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Home , Boshin war, Inoue Kaoru, Kiheitai, Meiji Restoration, Prefectures of Japan, Takasugi Shinsaku

The Restoration

Chair: Matthew Lyons Co-Chair: Victor Ehrnrooth Crisis Director: Carson Berry

University of North Carolina Model United Nations Conference November 2 - 4, 2018 University of North Carolina

Table of Contents

Letter from the Crisis Director 2

Letter from the Chair 4

Key Terms 6

Background 8

Topic I: Domestic Unrest 19

Topic II: European Encroachment 25

Topic III: Modernization of 30

Positions 36

2

Letter from the Crisis Director

Greeting Delegates,

My name is Carson Berry and it is my sincere pleasure to welcome you to

UNCMUNC X where I have the opportunity to be serving as the Crisis Director for the

Meiji Restoration committee. I am originally from Marietta, Georgia, just outside of

Atlanta, and am currently a Junior at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill double majoring in Political Science and Global Studies, with a minor in Japanese

Language and Culture. In my free time, I enjoy camping, hiking, being outdoors, and all of the other basic millennial experiences. Last year I had the pleasure of serving as the

Secretary-General of MUNCH XVIII, the UNC High School Model UN conference, and during my tenure at UNCMUNC IX, I served as the Chair for the Roman Pantheon in the

Greek vs. Roman Gods JCC.

As a Global Studies major with a minor in and Culture, I have always been fascinated by Japanese history and the ways in which it intersects and diverges from typical Western historical narratives. Thus, my fascination with these historical narratives, in addition to a love for Asiatically-located committees contributed to the formation of this committee, as I was first introduced to the chair of this committee,

Matthew Lyons, in a Japanese language class. The was a key turning point within Japanese history and one of the major factors which contributed to the creation of modern Japan in the wake of its empire after World War II. This committee

3 will begin in November of 1871, three years after the overthrow of the

Shogunate and the establishment of Mutsuhito as Meiji. As advisors to the

Emperor, you have overseen the creation of an uneasy peace among the people of Japan after defeating the remainder of the Shogunate’s forces on , where the group had attempted to establish an autonomous state entitled the Ezo Republic. Now, as winter begins, you must be prepared to do whatever it takes to further this peace, as a Japan consumed by civil conflict will not be able to withstand the increasingly greater meddling of European forces.

As the crisis director for this committee, I hope to establish a crisis arc which will both challenge your critical thinking skills while simultaneously remaining dynamic enough to be responsive to your crisis notes. Personally, I have no preference as to how you address your notes, therefore either “To Crisis” or directing it to a fictional character whom you create are both options. Additionally, Matt and I both have training in Japanese language, so feel free to speak with us in Japanese if you are able and interested. Please feel free to reach out with any additional questions which you may have and we cannot wait to see you all this coming November!

Sincerely,

Carson W. Berry, Crisis Director [email protected]

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Letter from the Chair

Hello Delegates,

I am Matthew Lyons, and I am happy to welcome you to UNCMUNC X. I will be your Committee Chair for the Meiji Restoration committee crisis. I am from Westford,

Massachusetts, but moved to Mint Hill, North Carolina when I was about 10 years old. I am a Junior at UNC Chapel Hill double majoring in Business Administration, with an emphasis on consulting, and Japanese Language and Culture. I love going abroad, and am looking forward to doing so a third time during my college career with Carson this upcoming March at Waseda University in . Outside of travel, I am a huge metalhead and drummer of my band, State of Uncertainty. I also genuinely love to see a good debate—a this will be my seventh year involved in some sort of debate activity.

My passion for international adventure transfers itself into intrigue for the topic at hand. The Meiji Restoration is a revolutionary period that has a profound impact not only in Japan but also on an international scale. The continual opening of Japan to international influences resulted in a great depth of cultural, lingual, economic, and military transfer. This committee provides a unique opportunity to be a part of the events that led to this major shift in Japanese history. I encourage competitors to be creative in how your role would wish to make history. Do not let established narratives or Western ideals influence the path you take in crisis. Creativity will be rewarded, whether it be an oddball crisis twist, a unique argument in debate, or a clever alliance. Much like an

5 immersion into another culture, make this committee and adventure and a test of your openness.

I am interested to see committee members carry roles well and engage in stimulating debate. Saving for personal attacks, I enjoy heated debate, heavy focus on refutation, and strong Devil’s Advocates. Coupled with enticing crisis arcs, there is a great plethora of opportunity to make this a very memorable committee. I will do my best to facilitate the committee in an organized manner and ensure that everyone has a fair amount of acknowledgment in the chamber. I consider myself a very open person, so please do not hesitate to approach me about anything committee-related.

ありがとうございました。がんばってね。 Thank you and good luck.

Sincerely,

Matthew Lyons, Chair [email protected]

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Key Terms

Sakoku: “Closed Country” - The series of policies imposed by the Tokugawa Shōgunate which isolated Japan from the remainder of the world.

Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie: “United East India Company” - Also known as the

Dutch East India Company, the VOC operated as one of the world’s first multinational corporations and retained a monopoly on the Dutch spice trade for over two decades.

Daimyōs: Feudal Japanese lords who controlled large amounts of land and often reported to the Shōgun. Daimyōs hired armies of to fight for them and collect taxes in the form of rice and grains from the peasants who worked the land that they controlled.

Honshū: The largest island of the four major islands which compose the . is the location of many major Japanese cities, including ,

Osaka, and Tokyo.

Kyūshū: The third largest island of the Japanese archipelago and the most southwestern of the major islands; renowned for its temperate climate and unique culture.

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Shinto: Japan’s cultural religion based around the worship of one’s ancestor and kami through offerings and religious ceremonies. It has often been practiced alongside

Buddhism throughout Japan’s history and does not necessarily demand that practitioners follow any specific rules.

Kami: The sacred or supernatural spirits thought to inhabit different aspects of nature - including rocks, mountains, waterfalls, and trees - and living things - including animals and humans - in

Gokajō No Goseimon: “” - A statement of principles widely circulated by the

Meiji Government in the wake of the overthrow of the Shōgunate calling for major changes in Japan.

Katana & : The pair of swords - the is the longer of the two - carried by

Samurai throughout life and into battle. The Wakizashi was used during .

Ritsuryō Codes: The historical system of law implemented in Japan during the

Period (710-794 CE) which established basic taxation and governmental organization within the country.

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Background

Opening of Japan

Beginning with a series of edicts issued between the years of 1633 and 1639, the

Tokugawa Shogunate, which had ascended to power a mere three decades previous, began to enforce a policy of , effectively sclosing Japan to all foreign influence.1 Before the implementation of these edicts, Japanese merchants had engaged in nearly unrestricted trade with European merchants, who had begun to establish trade routes with the Far

East in mass. However, despite the economic benefits, this unregulated trade had also contributed to the migration of a large number of foreign traders and pirates who began to inhabit Japanese cities and waters. Additionally, it was during this period that Portuguese

1 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sakoku

9 and Spanish missionaries first spread Christianity to the Japanese archipelago, gaining converts, especially in Southern Honshū. In an effort to combat the continued unregulated growth of foreign inhabitants, pirates in Japanese waters, the spread of European religions, and to consolidate government control of trade, the separated Japan from the world.

Nevertheless, the Shogunate recognized that it would be necessary to continue some form of trade with the outside world, resulting in the establishment of the as Japan’s first and only trade port. In order to allow continued interaction with European powers, the Shogunate permitted trade with Asian countries, including and , in addition to the Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie, or VOC, a Dutch company, using the port of Nagasaki.2 While smuggling certainly availed during this era, the restricted trade imposed by the Shogunate continued for the next two centuries.

