A Historical Look at Technology and Society in Japan (1500-1900) An essay based on a talk given by Dr. Eiichi Maruyama at the PART 1 Japan-Sweden Science Club (JSSC) annual meeting, Tokyo, 31 Gunpowder and Biotechnology October 1997. - Ukiyo-e and Microlithography Dr. Maruyama studied science history, scientific philosophy, and phys- In many parts of the world, and Japan was no exception, the 16th ics at the University of Tokyo. After graduating in 1959, he joined Century was a time of conflict and violence. In Japan, a number of Hitachi Ltd., and became director of the company’s advanced re- feudal lords were embroiled in fierce battles for survival. The battles search laboratory in 1985. He was director of the Angstrom Tech- produced three victors who attempted, one after another, to unify nology Partnership, and is currently a professor at the National Japan. The last of these was Ieyasu Tokugawa, who founded a “per- Graduate Institute for Policy Studies. manent” government which lasted for two and a half centuries before it was overthrown and replaced by the Meiji Government in Introduction 1868. Japanese industry today produces many technically advanced prod- ucts of high quality. There may be a tendency to think that Japan One particularly well documented battle was the Battle of Nagashino has only recently set foot on the technological stage, but there are in 1575. This was a showdown between the organized gunmen of numerous records of highly innovative ideas as far back as the 16th the Oda-Tokugawa Allies (two of the three unifiers) and the in- century that have helped to lay the foundations for the technologi- trepid cavalry of Takeda, who was the most formidable barrier to cal prowess of modern day Japan. The aim of this essay is to shed unification under Nobunaga. Three groups of untrained infantry light on some historical aspects of the technological development men with 3,000 match-lock guns completely defeated the troops of Japan that might otherwise be overlooked, and in certain cases of veteran horsemen by cyclical firing of their weapons. Historians are not even well documented. regard this tactic as being Nobunaga’s invention, occurring as it did about 30 years prior to its introduction on a European battle ground. Table 1 is a list of important historical periods in Japan from AD The events leading to the victory date back to 1543 when a Portu- 250 to the present day that will serve as a useful reference to this guese ship was wrecked off a small island off the south-west of series of essays. Kyushu called Tanegashima. The ship bore a pair of match-lock guns. The Lord of Tanegashima, a 15-year old youth named Tokitaka The first part of the essay discusses some early examples of Japa- Tanegashima, cleverly recognized the benefit of possessing firearms nese biotechnology and microlithography; the second part relates and purchased the guns at a price of 2,000 ryo (equivalent to to the organisation and management of people and the develop- $1,000,000 at today’s prices). He then ordered his retainers to copy ment of a highly sophisticated socio-technological infrastructure; the design and manufacture duplicates. Historical archives show the third and final part concerns changes in education and scien- that when the Portuguese returned to Tanegashima two years later, tific thought following the Meiji Restoration in 1868. they were very surprised to find guns being manufactured there. As a result of mass production at Kunitomo in Oumi (now Shiga), Periods Dates Negoro in Kishu (now Wakayama) and Sakai (presently Osaka), even Nara 710- 794 before the start of the Battle of Nagashino in 1575 there were Heian 794-1185 more than 100,000 guns in Japan. The gun-making technology Kamakura 1192-1333 was greatly facilitated by the presence of traditional iron-making Muromachi 1338-1573 and forging industries, known as tatara, which had been nurtured by the swordsmiths and provided a plentiful supply of high quality Aduchi-Momoyama 1573-1600 iron for the gunsmith. Edo 1603-1867 Meiji 1868-1912 Gunpowder Taisho 1912-1926 Showa 1926-1989 Another factor that contributed to the growth of the gun industry in Japan was the supply of gunpowder. Black gunpowder is made Heisei 1989- from charcoal, sulphur and potassium nitrate, known also as nitre. Table I Japanese Periods While charcoal and sulphur were abundantly available, nitre, which is readily soluble in water, did not exist naturally in Japan and had, 22 JSAP International No.1 (January 2000) JSAPI Page 22 01.3.19, 10:06 AM Adobe PageMaker 6.5J/PPC consequently, always been imported from China. However, by us- PART 2 ing an early form of biotechnology Japan managed to secure a Socio-Technological Infrastructure stable supply of nitre from its own resources. The process used for making