Conservation and Restoration of Cultural Heritage Textiles Specialisation

A cap? A collar? A 17th century puzzle from the Rijksmuseum collection: A case study on object interpretation in textile conservation Master’s thesis

Student: María José Moreno Parada, 11618671

Supervisor: René Lugtigheid Second Reader: Emilie Froment

Submission Date: 26th July 2019

University of Amsterdam Amsterdam A cap? A collar? A 17th century puzzle from the Rijksmuseum collection

CONTENTS

Acknowledgements...... 3 Abstracts...... 4 Abstract in English ...... 4 Abstract in Dutch ...... 4 1 Introduction ...... 5 1.1 Introduction to Thesis Research ...... 5 1.1.1 Object Description ...... 5 1.2 Research Rationale ...... 7 1.2.1 Research Questions ...... 8 1.2.2 Aim of research and relevance to the field of conservation ...... 8 1.3 Current Scientific Knowledge ...... 8 1.4 Methodology ...... 10 1.4.1 Thesis Structure ...... 11 2 Materials and techniques ...... 13 2.1 Analysis and Identification ...... 13 2.1.1 Identification of fibres ...... 13 2.1.2 Identification of textile techniques ...... 13 2.2 Historical Context of Materials and Techniques ...... 16 2.3 Conclusions ...... 19 3 Laces ...... 20 3.1 Analysis of Lace Bands ...... 20 3.2 Multi-Spectral Imaging Analysis ...... 20 3.2.1 Visual comparison of BK-18836 with other black silk laces from the Rijksmuseum. 24 3.3 History of Bobbin Lace ...... 28 3.3.1 Black Silk Lace in the 17th Century ...... 30 3.3.2 Other Aspects of Lace ...... 31 3.4 Conclusions ...... 32 4 Dyes ...... 34 4.1 Identification of dyeing methods ...... 34 4.2 Historical Dyeing Practices ...... 40 4.3 Conclusions ...... 42 5 Construction of the Thesis Object ...... 44 5.1 Analysis of Cut and Construction...... 44 5.1.1 Analysis of the object ...... 44

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A cap? A collar? A 17th century puzzle from the Rijksmuseum collection

5.1.2 Reconstruction ...... 46 5.2 Dutch Caps ...... 48 5.2.1 Cut and construction of 17th and 18th century caps ...... 49 5.3 Conclusions ...... 50 6 Conclusion ...... 52 Bibliography ...... 53 Appendix I: Fibre Identification ...... 57 Appendix II: Dye Analysis ...... 62 Appendix III: Construction of the Thesis Object ...... 87

Figure in cover page: Raking-light photograph of the thesis object taken with a VSC8000 device. Source: Birgit Reissland (RCE) & María José Moreno Parada.

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A cap? A collar? A 17th century puzzle from the Rijksmuseum collection

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This thesis would not have been possible without the help of many people. First of all, I would like to thank my thesis supervisor, René Lugtigheid, who offered me much needed academic and personal support and guidance when I needed it the most. I also thank the academic staff and fellow students from C&R at UvA, especially lecturers Rene Peschar and Emmy de Groot, and my textile C&R classmate Lorena Dekkers.

Many thanks to the Textile Conservation department of the Rijksmuseum, Suzan Meijer, Mieke Albers, Carola Holz, Marjolein Koek, as well as the textile conservation interns, who let me research their very special object, and always offered me help and guidance.

I am also very grateful to RCE researchers Ana Serrano, Art Ness Proaño Gaibor, Birgit Reissland and Frank Ligterink, who greatly helped my thesis research by performing scientific analyses and giving necessary advice.

I also want to thank Judith Amersfoort and Rebecca Romijn, from Amsterdam Museum, and Kathleen Mahieu, from Utrecht Central Museum, who were very accommodating and helpful in my requests to see objects from their museums’ collections.

I am also very thankful to Dutch costume historians Irene Groeneweg and Jacoba de Jonge who kindly answered my questions and helped me with my research.

On a personal level, I would like to thank Ray for his unconditional support.

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A cap? A collar? A 17th century puzzle from the Rijksmuseum collection

ABSTRACTS

ABSTRACT IN ENGLISH This thesis research was focused on object BK-18836 from the Rijksmuseum collection. This is a rare item with black lace which has been attributed to the 17th century. The function of the object was uncertain, and there was no information available about the object’s history. This uncertainty prevented a proper assessment of the ideal state of the object, or the attribution of cultural values to the object beyond rarity. The aim of the thesis research was to characterize the object in its material and non-material aspects, in order to help understand its present condition and try to reconstruct the lifetime of the object. The methodology combined visual and scientific analysis, literature research, object comparison and an exploratory reconstruction of the object to achieve a comprehensive understanding of the object. For visual analysis and identification of the construction of the object, multi-spectral imagining analysis was carried out on the object using a Visual Spectral Comparator (VSC) device. Scientific analysis of the object included fibre identification, UHPLC and SEM-EDX. The research was focused on four areas: materials and techniques identification, the lace bands, the dyes used and the construction of the object.

The research confirmed the identification of the lace bands as 17th century black silk lace, while also identifying them as five different bands that were most likely reused at a later date to make the object. Thanks to the object reconstruction it was possible to almost certainly identify the object as a cap, however its dating remains uncertain as it has not been possible to match the unusual cut and construction of the object to similar objects.

ABSTRACT IN DUTCH Deze scriptie was gericht op object BK-18836 uit de collectie van het Rijksmuseum. Dit is een zeldzaam item met zwart kant dat is toegeschreven aan de 17e eeuw. De functie van het object was onzeker en er was geen informatie beschikbaar over de geschiedenis van het object. Deze onzekerheid verhinderde een juiste beoordeling van de ideale staat van het object, of de toekenning van culturele waarden aan het object afgezien van de zeldzaamheid. Het doel van het scriptieonderzoek was om het object te karakteriseren in zijn materiële en niet-materiële aspecten, om de huidige toestand te helpen begrijpen en de levensloop van het object te reconstrueren. De methodologie combineerde visuele en natuurwetenschappelijke analyse, literatuuronderzoek, objectvergelijking en een verkennende reconstructie van het object om een volledig begrip van het object te verkrijgen. Voor visuele analyse en identificatie van de constructie van het object, werd multispectrale beeldanalyse uitgevoerd op het object met behulp van een Visual Spectral Comparator (VSC) -apparaat. Wetenschappelijke analyse van het object omvatte vezelidentificatie, UHPLC en SEM-EDX. Het onderzoek was gericht op vier gebieden: identificatie van materialen en technieken, de kantbanden, de gebruikte kleurstoffen en de constructie van het object.

Het onderzoek bevestigde de identificatie van de kantbanden als zwart zijden kant uit de 17e eeuw, terwijl ze ook werden geïdentificeerd als vijf verschillende banden die waarschijnlijk op een later tijdstip opnieuw werden gebruikt om het object te maken. Dankzij de objectreconstructie was het mogelijk om het object vrijwel zeker als een muts te identificeren, maar de datering ervan blijft onzeker omdat het niet mogelijk was om de ongebruikelijke snit en constructie van het object aan vergelijkbare objecten te koppelen.

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A cap? A collar? A 17th century puzzle from the Rijksmuseum collection

1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO THESIS RESEARCH The object BK-18836 from the Rijksmuseum collection is a rare example of a textile containing 17th century black lace and also a rare example of a historical costume from that period. Despite its rarity, there are several aspects of this textile that have not been fully established. According to the online catalogue of the Rijksmuseum, the object was made in Flanders sometime in the 17th century, and was acquired by the Rijksmuseum in 1985. It is made of linen and the lace has been identified as Flemish lace. It is not stated exactly what type of costume piece this object is, as it is described as “part of a hat or a collar”.1 Interestingly, the information provided in the online catalogue differs from the description and attribution given to the object in an article by Patricia Wardle published in the Bulletin van het Rijksmuseum in 1985, the same year of the “acquisition” of the object. Wardle identifies the object as a small Dutch cap called a tip, which can be seen in portraits from the middle of the 17th century.

Wardle describes the lace as 17th century black silk lace from France, and one unspecified small piece of lace specifically as Valenciennes lace. She points out that “[w]hile the lace on the tip probably dates from the third quarter of the 17th century, it may perhaps have been made up as a tip at a later date and the tip may well have gone on being worn for a long time.”2 In her article, Wardle also describes the two other 17th century black lace objects in the Rijksmuseum collection: a fragment of the cloak of Hugo de Groot (BK-NM-5401)3 and a border of black silk lace (BK-NM- VI-R)4. Despite the recognized rarity of the object selected for this thesis, it was not directly mentioned in the latest books published by the Rijksmuseum about their lace or costume collections, in which the other objects described by Wardle do appear.56

No associated documents related to the object were found when a request was made to the Rijksmuseum archives. In fact, in the Rijksmuseum internal catalogue entry, the object is described as “found un-inventoried in 1985”, and only a summarized description of the different aspects of the object is given. Thus, the “acquisition” date listed in the online catalogue and the article written by Wardle seem to be related to the “finding” of the object in 1985.

1.1.1 Object Description The object BK-18836 is a 17th century costume item with black bobbin lace. It has a shape similar to a letter M, and the front side is covered with (at least) two bands of black lace. The lace bands have a design of running stems and flowers formed by denser areas of the pattern on a mesh ground. One of the recognizable lace bands is a wide band covering most of the top section, and

1 "Onderdeel van een muts of een kraag van zwarte kloskant, anoniem, ca. 1600 - ca. 1699," Rijksstudio, accessed February 22, 2019, http://hdl.handle.net/10934/RM0001.COLLECT.351539. 2 Patricia Wardle, "Seventeenth-Century Black Silk Lace in the Rijksmuseum," Bulletin Van Het Rijksmuseum 33, no. 4 (1985): 219. 3 "Fragment van een mantel van ciseléfluweel met kloskant, volgens overlevering afkomstig van Hugo de Groot, anoniem, ca. 1600 - ca. 1699," Rijksstudio, accessed February 24, 2019, http://hdl.handle.net/10934/RM0001.COLLECT.2295. 4 "Strook zwarte kloskant met symmetrische composities met tulpen en rozen, anoniem, ca. 1670," Rijksstudio, accessed February 24, 2019, http://hdl.handle.net/10934/RM0001.COLLECT.440612. 5 Patricia Wardle, 75 X Lace, ed. Bianca M. du Mortier (Zwolle/Amsterdam: Waanders Publishers/Rijksmuseum, 2000), 35. 6 Bianca M. du Mortier, Costume & Fashion (Amsterdam: Rijksmuseum, 2016), 16-19.

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A cap? A collar? A 17th century puzzle from the Rijksmuseum collection

pleated to shape on each side of the object. The other one is a narrow lace band that follows the inner curve. A decorative dark brown braided cord is sewn where the edges of these two bands meet. The lace bands are stitched to a dark brown fabric that has been pleated at least once on each side. This dark brown fabric has a glossy calendered finish. In the middle section of the front side there is a cream-coloured fabric under the black lace (Fig. 1). The back side of the object has no lace, and it is made of the same dark brown fabric, and there are remains of a black ribbon sewn around the edge. The black lace bands have become brittle and matte; in some areas the lace has discoloured to a dark brown (Fig. 2). The lace has frayed around the edges of the object, and there are lacunae in the lace bands that mostly coincide with folds in the support fabric. There are also signs of repair: there is coarse stitching on the front side.

Figure 1: Front view of thesis object. Inv. number: BK-18836. Source: Rijksmuseum website.

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A cap? A collar? A 17th century puzzle from the Rijksmuseum collection

Figure 2: Back of the thesis object. Source: María José Moreno Parada.

1.2 RESEARCH RATIONALE Presently, there seem to be several uncertainties regarding the original use, style of lace and materials used in the lace object. The first aspect is perhaps the most important conservation problem facing this object, not only in terms of the issues of interpretation and display of such a rare costume object, but also affecting the diagnosis of the object’s condition (and possible choice of treatments). Since the original use of the object is not known it is not possible to fully attribute an ideal state to it, or ascertain whether certain damages present in the object were produced during the object’s lifetime, or are related to its materials or other possible causes. These issues are particularly important for costume conservation, since costume pieces are inextricably linked to their wearers and their original use. Costume items retain traces of use by their wearers, and conservators must make ethical decisions regarding these traces when treating such objects. It can also be challenging for conservators to “bring a deteriorated piece of clothing back to its as- used condition”7 in a manner that hints to its original use and appearance. In terms of display, costume pieces are best understood by the viewer when mounted on bodily forms so they can “reveal a complete understanding of their proportion, volume, and shape”8.

Secondly, the deficient interpretation of the object has impacted on its cultural significance and the values associated with the object. This can be explained partially by the nature of the object

7 Barbara Appelbaum, Conservation Treatment Methodology (Poland: Amazon Fulfillment, 2010), 144. 8 Sarah Scaturro, "A Materials- and Values-Based Approach to The Conservation of Fashion," in ICOM-CC 18th Triennial Conference Copenhagen Preprints, 2017, proceedings, 3, accessed February 22, 2019, https://www.icom-cc-publications-online.org/PublicationDetail.aspx?cid=a53957bd-d18a-4487-98b1- 92270129117f. Moreno Parada, UvA, 2019 7

A cap? A collar? A 17th century puzzle from the Rijksmuseum collection

itself; the black colour and the folds in the lace bands prevent them from being appreciated for their aesthetic and historical value.

1.2.1 Research Questions Main question: What are the construction, materials used, and original use and shape of the object or its components, and how have these factors influenced its present condition?

Sub-questions

- How was the object constructed? What materials were used?

- Are there signs on the object that can indicate its original shape (stitching holes, remnants of thread, etc.) or use (patterns of abrasion/wear, marks lefts by folds, pins, etc.)?

- Is it possible to identify the lace without unfolding it?

- Do all lace bands share the same style and were they all dyed the same way?

- Are the lace bands part of the same set or were different lace pieces reused to make the object at a later date?

- What is the condition of the object? What are the factors of deterioration?