That is, until the entrance of Commodore Matthew Perry into Bay on July 8,

1853.3 Under orders from American President Millard Fillmore, Perry entered Edo Bay with four ships: the Susquehanna and the Mississippi, both black-hulled steamships, and the Plymouth and the Saratoga, both sailing vessels, with the intent of ending Japan’s

200-year exclusion from trading with the West.4 Perry used both intimidation, as all four of his ships were equipped with large , and diplomacy, by giving Western- produced gifts to the Japanese Emperor, to gain an access to the Shogun, who he presented with a letter from President Fillmore demanding trading rights with Japan for the . Several days later, on July 17, 1853, Perry and his squadron sailed out of

2 http://visit-nagasaki.com/History/ 3 https://history.state.gov/milestones/1830-1860/opening-to-japan 4 http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/special/japan_1750_perry.htm

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Edo Bay, promising to return with the expectation of an answer to President Fillmore’s demands soon thereafter.

During Perry’s absence, Shogun Tokugawa Ieyosh died and was succeeded by his young son, Tokugawa Iesada. While Tokugawa Iesada technically remained in power during the turmoil between Perry’s visit, it was the leader of the Council of Elders, Abe

Masahiro, who gathered the daimyōs during this period to discuss how to resolve the situation.5 Unfortunately for Abe, the daimyōs were unable to reach a verdict and on

February 13, 1854, Perry returned to Edo Bay with an additional six ships and 1600 men.

Facing the threat of a possible invasion by American troops, only heightened by

Perry’s threats to bring more American ships if the Shogunate refused to comply, the

Shogunate bowed to President Fillmore’s demands. On March 31, 1854, Japan and the

United States signed the Treaty of Kanagawa, opening the cities of Shimoda and to trade with American ships and allowing the United States to appoint consuls to live in said port cities. Additionally, the treaty ensured that any future concessions made by the

Shogunate to other European countries would mean those same concessions also applied to the United States. While the Treaty of Kanagawa was not a trade agreement, Perry’s forceful diplomacy opened the gates for possible trade treaties between Japan and other

Western countries, ending Japan’s isolation from a large portion of the trading world.6

5 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perry_Expedition#First_visit_to_Japan,_1852%E2%80%931853 6 https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/10/eaj.html

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Opium Wars in China

The First and Second Opium Wars took place between the of China and the encroaching imperialistic British Empire during the mid-. The wars broke out as a response from China against the unauthorized trade of opium in China and

British infringement on Chinese sovereignty.

The First Opium War began in 1839 and concluded with the Treaty of Nanking in

1842.7 Illegal trade of British opium, primarily shipped from India, was a common occurrence before this time but skyrocketed around 1820. The trade was particularly strong in Guangzhou, a southeastern free trade region of China. In response to the growing number of addicts, the Chinese government began to confiscate and destroy British opium shipments. The tension between the British and Chinese in port areas of China slowly

7 www.britannica.com/topic/Opium-Wars.

12 mounted from this time until British warships destroyed a Chinese blockade in Hong

Kong and occupied the city, thereby beginning true warfare. Though the Chinese fought against British naval forces for some time, the British navy was far too strong. The war ended when British soldiers captured Nanking in August 1842 and both parties agreed to the Treaty of Nanking.

The Treaty of Nanking is infamous for starting an era of unequal treaties. Prior to the war, only one port, Canton, was truly open to Western trade. After their defeat, China was required to cede Hong Kong to Britain d and to increase the number of ports open to

British trade. The next year, the British Supplementary Treaty of the Bogue was signed to give Britain most-favored-nation status in China and to grant extraterritoriality to British citizens.8 Other countries, most notably , were also given favorable terms following the First Opium War, though not to the extent of the British.

The Second Opium War was waged between Great Britain and China in the mid-

1850s, with the former supported by France. The conflict began in 1856 as a result of

Chinese officials boarding the British ship Arrow, arresting Chinese crew, and lowering the British flag. British warships arrived soon after and began bombarding the area. The

Chinese responded by burning and raiding many foreign facilities within the country.

France joined the British effort in China after the murder of a French missionary, though this is unlikely to be the true motive for entrance to the war. British troops, allied with the

French, captured Tianjin and signed the treaties of Tianjin, ending the conflict in 1858.

The treaties provided foreign access to Beijing, opened even more ports to Western trade, and freed foreigner movement within the interior of China. A year later, Chinese officials

8 www.nam.ac.uk/explore/opium-war-1839-1842

13 refused to sign the treaties after a standoff in Dagu, China but were once again compliant after the British capture of Beijing. This smaller conflict resulted in China ceding the southern portion of Kowloon, a landmass directly north of Hong Kong Island, to the

British. Kowloon remains part of Hong Kong to this day.

The two main impacts of the Opium Wars were the dwindling of the Qing

Dynasty’s power and the opening of China to foreign bodies. Because of the ease through which the British achieved victory, the Qing Dynasty’s reputation quickly turned from one of historic respect to one of humiliation. The Qing Dynasty had built the largest economy in the world by 1820, only to see that fall to less than half of its original size after the two wars.9 This embarrassment continued for decades, as the Treaty of Nanking and treaties of

Tianjin forced China to remain a subordinate to Western trade preference in the East. The outcome of the Opium Wars with China also raised the question upon the role of sovereignty in the East in the face of Western expansion, creating a threatening presence for Japan and other countries in the region.

Meiji Revolt and Restoration

The Meiji Restoration marks a major period of Japanese political and social reconstruction. Prior to the Meiji Restoration in 1868, the Tokugawa shogunate held military rule over Japan. This prior period is known as either the Edo or Tokugawa period

(1603-1867). Though the emperor gradually accrued more power during the Tokugawa period, the Meiji Restoration sharply increased his authority in order to further

Westernization and modernization.

9 www.worldcat.org/title/smuggling-as-subversion-colonialism-indian-merchants-and-the-politics-of-opium- 1790-1843/oclc/57286105.

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The Meiji Restoration began on January 3rd, 1868, when was ousted from power and the Emperor, Mutsuhito, was proclaimed ruler of Japan by a large group of young samurai from feudal domains. Yoshinobu briefly waged a , but officially surrendered in June 1869 after the Battle of Hakodate in Hokkaido. This roughly year-long conflict is referred to as the . It had a small number of casualties despite involvement from various foreign entities, most notably the French in the Battle of Hakodate.

The main motivation for the overthrow of the Tokugawa Shogunate was worry about foreign encroachment. As Japan was isolated for nearly two centuries, there was intense fear about foreign powers opening Japan beyond their comfort and exploiting the

Japanese people. Worries were especially acute after observing Great Britain devastate

China in the Opium Wars.

Following the restoration of imperial power, the Charter Oath was written in April

1868. The Charter Oath moved the Japanese capital from Kyoto to Edo (renamed Tokyo) and established the divisions of Japanese regions which exist to this day. It formed a national army to prepare for foreign conflict, abolished feudal class statuses, established a market economy, and organized relevant government policies under a more centralized government in Tokyo.

Updates Since Restoration

In the wake of the social and political upheaval that came to characterize the Meiji

Restoration, Japan, under the direction of the Meiji Emperor and the new ruling class, began to undergo a series of infrastructure reforms that would alter the Japanese socio-

15 political landscape forever. Chief among these reforms was the abolition of the Samurai class, which consisted of some 1.9 million individuals, through a series of taxes and rules that slowly eroded the once-venerated warrior class.10 One of the plethora of reasons why the destruction of the Samurai class is proving to be more difficult than expected is that

Samurai compose approximately 6% of Japan’s total population, a much higher proportion than Western aristocracies.11 In order to rectify the defensive discrepancy caused by an eroding Samurai class, the Meiji Government has also instituted new federal regulations that established a standing army for the first time in Japan’s history and required all males to serve four years in the army, with an additional three in the army reserves, upon reaching their twenty-first birthday.12 [Note: While both of the above-mentioned reforms began in earnest in 1873, for the purposes of this committee, it will be assumed that both have occurred at the advent of the committee, which begins in late 1871.] These changes, while initially met with resistance, have been slowly assimilated into the majority of Meiji society; however, rumblings of discontent continue, especially among the disenfranchised

Samurai class and his Majesty’s advisors must proceed in the elimination of the Samurai class with caution.