the nitre was as follows. A rain-proof hut was built with a During the Edo Period the practice of “sankin kotai” (1) contrib- one metre square fireplace in the centre around which several one uted to the establishment of a very efficient socio-technological metre deep holes were dug. Stacked layers of mugwort leaves, silk- infrastructure in Japan. This was because if approximately 260 worms’ excreta and chicken droppings were thrown alternately into daimyos spread over Japan travel back and forth between Edo and the holes. The holes were then covered with earth and warmed by their respective domains once every other year, it is necessary to the heat from the fireplace. establish an extensive traffic management system, including chains Subsequently, human urine (a good source of nitrogen!) was added of relay stations to provide lodgings, horses, labourers, food and and the material in the holes was left for four to five years. During other provisions, distributed along major paths. For instance, about this time the various materials underwent a series of chemical reac- 130 daimyos having domains in the western part of Japan had to tions: the nitrogen compounds (urea and uric acid) in the excreta pass through a sekisho (checkpoint) at Hakone. Since most of the decomposed into ammonia, this was then converted by bacteria jounrneys involved during sankin kotai were scheduled in Spring, into nitric acid which reacted in turn with potassium in the mugwort the relay station at Hakone had to accept daimyo processions ev- leaves to form the potassium nitrate or nitre. Subsequently, the eryday. This required a systemmatic operation based on a precise contents of the holes were dug out and put into a barrel with a timetable, flexible adjustment to cope with unexpected accidents perforated bottom. Water was then poured in from the top to leach such as storms and flooding, and effective information gathering or dissolve out the nitre. The resulting solution was then refined on the part of the relay stations. The money spent by the Daimyo and dried to make a pure product. during this biennial journey was mostly used for maintenance of the traffic infrastructure. There is a byobu (folding screen) portray- Ukiyo-e and Imaging Technology ing a view of daimyo gyoretsu (procession) of the Kaga-han involv- ing more than 2,000 people. They shuttled between Kanazawa, The introduction of Ukiyo-e to Paris in 1850 created enormous en- home city of the Maeda, and Edo, walking 600 kilometers in a thusiasm for this form of Japanese art. Its fresh and simple use of fortnight every other year. The Maeda spent about 200 million Yen colour together with its bold and clear designs was highly appreci- per single journey at current prices. The establishment of a traffic ated. Indeed, many impressionist and post-impressionist artists such infrastructure stimulated tourism among the general public. They as Monet, van Gogh and Degas were so deeply affected by Ukiyo- enjoyed travelling in groups to Ise Shrine. According to statistics, e art that they used its concepts in their own works. Ukiyo-e is a nearly 3 million people, about 10 % of the total population of the multi-coloured wooden block print which can be thought of as a nation at the time, visited Ise each year. The Japanese fondness for high-precision colour printing technology. A painter creates an origi- teamed tourism seems to have been inherited from this period. nal picture design and a team of wood cutters engrave that picture into a number of wooden blocks, one for each of the different The long distance travel of a daimyo on sankin kotai required fre- colours.Finally, a print is made using the seven or eight wooden quent communication between his home and Edo by hikyaku or blocks in accurate registration. Extreme care is required to prevent courier system. At that time, a courier ran from Edo to Kyoto in misalignment. A deluxe version of this technique called Nishiki-e about 10 days, while an express courier on relayed horses covered also exists in which each print is made with 50 or 60 blocks, using the distance in 2 days. This speed is comparable to that of the a powder of gold and silver foil as well as the ordinary dyes on current mailing system. embossed paper. These prints are treasured by connoisseurs world- wide. Centralized Economy Techniques analogous to those of Ukiyo-e are used in the The feudalism of Japan in the Edo Period was somewhat different microlithography industry in Japan today. For example, the fabri- from that in Medieval Europe. Feudal lords or daimyos were given cation of microelectronic circuits such as the 256-megabit DRAM, autonomous political authority for their domains, but the economy where l0 to 15 separate exposures are required, employs multiple was fully centralized.