an important driver supply. Fuel cells for domestic energy The economic efficiency of fuel cell micro- INFRASTRUCTURE following technical components: Hydrogen appropriate sizes and supply concepts, the of global market development for fuel cell supply generally run on natural gas (with CHP or mini-CHP units in the building sector storage tank, compressor, precooler/ hydrogen refuelling station network can be systems, in terms of both numbers and additional external or internal reforming). is dependent on the respective electricity evaporator and dispenser. Until now, adjusted to meet demand, and infrastructure installed capacity. 8 The first commercial micro-CHP units based and natural gas retail prices. The wider hydrogen refuelling stations have mostly costs can be reduced by means of a Fuel cells are increasingly being used as an on PEMFC and SOFC fuel cells are now take-up of CHP technology in buildings will been custom-made. Manufacturing costs gradual expansion. Nevertheless, there is a can be reduced by the modularisation risk of significant under-utilisation at the start alternative to generators and rechargeable available for the construction resp. building require (in the short term) further temporary The development and spread of hydrogen of technical components and by series of the market growth phase, so in the early batteries as a backup power supply, in the sector. Major demonstration projects and funding to develop the market. mobility will require a new infrastructure to production. Furthermore, internationally stages there will be a need for financial form of either emergency generator sets or market launch programmes for domestic provide a comprehensive supply network agreed, hydrogen-specific standards will support for infrastructure expansion. for fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEV). As of contribute significantly to a safe and efficient the beginning of 2017, there are around Network development will also have to expansion of the refuelling station network. 280 hydrogen refuelling stations and be synchronised with the expansion of according to the means of transport and the America a fleet of over 11,000 fork lifts and Substantial potential for cost reduction in MOBILITY APPLICATIONS some 4,000 FCEVs worldwide. Hydrogen hydrogen resp. FCEV fleets. A number of way in which it is used. The technological tow trucks is in operation. Fuel cell passen- the order of 50 % over the coming years is refuelling stations and fuel cell vehicle hydrogen initiatives have been set up to this maturity of a product can be determined ger cars now offer the same features (such anticipated, thanks to regulatory and techni- fleets have so far been concentrated in the end in the lead regions (North America, in terms of Technology Readiness Levels as performance, refuelling time, effective cal standardisation and effects of scale. USA, Western Europe and Asia / Japan. Western Europe and Japan/Asia). (TRL), a system developed by the US range or comfort) as those driven by internal Infrastructure and fleet development has Absolute and specific refuelling station 6 space authority NASA. The TRL scale goes combustion engines. Buses have undergone accelerated considerably in recent years. infrastructure costs differ, depending on from levels 1 to 9. Sufficient technological more intensive fleet testing than any other maturity, which means at least proven means of transport, thanks to public funding functionality in the field of use (= TRL 8), is projects. Hydrogen can be used as an energy ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENT: emissions from road vehicles rose by 71 % passenger cars propelled by an internal a crucial prerequisite for a market launch in source for mobility applications. Initially, SCENARIOS FOR FUEL CELL between 1990 and 2014. Given that road combustion engine. So FCEVs can make an the respective mobility application areas. There is still a lot of development work to it was also tested in internal combustion traffic worldwide is still increasing, despite important contribution to the diversification be done with regard to trains, ships and ELECTRIC VEHCLES engines, but in the transport sector hydro- measures to avoid traffic or to shift it to of energy supply and to energy savings in Industrial trucks such as forklifts or tractor aircraft: light rail vehicles and commercial gen is now used almost exclusively in fuel public transport or more environmentally motorised road transport. units for material handling are technically vehicles (including lorries) may benefit from cells. Space travel provided the historical 9 sustainable modes of transport, reducing the almost fully mature and are already at the proven bus or passenger car technology. If hydrogen is generated from renewable and technical impetus for the development energy consumption and negative environ- early stages of commercialisation. Passen- There are no plans as yet for commercial energy sources, its specific greenhouse gas of hydrogen and fuel cell technology. mental impacts of motorised vehicles is all ger cars have reached series production, aircraft or merchant ships, but they can use Transport is an important energy consumption emissions over the entire supply chain are the more important. In principle, hydrogen fuel cell systems are while buses are close behind. Material fuel cells as an efficient energy source for and emission sector. Worldwide, road traffic very low. Coupled with the more efficient suitable for virtually all means of transport, handling equipment has been manufactured auxiliary power units (APUs). was responsible for around 5.7 gigatonnes Hydrogen-powered fuel cell electric vehicles drive-train, this results in significantly lower

but their technological maturity varies in the highest numbers. Today, in North of CO2 emissions in 2014, and CO2 (FCEVs) are much more efficient than distance-related greenhouse gas emissions