Additionally, in an attempt to more easily classify and control his newly inherited throne, his Majesty has seen fit to divide the nation into a series of 47 different each under the command of a different Prefectural .13 This consolidation and organization, largely based upon earlier feudal, daimyo-controlled territory, has allowed for easier subjugation and propagation of the newly instituted government while retaining

10 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meiji_Restoration 11 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographic_history_of_Japan_before_the_Meiji_Restoration 12 https://www.britannica.com/event/Meiji-Restoration 13 https://www.japanvisitor.com/japan-travel/japan-prefectures

16 some of the autonomy so valued by the people.14 Of these 47 territories, some members of the council to his Majesty maintain a certain authority within the prefectures from which they originate, especially as many have strong ties to the origins of the restoration of the

Emperor in southwest Honshu and on Kyushu. However, it is important to note that His

Majesty and, by proxy, this council, continues to have final control over the policies and actions undertaken by the Prefectural Governors; it would be well within this council’s authority to remove (And execute) a Prefectural Governor who takes actions seen as treasonous against the Imperial Government. The wise advisor should also note that his

Majesty considers corruption the root of a plethora of ills, which is easily observable in the lives and governmental-systems of the European colonizers. Therefore, any Prefectural

Governor, or government official, found to be taking bribes of any form will be tried before this council and either banished from his Majesty’s domain or summarily executed.

Another key transformation undertaken by the new government has been the evolution and foundation of a strong national identity for the .15 One major way in which his Majesty has begun this process is through the codification and equalization of Shinto practices throughout Japan. This includes the creation of a clear separation from prior Buddhist beliefs, incorporation of Shintoism into the state mythos, and government funding towards the construction of many new Shinto shrines. In order to continue this progress, it is key that the advisors to his Majesty keep in mind the unifying power of the Shinto religion for the Japanese people. In addition, Christianity, which had begun to gain a large number of converts prior to the rise of the Tokugawa Shogunate, has

14 https://www.japan-talk.com/jt/new/prefectures-of-japan 15 http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/special/japan_1750_meiji.htm

17 been outlawed since the beginning of their reign.16 While Shintoism and Buddhism have thrived under the rule of the Tokugawa, it will remain the job of the advisors to his

Majesty to determine the most efficient and effective way to promulgate this newer version of Shintoism and to determine whether Christianity and other foreign religions should be once again allowed to practice within Japan.

Finally, his Majesty has continued this necessary through a greater centralization of agriculture and industrial development. As of the advent of this committee, Japanese rice production equals approximately 30 million metric tons per year, with production concentrated to the lowlands of the Japanese archipelago, especially in the areas around and Kyoto.17 According to the new system devised by the

Emperor Meiji, each Prefectural Governor has been charged with reporting all agricultural production statistics from their prefecture to the Emperor and his council in order to ensure continued agricultural growth. Additionally, the Emperor has allocated government funding to Westernize state agriculture, but it is the responsibility of this council to determine the most efficient and effective way and the specific amount of funding to use.

16 https://www.japan-guide.com/e/e2298.html 17 F. Friday, Karl. 2018. Japan Emerging: Premodern History To 1850. Boulder: Routledge. Accessed August 23, 2018. ProQuest Ebook Central.

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Topic I: Domestic Unrest

Appeasing the Populace

The first major issue that his Majesty expects this council to address is to establish a national identity for the Japanese people and to ensure that the newly established

Japanese state remains a place of justice and security for all of the Emperor’s citizens. His

Majesty has already begun this process through the declaration of the “Charter Oath” in

April of 1868, which established the ideals which he wishes to include in the formation of his new government in the days to come.18 In the document, the Emperor identified five key points that his advisors would do well to keep in mind as they debate the future actions taken by the newly established Imperial Government. The declaration reads as follow:19

By this oath, we set up as our aim the establishment of the national wealth on a broad basis and the framing of a constitution and laws.

1. Deliberative assemblies shall be widely established and all matters decided by

open discussions.

2. All classes, high and low, shall be united and vigorously carrying out the

administration of affairs of state.

3. The common people, no less than the civil and military officials, shall all be

allowed to pursue their own calling so that there may be no discontent.

18 http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/ps/japan/charter_oath_1868.pdf 19 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charter_Oath

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4. Evil customs of the past shall be broken off and everything based upon the

just laws of Nature.

5. Knowledge shall be sought throughout the world so as to strengthen the

foundation of imperial rule.

While it would be foolhardy to assume that each of the tenants can be completely and totally adhered to at all times during the continued establishment of this government, the Emperor has deemed each of these ideals to be key in the establishment of a united

Japanese identity. Thus, his Majesty has determined that it will become the responsibility of his council of advisors to draft a constitution, akin to the European or American one, as soon as they are able to once His committee convenes. He believes that this will establish a more thorough foundation for viewing Japan as a modern state through the eyes of

Western powers.

Another aspect of culture which his Majesty suggests that his advisors utilize in the expansion of the Japanese identity is the Shinto religion. While Shinto has existed for thousands of years within Japan, even coexisting peacefully with Buddhism for extended periods, it has generally been confined to local shrines without a uniting narrative throughout Japan.20 Shinto is based upon a the belief that supernatural spirits, called kami, inhabit the world around us in the form of rocks, trees, mountains, and animals and that these kami must be respected through the construction of temples and through the use of specific ritual cleansings and the observance of certain ceremonies to gain their blessings. His Majesty has even gone so far as to justify his position on the throne and his

20 https://www.japan-guide.com/e/e2056.html

21 right to sole control over the country as ordained by a bloodline relating to Amaterasu, the

Sun Goddess.21 Additionally, upon assuming the throne, the Emperor issued a royal decree making Shinto the state-sponsored religion of the Meiji Government and he expects his advisors to address the issue of updating Shinto temples, religious traditions, and ensuring that a united narrative for the Shinto religion is created and disseminated.22

Ensuring Loyalty to the Emperor

While the ascension of the Mutsuhito to the position of ruler of Japan has been widely approved of by many of the samurai and other leaders from the more rebellious areas of Southern Honshū and Kyūshū, the majority of the Japanese state remains apathetic toward the establishment of the new government. Thus, it is necessary for the advisors to his Majesty to move quickly to gain the approval of the broad majority of the people in order to prevent any attempts at a coup by those still loyal to the Tokugawa

Shogunate. The first step which his Majesty has taken to this end is the demand that all daimyōs overturn their land to be reclaimed as the Emperor’s as he reigns over all of

Japan.23 As expected, this move has proved to be quite unpopular with the daimyōs because it severely weakens their control over the land and poor farmers who grow a myriad of crops on it; however, many peasants have begun to experience greater freedom and equality due to this edict. But, this act alone does not ensure loyalty to the Emperor and it would be wise for this council to keep the peasants in mind when determining future land and tax reform.

21 http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/shinto/history/emperor_1.shtml 22 http://bhoffert.faculty.noctrl.edu/REL265/21.ShintoAndTheState.html 23 https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/ker1926/22/1/22_1_23/_pdf

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It is also of great importance that the advisors to his Majesty ensure that the message of the Emperor and the Meiji Government spread throughout each of Japan’s newly established prefectures. Some of the more rural, primarily agricultural prefectures like , Nīgata, , and Yamanashi remain painfully differentiated from the population centers of Kyoto, Ōsaka, and Tōkyō and often do not relate to the ideas and issues sponsored by the Meiji Government. Thus, advisors to his Majesty would do well to not forget about the needs and wants of the more rural prefectures—especially when one considers that many of these farmers care only of their day-to-day livelihood in growing rice and wheat and have little interest in many of the issues important to those in the capital. If this government is to succeed, we must gain the trust of both those in the cities and those in the countryside!