1.2.2 Aim of research and relevance to the field of conservation This MA thesis will focus on researching the materials, construction and function of the selected object from the Rijksmuseum collection, in order to help understand its present condition and try to reconstruct its lifetime. The results of the thesis will hopefully improve the understanding of the object, and help in making decisions regarding the values attached to it and its future conservation treatments.

Although the research will be limited to one object, this thesis can contribute to further emphasize the role of investigation and interpretation in textile conservation. Archaeological textiles have often been considered as evidence-preserving documents9. Analysis of materials and construction, along with physical, graphic or digital reconstructions, are used to understand the information contained in archaeological textiles and are not an uncommon part of their conservation treatment10. This thesis can help expand this approach to historical textiles of uncertain interpretation.

1.3 CURRENT SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE A few publications have been written on the topic of Dutch fashion in the 17th century. The classic, yet still widely quoted, book Spelevaart der mode by J.H. der Kinderen-Besier11 describes the historical changes in Dutch fashion in different periods of the 17th century, including the caps that were worn. Most of the information is derived from pictorial sources. A similar earlier book

9 Frances Lennard and Patricia Ewer, eds., Textile Conservation: Advances in Practice (Oxford: Butterworth- Heinemann, 2010), 59. 10 Jutta Göpfrich and Brigitte Dreyspring, "Fabulous Beasts—leather, Silk and Gold: Recent Research on and Conservation of 12th Century Footwear from the Episcopal Tombs in Trèves Cathedral" in 14th Triennial Meeting, The Hague, 12-16 September 2005: Preprints, proceedings, vol. I (London: James & James, 2005). 11 Johanna Henriëtte der Kinderen-Besier, Spelevaart Der Mode: De Kledij Onzer Voorouders in De Zeventiende Eeuw (Amsterdam: Querido, 1950). Moreno Parada, UvA, 2019 8

A cap? A collar? A 17th century puzzle from the Rijksmuseum collection

by Frithjof Van Thienen12 covers part of the 17th century, but it is not as comprehensive as the title by der Kinderen-Besier and it only covers the period up to 1660. A recent book on 17th century Dutch fashion is Netherlandish Fashion in the Seventeenth Century13. This title comprises several papers by different authors, exploring various aspects of the topic through a combination of different approaches (object-based research, archival research, pictorial or graphic sources’ research). Although none of the papers focus on caps or hats of the period, two of the papers are relevant to this research. The first paper, by Marguerite Coppens14, focuses on the trade and production of black silk lace in the Southern Netherlands. The main centre of her research is the few extant samples of black lace in the Antwerp Stadsarchief. Although the samples are stylistically different from the lace bands in the thesis object, this is one of the few titles that focuses on black lace in the period.15 The second one is authored by Bianca M. du Mortier16 and offers a good summary of the peculiarities of Dutch fashion in the period. Although she doesn’t mention the specific cap that will be the focus of the thesis research, she does describe the importance of black in 17th century Dutch fashion. An article by Irene Groeneweg also reflects on the importance of black in the period as a sign of wealth and fashion, following French formal costume.17 Other recent publications on 17th century Dutch costume, such as Fashion and Fancy by Marieke de Winkel and Anthony van Dyck by Emilie E.S. Gordenker study costume depicted in Dutch paintings from a cultural and art historical point of view, however their research is mostly focused on the first half of the 17th century and it does not cover caps.18

Numerous publications on the history of lace can be found in literature, and their scope and limitations will be discussed in Chapter 3.

The scarcity of sources discussing black lace in this period is most likely related to the rarity of the surviving pieces. This can be explained by the often-seen deterioration of black textiles due to the historical dyeing process to obtain such a colour. The topic of historical black dyes has been addressed from both conservation and art technological points of view.19 In the reviewed paper and textile conservation literature, there is a consensus that deterioration is usually caused by the use of iron-tannin dyes or inks. Dyeing fibres black with iron-tannins can result in mechanically

12 Frithjof Van Thienen, Das Kostüm Der Blütezeit Hollands 1600-1660 (Berlin: Deutscher Kunstverlag, 1930). 13 Johannes Pietsch and Anna Jolly, eds., Netherlandish Fashion in the Seventeenth Century (Riggisberg: Abegg-Stiftung, 2012). 14 Marguerite Coppens, "The Trade and Production of Lace in the Southern Netherlands during the Seventeenth Century," in Netherlandish Fashion in the Seventeenth Century (Riggisberg: Abegg-Stiftung, 2012). 15 The other title is the aforementioned article by Patricia Wardle 16 Bianca M. Du Mortier, "Features of Fashion in the Netherlands in the Seventeenth Century," in Netherlandish Fashion in the Seventeenth Century (Riggisberg: Abegg-Stiftung, 2012), 32-37. 17 Irene Groeneweg, "Over Zwarte Kleding in De Gouden Eeuw En Een Langdurig Misvertand," in Zwart / Bedrukt En Beschilderd Textiel, Stichting Textielcommissie Jaarboek (Amsterdam: Stichting Textielcommissie Nederland, 1999). 18 Emilie E. S. Gordenker, Anthony Van Dyck (1599-1641): And the Representation of Dress in Seventeenth- century Portraiture (Turnhout, Belgium: Brepols Publishers, 2001); Marieke de Winkel, Fashion and Fancy: Dress and Meaning in Rembrandt's Paintings (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2006). 19 Dominique Cardon, Natural Dyes: Sources, Tradition, Technology and Science (London: Archetype Publications, 2007); Judith H. Hofenk de Graaff, Wilma G. Th. Roelofs, and Maarten R. Van Bommel, The Colourful Past: Origins, Chemistry and Identification of Natural Dyestuffs (Riggisberg and London: Abegg- Stiftung and Archetype Publications, 2004); Natalia Ortega Saez, "De Technologie Van Het Zwartverven / The Technology of Black Dyeing," in Zwart: Meesterlijk Zwart in Mode & Kostuum / Black: Masters of Black in Fashion & Costume (Tielt, Belgium: Lanoo Publishers, 2010). Moreno Parada, UvA, 2019 9

A cap? A collar? A 17th century puzzle from the Rijksmuseum collection

weakened textiles, fragmentation or loss of fibres as a result of acid hydrolysis.20 Additionally, iron acts as a catalyst for fibre photo-oxidation, especially in areas next to those dyed black. This produces a lower degree of polymerization of the fibre, and hence, it becomes brittle.21 Mechanical stress on brittle areas and high levels of relative humidity (over 70%) are risk factors for iron-tannin related deterioration.22 A recent research by Natalia Ortega Saez combines both art technological and conservation issues, by focusing on the variety of historical recipes to dye wool black, and how specific recipes can impact the conservation of black woolen textiles.23

1.4 METHODOLOGY The thesis research will focus on understanding the object itself and its condition, while questioning the hypothesis given by Patricia Wardle about this object being a 17th century Dutch tipmuts with French black silk bobbin lace. In order to do so, the research will focus on the materials, cut, construction/production, and possible historical context for an in-depth object characterization. This research is based on the approach recommended by Appelbaum. In Conservation treatment methodology, Appelbaum proposes a characterization grid for objects that can enable conservators to gather a balanced understanding of the object prior to conservation decision making. This grid has four quadrants, which are related to materials aspects (quadrants I and II) and non-material aspects (III and IV) of the object. The quadrants are also related to object-specific (I and III), and non-object-specific (II and IV) information.24 Quadrants I and II focus on material identification and interpretation of deterioration issues, both from the specific object and the conservation literature. Both quadrants III and IV deal with the history of the object and its current values, although the first deals with the specific object and the latter with other similar objects. This thesis will follow this methodology of object characterization in a flexible manner, focusing on trying to reconstruct the non-materials object-specific aspects of the thesis object (which are unknown) from the different information that can be obtained from the other quadrants.

Visual analysis

Visual examination will play a key role in interpreting the object and its condition. The visual analysis will focus on establishing the lace patterns and the cut and construction of the object, as well as determining its condition and possible deteriorations and alterations. The visual examination will be aided by the use of Video Spectral Comparator (VSC) technology to reveal details difficult to perceive in the object through high resolution multi-spectral imaging.

Scientific analysis

This will provide information about the object’s materials, as well as help identify possible causes of deterioration. Fibre identification of the different components of the object will be carried out through transmitted light microscope analysis. Ultra High Performance Liquid Chromatography

20 Ágnes Timár-Balázsy and Dinah Eastop, Chemical Principles of Textile Conservation (Oxford: Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann, 1998), 96. 21 Katherine Barker, "Iron Gall and the Textile Conservator," in Strengthening the Bond: Science & Textiles: Preprints (Philadelphia: North American Textile Conservation Conference, 2002), 10. 22 Birgit Reissland, Frank Ligterink, and Claire Phan Tan Luu, "Ink Corrosion - Risk Factors," The Iron Gall Ink Website, accessed February 26, 2019, https://irongallink.org/igi_indexdb63.html. 23 Natalia Ortega Saez, "Black Dyed Wool in North Western Europe, 1680-1850 : The Relationship between Historical Recipes and the Current State of Preservation" (PhD diss., University of Antwerp, 2018). 24 Appelbaum, Conservation Treatment Methodology, 10-13. Moreno Parada, UvA, 2019 10

A cap? A collar? A 17th century puzzle from the Rijksmuseum collection

(UHPLC) analysis will be carried out to identify the dyes used in the lace bands and the backing fabric, as well as Scanning Electron Microscope with Energy-Dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM- EDX) analysis on selected samples to identify the mordants used.

Literature research

A critical research into the current literature on lace history, 17th century fashion history and historical materials and techniques will be useful in interpreting the object. Specialists in Dutch fashion history will be contacted for more information on these crucial topics. Additionally, conservation literature research will also be of importance to understand the object and its condition.

Object comparison

A selection of caps from the Utrecht Centraal Museum and the Amsterdam Museum will be examined. These known historical caps from the 18th and 19th centuries will be compared to the thesis object in terms of cut and construction. Similarly, the other two 17th century black lace pieces from the Rijksmuseum collection will be examined looking for similarities in technique, type of threads used and conservation issues.

Reconstruction

A reconstruction of the object will be made to understand it in its three-dimensional nature. Since the reconstruction will be made as an exploratory device to understand the object, it will focus on reproducing its cut and construction, but not the original materials used.

1.4.1 Thesis Structure The research methodology and different research techniques will be incorporated in the four chapters that constitute the main section of the thesis. Each of these chapters will end with a section on how the elements discussed in the chapter could impact the present condition of the object.

• Chapter 2: Materials and Techniques

The results from the visual examination of the object and its components, as well as the materials used, will be described. These will be related to materials used in this period, as well as their historical context.

• Chapter 3: Laces

This chapter will first describe the use of the VSC technology to “reveal” the pattern and techniques used in the lace bands of the thesis object. Then the lace bands will be described in terms of pattern and technique, and compared to the other black silk lace objects from the Rijksmuseum collection. Finally, the lace bands will be put into their stylistic and historical context.

• Chapter 4: Dyes

This will cover the description of the findings of the dyes and mordants analysis carried out, historical dyeing practices and the conservation issues related to this.

• Chapter 5: Construction of the thesis object

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A cap? A collar? A 17th century puzzle from the Rijksmuseum collection

The cut and construction of the object will be examined, as well as the results of the tentative reconstruction. The thesis object will be compared to historical caps from the 18th century, as well as 17th century caps described in literature. The historical context of 17th century Dutch fashion will be discussed.

Finally, Chapter 6 will give the conclusions of this thesis research and recommended future research on this topic. This will be followed by the Bibliography and Appendices.

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A cap? A collar? A 17th century puzzle from the Rijksmuseum collection

2 MATERIALS AND TECHNIQUES

This chapter will be dedicated to the analysis, identification and historical contextualization of the different materials and techniques used to manufacture the thesis object.

2.1 ANALYSIS AND IDENTIFICATION The first step of the research was focused on characterization of materials and techniques of the different components of the thesis object through visual examination and analytical techniques.

2.1.1 Identification of fibres Visual examination of the front and back revealed that the object consists of several parts sewn together: bands of black lace, a decorative trimming, a cream-coloured fabric, a brown-coloured fabric, and a black ribbon. These different parts are sewn together by three types of thread: two black threads and one coarse brown thread. Fibre samples were taken from each of these components for identification, which was carried out using a Leica transmitted light microscope (Model DME). More detailed technical specification of the microscope used, and images from each of the identified fibers can be found in Appendix I.

The fibre analysis of the lace samples showed that all the lace bands sampled were indeed silk, as Patricia Wardle had described.25 The trimming’s inner fibre core was identified as linen, while the outer fibres were silk. The fibre samples from the brown-coloured and cream-coloured fabrics were both identified as bast fibres (most likely linen). In contrast, the samples from the three threads used in the object were identified as three different fibres: one black thread was identified as silk, while the other turned out to be mercerized cotton. The fibre sample of the brown coarse thread was found to be cotton.26

2.1.2 Identification of textile techniques Different techniques were used in the manufacturing of the object and its components. Without including those manufacturing techniques dealing with fibre processing, the techniques that were used for the making of the object are lacemaking, weaving, textile finishing, braiding, dyeing, costume-making and sewing. The issues related to lacemaking and the lace bands will be examined in Chapter 3, those related to dyeing in Chapter 4, while those related to the construction of the object will be examined in Chapter 5. In order to characterize the techniques of the different components of the object in detail, these were examined with the help of a handheld Dino-Lite microscope (AM4013MT-FVW) for closer inspection.

The black silk and the brown cotton threads have an S-twist, the former being loosely twisted while the latter is tightly twisted (and thinner as a result). On the other hand, the black mercerized cotton thread has a Z-twist. It is possible to recognize the black silk thread as 2-ply in areas where it has unravelled. It is not possible to clearly tell the number of plies in the other two threads, as this is difficult to ascertain without unravelling the threads.