64 65 SUMMARY Shell Hydrogen Study

as compared with internal combustion An ambitious “2DS high H2” scenario increase to some 113 million units by Based on assumed average annual vehicle year). If efficient petrol passenger cars were Considering the entire period between now engine vehicles running on fossil fuels. developed by the International Energy 2050. This is based on a projected mileages, specific (distance-related) vehicle to be replaced by fuel cell electric vehicles, and 2050, over 1.5 gigatonnes of green- Depending on the hydrogen supply path- Agency in line with the climate action goal increase in annual FCEV registrations in the energy consumption and greenhouse gas this would lead to savings – depending on house gas emissions could be saved, way, FCEVs produce (slightly) higher/ of limiting the global temperature rise to EU and USA to 1 million by 2030, rising factors for the fuels used, the hydrogen the design of the vehicle replaced (hybrid Well-to-Wheel, as compared to the lower, but essentially similar, specific green- 2°C, assumes that the number of fuel cell to a total of 10 million new registrations consumption for a fleet of 113 million fuel or petrol only) – of 38 to 68 mln t of petrol replaced petrol vehicles.

house gas emissions as compared with electric vehicles in three key markets (USA, per year in the three regions in question by cell electric vehicles in 2050 is estimated at and over 190 mln t of transport-related CO2 battery electric vehicles. selected European markets and Japan) will 2050. approximately 10 mln t of hydrogen (per emissions in 2050.

POLICY ASKS FOR THE HYDROGEN ECONOMY

Hydrogen as an energy source and fuel cells as energy converters have an important part to play in the energy transition and exemptions from bans on entering certain urban areas). 9 TECHNOLOGY ACCEPTANCE in achieving the climate policy goal of limiting the global temperature rise to 2°C. Hydrogen production and application tech- The development of alternative technologies in areas with Hydrogen is not (yet) a familiar product among end users. nologies have made significant progress in recent years. Nevertheless, hydrogen and fuel cells are both still in their infancy in a very limited portfolio of mature, sustainable technologies Rather, for the vast majority of consumers, hydrogen and terms of achieving broad commercial use in the global energy system. As such, they require further support and funding from the (e.g. lorries, rail, ships, aircraft) requires further R&D the technologies that use it are still new. Novel energy government and from society as a whole. funding. technologies require openness, a willingness to learn and familiarisation on the part of future users. Therefore, What actions and measures are needed to enable hydrogen and fuel cells to finally become one of the pillars of a sustainable 6 INFRASTRUCTURE / education and the dissemination of relevant technological energy system in the future? Below we set out ten key requirements across the entire hydrogen supply and use chain that may REFUELLING STATIONS information are vital if such technologies are to gain help to improve the overall conditions for a future hydrogen economy. Each of these measures is important in its own right, but The expansion of hydrogen refuelling stations, in particular acceptance among users and in society as a whole. ideally they should be regarded as a coherent bundle of measures, in which the individual steps build on each other – or, even in the introductory phase when utilisation is low, requires This requires appropriate communication strategies and better, are coordinated with measures for other sectors. the financial burden and risk to be shared. State funding for formats for building experience and commitment. infrastructure should play a part in this. The hydrogen infra- 1 MANUFACTURING 3 FUEL CELLS structure should be expanded in a coordinated manner 10 SYNERGY as appropriate, with the long-term goal of nation-wide To speed up the establishment of a global hydrogen The continued development of hydrogen production The further development of mobile and stationary fuel cells coverage. economy, synergies need to be created – through methods based on electrolysis and low-emission reforming as the most important energy technologies for hydrogen cooperation between cities, regions and states and with must be supported by, among other things, a tailor-made use must be supported, in terms of manufacturing costs and 7 STANDARDS relevant economic operators. Linking up the production R&D policy focusing on manufacturing costs, efficiency, efficiency as well as long-term stability, through technologi- Hydrogen must be safe, easy and efficient to handle. and consumption sectors is also important, as is a and flexibility of use. Financial incentives will be necessary, cally diverse R&D funding. Therefore there is a need for uniform, international, comprehensive coordination of innovative technologies especially for the market entry phase, to boost the hydrogen-specific technical standards for plants and like battery systems and fuel cells. production of green hydrogen, either by electrolysis 4 STATIONARY APPLICATIONS equipment and for hydrogen as a product. based on electricity from renewable energies or by Backup systems for emergency and uninterruptible power biogas reforming. 8 ENERGY SOURCES AND FUEL supplies, micro-CHP fuel cell systems for domestic energy supply and cogeneration power plants still need further The use of green hydrogen requires the creation of appropri- 2 STORAGE AND TRANSPORTATION technology funding, despite significant advances in recent ate incentive systems – for example by offsetting it against In the long term, large-scale storage and transportation years. At least short-term financial and/or regulatory the EU greenhouse gas reduction target for fuels or by options for hydrogen must be (further) improved. One support is needed as they are brought onto the market. expanding capacity markets for storage and demand-side aspect of this is the storage of hydrogen produced from management measures. Regarding hydrogen production surplus renewable electricity in bulk storage tanks (caverns). from electricity, a level playing field needs to be established In addition, more pre-commercial basic research is needed 5 MOBILITY APPLICATIONS with other options such as power storage or Power-to-X in the area of storage media (hydrides, liquid and sorbent Fuel cell electric vehicles are electric vehicles. The purchase schemes. Electrolysis should not be additionally burdened storage systems). Finally, the hydrogen transport infra- of fuel cell passenger cars and buses should be temporarily with duties, since electrolysers are not end consumers of structure (such as liquid hydrogen transport as well as supported through public procurement programmes, direct (renewable) electricity. Existing differences in treatment at a hydrogen pipelines) must be developed as appropriate. financial incentives or a privileged status for vehicles (e.g. product level must be eliminated.