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Quelling Rebellions

The most dangerous and immediate threat to the Throne which this committee must confront is the possibility of a rebellion. Since Imperial Victory at the Battle of

Hakodate, ending with the final defeat of the remainder of the Tokugawa Shōgunate’s forces, an uneasy peace has been established throughout the Japanese archipelago.24

However, this peace is by no means guaranteed and the many reforms to Japanese society which the Emperor has begun to impose are very likely to disenfranchise portions of the populace. Chief among these is the Samurai class, which his Majesty has deemed as too draining on the economy to continue supporting. The Emperor has begun this process through the creation of several taxes aimed directly at diminishing Samurai funding in addition to converting much of the government money previously set-apart for them to funding for public infrastructure projects.25 Additionally, his Majesty is in favor of the passage of laws which prohibits private citizens from carrying swords in public, especially the Katana and Wakizashi so associated with the Samurai class.26 However, upon the convening of this council of advisors to his Majesty, no legal reforms regarding the possession of swords in public have yet been passed, despite the fact that rumors of possible legislation have begun to circulate.

It is important to keep in mind that the cause of the restoration and the placement of the Meiji Emperor in power was a result of a discontentment among the Samurai in

Southwestern Honshū and Kyūshū, where many of those who compose this council originate.27 There have even been rumblings of frustration in reply to several of the

24 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Hakodate 25 http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/special/japan_1750_meiji.htm 26 https://www.history.com/topics/japan/samurai-and-bushido 27 http://www.academia.edu/29615876/Origins_and_Significance_of_the_Meiji_Restoration

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Emperor’s decrees from members of this council, although his Majesty has chosen to overlook many of them as he is grateful to those on this council for giving him the opportunity to establish the power of the throne and overthrow the Shōgunate. But, should any member of this council be found to be plotting a rebellion or coup against the throne, the Emperor will not hesitate to bring said member before the committee of advisors to determine how to deal with them. Additionally, should any member of the council discover that another member is plotting, the Emperor will surely reward whoever brings the traitorous activity to his attention and will allow the committee to determine their fate.

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Topic II: European Encroachment

European Trade Domination and Retaining Japanese Culture

The first encounter between Japan and Europe economically was during 16th

Century Renaissance Europe. After Marco Polo’s global expedition and discovery, Polo described Japan as a country with immense wealth and natural resources abound. This observation was primarily due to 70% of Japan’s landscape being mountainous, thereby amassing large amounts of surface ores near mountains and volcanoes. Europeans were similarly amazed by the quality of Japanese smithing. They bought many metals, primarily copper and silver, from Japan during this period. At first, this trade was not exploitative, as Polo noted the sophisticated urbanization and industrialization in Japan, going as far as to say that the Japanese “excel not only all the other Oriental peoples, they surpass the

Europeans as well.” In return for the metals and other resources Japan traded, Portugal offered valuable Chinese goods, including those from Macau. As Japan was restricted contact from the Emperor of China following the Wako raids, these goods were not accessible by the Japanese themselves. Trade faced some disruption, though not deal breaking, in the mid-17th century when the Japanese uncovered that the Portuguese were smuggling priests into Japan through trade ships. At this time, Japan had little religious fervor.

The beginning of the was also the end of the exclusive Portuguese trade era. Japan began building their own warships to send embassies to Europe and the

Americas, but then quickly entered a period of isolation (sakoku) to prevent the looming

26 spread of Christianity.28 During sakoku, trade was mostly restricted to porcelain production in the Kyushu region. The isolated economy, which would not open again until the mid-18th century, was economically stable and run by daimyo. Rice was the base of the economy. However, despite isolation, Japanese scholars advanced society through the study of Western medicine, art, physical sciences, and more. The Nagasaki Harbor, a

Dutch trading outpost, was the sole economic contact with foreign entities during this time.

The Tokugawa Shogunate first maintained isolation in Japan, then later decided to open Japan economically in 1854.29 Before opening the country to foreign influence, there were bans on Christianity, as the primary religion during the Tokugawa Shogunate was

Confucianism. The Japanese economy grew and remained focused on agricultural production.30 During the period of open relations, Japan underwent several key changes.

First, an occurred, specializing in textiles. Because of the increased trade and industrialization, the feudal system became obsolete, allowing for more, albeit still limited, social mobility. Second, access to education increased, thereby reinforcing industrial progression. Third, Japan followed Western models of capitalism and military prowess, setting themselves up as a formidable foe on all grounds in the 20th Century.

Due to open interactions, Japan already adapted to many Western practices, for better or for worse, leading into the Meiji Restoration.

28 Battie, David, ed., Sotheby's Concise Encyclopedia of Porcelain, pp. 71-78, 1990, Conran Octopus. ISBN 1850292515 29 https://www.history.com/topics/japan/meiji-restoration 30 https://www.smithsonianmag.com/travel/wonders-and-whoppers-27166/

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Preventing Promulgation of Arms Trade

Due to its long history with China, Japan has a long history of . The first hand came from China in 1270 and was extremely basic, lacking triggers and sights. The Portuguese introduced advanced firearms in 1543 with the , soon afterward named tanegashima by the Japanese.31 This was because the lord of the island

Tanegashima ordered skilled Japanese metalsmiths to copy the design of the Portuguese . Production of matchlocks became widespread, and the Japanese used the arms in many important fights despite the lingering belief that they were quite cumbersome compared to the speed of traditional arrows. Because of this, firearms were mainly used by low-ranking soldiers or farmers who were less skilled with bows.

The skill of Japanese metalsmiths evolved matchlocks.

Soon, matchlocks had better range, better reload rates, and could even be fired in the rain. In 1567, many soldiers began wielding guns instead of traditional spears. Indeed, guns became so widespread that thousands were being produced annually and

Japanese invasions depended on guns. In the first Japanese invasion of Korea in 1592, about 30% of the force held firearms.32 However, the rapid increase in production would soon cease due to cultural shift.

With the rise of the Tokugawa Shogunate in 1603, arms manufacturing stopped.33

This was not due to a ban. Instead, there were suggested reasons for this decline. One

31 The bewitched gun: the introduction of the firearm in the Far East by the Portuguese, by Rainer Daehnhardt 1994 P.26 32 Noel Perrin, (1979). Giving up the gun: Japan's reversion to the sword, 1543-1879. David R Godine. ISBN 9780879237738.

28 theory was simply that the end of the “Warring States” Period made firearms irrelevant, and metalsmiths began to focus on other products instead. This makes sense in line with the Tokugawa Shogunate, who focused on isolation in the sakoku period. Another theory is that the Edo Shogunate forcefully ended gun production in many areas at the end of their rule in order to consolidate power. A final major theory was that cultural aversion to guns began to grow. Compared to other cultures at the time, the Japanese warrior class made up a large amount of the population, with about 5-7% of Japanese being warriors.

Samurai particularly saw this population as a threat, as their upper-class status was threatened by new military technology that was easier to use.During the period of low gun production, guns were mainly used for scaring off animals or hunting due to Japanese peace.

Seclusion for arms trade was considered the final step in halting proliferation by the daimyo. The most notable action for this cause was the Sakoku Edict of 1635.34 This edict sought to “eliminate any potential challenges to the Tokugawa, whether they be foreign of Japanese.” In doing so, three main actions were taken against guns and other threats. First, the Shogunate forbade Japanese ships going to foreign countries. Second, those individuals traveling outside Japan were to be punished to death. Third, the

Shogunate severely tightened regulations on foreigners trading with Japan. This regulation included a ban on the Macao-Nagasaki trade that was vital during this time.

In 1721, more actions were taken to limit gun production, this time through a restriction of knowledge.35 The Tokugawa Shogunate strove to limit knowledge of military

33 https://tgfblog.wordpress.com/2010/06/11/guns-in-medeaval-japan/ 34 Tanegashima: the arrival of Europe in Japan, Olof G. Lidin, Nordic Institute of Asian Studies, NIAS Press, 2002 P.1-14 35 http://history.emory.edu/home/documents/endeavors/volume5/gunpowder-age-v-astroth.pdf

29 technologies, including firearms, to monopolize access to these weapons. The Shogunate reviewed both existing documents and new ones entering the country to ensure they did not discuss firearm manufacturing. This, coupled with past efforts, kept the monopoly and tightening on firearms successful for nearly two centuries. However, this came to an abrupt end after the arrival of Commodore Perry in 1854, forcing Japan to update its firearm technology hurriedly.