25 Patricia Wardle, "Seventeenth-Century Black Silk Lace in the Rijksmuseum," Bulletin Van Het Rijksmuseum 33, no. 4 (1985): 219. 26 Although the fibres of the black thread thought to be mercerized cotton do not show marked convolutions (“twists”) that are characteristic of cotton fibres under the microscope, they do show the presence of lumen and a flat appearance (from the collapsed lumen). These are key features of cotton for fibre identification, and the lack of marked convolutions can be the result of the mercerization process which swells the cotton fibres. Moreno Parada, UvA, 2019 13

A cap? A collar? A 17th century puzzle from the Rijksmuseum collection

The weaving structure of both brown and cream-coloured fabrics is a balanced plain weave27 - also known as tabby or taffeta, or effenbinding in Dutch28 -, although it is not possible to distinguish warps from wefts since there is no selvedge present in either fabric. The thread count of the brown-coloured fabric is approximately 23 "warps" by 23 "wefts" per centimetre squared, and the yarns have a slight S-twist (Fig. 3). The cream-coloured fabric's thread count is about 24 "warps" by 28 "wefts", as the yarns are more uneven in width (Fig. 4). Their yarns have a slight Z- twist. The black silk ribbon also has a plain weave structure, with a thread count of approximately 26 wefts per centimetre and no clear twist of the yarns (Fig. 5). The width of the ribbon is approximately 1 cm., although it is difficult to ascertain the width of the ribbon precisely, since it has been sewn folded in half and it is now in a deteriorated and fragmented condition.

Figure 3: Brown linen fabric, line for scale is 5 mm. Dino-Lite image, white LED lights, 50x magnification. Source: María José. Moreno Parada.

Figure 4: Cream-coloured fabric, line for scale is 5 mm. Dino-Lite image, white LED lights, 50x magnification. Source: María Jose Moreno Parada.

27 "If the warp and the weft elements are equally spaced and either identical or approximately equal in size and flexibility, the plain weave can be described as balanced.” Irene Emery, The Primary Structure of Fabrics (London: Thames & Hudson, 2009), 76. 28 Johanna M. Diehl, A. J. de Graaf, and Daniël de Jonghe, eds., Textiellexicon: Verklarend Weeftechnisch Woordenboek (Amsterdam: Textielcommissie Musea, 1991), 19. Moreno Parada, UvA, 2019 14

A cap? A collar? A 17th century puzzle from the Rijksmuseum collection

Figure 5: Black silk ribbon. Long line for scale is 5 mm., short one is 3 mm. Dino-Lite image, white LED lights, 50x magnification. Source: María Jose Moreno Parada.

The brown-coloured fabric has also undergone a textile finishing. A stiffener was applied to the surface of the fabric, and then the fabric was calendered, that is, it was subject to heat and pressure by passing the fabric through heated smooth rollers. The result of this textile finish, called glazing, is a smooth, stiff, and glossy fabric. Stiffeners that have been used in glazing include starch, gum arabic, resin and shellac.29 Unfortunately, the starch test carried out to identify the presence of starch as the stiffener used in the brown-coloured fabric was inconclusive.

The trimming was identified as a four-strand braid. Each of the strands consists of a single gimp thread.30 The linen core has a S-twist and appears to be plied, while the floss silk around the core is tightly wound with a slight Z-twist (Fig. 6 and 7).

Figure 6: 4-strand braid. The blue "Z" follows the twist of the silk, while the red "S" follows the twist of the linen. Dino- Lite image, white LED lights, 50x magnification. Source: María José Moreno Parada.

29 Charles S. Whewell and Edward Noah Abrahart, "Textile: Finishes Enhancing Appearance," Encyclopædia Britannica, June 16, 2017, accessed July 13, 2019, https://www.britannica.com/topic/textile/Finishes- enhancing-appearance. 30 The textile term gimp has two definitions. One describes a thick thread used in embroidery and lacemaking for outlining a design, and it known as cordonnet in French. The other definition of gimp (or guimpe) is the one referring to the object’s braid: “A type of stiff trimming consisting of a wire or cord core, covered in silk, cotton, wool or synthetic thread.” Alex Newman and Zakee Shariff, Fashion A-Z: An Illustrated Dictionary (London: Laurence King Publishing, 2009), 83. Moreno Parada, UvA, 2019 15

A cap? A collar? A 17th century puzzle from the Rijksmuseum collection

Figure 7: Fragment of braid. Dino-Lite image, white LED lights, 50x magnification. Source: María José Moreno Parada.

2.2 HISTORICAL CONTEXT OF MATERIALS AND TECHNIQUES

The production and processing of silk and linen from fibers into finished goods have a long history in Europe. Cotton, on the other hand, was an expensive albeit popular Indian import from the 12th until the 19th century, when North American cotton production took over. The manufacture of cotton textiles remained a marginal, labour-intensive process in European textile production until the last third of the 18th century. It was only in the 19th century that the massive-scale production of cotton goods became a phenomenon in the Western world, superseding the previously important linen industry.31

Mercerized cotton, in particular, was discovered in 1844 by John Mercer. He noticed that treating cotton with caustic soda resulted in the swelling and shortening of the cotton fibers, in a process he described as “fulling” (the process was later named after him). Although this finishing process made cotton easier to dye, thus holding great promise in cotton-dyeing and printing, it was not until Horace Lowe discovered in 1890 that maintaining tension during the mercerization process imparted silk-like lustre to cotton, that the process became widespread.32

Fibers are spun or bundled together before becoming yarns or threads used for weaving, sewing or other textile techniques.33 Short fibers such as cotton and wool need to be spun, that is, drawn together and twisted to produce one continuous strand of fibers in the required length. The process of spinning is not necessary for fibers such as silk and extruded, man-made fibers.34 These

31 Foekje Boersma et al., Unravelling Textiles: A Handbook for the Preservation of Textile Collections (London: Archetype Publications, 2007), 5-6; Leslie Clarkson, "The Linen Industry in Early Modern Europe," in The Cambridge History of Western Textiles, vol. I (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 492. 32 Agustí Nieto-Galan, "Calico Printing and Chemical Knowledge in Lancashire in the Early Nineteenth Century: The Life and ‘colours’ of John Mercer," Annals of Science 54, no. 1 (1997): 14-18, 25. 33 This thesis will follow Irene Emery’s distinction between yarns and threads: “The term yarn usually refers to a less highly processed element than the term thread, thread usually implying a finer as well as more tightly twisted and ‘finished’ one; yarn is used to refer to single as well as to plied structures, thread usually only to plied; yarn is more commonly used in reference to materials for weaving and knitting, thread for sewing elements (or for specific uses of yarns, as in references to warp-threads, weft-threads, etc.).” Irene Emery, The Primary Structure of Fabrics, 12. 34 Irene Emery, The Primary Structure of Fabrics, 8-9. Moreno Parada, UvA, 2019 16

A cap? A collar? A 17th century puzzle from the Rijksmuseum collection

fibers are already long and filament-like and can be simply bundled together (with or without twisting). So-called “waste silk” was a type of silk that needed to be spun, since it referred to broken silk filaments which came from either the uneven silk fibers from the ends of the cocoons or from those broken cocoons from where the insect had already escaped. These spun or twisted yarns could then be plied, twisting together two or more yarns, and then further re-plied if necessary.

Historically, thread-making was a specialized trade, and if focused on silk yarn- or thread-making it was called “silk throwing”. In his research on the history of sewing thread in Britain, Philip A. Sykas observes that silk threads in surviving 18th-century seams have a 2-ply S-twist construction, a type of thread that remained unchanged until the mid-19th century when new silk-thread constructions were needed to suit the newly-invented sewing machine. Thus, “silk followed the general trend from two-ply to three-ply construction in the nineteenth century and the changeover from S-ply to Z-ply for sewing machine use in the early twentieth century.”35 In the case of cotton threads, inventions made in the 1760’s such as Hargreave’s spinning jenny and Arkwright’s water-frame permitted the production of stronger, smoother cotton thread. Consequently, the first traces of cotton thread manufacturing began to appear only at the very end of the 18th century. In relation to mercerized cotton threads, Sykas identifies the year 1897 as the earliest possible date of their introduction in the markets. In a similar way to silk threads, Sykas detects a trend towards a transition from 2-ply to 3-ply construction of cotton threads in the 19th century.36

The glazed brown linen fabric in the thesis object can be identified as buckram. Buckram could be made with linen or hemp in varying fabric thicknesses and could have an open or closed weaving structure.37 Buckram was one of the coarse linen (or hemp) cloths that were produced throughout Europe and were used as linings for, among others, coats, cuffs, collars, hats, and stays.38 In the book Patterns of Fashion 5, the authors translate the definition of buckram from the Art du Tailleur de Corps de Femmes & Enfants (1769) by M. de Garsault that states that buckram is a “hemp cloth gummed and calendered. Old bedsheets or sails are commonly used for buckram but sometimes new fabric so there is no standard width. It can be thicker or thinner depending on the fabric used.”39 Taking into consideration the possible variety of fabric sources used to produce buckram, it was the work of the trades of stiffeners and calenderers that gave buckram its defining characteristics as a lining fabric.

35 Philip A. Sykas, "Re-threading: Notes Toward a History of Sewing Thread in Britain," in Textiles Revealed: Object Lesson in Historic Textile and Costume Research (London: Archetype Publications, 2000), 129. 36 Philip A. Sykas, "Re-threading: Notes Toward a History of Sewing Thread in Britain," 129-131. 37 Janet Arnold et al., Patterns of Fashion 5: The Content, Cut, Construction and Context of Bodies, Stays, Hoops and Rumps c. 1595-1795 (London: School of Historical Dress, 2018), 8. 38 The production of linen cloths was widespread across Europe before the Industrial Revolution in the 19th century. The most common arrangement was for smallholders to cultivate, spun and weave linen cloths in their farms for their own use, or for sale within their villages. However, there were also specialized centres of linen production localized in various countries in Northern Europe. Coarse linen (or hemp) cloths, such as buckram, canvas, hessians, sailcloths, ravenducks, were the specialty of areas near Dundee (Scotland), the central region of Germany, Morlaix (France), and areas in Russia. Peter Solar, "The Linen Industry in the Nineteenth Century," in The Cambridge History of Western Textiles, vol. II (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 810-812. 39 Janet Arnold et al., Patterns of Fashion 5, 8. Moreno Parada, UvA, 2019 17

A cap? A collar? A 17th century puzzle from the Rijksmuseum collection

In the Netherlands, buckram was known as stijf linnen, although in the late 16th and the 17th century variations of bockerael or bockeraen from the English buckram or the French bougran could also be found.40 Advertisements for stijf linnen (written as styf linnen) appear throughout the 18th century in Dutch newspapers for fabric merchants (Fig. 8), and continue to do so in the first decades of the 19th century (Fig. 9).

Figure 8: Advertisement of fabric merchant selling stijf linnen, from 's Gravenhaegse courant n°52, 29-04-1748. Source: Delpher.

.

Figure 9: Advertisement of fabric merchant selling stijf linnen, from Opregte Haarlemsche Courant n°29, 08-03-1823. Source: Delpher.

Interestingly, whenever a colour is mentioned for advertising stijf linnen, usually black is singled out. After the 1830s, stijf linnen advertisements disappear from Dutch newspapers. It is unclear whether this reflects buckram’s fall as a popular choice of lining, or if it is explained by a change in the advertising approach of fabric merchants.

Tassels, braids, ribbons, edgings and assorted decorative trimmings were produced by the trade of passementiers before the 19th century. For trimmings, silk on top of linen threads was commonly used. Passementeries were used in clothing, soft furnishings and upholstery, and they were produced by “craftsmen with the aid of tools and machines and textile material of high quality and were therefore relatively expensive.”41 However, it has not been researched whether all trimmings on historical textiles were produced by professional passementiers, or only those of relative complexity. It is possible to find in England 16th and 17th century print and manuscript sources with instructions for fingerloop braiding, a different technique to produce braids than the one used for the braid trimming of the thesis object. The fingerloop braiding instructions were written for the production of “purse strings” (braids) that were used to decorate fashion accessories of the period.42 The wealthy author of one of such manuscripts, Lady Cecilia Bindloss,

40 "BOKKERAAL," Historische Woordenboeken, accessed July 14, 2019, http://gtb.ivdnt.org/iWDB/search?actie=article&wdb=WNT&id=M009920. 41 Elisabet Stavenow-Hidemark, "Textile Design and Furnishings, c. 1780-1914," in The Cambridge History of Western Textiles, vol. II (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 878. 42 Susan North and Jenny Tiramani, eds., Seventeenth-Century Women's Dress Patterns: Book Two (London: V&A Publishing, 2012), 141. Moreno Parada, UvA, 2019 18

A cap? A collar? A 17th century puzzle from the Rijksmuseum collection

points to these sources as compilations of instructions for home use as part of the female needlework education.43

2.3 CONCLUSIONS Almost all of the materials and techniques identified in the thesis object are those than can be expected for a 17th century textile. The only clear exceptions are the cotton and mercerized cotton threads, which would be anachronistic for a 17th century object. However, whether these threads are constituent to the construction of the object or if they could be attributed to repairs that are part of the object’s history will be discussed in Chapter 5.

However, the materials and techniques identified in this chapter alone do not date the object to the 17th century, since the same natural fibers (silk and linen), as well as the same type of materials (silk thread) and fabrics (plain-weave fabric and buckram) were used until the 19th century. The relatively simple 4-strand braid construction implies that it cannot be fully ruled out that the braid trimming was produced at home after the purchase of gimp threads elsewhere. This, paired with insufficient historical research in this specific area, makes the braid hard to date. The only components of the object that could help give a more accurate historical date are the lace bands, which will be discussed in the following chapter.

In relation to conservation issues, both linen and silk are subject to deterioration by photodegradation and hydrolysis, although silk is especially sensitive to visible and UV light.44 Both silk and cellulosic fibers can be affected by acids.45

43 "Manuscript." V&A Search the Collections. Accessed July 13, 2019. http://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O11031/manuscript-unknown/. 44 Boersma et al., Unravelling Textiles, 21-24. 45 Sheila Landi, The Textile Conservator's Manual, 2nd ed. (Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann, 1998), 19. Moreno Parada, UvA, 2019 19

A cap? A collar? A 17th century puzzle from the Rijksmuseum collection

3 LACES

This chapter will be focused on the analysis and identification of the different lace bands present in the object. Since the lace bands could offer more specific information on the object or its components, this chapter will go into more detail about the historical and stylistic contextualization of 17th century lace in general, and black silk lace in particular.