66 67 BIBLIOGRAPHY Shell Hydrogen Study

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70 71 ABSTRACT

Hydrogen is an element that receives significant attention: As an energy carrier, hydrogen is considered to be the basis for a sustainable energy future. But hydrogen is not alone, since it competes with other energies and their application technologies. The question arises as to what extent hydrogen can or will play a leading role in the global energy system of the future. Shell has already been active for decades in hydrogen research and development. In cooperation with the Wuppertal Institute, Shell has now conducted an energy carrier study, which addresses the current status as well as the long-term prospects of the use of hydrogen, in particular for energy and transport purposes.

The Shell Hydrogen Study discusses firstly the (natural) occurrence, properties, and historical perspectives of the element hydrogen. It then examines current as well as future technologies/processes and source materials for the production of hydrogen, and it compares the energy requirements, greenhouse gas emissions and supply costs of the different production pathways. Furthermore, hydrogen logistics is investigated. That includes, on the one hand, current and future storage methods, and on the other, the various transport options and their respective benefits, including questions of transport economy.

This is followed by a description of the different potential options for the use of hydrogen. A distinction is made between the use in materials or for energy purposes/as an energy carrier. The analysis of hydrogen use for energy purposes focuses on the fuel cell – and not on the use in heat engines resp. combustion engines. On the user side, stationary energy applications for back-up electricity production as well as domestic energy supply – including their economics – are looked into.

The main focus of the study is on mobile hydrogen applications. For this purpose, the technological status and prospects of mobile applications – from aerospace, via material handling, through to the passenger car – are discussed. This is followed by an analysis of the economics of hydrogen-powered fuel-cell cars based on a simplified car cost comparison. Subsequently, the construction of a hydrogen retail station infrastructure for road transport is discussed.

Finally, the possible effects of fuel-cell cars on fuel consumption and greenhouse gas emissions in selected regions up to 2050 are discussed. This analysis is based on the ambitious 2DS hydrogen scenario from the International Energy Agency.

Shell Deutschland Oil GmbH 22284 Hamburg www.shell.de/h2study www.shell.com/hydrogen Hamburg 2017