30

Topic III: Modernization of Japan

Modernization up to this Point

Possibly the most important action of modernization undertaken by the Emperor has been the establishment of a national army and the forced conscription for four-year tours of service for all males twenty-one years of age. Organized in a similar way to the

Prussian military of Europe, his Majesty expects this newly established army to become a formidable force within the coming years.36 In order to more quickly modernize the military, the Emperor has been very open to government-sponsored trade with European powers in order to acquire modern weapons for the military, which has allowed the newly formed national military to acquire the necessary equipment to rival Western powers.

However, while it remains illegal for private citizens to own a firearm of any form, this increased weapons trade has encouraged a black market for the items which must be shut down. Thus, the untested national military has become a unifying force for the younger generation of Japanese men but remains unproven as they have not yet participated in a major battle.37 His Majesty has appointed several generals to oversee the army, but the actions and movements of the army itself remain in the hands of the advisors to the

Emperor.

The Emperor has also made land reform a priority of this cabinet. Currently, the private land ownership does not exist without the Meiji state; however, his Majesty has begun to take steps towards the legalization of this practice.38 Tax reform is also a key

36 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_military_modernization_of_1868%E2%80%931931 37 https://www.jstor.org/stable/2049123?seq=3#metadata_info_tab_contents 38 https://jameshoward.us/2018/04/02/meiji-land-reforms-and-modernization/

31 issue closely tied to the legal establishment of the legality of private ownership, which must be taken into account; currently, the majority of the population subsist as farmers.

Additionally, the introduction of newer farming equipment has led to more efficient farming among farmers, freeing up more of the population to internally migrate to the larger population centers within Japan.

Another major reform undertaken by his Majesty since assuming control of the country has been the national movement towards a more Westernized education system.

Modeled after the

European and

American systems, the Emperor would like to begin the construction of schools throughout the Japanese state which will serve both the male and female members of the populace.39 His Majesty expects these schools to increase literacy and the intelligence of low-level bureaucratic members of his government in the coming years. The Emperor has established the goal of the creation of eight new universities, 256 secondary schools, and 27,076 elementary schools throughout the country, but has left it up to his advisors to determine the specifics in regards to how the construction of these schools will be implemented.40 Additionally, as of now, Elementary Education is only mandatory for 18 months for all Japanese citizens;

39 http://chnm.gmu.edu/cyh/case-studies/125 40 https://wiki.samurai-archives.com/index.php?title=Meiji_education

32 however, his Majesty believes that raising this age would continue to increase the intelligence of his people. Finally, the Ministry of Education has been formally established, earlier in 1871, with the mandate to oversee the creation and organization of these new schools and will surely play an important part in the future of our country.

Other Modernization Goals

Although the new government has made serious strides towards becoming a world power styled after the England, Germany, and the United States, the Meiji Emperor wishes to implement many improvements in the country in the coming years. First is an increase in the speed of industrialization within Japan. Government experts have estimated that there are currently less than 2,000 factories within Japan, most of them employing less than 100 workers.41 If the newly established government is to rival the

Western powers, industrialization must be exponentially increased. The Emperor cedes the decision of how to increase industrial capacity within the country to his council of advisors, but he expects the council to make identifiable strides towards a more industrialized future. Additionally, his Majesty believes that key to this push for industrialization is an expansive railway system, and has commissioned the construction of a railroad from Tokyo to Ōsaka.42 However, this single railroad alone will not suffice for the industrialization that the Emperor wishes to implement, thus, a focus on the expansion of the railway system will be certain to increase an advisor’s standing with the

Emperor. It is also necessary to begin construction of several deep-water harbors and ship-building yards, which will allow for Japan to increase its capacity for both trade and

41 https://www.tcd.ie/Economics/assets/pdf/SER/2005/Alexander_David_Brown.pdf 42 https://eh.net/encyclopedia/japanese-industrialization-and-economic-growth/

33 maritime warfare.43 Both and have been identified as possible locations for future deep-water ports, but no action have yet been undertaken to transform these cities into municipalities capable of facilitating international trade.

The current taxation system, inherited from the Tokugawa Shogunate, relies heavily on self-reporting by poor farmers and the implementation of this system by local daimyōs.44 The Emperor finds this unacceptable. This system, based upon the ritsuryō codes from the 7th century, includes the payment of taxes in grains, mainly rice, to the local daimyōs who then forward a portion of it to the government. For years this has served as an avenue through which farmers and local elites have been able to fraudulently submit taxes, skimming off portions of the rice and grain for themselves. Additionally, as of now, there is no unified tax system, as the land owned and sub-leased under the elites is taxed at a different rate, often depending on the status of the elite family which owns it, than the remainder of the country.45 In order to assist his advisors in beginning the process of reforming the tax system, his Majesty has created the Tax Bureau which has the ability to change the tax-rate and rules by command of this council; however, all determination must be ratified through passage of a directive ordering the Bureau to change policy. The

Emperor and officials within the Tax Bureau have theorized that a 3% tax based upon the expected yield of the land would cover planned government spending in the coming years, but several officials have warned that this may be too high of a price for the people to tolerate.46 Additionally, the Emperor wishes for the country to begin the move towards a

43 http://japanology.org/2016/09/7-ways-the-meiji-restoration-shaped-modern-japan/ 44 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_Tax_Reform_(Japan_1873) 45http://www.columbia.edu/~dew35/PDF/SlidesF03/W4325C04%20Development%20of%20Banking%20and %20Industry.pdf 46 https://jordanahjilljessiesarah.weebly.com/economic-change.html

34 purely monetary-exchange system, as opposed to the payment of taxes in crops, which he also expects to be implemented within the coming days.

Expansion of Japanese Land-Holdings

Another issue which this committee must address is the decision to attempt to exert military control over nearby land in order to prevent further colonization by

European powers. The Chinese experience in the Opium Wars, which both ended in the cessation of certain rights, including land, to the British, is an error which Japan must not repeat. Thus, some have argued that invasion of and control of Korea or , both currently controlled by the Qing Empire may dually serve as a way through which the

Meiji Government is able to test the effectiveness of the reformed military in addition to distracting European powers from a possible invasion of Japan.47 Additionally, this land continue to expand Japan’s ability to trade, both with Western powers and asian allies and would serve as a buffer against advances made by any nearby countries or Empires.

However, these assessments must be carefully considered, as failure in any foreign military campaign could result in a loss of faith which could do harm to the newly established government. Current knowledge regarding the strength of the Qing Empire and imperial ambitions by Western powers continue to remain unknown; however, both the option of territorial expansion and the option of exclusive focus on domestic issues have possible negative repercussions, so advancement towards territorial expansion should be carefully considered.48

47 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing_dynasty 48http://asianhistory.oxfordre.com/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277727.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277727- e-84

35

36

Positions

Note: There are several anachronistic specifics regarding the lives and deaths of members of this council; however, at the advent of committee, all below listed positions will be considered alive and members of the Emperor’s advisory council.

Itō Hirobumi (b. 1841)

Minister of Economic Reform

Born Hayashi Risuke, Itō was the son of a lower-ranking samurai from modern-day

Yamaguchi Prefecture. He was tutored by Yoshida Shōin who helped foster Itō’s interest in the growing social movement which supported the legitimacy of the Emperor to rule

Japan instead of the Shogun. In 1863, he was one of five students from

Prefecture chosen to study at the University College of London, where he became convinced that Japan needed to Westernize. Upon returning to Japan, Itō became a key philosophical leader in the Restoration and before being appointed as the governor of

Hyōgo Prefecture in 1868. In 1870, was commissioned by the new Meiji Government to travel to the United States to study Western currency after which he has helped to begin discussions regarding the new Japanese taxation system. Itō is one of the champions of the

Westernization within the Meiji System and has been known to fight with the more conservative members of the Meiji movement. His has great disdain for traditional

Japanese culture and believes that it holds Japan back from future development.