3.1 ANALYSIS OF LACE BANDS In order to study the lace bands in detail, two methods of visual examination were carried out. One consisted of conducting multi-spectral imaging analysis of the lace bands of the thesis object. The other involved the examination of the threads used in the lace bands of the thesis object and similar laces.

3.2 MULTI-SPECTRAL IMAGING ANALYSIS An examination of the object using a Visual Spectral Comparator device (model VSC8000 manufactured by Foster+Freeman) was carried out with RCE researcher Birgit Reissland, who operated the device. The VSC8000 device is a non-invasive high-resolution digital system for fast acquisition of images of documents under different light conditions. These light conditions include light spectra between the wavelengths of 400 to 1000 nm, thus covering near ultraviolet (NUV), visible and near infrared (NIR) light spectra, as well as different lighting techniques (flood light, spot light, raking light, and transmitted light).46 This device has been designed for document examination and authentication, and thus it has been mostly used in forensic science and governmental verification of legal documents (passports, banknotes). The use of the VSC device in the cultural heritage and conservation fields has been limited, and mostly related to works on paper. During examination of the object with the VSC8000 device, different light conditions were tried. Although the NUV spectrum did not convey new information about the object, it became clear that using light in the NIR spectrum revealed more details of the textile structures than when using the visible light spectrum (Fig. 10 and 11). This is well known in the digital imaging analysis of cultural heritage objects, as “NUV-NIR photography might make certain features of the object under study (more) distinct, because the NUV-NIR reflection will most likely differ from the characteristic visible reflectance properties. Even if they exhibit a similar reflectance in the visible spectrum cultural heritage objects thus often benefit from this uncommon means of imaging.”47

46 The VSSC8000 is also equipped with a microspectrometer function, which can display in graph format the real-time captures of light absorption, reflectance, fluorescence and transmitted spectra. This function was not used during the examination of the thesis object. "VSC®8000: For the Examination of All Questioned Documents," foster+freeman, accessed July 12, 2019, http://www.fosterfreeman.com/product/qde-products/580-vsc8000.html. 47 Geert Verhoeven, "Basics of Photography for Cultural Heritage Imaging," in 3D Recording, Documentation and Management of Cultural Heritage (Dunbeath, Scotland: Whittles Publishing, 2016), 132-133.

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A cap? A collar? A 17th century puzzle from the Rijksmuseum collection

Figure 10: Image of the buckram fabric taken with visible light spectra with VSC8000 device. Source: Birgit Reissland (RCE) & María José Moreno Parada.

Figure 11: Image of the buckram fabric taken with NIR spectra with the VSC8000 device. Source: Birgit. Reissland (RCE) & María José Moreno Parada.

Using the NIR light spectra of the VSC8000 without zoom and with flood light, it was possible to appreciate the different bands more clearly, as their differences in reflected NIR spectra were easier to perceive (Fig. 12).

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A cap? A collar? A 17th century puzzle from the Rijksmuseum collection

Figure 12: Image of NIR spectra with VSC8000 device. The colour differences between lace bands are more obvious, and also the threads used to sew them together appear more clearly. Source: B. Reissland (RCE) & M. J. Moreno Parada.

Thus, it was possible to confirm that the thesis object consists of five different lace bands, arranged symmetrically on the buckram fabric (Fig. 13).

Figure 13: Diagram of the location of the different lace bands. Green: Wide lace band. Yellow: Side lace band. Red: Valenciennes lace band. Blue: Narrow lace band. Purple: Corner lace band. Source: María José Moreno Parada.

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A cap? A collar? A 17th century puzzle from the Rijksmuseum collection

Zooming in with the same setting allowed for the identification of the different grounds used in the laces, as well as a better understanding of the lace technique. Four of the lace bands have a Torchon ground (Fig. 14a and b), while the smallest lace has plaited round mesh ground - also called round Valenciennes mesh ground – (Fig. 15a and b).

Figure 14a (left): Torchon ground in narrow lace band taken with NIR spectra using VSC8000. Source: Birgit Reissland (RCE) & María José Moreno Parada. 14b (right): Torchon ground. Source: Friedrich Schöner, Spitzen: Enzyklopädie Der Spitzentechniken (Leipzig: Fachbuchverlag, 1980), 63.

Figure 15a (left): Valenciennes ground. Source: Friedrich Schöner, Spitzen: Enzyklopädie Der Spitzentechniken (Leipzig: Fachbuchverlag, 1980), 67. 15b (right): Image of the right-side Valenciennes lace band, taken with NIR spectra using VSC8000 device. Source: Birgit Reissland (RCE) & María José Moreno Parada.

The lace bands placed in the corner of the object, which appear to have a very dense pattern and no mesh ground, were also found to have a Torchon ground: the lace bands seem to have been “compressed”, pressing all the lace threads together and losing the “mesh ground” appearance in the process (Fig. 16).

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A cap? A collar? A 17th century puzzle from the Rijksmuseum collection

Figure 16: Image of corner lace band taken with NIR spectra using VSC8000 device. Source: Birgit Reissland (RCE) & María José Moreno Parada.

The combination of NIR light spectra and transmitted light gave more detailed information about the construction of the thesis object, but these results will be discussed in Chapter 5.

3.2.1 Visual comparison of BK-18836 with other black silk laces from the Rijksmuseum With the help of the aforementioned Dino-Lite microscope, the thesis object’s threads and technique were analysed (Fig. 17 to 21):

Figure 17: Detail image of wide lace. Dino-Lite image, white LED lights, 50x magnification. Source: María José Moreno Parada.

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A cap? A collar? A 17th century puzzle from the Rijksmuseum collection

Figure 18: Detail image from the side lace band (Torchon ground). Dino-Lite image, white LED lights, 50x magnification. Source: María José Moreno Parada.

Figure 19: Detail image from the corner lace band. Dino-Lite image, white LED lights, 50x magnification. Source: María José Moreno Parada.

Figure 20: Detail image from the narrow lace band (torchon ground). Dino-Lite image, white LED lights, 50x magnification. Source: María José Moreno Parada.

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A cap? A collar? A 17th century puzzle from the Rijksmuseum collection

Figure 21: Detail image from the side lace band (Valenciennes). Dino-Lite image, white LED lights, 50x magnification. Source: María José Moreno Parada.

All of the lace bands were made with thread that has only a slight twist or almost no twist (floss). Despite this, in areas of loss the threads don’t unravel to a great extent or lose their shape. In some areas it is possible to distinguish 2-ply barely twisted threads instead of single-ply floss threads, but it is difficult to tell if these are indeed two different kind of threads or simply a result of the floss threads separating in some areas. This inspection also confirmed the Valenciennes mesh ground in Side lace band 2 (Fig. 21).

Using the same Dino-Lite, the other two 17th century black silk laces from the Rijksmuseum collection (BK-NM-VI-R (Fig. 23) and BK-NM-3090 (Fig. 22)) were also analysed. Both laces were made with the same floss-like thread and were in similar brittle condition. BK-NM-VI-R seems the most flexible and in slightly better condition of the three 17th century black silk laces from their collection, its threads less stiff and the silk fibers unravelling from the thread when it is broken.

Figure 22: Detail image of 17th century black silk lace from Rijksmuseum collection (Inv. number BK-NM-3090). Dino-Lite image, white LED lights, 50x magnification. Source: María José Moreno Parada.

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A cap? A collar? A 17th century puzzle from the Rijksmuseum collection

Figure 23: Detail image of 17th century black silk lace from Rijksmuseum collection (Inv. number BK-NM-VI-R). Dino-Lite image, white LED lights, 50x magnification. Source: María José Moreno Parada.

For a point of comparison, black silk Chantilly laces from the Rijksmuseum were also analysed with the Dino-Lite microscope (Fig. 24-25). These were all made with the same thread: a thin 2-ply twisted silk thread.

Figure 24: Detail image of black silk Chantilly lace from Rijksmuseum collection (Inv. number BK-BR-J-250). Dino-Lite image, white LED lights, 50x magnification. Source: María José Moreno Parada.

Figure 25: Detail image of black silk Chantilly lace from Rijksmuseum collection (Inv. number BK-BR-J-156-C). Dino-Lite image, white LED lights, 50x magnification. Source: María José Moreno Parada.

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A cap? A collar? A 17th century puzzle from the Rijksmuseum collection

3.3 HISTORY OF BOBBIN LACE Lace is a free-standing fabric with an openwork pattern. Although fabrics with similar decorative openwork patterns have been made using a variety of techniques,48 traditionally the term lace refers to fabrics that have been made by hand with thread and the help of a needle (needle lace) or a set of bobbins (bobbin lace).49 Although this chapter focuses on bobbin lace, the history and development of bobbin lace is closely related to that of needle lace, as both ultimately fulfilled the same decorative function. The popularity of each type of lace fluctuated according to the fashion of each period. Even if the techniques are different, laces produced during the same period can be stylistically similar or show signs of influence by the other technique.

The two lacemaking techniques developed in 16th century Europe from already existing textile techniques. Bobbin lace most likely developed from braiding techniques used for passementerie, when threads wounds on bobbins were “plaited and twisted together to form narrow, open-work braids or laces, which were sewn flat on the surface of clothes and furnishings.”50 The development of needle lace grew from embroidery techniques, and the increasing visibility of the white linen underdress in fashionable dress. Decorated seams and edges of the exposed areas of linen around the collar and cuff areas had become an important focus of fashion in the period, and when the ruff made its appearance in fashion in the middle of the 16th century both needle lace and bobbin lace trimmings made in white linen became the commonly associated decorative edges.51 Throughout the early modern period, both needle and bobbin lace were made throughout Europe, however, their major commercial centres were already clearly defined at the beginning of the 17th century.

By the middle of the 17th century, and after being produced in Europe for about a century, bobbin lace had reached maturity. It had become an important trading item and the main production centres of lace kept trying to innovate in their style and technique to keep up with fashionable taste in a competitive market. Although Italy and Flanders were the main centres for bobbin lace early in the century, by its second quarter Flemish lace had become the best and most fashionable high-quality white linen bobbin lace.52 It was in Flanders where a big technical improvement was developed around the middle of the 17th century: the introduction of the mesh ground in continuous bobbin lace.53 This innovation was the result of the rapid developments and the subsequent changes that Flemish bobbin lace had undergone in the previous decades as it kept up with changes in fashion and style.

48 Other handmade techniques that produce fabrics that have been described as lace (or lace-like) include drawn-thread work, cutwork, filet, macramé, tape lace, tatting, crochet and knitting. Since the 19th century, there has also been different types of machine-made laces. 49 Martine Bruggeman, Lace in Flanders: History and Contemporary Art (Tielt, Belgium: Lannoo Publishers, 2018), 21. 50 Santina M. Levey, "Lace in the Early Modern Period, c. 1500-1780," in The Cambridge History of Western Textiles, vol. I (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 585. 51 Clare Browne, Lace from the Victoria and Albert Museum (London: V&A Publications, 2004), 8-9. 52 Levey, "Lace in the Early Modern Period, c. 1500-1780,” 589-590. 53 Santina M. Levey, Lace: A History (London: Victoria & Albert Museum in Association with W.S. Maney and Son, 1983), 25. Continuous bobbin lace, or straight lace, is a type of bobbin lace that is made in one piece: pattern and ground or connecting bars. The threads are running continuously throughout the lace piece. It is different from part lace, in which the motifs or patterns are made separately and then joined together by connecting bars or mesh ground. Moreno Parada, UvA, 2019 28

A cap? A collar? A 17th century puzzle from the Rijksmuseum collection

At the beginning of the 17th century, Flemish lace had deep scalloped borders and geometric patterns of thin lines, reminiscent of Reticella lace.54 By the 1630s the serrated borders had become less pronounced and the pattern had become denser and incorporated flowers and vegetable motifs. By the middle of the century, lace bands had a straight edge and the solid design single motifs had given way to thinner motifs of stylised flowers and swirling lines of foliage dispersed on a more open background. However, the Flemish lace industry was also looking at other fashionable textiles of the period, as “[l]ace patterns changed in line with Italian silk designs, and the need to find an unobtrusive background to the more open patterns of the 1650s and ‘60s”.55 This need for less dense and more open background led to the experimentation with different lace stitches to produce bigger areas of mesh background in continuous bobbin lace during the mid-17th century. This technical improvement was fully developed by the last quarter of the century, and other regional laces had by then also begun incorporating mesh backgrounds in the laces they produced. At the beginning of the 18th century, the use of mesh background in bobbin lace had spread over Europe, usually to the detriment of using pleated bars as the ground of choice. Levey states that in the second half of the 17th century “[m]ost grounds were made of plaited threads although it was at this time that the regular meshes called Kat stitch, Point de Paris, and Flemish or five-hole mesh were developed.”56 Variations of the ground that was later named Torchon ground (such as Point de Dieppe) were also used, although these finer mesh grounds are not as common in surviving laces from the period as the other grounds. Regarding the plaited mesh ground known as round or (round) Valenciennes mesh ground, there are discrepancies between authors as to when this type of ground was used. Although Levey and Bruggeman agree that the round and square Valenciennes mesh grounds were characteristic of this type of 18th century lace, Coppens believes that the round mesh ground was already used in 17th century Flemish bobbin lace.57

Flemish bobbin lace was the most popular kind of lace in the two middle quarters of the 17th century. Although Flanders continued as a main centre of bobbin lace production afterwards, it lost its popularity to the boldly patterned Italian needle lace (Gros) Point de Venise which dominated fashion in the last quarter of the 17th century. In the last quarter of the 17th century, Flemish bobbin lace continued the pattern of baroque foliage scrolls which were also used in Italian lace. However, by the end of the century, Flemish lace had left the baroque style behind and become light and airy with more delicate scroll work, following the style of French lace and the rise of French fashion.58 Around 1700 lace became less popular when fashion changed to embrace a less ornamented style and largely replaced lace with plain muslin, resulting in a generalized crisis of the industry at the end of the 17th century and the first decade of the 18th century.59 Flemish lace workers once again lead the bobbin lace industry to its revival in the second decade of the 18th century, by perfecting a type of bobbin lace “with the softness and draping qualities of muslin combined with rich patterns.”60 The new style left behind the mesh ground and open areas, and instead worked with tightly grouped patterned motifs in different

54 Reticella was originally a form of geometric cutwork that later evolved into needle lace. The style was copied by bobbin laces. Mostly popular in the 16th and early 17th centuries. 55 Browne, Lace from the Victoria and Albert Museum, 10. 56 Levey, Lace: A History, 25. 57 Marguerite Coppens, Kant uit België van de Zestiende Eeuw tot Heden: Een Keuze uit de Verzameling van de Koninklijke Musea voor Kunst en Geschiedenis te Brussel (Antwerp: Volkskundemuseum, 1981), 22; Levey, Lace: A History, 124. 58 Browne, Lace from the Victoria and Albert Museum, 10. 59 Levey, Lace: A History, 43. 60 Browne, Lace from the Victoria and Albert Museum, 11. Moreno Parada, UvA, 2019 29

A cap? A collar? A 17th century puzzle from the Rijksmuseum collection

lace stitches. At this time, technical specialisation within the Flemish lace industry led to diverse styles of Flemish bobbin laces named after the towns associated with their production, such as Brussels, Mechlin and Valenciennes laces.61

3.3.1 Black Silk Lace in the 17th Century The changes in style and the evolution of the technique of bobbin lace have been usually traced by lace historians by following the developments in white thread bobbin lace, usually due to the fact that there is a lower survival rate of laces made with other materials which makes reconstructing their history more difficult. The origin of bobbin lace in braiding techniques meant that bobbin lace from its beginnings was frequently manufactured with materials commonly used in braiding techniques, such as silk and metal threads.62 From archival evidence, it is known that coloured and black silk laces had been made in bobbin lace since the initial stages of the technique. These silk laces enjoyed varying degrees of popularity throughout the centuries, although the rarity of surviving black silk lace from before the 19th century makes their research difficult. During the 17th century in particular, black silk bobbin lace became especially popular in the two middle quarters of the century. This type of lace was very popular in Dutch fashion during that period, but lost its prime spot in fashion in the 1680s.63 In her article on 17th century black silk lace, Wardle identifies the black lace appearing in Dutch paintings from the second quarter of the 17th century as black silk bobbin lace from Genoa (Italy), which was an important production centre of bobbin lace in silk, metal and heavy linen threads during the first half of the 17th century.64 After the decline of Genoa’s bobbin lace industry in the middle of the century, Wardle attributes the provenance of the black silk lace with mesh ground seen in Dutch portraits of the third quarter of the 17th century and the three surviving pieces in the Rijksmuseum collection to the area surrounding Paris (France). She concludes this mainly from the study based on written sources by Béatrix de Buffévent on 17th century silk and metal lace production in the area. The provenance of the lace bands of the thesis research object were also based on their similarity to the laces of a surviving suit that belonged to Frederick III of Denmark (1609-1670) dated to the late 1650s. Wardle makes the connection that “[i]n an earlier inventory of 1651 of Frederick's possessions some of the black lace listed is referred to as French and this is undoubtedly true of the lace on the suit as well.”65

However, Coppens’ research on Flemish black silk lace from the 17th century offers a different interpretation. Coppens analyses the study from De Buffévent and points out two relevant aspects from said research. First, de Buffévent emphasized the lace trading relationship between France and the Hispanic world, Scandinavia and Germany, and stated that other relationships existed with the Spanish Netherlands and Amsterdam: “De Buffévent leads us to understand that while export to Holland existed, this trade was not dominant and that transit was very likely part of the trade.”66 Second, black silk lace was one type of many laces made by the bobbin lace

61 Although the Treaty of Nijmegen (1678) ceded the control of Valenciennes to France, the lacemaking industry of the town remained under Flemish influence. 62 Levey, Lace: A History, 15. 63 Levey, Lace: A History, 24. 64 She draws this conclusion from the similarity of design between the Genoese white linen lace produced at the time and the depicted black silk laces in Dutch paintings, as almost no Genoese lace survives from this period. Wardle, "Seventeenth-Century Black Silk Lace in the Rijksmuseum," 219. 65 Wardle, "Seventeenth-Century Black Silk Lace in the Rijksmuseum," 219. 66 Marguerite Coppens, "The Trade and Production of Lace in the Southern Netherlands during the Seventeenth Century," in Netherlandish Fashion in the Seventeenth Century, vol. 19, Riggisberger Berichte (Riggisberg, Switzerland: Abegg-Stiftung, 2012), 72. Moreno Parada, UvA, 2019 30

A cap? A collar? A 17th century puzzle from the Rijksmuseum collection

industry in the Paris region, which covered a range of laces in diverse colours, in particular “blonde” (undyed) lace, as well as the important gold and silver laces. Coppens agrees with Wardle that by the 1680s, black silk lace production and sale in France had stagnated. However, Coppens’ research reveals that the Southern Netherlands was also producing high-quality black silk lace from at least the 1640s. The towns of Lille - which was officially part of France from 1668 but had remained under Flemish influence -, Liege and Breda took over the production of black silk lace from the Ile de France region when the industry declined there in the 1680s. Coppens believes that this ease of transition is evidence that these towns were already producing black silk lace before this date. Lille, Liege and Breda continued to produce lower quality black silk lace for the market of Spain and its colonies, once the fashion demand for high quality black silk lace had diminished in Europe during the last quarter of the 17th century.

Others lace experts, such as Levey and Bruggeman, agree that the finest black silk lace was produced in Flanders, while France produced lower quality black silk lace that was exported to Spain, the Spanish colonies, Portugal, Germany and Holland. However, and further complicating the issue, their source for these claims, Jacques Savary’s Dictionnaire universel de commerce (1723-1730), states that these French black silk laces were produced in Amiens and French Flanders.67

Wardle is also the author of the Rijksmuseum catalogue 75 x Lace (2000), in which one of the laces she describes is the related 17th century black silk lace (BK-NM-VI-R). Wardle acknowledges that high quality black silk was made in the Paris area but also in Southern Netherlands, as new research had come to light by the time of that publication.68

In the first half of the 18th century, black silk lace had been mostly relegated to rural clothing and to exports to America.69 In the second half of the 18th century, blonde, a delicate silk lace made in the Paris region with undyed or black silk, became popular for its lightness and lustre of its threads. Unlike the black silk laces that were popular in the 17th century, blonde lace had small patterns that were “normally geometric, consisting largely of zig-zags, diamonds and triangles set (…) in a mesh ground of Point de Paris (Kat stitch) or Point de Dieppe.”70 Black silk lace would again become very popular in the fourth decade of the 19th century with Chantilly lace.

3.3.2 Other Aspects of Lace The quality of the threads, such as the fineness and whiteness of linen, were important aspects in the lacemaking industry. However, the study of lace has focused mostly on its style, technique and production history, while the research on the materials used has often been overlooked, especially regarding silk lace.

The appearance, thickness and strength of silk threads is determined in the silk throwing process. Skeins of raw silk were reeled into bobbins, and the waste silk was spun into floss (floret) or bourat silk threads. After reeling into bobbins, the silk could be used in this state, not twisted or only slightly twisted but held together by the silk sericin. However, most silk underwent further processing of throwing (twisting) and doubling (plying), producing different types of threads, such

67 Martine Bruggeman, Kant in Europa: Een Historisch Overzicht vanaf het Ontstaan van de Kant tot aan het Interbellum (Bruges, Belgium: Stichting Kunstboek, 1997), 174; Levey, Lace: A History, 39; Jacques Savary des Brûlons, Dictionnaire universel de commerce (Geneva: Heritiers Cramer & Freres Philibert, 1742), 42-46. 68 Patricia Wardle, 75 X Lace, ed. Bianca M. du Mortier (Zwolle, Netherlands: Uitgeverij Waanders, 2000), 35. 69 Bruggeman, Kant in Europa, 174. 70 Levey, Lace: A History, 56. Moreno Parada, UvA, 2019 31

A cap? A collar? A 17th century puzzle from the Rijksmuseum collection

as poil (pel), organzine (organsin), tram and grenadine. Poil (spun thread) and organzine (spun and twisted thread) were strong enough to be used as warp threads and withstand stress on the loom, organzine more so than poil. Tram was produced by “doubling two or more [raw yarns], with or without a very light twist, together and then twining them lightly.”71This method produced a thread that was bulkier but weaker than those used for warps, and consequently it was used as a weft thread. Two further types of silk threads based on the tram thread are described by Hofenk de Graaff: stikzijde (trama vaga) which was made by slightly twisting five raw silk yarns, and naaigaren (sewing thread, cusir) which were two trama vaga threads strongly twisted together. 72

There are no mentions in literature about what kind of thread was used for making silk bobbin lace before the 19th century. The only description related to the quality of the silk only remarks, as mentioned earlier, on the lustre of the silk which made 18th century blonde lace famous. However, Levey mentions that after the loss of popularity of light-coloured silk blonde lace, Chantilly lace manufacturers switched to making “a black lace with a non-shiny silk thread called grenadine.”73 Grenadine is a silk thread similar to organzine, but more highly twisted. The fine, stout grenadine threads were used to make hosiery and lace.74

Another aspect of lace to consider is the historically common practice of applying different stiffeners to lace as part of its use and maintenance. Starch has a long history of use as a finish applied to lace to achieve a stiffer handle; the first Dutch starch factory was established as early as the 16th century. Wheat starch was the most common stiffener used for lace, but in sources from the 19th century other stiffeners used are also mentioned, such as gum Arabic, sugar water, and later, potato starch. In a Dutch housekeeping magazine from 1852 it is even recommended to mix a melted stearin-candle with the starch to produce a high gloss, smooth finish. 75

3.4 CONCLUSIONS There are five different lace bands in the object, more than initially anticipated by Wardle. It is difficult to date black silk lace due to the rare survival of these pieces, and the limited research on the topic that this has caused. The wide lace band, and to a lesser degree the other lace bands, indeed constitute the type of high quality of black silk lace that was only in demand in the two middle quarters of the 17th century. The symmetrically arranged delicate floral scrolls on an open background pattern of well-accomplished mesh ground, pushes their date to the 1670s when technically and stylistically these laces would have been produced. It is not clear whether the small Valenciennes lace pieces would have been produced in this period as well, or at a later date, since no similar black silk laces survive.

In general, lace is a difficult textile to treat in conservation: deteriorated threads that make the structure and design can tear under tension and the resulting lacunae are difficult to restore satisfactorily, as the common sheer fabrics used for consolidation often alter the openwork

71 Sjoukje Colenbrander, When Weaving Flourished: The Silk Industry in Amsterdam and Haarlem, 1585- 1750 (Amsterdam: Aronson Publishers, 2013), 17. 72 Judith H. Hofenk De Graaff, Geschiedenis Van De Textieltechniek: Een Drieluik (Amsterdam: Centraal Laboratorium Voor Onderzoek Van Voorwerpen Van Kunst En Wetenschap, 1992), 163. 73 Levey, Lace: A History, 89. 74 Phyllis G. Tortora and Ingrid Johnson, The Fairchild Books Dictionary of Textile, 8th ed. (New York: Bloomsbury Publishing, 2013), 270. 75 N. Cassee-Veltkamp, "Oude Behandelingsmethoden Van Kant," in Kant (Amsterdam: Textielcommissie Musea, 1987), 84. Moreno Parada, UvA, 2019 32

A cap? A collar? A 17th century puzzle from the Rijksmuseum collection

aesthetic of lace.76 The threads used for the lace bands of BK-18836 and the other two similar 17th century black silk laces could have a potential impact in their conservation. Plying single yarns makes them stronger.77 Using floss or only lightly twisted silk thread would have made lacemaking more difficult. The use of raw silk threads, in which fibers are kept together by the still present sericin, could be one possibility. However, the use of raw silk threads for lacemaking could also be a factor in their deterioration, as “raw silk is more hygroscopic than silk which has been degummed due to the higher amount of sericin, which may make it more at risk from environmental damage.”78 If raw silk threads were not used, then another solution might have been. Colenbrander points out that 17th and 18th century silk weavers “gummed” their degummed silk warps and wefts to make them as strong as raw silk threads.79 Colenbrander does not specify which “gum” was involved, but a possible answer would be gum arabic. This could also be problematic in terms of conservation, since “the acidity of gum arabic may cause the acid hydrolysis of silk and any paper or other cellulosic material it is in contact with. This results in discolouration to yellow or brown and embrittlement of the substrate material.”80

76 Clémence Chevrau, "Les Dentelles Entre Transparence Et Opacité: Une Difficile Restauration," In Visibilité De La Restauration, Lisibilité De L'oeuvre: Paris 13, 14 Et 15 Juin 2002, 197-201, Proceedings (Paris: Association Des Restaurateurs D'art Et D'archéologie De Formation Universitaire, 2003). 77 Landi, The Textile Conservator's Manual, 11. 78 Naomi Luxford, "Reducing the Risk of Open Display: Optimising the Preventive Conservation of Historic Silks" (PhD diss., University of Southampton, 2009), 11. 79 Sjoukje Colenbrander, "Kaffa and Dutch Fashion," in Netherlandish Fashion in the Seventeenth Century (Riggisberg, Switzerland: Abegg-Stiftung, 2012), 65-66. 80 Timár-Balázsy and Eastop, Chemical Principles of Textile Conservation, 124. Moreno Parada, UvA, 2019 33

A cap? A collar? A 17th century puzzle from the Rijksmuseum collection

4 DYES

This chapter will be focused on the identification of the dyes and mordants present in the thesis object. Understanding of historical dyeing dye sources and practices will help the historical contextualization of the object, as well as point to possible conservation issues related to dyeing practices and their impact on the thesis object.