37

Matsukata Masayoshi (b. 1835)

Minister of Tax Reform

Born in modern-day Prefecture to a samurai family, at the age of 13, he entered a Confucian Academy where he was taught loyalty to the Emperor. After beginning his professional career as a bureaucrat, Matsukata studied Western mathematics and western science in Nagasaki where he became friends with Ōkubo Toshimichi and Saigō Takamori.

Prior to the advent of the Boshin war, Matsukata purchased a ship, named Kasuga, which was originally chartered as a transport ship during the conflict but was later repurposed as a warship and saw action fighting against the Tokugawa forces. While Matsukata served as captain of the Kasuga only very briefly, the ship, which remains outfitted with weapons, is still under his command. After the Restoration, Matsukata was appointed governor of

Ōita Prefecture due to the recommendation of Ōkubo Toshimichi where he instituted infrastructure reform and began construction of the new port of . He was then summoned to Tokyo and began consultation in regards to the tax reform which the

Emperor had requested. Matsukata is another major proponent of Westernization within

Japan; however, he continues to value Japanese culture and hopes that Japan is able to modernize without losing its original culture. Along with Itō Hirobumi, Matsukata is one of the preeminent officials in regards to tax reform.

Kido Takayoshi (b. 1833)

Constitutional Minister to the Emperor

Born Wada Kogorō in to a samurai physician, Kido was adopted by the Katsura family at the age of seven before the death of his adoptive father, left him the

38 head of the Katsura clan at the age of nine. He then studied under Yoshida Shōin from whom he adopted a serious brand of Imperial loyalism. In 1852, he visited Edo where he studied swordsmanship and techniques under Tokugawa officials before returning to Yamaguchi Prefecture to assist in the construction of domain’s first western-style warship. Upon the outbreak of the Restoration, Kido was serving as a liaison between discontented samurai and the shogunate in Edo before coming under suspicion for revolutionary activity and being transferred to Kyōto. However, while in Kyōto he was involved in a series of clashes between government and revolutionary forces, narrowly escaping imprisonment or death by the forces of the shogunate on multiple occasions. He was influential in the establishment of the alliance between Satsuma and Chōshū domains along with Ōkubo Toshimichi, Saigō Takamori, and Sakamoto Ryōma. After the overthrow of the shogunate, Kido was instrumental in the writing of the Five Charter Oath and initiated modernization within the government. Kido remains an influential figure within the Meiji Government; however, his pacifist views in regards to violence of any form, specifically in regards to possible invasions of other countries has made him unpopular among his fellow advisors.

Itagaki Taisuke (b. 1837)

Minister of Social Reform

Itagaki was born to a middle-ranking samurai family in Kōchi Prefecture on .

After completing studies in his home prefecture and in Edo, Itagaki was hired as a counselor to the daimyō of Kōchi Prefecture. Stationed in Edo, Itagaki was responsible for the daimyō’s accounts and military matters within the military . However,

39 he disagreed with the daimyō’s support for the shogunate and met with Saigō Takamori, to whom he pledged the forces of Kōchi Prefecture in case of an armed uprising against the shogun. Over the course of the Boshin War, Itagaki became a renowned political and military leader for Kōchi and assumed a position within the Meiji Government after the defeat of the shogunate. He was appointed to the position of Councilor of State in 1869 and has been a major proponent of the abolition of the samurai class. His constant crusade for the complete destruction of the feudal system which existed before the revolution have led him into conflict with some of the more conservative members of the council, including his former friend Saigō Takamori.

Yamagata Aritomo (b. 1838)

Minister of the War Department

Serving as one of the most successful generals during the Meiji Restoration, Yamagata was born in Yamaguchi Prefecture to a lower-ranked samurai family. Like Itō Hirobumi and

Kido Takayoshi, Yamagata was schooled by Yoshida Shōin, where he developed an interest in the growing underground revolutionary movement. As a result of this interest and his propensity for military command, Yamagata became the commander of a paramilitary force within Yamaguchi Prefecture, named the . After the success of the revolution, the majority of the kiheitai was disbanded; however, this has left Yamagata with a select number of loyal ex-samurai and extensive military connections within Japan.

During the establishment of the new Meiji Military, Yamagata, along with Saigō Jūdō, was chosen by the Emperor to oversee the modernization of the Meiji military. After traveling to Europe, the pair were impressed by the success of Prussian industrialization and

40 determined to model the newly minted Japanese military after the Prussian military.

During his travels abroad, Yamagata adopted the views of the Prussian state, including military expansion abroad and a strong, centralized state at home. Since returning to

Japan, he has been named War Minister, in charge of the Meiji Army. He is one of the greatest proponents of territorial expansion for Japan and believes that a strong, centralized government is the most efficient means of governing the populace. In his free time, Yamagata is famous for his gardening.

Mori Arinori (b. 1847)

Ambassador to the United States

Mori was born to a middle-class samurai family in and received his basic education at the Kaisenjo School for Western Learning. Afterwards, he completed his education at University College London where he studied mathematics, physics, and naval surveying. He was completing his education in London during the Boshin War; however, upon the ascension of the Emperor, he returned to Japan and quickly earned a place in the new Meiji Government. Due to his wide breadth of Western-cultural knowledge and fluency in English, Mori was chosen as the Japanese Ambassador to the

United States in early 1871. He has advocated for more liberal policies within Japanese society, including freedom of religion, secular education, women’s rights, and the substitution of English as the national language of Japan. He is one of the foremost experts in regards to Western education systems and his input was influential in the educational reforms which have thus far been completed. Despite his distance from Japan, he uses his

41 political sway to publish essays expositing on his political opinions in a number of newspapers based in Tokyo.

Ōkubo Toshimichi (b. 1830)

Minister of Internal Affairs

Ōkubo was born to a low-ranking retainer samurai of the daimyō of Kagoshima Prefecture.

He studied at the same school as Saigō Takamori, who was several years older, before being given a position aiding the prefecture’s archivist. After eventually reaching the position of tax administrator for Kagoshima, Ōkuba eventually joined the movement to overthrow the shogunate with his protege Ōyama Iwao, a position which was only enforced by violent encounters with Europeans. This led to Ōkubo forming an alliance with Saigō Takamori and Kido Takayoshi which culminated in the Restoration, after which the three formed a provisional government to facilitate the transition. Appointed as the Minister of the Home, Ōkubo had the power to appoint local governors and was responsible for drafting and reforming the police force. He used the power to appoint some of his friends, including , to positions of power and used government funds to begin infrastructure projects all-over Japan. Named Minister of Economic Reform in 1871, he has been influential in the movement for a reformed taxation system and the slow abolition of the samurai class. He is considered one of the most power men in Japan, and while his power has been divested to other individuals throughout the government, his sway on the reform movement within Japan is unparalleled.

42

Saigō Takamori (b. 1828)

Minister of Military Reform

Named Saigō Kokichi at birth, Saigō Takamori was born in Kagoshima Prefecture along with his younger brother, Saigō Jūdō. From a poor samurai family, Saigō began his career as a low-ranking samurai official before being recruited by the daimyō of Kagoshima to travel to Edo in an attempt to reconcile the Imperial Line and the shogunate. During a series of purges focussed against anti-shogunate protestors in 1858, Saigō was arrested and exiled to a series of islands before finally being pardoned in 1864. After the advents of the Restoration, Saigō’s refusal to abide by the negotiated solution, specifically in regards to the lack of punitive measures taken against the shogunate, was one of the key factors which led to the Boshin War. During the war, Saigō served as a general, leading the imperial army to several victories over the course of the conflict. However, after gaining a position of power within the Meiji Government after the end of the war, Saigō began to oppose some of the policies imposed by the new government. While he remains in favor of the modernization of the military, Saigō has argued that money spent on any other infrastructure reform is a waste. Additionally, he sees the cultural changes imposed by the new government as corrupting to Japanese culture as a whole and is very unhappy with the suppression of the samurai class. He believes that an invasion of Korea, which refuses to recognize the Meiji Emperor as legitimate, will lend credence to the new government.