4.1 IDENTIFICATION OF DYEING METHODS

With the exception of the cream-coloured fabric, all other components of the thesis objects have been dyed. Samples from five lace bands, the trimming and the brown-coloured fabric were taken. Dye analysis of these samples using the UHPLC-PDA technique was performed by RCE researcher Ana Serrano.81 Chromatograms taken from the dye analysis report written by Serrano summarize the results (Fig. 26-28). A copy of the full technical report of the dye analysis by Serrano can be found in Appendix II.

Figure 26: Chromatogram from dye analysis of samples of all the different lace bands. More details in Appendix II. Source: Ana Serrano (RCE).

81 At the moment of getting the samples, the object had not been turned around to see the reverse, where the ribbon and different threads used are clearly seen. For this reason, samples for dye identification of these elements were not taken and analysed. Moreno Parada, UvA, 2019 34

A cap? A collar? A 17th century puzzle from the Rijksmuseum collection

Figure 27: Chromatogram from dye analysis of the braid. Source: Ana Serrano (RCE).

The results of the analysis showed that all the samples taken from the lace bands had the same compounds present: gallic acid, ellagic acid and ellagic acid equivalent.82 These compounds are markers for a tannin dye source, possibly the same source. Tannins have been used for dyeing brown and black colours, as well for mordanting cellulosic fibers and for silk weighting.

Figure 28: Chromatogram from dye analysis of the brown coloured fabric. Source: Ana Serrano (RCE).

Analysis of the brown-coloured fabric showed the possible presence of ellagic acid, a tannin compound. It also revealed the possible presence of the compound luteolin-3’7-diglycoside, a glycosidic form of luteolin. Luteolin is yellow dye flavonoid found in several plant species, such as weld, sawwort and dyer’s broom. Luteolin-3’7-diglycoside in particular has been identified as a minor component of weld.83 This sample gave a very weak dye response, which can be explained by the fact that this fabric was dyed as a piece of fabric (Fig. 29).

82 Ellagic acid equivalent appears abbreviated to ellagic eq. in Serrano’s chromatogram. In sample 1 (from the wide lace band) it was also possible to detect the presence of an unknown tannin marker. 83 In addition to tannins, alder leaves also contain flavonols and flavones (types of flavonoids). The leaves of some species of alder have been used as a yellow dye in pre-Columbian South American textiles, where luteolin (flavone) has been identified in combination with quercetin (flavonol) and morin (flavonol). However, historical recipes for dyeing with tannins in Europe call for alder bark (which contains quercetin but not luteolin) and not alder leaves. Dominique Cardon, Natural Dyes: Sources, Tradition, Technology and Science (London: Archetype Publications, 2007), 679-681; Ozan Deveoğlu, Emine Torgan, and Recep Karadağ, "High-performance Liquid Chromatography of Some Natural Dyes: Analysis of Plant Extracts and Dyed Textiles," Coloration Technology 128, no. 2 (2012): 133. Moreno Parada, UvA, 2019 35

A cap? A collar? A 17th century puzzle from the Rijksmuseum collection

Figure 29: Detail image of the buckram fabric showing how the dye didn’t penetrate fully when dyeing the linen fabric. Dino-Lite image, white LED lights, 50x magnification. Source: María José Moreno Parada.

The analysis of the trimming found the presence of catechin, gallic acid and ellagic acid, which are indicative of tannins. The presence of catechin in particular most likely indicates the possibility that the trimming was dyed using cutch - which is sourced from the heartwood of Acacia catechu -, as it has a high content of condensed tannins such as catechin.84 The dye analysis also found the compound Urolithin C, which has recently been identified as a marker for the red dye brazilwood.85,86 However, when the sample was taken it was not yet known that the trimming consisted of black silk wound around a brown linen fibre core, since the silk has deteriorated and exposed the linen core (especially in areas exposed to abrasion). For this reason, the sample taken most likely includes both black silk and brown linen fibers. As a result, it is not possible to explain whether the silk was dyed with a mixture of tannins and brazilwood to achieve the black colour, or if the linen and silk fibers were each dyed with one or two of the source dyes that were identified by the analysis. In consequence, the results of the analysis do not identify the dye sources of each fiber but most likely a combination of both.

A summary of the results of the dye analyses can be found in Table 1.

84 Ilaria Degano et al., "A Mass Spectrometric Study on Tannin Degradation within Dyed Woollen Yarns," Molecules 24, no. 12 (June 22, 2019): accessed June 30, 2019, https://www.mdpi.com/1420- 3049/24/12/2318/htm. 85 Brazilein, the main chromophore marker compound in brazilwood, is often faded in historical textiles, sometimes to the extent of being unobservable in analysis. David A. Peggie et al., "Historical Mystery Solved: A Multi-analytical Approach to the Identification of a Key Marker for the Historical Use of Brazilwood (Caesalpinia Spp.) in Paintings and Textiles," Analytical Methods 10, no. 6 (2018): 618. 86 However, Professor Maarten van Bommel considers the response of the dye sample too weak to be able to positively identify Urolithin C. Maarten van Bommel, personal communication with the author, August 2019. Moreno Parada, UvA, 2019 36

A cap? A collar? A 17th century puzzle from the Rijksmuseum collection

Sample source Compounds found Likely dye source

Wide lace band Gallic acid Tannins

Narrow lace band Ellagic acid

Side lace band Ellagic acid eq.

Brown side lace band Unknown tannin compound (sample 1)

Bottom lace band Unknown compounds

Trimming (braid) Gallic acid Tannins (Cutch?)

Ellagic acid

Catechin

Urolithin C Brazilwood

Unknown compounds

Brown-coloured fabric Ellagic acid Tannins

Yellow dye (Weld?) Luteolin-3’7-diglycoside (?)

Unknown compounds

Table 1: Summary of results of the UHPLC-PDA dye analysis carried out by Ana Serrano (RCE).

Tannins are polymeric mixtures of polyphenols that are found in vegetable sources. They are large molecules that have a “multi-dentate” configuration, which is what enables tannins to fix themselves onto different molecules, including proteinaceous and cellulosic fabrics.87 Thanks to their wide distribution in plants, there is a large number of possible structures of tannins, with thousands of identified different polyphenols. Tannins have been commonly classified into two main categories: hydrolysable tannins and condensed tannins.88 Hydrolysable tannins are gallic acid or ellagic acid units ester-linked to sugar alcohols, a link that can be broken by acid or enzymatic hydrolysis.8990 Condensed tannins are composed of flavonol units linked together by C- C bonds.91 Catechin and its related compounds are one of the building units of condensed tannins. Condensed tannin sources give a deeper and redder colour compared to hydrolysable tannins.92 Vegetable sources that contain tannin compounds from either of those two categories in different concentrations have been used in textile dyeing and mordanting.

87 Dominique Cardon, Natural Dyes, 691. 88 Condensed tannins are also called proanthocyanidins. 89 Dominique Cardon, Natural Dyes, 693. 90 Ilaria Degano et al., "A Mass Spectrometric Study on Tannin Degradation within Dyed Woollen Yarns,". 91 The stronger carbon-carbon bonds can only be broken by heated strong acids. Dominique Cardon, Natural Dyes, 696. 92 Dominique Cardon, Natural Dyes, 697-98. Moreno Parada, UvA, 2019 37

A cap? A collar? A 17th century puzzle from the Rijksmuseum collection

Due to the variety and complexity of tannin structures, they have been difficult to study through analytical techniques. One of the most problematic aspects of the identification of tannin dyes in historical textiles is that these compounds have poor long-term stability.93 The presence of ellagic acid can be the result of the photo-oxidation or autoxidation in an alkaline environment of gallotannins, making it difficult to distinguish from ellagitannins.94 As a result of the degradation of tannins in historical textiles, presently it is not possible to distinguish specific tannin plant sources from dye analysis of historical samples.

Tannins dyes can give a black or dark brown colour if combined with an iron-compound mordant, the most commonly used being iron (II) sulphate. Through an oxidation reaction, the iron (II) sulphate combined with the tannin compounds form iron (III) tannate salts, which constitute the black iron-tannin dyes.95 Since iron-tanning dyes are associated with degradation issues in historical textiles, it was necessary to confirm the use of iron mordants in the thesis object. It was decided to perform SEM-EDX analysis on two of the lace bands of the thesis object, which was carried out by RCE researcher Ana Serrano.96 Samples of the wide lace band (sample 1) and the brown-coloured lace band (sample 2) were taken.97 The results of the analysis confirmed the presence of iron in both lace band samples, but they also revealed two unexpected issues. First, both lace threads appear to have an organic coating which bundles all the different silk fibers into one strand (Fig. 30 and 31). Secondly, there was an unexpected peak of potassium (K) among the elements present on the silk fibers. This peak was considerably higher than the peak for Iron (Fe), amounting to almost 20% of the oxygen (O) peak in sample 1, and approximately 10% in sample 2 (Fig. 32 and 33). Since tannins are obtained from plants, they could potentially extract potassium from the soil. However, none of the previously mentioned researches on tannins mention such a high content of potassium in their analyses, or mentions potassium at all. If there was potassium present in said analyses, the levels found were most likely negligible and may have been accounted as soiling (as potassium, calcium, magnesium or other elements usually are).98

93 As part of the research headed by Ilaria Degano on tannin identification and degradation process, the 15th and 16th historical samples analysed showed only the presence of ellagic acid, gallic acid, and hydroxybenzoic acids. This is a considerable reduction of the tannin compounds detected when compared to the reference samples that had been dyed with tannin sources used in the past (oak gallsnuts, walnut, and catechu). Ilaria Degano et al., "A Mass Spectrometric Study on Tannin Degradation within Dyed Woollen Yarns," 94 Dominique Cardon, Natural Dyes, 694. 95 Ágnes Timár-Balázsy and Dinah Eastop, Chemical Principles of Textile Conservation (Oxford: Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann, 1998), 96. 96 Although it would have been potentially helpful for this research to test for the presence of iron in all those components of the thesis object that had been identified as tannin-dyed, SEM-EDX analysis would have meant to take new samples of all the components. Hand-held XRF analysis of the lace bands would not have required new samples and identify the possible presence of iron, but through SEM-EDX analysis it would be possible to also obtain more information on the condition of the fibres. Thus, it was decided to minimize the loss of material in the object and focus on only two samples that could give more specific information on the degradation of the lace bands. 97 These two specific lace bands were chosen because of two reasons. Firstly, the tears in the wide lace band provide an opportunity for sample-taking in areas with unravelled thread-ends. Secondly, the brown- coloured lace band appears to be the most brittle and deteriorated of the lace bands, thus giving a possible chance for comparison between lace bands. 98 Ágnes Timár-Balázsy and Dinah Eastop, Chemical Principles of Textile Conservation, 158. Moreno Parada, UvA, 2019 38

A cap? A collar? A 17th century puzzle from the Rijksmuseum collection

Figure 30 : SEM-EDX image of Sample 1. Source: Ana Serrano (RCE).

Figure 31: SEM-EDX image of Sample 2. Source: Ana Serrano (RCE).

Figure 32: Elemental analysis of sample 1 with SEM-EDX. Source: Ana Serrano (RCE).

Sample 1

Figure 33: Elemental analysis of sample 2 with SEM-EDX. Source: Ana Serrano (RCE).

Sample 2

Moreno Parada, UvA, 2019 39

A cap? A collar? A 17th century puzzle from the Rijksmuseum collection

4.2 HISTORICAL DYEING PRACTICES

Textile dyeing has been an important part of textile production since prehistory. Professional textile dyeing in Europe can be traced to the 12th century, when regulations and ordinances for dyeing started to appear in municipal records. During this period, all types of craftsmen began to associate in guilds, and dyers were not an exception. In the Netherlands they were divided into the colours they were permitted to dye,99 while in other European countries regulations divided the trade between dyers of “great dyes” (grande teint or schön Färber) and dyers of “lesser dyes” (petit teint or schlecht Färber). The distinction was based, on the one hand, on the quality of the goods dyed. The luxury woollen goods were only to be dyed with “great dyes”, while “lesser dyes” could be used with products such as embroidery yarns, ribbons, stockings, linens and cheaper woollen cloth, all of which escaped regulations. Regulations on silk dyeing were not as strict as those placed on woollen goods.100 On the other hand, the distinction was also related to the quality of dyestuffs dyers could use, as only expensive colourfast yellow, red and blue dyes were allowed when dyeing "great dyes". Although a relatively limited number of natural dye sources were used, with the combination of successive dye baths and different mordants, dyers were able to produce a myriad of different colour shades.

When it came to producing black colour, research on historical recipes show that dyers had a variety of methods to produce different shades of black. The different dyeing methods used involved different ingredients, usually applied in successive dye baths, which made black dyeing a difficult, complex process.101 Ortega Saez has extensively researched black dyeing of woollen goods, which were dyed under the strictest regulations, in 17th to 19th-century Northern Europe through scientific analysis of surviving objects and technical historical research on recipe books from the period. Although historical recipes from books and manuscript sources show variations in their instructions, Ortega Saez was able to identify three main methods for dyeing wool black in the period she researched. The first method, which was the most labour-intensive and costly, involved a two-part process that started by dyeing the wool blue with indigo or woad (vat dyes), and this “blue foot” was then mordanted and dyed red with madder. The second method involved dyeing with a combination of tannin dye sources and iron compounds. The third method, mostly consisted of a combination of blue dye sources, tannins and metal salts.102 While the first method produced the “best black”, the second method with tannins and iron compounds was banned for dyeing wool for most of the 17th century. It was only during the 18th century, when regulations on wool dyeing became increasingly less strict, that the third method using a combination of iron-

99 Judith Hofenk de Graaff mentions that at least until the 17th century, dyers in Leiden had a strict division based on the colours and fabrics they were allowed to dye. The distinction was clear between blue dyers (blauwververs) and black dyers (zwartververs); the former were not even allowed to have gallnuts or copperas (iron (II) sulphate) in their homes. Judith Hofenk De Graaff, "Veranderend Kleurstofgebruik in De Leidse Textielververij in De Zestiende En Zeventiende Eeuw," Textielhistorische Bijdragen 36 (1996): 14. 100 Judith H. Hofenk de Graaff, Wilma G. Th. Roelofs, and Maarten R. Van Bommel, The Colourful Past: Origins, Chemistry and Identification of Natural Dyestuffs (Riggisberg and London: Abegg-Stiftung and Archetype Publications, 2004), 3, 339. 101 Natalia Ortega Saez, "De Technologie Van Het Zwartverven / The Technology of Black Dyeing," in Zwart: Meesterlijk Zwart in Mode & Kostuum / Black: Masters of Black in Fashion & Costume (Tielt: Lannoo Publishers, 2010), 57. 102 Other red and yellow colour dyes could also be added to produce specific shades of black. Natalia Ortega Saez et al., "Material Analysis versus Historical Dye Recipes: Ingredients Found in Black Dyed Wool from Five Belgian Archives (1650-1850)," Conservar Património 31 (2019): 118-119. Moreno Parada, UvA, 2019 40

A cap? A collar? A 17th century puzzle from the Rijksmuseum collection

tannins and blue dyes also appear in dyeing recipes. Although dyers would surreptitiously use banned ingredients or complex combinations of dye sources to reduce the costs of an expensive, labour-intensive process,103 dyeing with tannin and iron compounds was limited by regulations because it was known from the Middle Ages that this black-dyeing method could damage the fibres and that it also produces less wash-fast and light-fast black goods.104

However, as it was stated earlier, such strict regulations were not applied to silk dyeing. In the book The Colourful Past, Hofenk de Graaff states that a distinction between silk and wool dyeing black was made since the 16th century, when silk dyeing was authorized with tannins and iron compounds. Tannin sources commonly used were (oak) gallnuts, sumac and alder bark, while the iron mordants were usually iron (II) sulphate - known then as copperas or green vitriol - and iron (III) acetate – obtained from the fermentation of iron swarf, shavings or filings in vinegar.105 Despite being a commonly used method for iron-tannin dyeing, the use of alder bark and iron (III) acetate was considered detrimental to fibers, and was even banned in an Amsterdam ordinance from 1626. Gum Arabic was an ingredient usually included in the dyeing of silk, since the gum acted as a weighting agent and also gave lustre to the silk fibers, which the iron-tannin dyeing would turn dull otherwise. Hofenk de Graaff gives three recipes on dyeing silk black from the Haarlem manuscript, a compilation of dyeing recipes from Haarlem dated to the second half of the 17th century and currently owned by the Frans Hals Museum. The recipes from the manuscript that deal with dyeing silk black show complex dyeing processes which emphasize the importance of rinsing afterwards, and include the addition of other ingredients such as alum, tartar, and yellow and red dyes. Of the three recipes transcribed by Hofenk de Graaff, one is aimed for dyeing black silk yarn. This recipe starts with the “boiling” of silk with soap, most likely intended for degumming raw silk as sericin, and concludes with repeated rinsing of the dyed silk yarns.106 It is not clear from the recipe whether these silk yarns are intended for use as warps, wefts, sewing threads, lacemaking threads or other textile yarns.

However, one later recipe from the book The Art of Dying Wool, Silk and Cotton (1789) partially contradicts the instructions from the recipe for black silk yarns transcribed by Hofenk de Graaff. This book was a compilation in English of books by Hellot, Macqueur and Le Pileur d’Apligny, which included a translation of the very influential French book L’Art de la teinture des laines et des éttofes de laines, en grand teint et petit teint, avec une instruction sur les déboullis (1750) by Jean Hellot.107 In the recipe (for dyeing) “Black [silk] in the raw”, instructions are given to dye raw silk (which has not been degummed) by leaving it for several days in a cold gallnut liquor and then putting the silk in a “black wash” (of iron compounds) several times until a good black colour is achieved. What is interesting about this recipe, is that care is taken into not wringing (or rinsing) the silk thoroughly after being submerged several times in the “black wash”.108 More importantly,

103 The differences can be noticed when comparing historical recipes to the results of scientific analysis on historical objects from the period. Natalia Ortega Saez et al., "Material Analysis versus Historical Dye Recipes: Ingredients Found in Black Dyed Wool from Five Belgian Archives (1650-1850)," 130-131. 104 Natalia Ortega Saez, "De Technologie Van Het Zwartverven / The Technology of Black Dyeing," 64. 105 Cutch was not a main tannin source in this period. 106 Judith H. Hofenk de Graaff, Wilma G. Th. Roelofs, and Maarten R. Van Bommel, The Colourful Past, 316- 318. 107 Hofenk de Graaff et al, The Colourful Past, 8-9. 108 This recipe is taken from the second part of the book, which corresponds to the translation from French of the Art de la teinture en soie (1763) by the chemist Pierre Joseph Macquer. Pierre Joseph Macquer, “The Art of Dying Silk,” in The Art of Dyeing Wool, Silk and Cotton, (London: R. Baldwin, 1789), 364-366.

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A cap? A collar? A 17th century puzzle from the Rijksmuseum collection

the recipe mentions that this method of dyeing raw silk black is “designed for gauzes and black lace”, and that the natural stiffness of the sericin in silk is desired for silk threads intended for those uses (Fig. 34).

Figure 34: Excerpt from the section “Black in the Raw”. Source: Pierre Joseph Macquer, “The Art of Dying Silk,” in The Art of Dyeing Wool, Silk and Cotton, (London: R. Baldwin, 1789), 366.

4.3 CONCLUSIONS The lace bands were dyed black with iron-tannins dyes, as it was customary for silk goods before the invention of synthetic dyes in the 19th century. Although the mordanting with iron was not confirmed, the brown-coloured support fabric and the braid trimming were also dyed used tannins.

The use of iron-tannins has implications in relation to the conservation of the object. Dyeing fibres black with iron-tannin can result in mechanically weakened textiles, fragmentation or loss of fibres. The deterioration is caused by hydrolytic decomposition of cellulosic and silk fibres.109 Additionally, iron acts as a catalyst for fibre photo-oxidation, especially in areas next to those dyed black. This produces a lower degree of polymerization of the fibre, and as a result, it becomes brittle.110 Mechanical stress on brittle areas and high levels of relative humidity (over 70%) are risk factors for iron-tannin related deterioration.111 Moisture also enhances the dispersion of Iron (II) ions, hence expanding their photo-oxidative deteriorating effects to other areas.112

The revelation of an organic substance covering the silk threads through SEM-EDX, coupled with the identification in Chapter 3 of the threads used to make all the lace bands as lightly twisted silk floss, point to the possibility that a binding media was required in order to facilitate the lacemaking process. Although the recipe intended for dyeing raw silk black is dated decades later than the date of production of the black silk lace bands, such practice that prevented the loss of the “stiff” silk sericin could have been equally necessary for lacemaking in an earlier period when silk floss was the thread of choice. However, the improper rinsing that the black dyeing of raw silk

109 Ágnes Timár-Balázsy and Dinah Eastop, Chemical Principles of Textile Conservation, 96. 110 Katherine Barker, "Iron Gall and the Textile Conservator," in Strengthening the Bond: Science & Textiles: Preprints (Philadelphia: North American Textile Conservation Conference, 2002), 10. 111 Birgit Reissland, Frank Ligterink, and Claire Phan Tan Luu, "Ink Corrosion - Risk Factors," The Iron Gall Ink Website, accessed June 14, 2019, https://irongallink.org/igi_indexdb63.html. 112 Katherine Barker, "Iron Gall and the Textile Conservator," 11. Moreno Parada, UvA, 2019 42

A cap? A collar? A 17th century puzzle from the Rijksmuseum collection

recommends would impact on their conservation, as the harmful acid formed during the process of iron-tannin dyeing as well - as any excess iron - would remain on the fibers.113 Another possibility for the organic coating is the presence of starch, which was historically applied to laces. However, starch is a hygroscopic material that would absorb the environmental moisture, and be a risk for iron-tannin dyed fibres.

The source for the peak of potassium is not clear. Two common ingredients used in historical dyeing were potash and cream of tartar, which contain potassium. However, neither of these were necessary for the iron-tannin dyeing process.

113 Hofenk de Graaff et al, The Colourful Past, 320-321. Moreno Parada, UvA, 2019 43

A cap? A collar? A 17th century puzzle from the Rijksmuseum collection

5 CONSTRUCTION OF THE THESIS OBJECT

5.1 ANALYSIS OF CUT AND CONSTRUCTION

5.1.1 Analysis of the object From the back of the thesis object it is possible to appreciate the darts that give shape to the object, as well as the two creases that the darts form on each side of the object (Fig. 35-36). There is also a fold in the middle section of the object. There is a large number of stitching holes on the back-left side (front right side) of the object, which have caused the lace bands on that side to lie loose and over the edge of the support fabric (Fig. 35).

Figure 35: Back left side of object with crease and missing stitches. Source: María José Moreno Parada.

Figure 36: Back right side of object with crease and remaining stitches. Source: María José Moreno Parada.

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A cap? A collar? A 17th century puzzle from the Rijksmuseum collection

Figure 37: Map of the thesis object. The darts are shown as blue areas. Source. María José Moreno Parada.

With the help of the transmitted light setting of the VSC8000 it was possible to clearly see and measure the darts that give the object its three-dimensional aspect (Fig. 37-38).

Figure 38: Image of the front left side of the thesis object. VSC8000 device, using the transmitted light setting. Source: Birgit Reissland (RCE) & María José Moreno Parada.

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A cap? A collar? A 17th century puzzle from the Rijksmuseum collection

It was also discovered during inspection of the object with the VSC8000 device that the "stains" in the corners of the object were indeed abrasion marks, where the top dyed fibre layer of the buckram fabric had been lost exposing the undyed core. This was also confirmed with Dino-Lite (Fig. 39).

Figure 39: Detail image of one of the ‘stains’ in the corners of the object, identified as abrasion marks. Dino-Lite image, white LED lights, 50x magnification. Source: María José Moreno Parada.

The object is made of 3 pieces cut of buckram: one main piece with 6 darts (symmetrically arranged) and 2 small corner pieces sewn to the main piece. These small corner pieces don't seem to have any obvious functional purpose. Another middle piece is the cream-coloured fabric that is placed between the lace bands and the buckram. The remnants of the black ribbon show that this used to be sewn around the edge of the object, covering both the cut edges of both fabrics but not the lace bands. On top of these fabric layers, five different lace bands are sewn folded to cover the aforementioned fabrics completely. The lace bands themselves are also arranged symmetrically; the middle of a series of repeats coincides with the middle of the object. The braided trimming is sewn in the border between the narrow lace band and the wide lace band. Sections of three of the lace bands are sewn together to cover the support fabric. These lace bands were most likely sewn together before attaching them to the object, since the folds they make together are too similar and there are no signs of extra-stitching of this area in the buckram.

The darts are sewn together with whip stitches, while the lace bands are attached to the buckram fabric with running stitches. The thread used for these is the silk S-twist thread. The mercerized cotton thread was only used to sew the black ribbon around the edge, although it appears here in combination with the aforementioned silk thread.

5.1.2 Reconstruction The steps of the tentative reconstruction of the object and the results of it can be followed in the next images. The pattern used for the reconstruction is a simplified pattern of the buckram support fabric only, as this is the component that gives the shape to the object. For the full pattern of the different parts of the objects, including an exploratory reconstruction of the lace bands, see Appendix III.

The object had been photographed under a makeshift grid with 1x1 cm squares. Although these squares were slightly uneven, they helped to guide the tracing of the object on millimetric paper. This was also helped by the transmitted light images taken with VSC8000, as construction details

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A cap? A collar? A 17th century puzzle from the Rijksmuseum collection

were obscured by the pleated lace bands. From the traced object, the pattern was taken (including darts) with tissue paper. It was decided to make a mock reconstruction with felt fabric, as the main focus was to understand the object's cut and construction and not to make an accurate replica. Despite not having the stiffness of buckram, felt was chosen because it keeps shape better than other fabrics. After the fabric was cut, the darts were sewn together using whip stitch.

Although both cap and collar are possible interpretations of the reconstruction, the small size and improper fit of the reconstruction as a collar makes it an unlikely possibility (Fig. 40). On the contrary, it fits snuggly around the head, pointing to the object being originally a cap (Fig. 41).114

Figure 40: Photographs of the object reconstruction as a collar/cape. The shape does not conform well to the back. Source: María José Moreno Parada.

Figure 41: Photographs of the object reconstruction as a cap. The object is held on using hairpins. Source: María José Moreno Parada.

114 Jacoba de Jonge, personal communication with author, June 2019. Moreno Parada, UvA, 2019 47

A cap? A collar? A 17th century puzzle from the Rijksmuseum collection

5.2 DUTCH CAPS Dutch costume underwent different changes through the decades of the 17th century, integrating Spanish, Flemish and French influences into its own distinctive style.115 Despite being written in the first half of the 20th century, der Kinderen-Besier’s book Spelevaart der Mode (1950) is arguably the most comprehensive source to this date on the different styles and the changes in the different caps and headwear in the Netherlands during the 17th century. By the middle of the 17th century, the curved white caps that sit flat on the head (boogmutsjes) were going out of fashion, while black caps became popular amongst older and younger women. One of the types of black caps in fashion was the tipmuts, a black cap that covered the crown of the head with an attached “ball” (bol) of the same black material to store the hair (styled in a chignon). Der Kinderen-Besier describes the tipmuts as caps that are

“completely flat on the upper part of the head and [that] end at the front in a point that may be long or short, pointed or rounded (…) The connection between cap and bol is often covered with a string of pearls or with a band of precious stones set in gold. A metal oorijzer seems to be worn under the cap, which extends to the cheek and presses a dimple with its lower edge. There is usually a piece of jewellery at the bottom.”116

The oorijzer is a metal clamp placed around the head against the front sides near the cheeks. It was used since the 16th century to keep caps in place.117 Although the pointed black caps have been associated with widowhood, der Kinderen-Besier also founds them in portraits of married and single women. In the mid-17th century period, the hair worn in a bun is covered almost completely under the cap attached to the head with an oorijzer, although some young women show locks of curly hair escaping from the sides of caps worn without an oorijzer and tied with a ribbon instead.