He is also semi-famous for his poetry and has recently established a school for training new samurai in Kagoshima prefecture.

43

Yoshida Shōin (b. 1830)

Philosophical Minister to the Emperor

Born Sugi Toranosuke in Yamaguchi Prefecture to a middle-rank samurai, he was adopted by the Yoshida family, which he became the heir to at the age of five. The Yoshida family served as the instructor to the heirs of the daimyō in military studies, helping to impart an interest in teaching to Shōin from a young age. In 1853, Yoshida was granted a stipend to study throughout Japan, with which he traveled to Edo at a time when Matthew Perry’s expedition first arrived. Upon Perry’s return trip, Yoshida determined to gain access to the ship so that he would have the opportunity to study in Western nations, which was illegal at the time. However, after being caught by shogunate forces, he was thrown in prison, from which he began a school. This school and the philosophical and political ideas progressed by Yoshida were very influential to a number of samurai, including Itō

Hirobumi, Kido Takayoshi, and . Several years after his release,

Yoshida, along with a number of his students, attempted to assassinate the courier of a daimyō. For this, he was once again thrown in prison and left there until he was pardoned by the Emperor after the Restoration. His political and philosophical ideas are credited as the basis for the Restoration and the series of schools he established remain hubs for

Imperial loyalty.

Sir Ernest Satow (b. 1843)

Foreign Advisory Consultant

Born in London, England, to a German father and English mother, Satow attended

University College London before being recruited by the British Foreign Office after

44 graduation. He was a member of the British force which attacked the city of to ensure the continued safe passage of foreign ships in the straight between Southern

Honshū and Kyūshū. At a time when officials fluent in both English and Japanese was very rare, Satow’s zeal for translations contributed to his rise within the Foreign Office.

He quickly made himself indispensable in the negotiations between the British Foreign

Office and the Tokugawa Shogunate. Prior to the Restoration, he was promoted to

Japanese Secretary to the British Legation in Japan and was one of the foremost English- language experts on Japanese. His travels throughout Japan led to relationships with a number of Meiji officials, including Itō Hirobumi, , and Saigō Takamori, even permitting his appointment to the Emperor’s advisory council as a consultant on . Due to his European nationality, he is vaguely distrusted amongst the committee and has very little influence among the Japanese population; however, he is a founding member of the Asiatic Society of Japan and has published a number of essays regarding

Japan in England.

Takasugi Shinsaku (b. 1839)

Minister of Military Strategy

Born in Yamaguchi Prefecture to a middle-ranked samurai, Takasugi experienced several serious bouts of sickness, including a case of smallpox, as a child. Nevertheless, he joined as was very successful in the school founded by Yoshida Shōin, quickly becoming the teacher’s favorite student. He then entered a military school overseen by the shogunate, but was devastated by the second arrest and subsequent jailing of his teacher. He returned home to Yamaguchi, where he became one of the foremost proponents of seclusion and

45 national isolation. Despite this, he was part of a mission to where he was shocked by European within China and he returned to Japan convinced that it was necessary to modernize the military to prevent colonization. He began to promulgate the idea of citizen , founding a paramilitary , called the kiheitai, in Yamaguchi. Despite being imprisoned for his anti-government activities, Takasugi was soon called upon to help modernize the military of Yamaguchi, drawing inspiration from his own experiments with the kiheitai. During this period, he developed close friendships with several influential samurai, including Yamagata Aritomo, Itō Hirobumi, and Inoue

Kaoru. After the prefecture’s defeat by a European military expedition, the shogunate sent troops to help quell the fomenting rebellion in the area; however, Takasugi was able to use an westernized kiheitai to great effect, inspiring other unhappy prefectures into joining the rebellion, spurring the Restoration. Unfortunately, Takasugi was forced to resign his position as leader of the kiheitai at the beginning of the Restoration due to poor health; however, he remains a key military advisor and a champion of conservative Japanese views within the council.

Sakamoto Ryōma (b. 1836)

Imperial Consultant for Close-Quarters Combat

Sakamoto Ryōma was born to a family of brewers who had purchased the rank of samurai in Kōchi Prefecture on Shikoku. From a young age, he showed little inclination towards academic prowess; however, he began the study of swordsmanship and was widely- considered a master swordsman by the time he reached maturity. He then traveled to Edo, perfecting his swordsmanship before establishing an academy through which he taught

46 fencing. Due to a disagreement regarding the future of the prefecture, Sakamoto abandoned his daimyō, becoming a ronin. It was during this era that he began to receive serious persecution for his anti-shogunate activities, forcing him to flee Kagoshima where he helped broker the peace agreement between Kagoshima and Yamaguchi. As an anti- shogunate agitator, he was seriously injured in an assassination attempt against Sakamoto and Nakaoka Shintarō just prior to the Restoration, but is still considered one of the most proficient swordsman in all of Japan. Sakamoto remains a unique combination of a pro- modernization, anti-westernization warrior, even going so far as to wear traditional samurai robes with western footwear.

Saigō Jūdō (b. 1843)

Minister of the Navy

Born, along with his older brother Saigō Takamori in Kagoshima to a poor samurai family.

His early career consisted of working as a tea-serving Buddhist monk for the daimyō of

Kagoshima Prefecture, eventually returning to secular life. He then joined the movement to overthrow the Tokugawa Shogunate and served as the commander of Kagoshima’s army in the Boshin War. These battles, in which Saigō led his forces to victory proved to be decisive, helping ensure the victory of Imperial forces. After the conclusion of the war,

Saigō, along with Yamagata Aritomo were commissioned to travel to Europe in 1869 to study European military organizations and tactics. He was impressed by the Prussian army, but found the naval capacity of European states to be astounding. He returned to

Japan with the belief that the modernization of Japan’s navy was of tantamount importance and was given the responsibility of updating Japan’s backwards navy. Despite

47 being close, he does not share his brother’s fondness for traditional Japanese culture and it is not uncommon to hear the two fighting about it. While he alone does not possess the capacity to order the navy towards aggressive measures, his responsibility for the construction of a modern navy allows him a great amount of power over Japan’s naval prowess.

Inoue Kaoru (b. 1836)

Minister of Foreign Affairs

Born Yakichi to a lower-ranked samurai family in Yamaguchi Prefecture, where he became a close boyhood friend of Itō Hirobumi during their school years. To complete his studies, he traveled to Edo where he studied western medicine, artillery, and swordsmanship, becoming proficient in all three. He then returned to Yamaguchi and became involved with the anti-foreigner movement growing within the province. Through this movement, he became friends with , but Inoue eventually became a member of the group of students smuggled out of Japan to attend University College

London with Itō Hirobumi. After returning to Japan, Inoue was wounded while facing shogunate forces prior to the beginning of the Boshin War, but was nevertheless able to help broker peace between Kagoshima and Yamaguchi. After the Restoration, Inoue was given the position of Minister of Foreign Affairs through which he became the a key voice regarding interactions with other nations. Despite this, some officials have questioned a possible conflict of interest, as Inoue has heavily invested in railroad projects, with materials bought from western countries, throughout Japan.

48

Nakaoka Shintarō (b. 1838)

Minister of Domestic Affairs for Shikoku

Nakaoka was born in Kōchi Prefecture as the son of a village administrator. He studied swordsmanship at several schools before becoming a founding member of a paramilitary militia. He was then forced to flee to Yamaguchi Prefecture with several nobles including

Sanjō Sanetomi after a governmental crackdown. In Yamaguchi, Nakaoka become friends with Sakamoto Ryōma and helped to broker peace between Kagoshima and Yamaguchi.

Just prior to the beginning of the Boshin War, Nakaoka returned to Kōchi where he founded another paramilitary militia, modeled after the one created by Takasugi Shinsaku.

However, he was gravely injured in the assassination attempt against himself and

Sakamoto Ryōma in 1867, preventing him from taking an active role in the Boshin War.

Despite this, Nakaoka is a respected leader, especially in Kōchi, and while the militia which he founded has been disbanded since the success of the Restoration, Nakaoka has surrounded himself with a loyal group of former samurai. Additionally, because of his assistance in the Restoration, Nakaoka was named administrator of the island of Shikoku within the new Meiji Government, allowing him serious influence on the island.

Prince Sanjō Sanetomi (b. 1837)

Chancellor of the Realm

A member of the Japanese Imperial Court, Prince Sanjō was born in Kyoto and held several important positions in the Imperial Court at the beginning of his career. However, due to his anti-shogunate stance, Sanjō was eventually forced to flee to Yamaguchi, where he met Nakaoka Shintarō. He began working with the rebellion forces and was

49 instrumental in the initial construction of the interim government after the Restoration. As the government became more centralized and more efficiently organized, Sanjō was promoted to Chancellor of the Realm in 1871. Of all the newly named administrative officials, he is the one with the most bureaucratic experience, as he worked with the court before the Restoration and after. Sanjō is considered an exemplary official in his beliefs that Japan must both westernize and modernize, while being careful to retain elements of its innate culture. While his position technically classifies him as the right-hand advisor to the Emperor in charge of the entire Meiji bureaucracy, in reality, his power is concentrated in the municipalities of Kyoto and Tokyo, where is able to control municipal legislation.

Yokoi Shōnan (b. 1809)

Minister of Religious Reform

As one of the oldest members of the advisory council, Yokoi is respected, but many written-off as a crazy old man by many members of the council. Born in

Prefecture, he completed his studies in Edo before returning to his home to begin a school.

He was then asked to become the political advisor to a local daimyō, where he published several essays arguing that, despite Shinto, Buddhism, and Confucianism, Japan lacked a national religion, putting it at a disadvantage compared to Western powers. While his ideas were not well-received by the shogunate, the idea of a unifying, national religion was welcomed by the Restoration movement and influenced the ideas of many budding revolutionaries. Despite this, he continued in his employment of the daimyō, further inflaming tensions by arguing for the complete abolishment of the shogunate and radical

50 economic and social reform within Japan. After publishing these outrageous ideas, Yokoi was stripped of his position and placed under house arrest in Kumamoto until he was freed after the Restoration. In 1869, he barely survived an assassination attempt by a conservative samurai who suspected Yakoi of being a Christian; however, before assuming his position in the court, Yayoi swore that he harbors no secret affinity for Christianity. He is the foremost scholar on religion within the advisory council.

Sakuma Shōzan (b. 1811)

Minister of Western Science and Development

Like Yokoi Shōnan, Sakuma is one of the eldest members of the advisory council. He was the son of a middle-class samurai and scholar from . He completed his education in Edo, where he became an expert in western science and medicine. He became familiar with the processes necessary to make glass, magnets, thermometers, telegraphs, and cameras in addition to developing an extensive knowledge of both

European and Japanese naval and army tactics. As a result of this, he became convinced of the necessity of modernizing Japan’s military and coined the phrase “Eastern ethics,

Western technical knowledge”. He was sentenced to house arrest for attempting to assist

Yoshida Shōin gain access to Commodore Perry’s ships, where he continued to expand his knowledge on Western science. His ideas were influential in regards to the possibility of retaining Japanese culture while simultaneously modernizing Japan. However, due to his extreme ideas, he was nearly assassinated on several occasions, and was only saved by a tip from his mistress Ochō on one occasion. His position is written off by many on the council, but Sakuma takes his job of experimenting with Western science very seriously.

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Saitō Hajime (b. 1844)

Captain of the Tokyo Police Force

Saitō was born to a potter in Edo where he completed school and studying swordsmanship. He is a unique part of this council as he was one of a select number who fought for the shogunate during the Boshin War. Serving as a captain for shogunate forces during the Boshin War, Saitō sustained injuries several times and, as Imperial forces came closer to victory, barely escaped death on the battlefield. He was finally captured by

Imperial forces in 1868 and taken to where he was held as a prisoner of war. However, he was soon released and took up residence in Tokyo where he found work as a police officer. Due to his intelligence and hard work, Saitō was able to quickly ascend the ranks of the Tokyo police force and, after the death of the then-captain in early 1871,

Saitō was chosen as the new captain. While he has little power over the creation of legislation, the council relies on Saitō to impose Imperial law within the capital city. Some of the more conservative members of the council, especially Takasugi Shinsaku, resent him for his service to the shogunate, but most ministers do not begrudge him, as he has sworn fealty to the Emperor since that time.

Ōyama Iwao (b. 1842)

European Foreign Policy Consultant to the Emperor

Born to a samurai family in Kagoshima, Ōyama served as the protege to Ōkubo Toshimichi and quickly gained his master’s respect. He showed a propensity for military tactics and served as the commander of a brigade during the Boshin War. At the Battle of Aizu, he served as the commander of Imperial artillery forces, which proved to be important in

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Imperial victory, despite the fact that Ōyama was wounded by guerilla shogunate forces during the battle. In 1870, he was commissioned to travel to France, where he continued his military education at École spéciale militaire de Saint-Cyr, a French military academy.

Additionally, he served as an observer on the French side of the Franco-Prussian war before moving to Geneva to study Russian. As of the advent of the council, Ōyama remains in Geneva, but is serving as an important policy advisor to the Emperor. He owns and runs a newspaper in Kyoto which publishes articles on European society for the populace of

Japan and remains knowledgeable about the latest advances in European artillery tactics

Iwakura Tomomi (b. 1825)

Minister of the Department of Imperial Legitimacy

Iwakura was born in Kyoto as the second-son of a low-ranking courtier and nobleman in the Imperial court. In 1854, he became a chamberlain to the then-Emperor where he began to oppose the opening of Japan to outside countries. Because of his views, which were perceived as pro-shogunate, he was banished from the court just prior to the beginning of the Restoration; however, he partnered with Saigō Takamori and Ōkubo

Toshimichi in 1868 to help plan the seizure of the , helping to initiate the Restoration. As he was familiar with the before he was instated as sovereign, Iwakura was given a position within the newly-newly formed Meiji government. His push for the publication of the Charter Oath and the abolition of the samurai class proved that he was loyal to the new government and helped to ensure the legitimacy of the new government. Despite his older age, Iwakura has suggested the formation of a delegation of ministers from the council to travel the world and learn about

53 western ideas; however, there has been no official ruling on the matter yet. Whether granted his wish or not, it is likely that Iwakura will travel the world, as he harbors a thirst for knowledge about other cultures.

Yamaguchi Naoyoshi (b. 1841)

Minister of the National Railroad System

Born to a lower-ranking samurai in Kagoshima Prefecture, Yamaguchi received a basic education in his home province before continuing his studies in Edo. From a young age, he showed a special interest in Western technology, especially transportation. He was in Edo when Commodore Perry sailed into the harbor, an experience which left a lasting impression on him. He served upon a vessel of the newly-formed Imperial navy during the

Boshin War and became convinced that Japan needed to update all facets of its economy in order to be able to resist western influence. Yamaguchi identified Japan’s lack of public transportation as a key disadvantage and, after the Restoration, began campaigning for a nationalized railway system. Due to his interest in Western technology, Yamaguchi was sent to University College London, where he completed his education, returning as head of the railway system. In order to maximize infrastructure reform, Yamaguchi formed close connections with Itō Hirobumi and Ōkubo Toshimichi in an effort to construct a railroad system throughout Japan as quickly as possible. The nationalized railway system which

Yamaguchi has attempted to create often comes into conflict with the railroad company owned by Inoue Kaoru their debates have been observed both in public and in private.