In the third quarter of the 17th century, a new hairstyle becomes fashionable, the coiffure à la Sévigné, with ringlets of hair on each side of the head. Another hairstyle, with the hair tied in a bun under a cap or as a chignon decorated with ribbons, feather and braids, is also common in Dutch genre paintings, especially for young women. With these new hairstyles, caps became less common although they do not disappear completely. Caps are usually worn as morning or house headwear, and the previous black tipmuts “is now often made with brown fabric, [and it] is also an item of clothing used at home (huisdracht) that is common in the genre pieces.”118 On the street, women are depicted wearing a capuchon (kaper) to cover their heads.

In the last quarter of the 17th century, Dutch fashion became more heavily influenced by French fashion, an influence that will continue throughout the following century. In this period, the French high headdress known as fontange or frelange became popular, which had little in common with the previous caps in Dutch fashion. The fontange generally consisted of “white cap of linen, cambric or lawn, with a small round caul or bag which fitted over the bun at the back of the head. Attached to the front was a series of stiffened, fan-shaped shaped pleated lace frills, forming the pinner.”119 Lace bands (lappets) hung vertically from each side of the head, and the

115 Du Mortier, Bianca M. “Features of Fashion in the Netherlands in the Seventeenth Century.” 116 J.H. der Kinderen-Besier, Spelevaart Der Mode: De Kledij Onzer Voorouders in De Zeventiende Eeuw (Amsterdam: Querido, 1950), 150-151. Author’s translation. 117 Riet Van De Velde-Lagendijk and Gillian Vogelsang-Eastwood, Kanten Mutsen Uit Nederland / Dutch Lace Caps, trans. Tineke Rooijakkers (Leiden: Textile Research Centre, 2007), 18. 118 Der Kinderen-Besier, Spelevaart Der Mode, 191. 119 Hilda Amphlett, Hats: A History of Fashion in Headwear (Mineola, NY: Dover Publications, 2003), 105- 106. Moreno Parada, UvA, 2019 48

A cap? A collar? A 17th century puzzle from the Rijksmuseum collection

whole lace structure was held together by laiton wire (in what was called the commode). Although the fontange was commonly made in white, der Kinderen-Besier found a French reference to the use of black gauze fontanges for elderly women, as well as one reference from a Dutch inventory of the late 17th century that lists "[e]en zwart fluwelen fontaine muts", a black velvet fontange hat.120

After the fontange had fallen out of fashion by the second decade of the 18th century, the fashionable French-influenced headdress in the Netherlands was a small flat lace cap worn on top of curled hair, its low height contrasting to the heights reached by the fontange headdress.121 These small lace caps were called pinners in England, and usually had lace lappets that could be pinned on top of the head or tied under the chin.122

However, Dutch costume historian Irene Groeneweg was consulted about the thesis object and she pointed out women wearing black caps still appear in Dutch paintings of the 18th century. The rounded sides of the object thesis were to her reminiscent of those caps from the first half of the century, especially the type called strikken which snuggly fit the back of the head.123 The use of caps named strikken had been described for 17th century Dutch fashion as well.

As mentioned earlier it is in the 18th century when French fashion dominates European costume and it is also the beginning of modern fashion ideas. One of the most relevant aspects is the rise in the importance of the couturiere en garniture who later becomes the marchandes de modes, who established the importance of keeping up to date with fashions through trimmings and accessories.124 The coiffure, a fashionable lace headwear, is an example of this ephemerality and as a result, very few examples survive. “Ready-made goods, such as stockings, hats, breeches, and jackets were normally sold through the shops of specialised textile retailers (meerseniers), and, later and more exclusively, by fashion dealers (marchandes de mode).”125 However, there was also a booming market for second-hand goods, as people with different income levels would all try to keep up with the changing trends of fashion.

5.2.1 Cut and construction of 17th and 18th century caps Unfortunately, no similar objects survive in museums in the Netherlands to compare their cut and construction. Publications on historically accurate reconstructions of 17th century costume focus on English coifs, which have a completely different shape to Dutch caps.

A brief assessment of caps from the 18th century in the Amsterdam Central Museum and the Utrecht Central Museum not only revealed different styles, but also different ways of constructing a cap. None of them had darts, but instead used puckering and ribbon-tying to fit the caps to the head.

However, L’art de la Lingere (1771) by François A. de Garsault, which covers the trade associated with linens, has one section dedicated to bonnet making, including the use of lace to decorate

120 Der Kinderen-Besier, Spelevaart Der Mode, 232. 121 J.H. Der Kinderen-Besier, De Kleeding Onzer Voorouders: 1700-1900 (Amsterdam: S.L. Van Loy, 1926), 28. 122 Amphlett, Hats: A History of Fashion in Headwear, 113; Wardle, 75 x Lace, 60. 123 Irene Groeneweg, personal communication with author through e-mail, April 2019. 124 Aileen Ribeiro, "Dress in the Early Modern Period, c. 1500-1780," in The Cambridge History of Western Textiles, vol. I (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 679. 125 Ilja van Damme, “Second-Hand Trade and Respectability: Mediating Consumer Trust in Old Textiles and Used Clothing (Low Countries, Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries),” in Selling Textiles in the Long Eighteenth Century: Comparative Perspectives From Western Europe (Basington, Hampshire, England: Palgrave MacMillan, 2014), 196. Moreno Parada, UvA, 2019 49

A cap? A collar? A 17th century puzzle from the Rijksmuseum collection

them. The manual describes the construction of the bonnet piqué, which is the base for other caps.126 Although its shape is different from the thesis object its construction is somewhat similar: the bonnet is quilted and made of three layers: one is toile (in this case, cotton or linen fabric), a cotton interlining and a lining of fustian. The borders around the bonnet are covered by a ribbon (Fig. 42).

Figure 42: Description of the construction of a bonnet piqué (“F” in the image). Source: François A. de Garsault, L'art De La Lingere (Paris: De L'imprimerie, L. F. Delatour, 1771), Plate II (detail).

5.3 CONCLUSIONS However, as mentioned earlier, der Kinderen-Besier based her research on the study of paintings from the 17th century and written sources, since virtually no Dutch costume items survive from this period. It is difficult to trace the differences or similarities the thesis object has compared to other caps just by looking at historical paintings, since these don’t show the different angles that could help understand an object’s cut and construction or the manners of attaching a cap to the head. Unfortunately, no traces of pinholes caused by the use of an oorijzer were found in the object, and neither were traces of attached ribbons or cords to tie the cap around the head.

The construction of the object does not correspond to any of the surviving 17th or 18th century hats that were surveyed. However, only a handful of items of headwear survive from this period.

Although it is tempting to identify the object as either tipmuts or strikken, both types of caps have elements against their identification as such. Although the lace bands correspond to the period

126 François A. de Garsault, L'art De La Lingere (Paris: De L'imprimerie, L. F. Delatour, 1771), 17. Moreno Parada, UvA, 2019 50

A cap? A collar? A 17th century puzzle from the Rijksmuseum collection

that tipmuts were in fashion, in paintings these black caps are usually made with a non-patterned black fabric, or the decoration would be over the bol (chignon cover), or in the rare case of black lace covering them, the lace is flat to show the pattern. In the case of the strikken, it is difficult not to see the similarities between the thesis object and the painting by Cornelis Troost, De ontdekking van Jan Claasz [The discovery of Jan Claasz] (1738) (Fig. 43a). However, a drawing from the same author depicting the same scene, shows that the woman is indeed wearing a white under-cap covered by a lace-only cap, similar to the coiffure style lace caps that were popular in the 18th century, which give a similar shape to the thesis object but the wrong construction (Fig. 43b).

Figure 43a (left): Cornelis Troost, The Discovery of Jan Claasz [detail] (1738). Pastel & Gouache. 63 x 51 cm. Mauritshuis (The Hague), Inv. Number 182. Source: Mauritshuis website. Figure 43b (right): Cornelis Troost, Scene from "Jan Claasz. of de Gewaande Dienstmaagd" [detail] (c. 1736-1738). Pastel & Gouache. 49.5 x 37.5 cm. The Morgan Library & Museum (New York), Accession Number 1986.115. Source: The Morgan Library & Museum website.

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A cap? A collar? A 17th century puzzle from the Rijksmuseum collection

6 CONCLUSION

The research confirmed the most important aspects of Patricia Wardle’s article: the lace bands from the object are indeed 17th century black silk lace, and the object has been almost certainly identified as a cap. However, the research also uncovered elements that were not known before about the object and helps to understand some of its life-story and its present condition.

Despite having a similar style and most of them also the same mesh ground, all the lace bands have different widths, heights and patterns. Although the dye and mordant analyses showed that they have been all dyed using iron-tannin dyes, the differences in discolouration and brittleness between the lace bands could point out to differences in the dyeing process or in the environmental conditions prior to becoming part of the object. All of this together leads to the lace bands being previously unrelated and that they were only combined to make the object, and most likely reused.

Most of the materials (buckram, silk S-twist thread, natural dyes) that were gathered to make the thesis object are not 17th century or 18th century specific but were in use until the mid-19th century. This combined with the unusual cut and construction make the date of creation of the cap very difficult to ascertain with certainty.

At some point in the 19th century or afterwards, coarse cotton thread was used for a repair. Similarly, at the end of the 19th century or afterwards the cap was again sewn with a new thread: mercerized cotton. These repairs were possibly done to secure an already fragile black silk ribbon or lace bands. The fact that the repairs cover only a small portion of the object, not matched to the areas of missing threads, could possibly indicate that the repairs were previous to it.

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A cap? A collar? A 17th century puzzle from the Rijksmuseum collection

BIBLIOGRAPHY

• "Onderdeel Van Een Muts of Een Kraag Van Zwarte Kloskant, Anoniem, Ca. 1600 - Ca. 1699." Rijksstudio. Accessed February 22, 2019. http://hdl.handle.net/10934/RM0001.COLLECT.351539. • "BOKKERAAL." Historische Woordenboeken. Accessed July 14, 2019. http://gtb.ivdnt.org/iWDB/search?actie=article&wdb=WNT&id=M009920. • "Fragment Van Een Mantel Van Ciseléfluweel Met Kloskant, Volgens Overlevering Afkomstig Van Hugo De Groot, Anoniem, Ca. 1600 - Ca. 1699." Rijksstudio. Accessed February 24, 2019. http://hdl.handle.net/10934/RM0001.COLLECT.2295. • "Manuscript." V&A Search the Collections. Accessed July 13, 2019. http://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O11031/manuscript-unknown/. • "Strook Zwarte Kloskant Met Symmetrische Composities Met Tulpen En Rozen, Anoniem, Ca. 1670." Rijksstudio. Accessed February 24, 2019. http://hdl.handle.net/10934/RM0001.COLLECT.440612. • "VSC®8000: For the Examination of All Questioned Documents." foster+freeman. Accessed July 12, 2019. http://www.fosterfreeman.com/product/qde-products/580- vsc8000.html. • Amphlett, Hilda. Hats: A History of Fashion in Headwear. Mineola, NY: Dover Publications, 2003. • Appelbaum, Barbara. Conservation Treatment Methodology. Poland: Amazon Fulfillment, 2010. Print on demand. • Arnold, Janet, Jenny Tiramani, Luca Costigliolo, Sebastien Passot, Armelle Lucas, and Johannes Pietsch. Patterns of Fashion 5: The Content, Cut, Construction and Context of Bodies, Stays, Hoops and Rumps C. 1595-1795. London: School of Historical Dress, 2018. • Barker, Katherine. "Iron Gall and the Textile Conservator." In Strengthening the Bond: Science & Textiles: Preprints, 7-13. Philadelphia: North American Textile Conservation Conference, 2002. • Boersma, Foekje, Agnes W. Brokerhof, Saskia van den Berg, and Judith Tegelaers. Unravelling Textiles: A Handbook for the Preservation of Textile Collections. London: Archetype Publications, 2007. • Browne, Clare. Lace from the Victoria and Albert Museum. London: V&A Publications, 2004. • Bruggeman, Martine. Kant in Europa: Een Historisch Overzicht Vanaf Het Ontstaan Van De Kant Tot Aan Het Interbellum. Bruges, Belgium: Stichting Kunstboek, 1997. • Bruggeman, Martine. Lace in Flanders: History and Contemporary Art. Tielt, Belgium: Lannoo, 2018. • Cardon, Dominique. Natural Dyes: Sources, Tradition, Technology and Science. London: Archetype Publications, 2007. • Cassee-Veltkamp, N. "Oude Behandelingsmethoden van Kant." In Kant, 79-91. Amsterdam: Textielcommissie Musea, 1987. • Chevrau, Clémence. "Les Dentelles Entre Transparence Et Opacité: Une Difficile Restauration." In Visibilité De La Restauration, Lisibilité De L'oeuvre: Paris 13, 14 Et 15 Juin 2002, 197-201. Proceedings. Paris: Association des Restaurateurs D'Art et D'Archéologie de Formation Universitaire, 2003. • Colenbrander, Sjoukje. "Kaffa and Dutch Fashion." In Netherlandish Fashion in the Seventeenth Century, 63-69. Riggisberg, Switzerland: Abegg-Stiftung, 2012.

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• Colenbrander, Sjoukje. When Weaving Flourished: The Silk Industry in Amsterdam and Haarlem, 1585-1750. Amsterdam: Aronson Publishers, 2013. • Clarkson, Leslie. "The Linen Industry in Early Modern Europe." In The Cambridge History of Western Textiles, 473-92. Vol. I. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2003. • Coppens, Marguerite. "The Trade and Production of Lace in the Southern Netherlands during the Seventeenth Century." In Netherlandish Fashion in the Seventeenth Century, 71-79. Vol. 19. Riggisberger Berichte. Riggisberg, Switzerland: Abegg-Stiftung, 2012. • Coppens, Marguerite. Kant Uit België Van De Zestiende Eeuw Tot Heden: Een Keuze Uit De Verzameling Van De Koninklijke Musea Voor Kunst En Geschiedenis Te Brussel. Antwerp: Volkskundemuseum, 1981. • van Damme, Ilja. “Second-Hand Trade and Respectability: Mediating Consumer Trust in Old Textiles and Used Clothing (Low Countries, Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries).” In Selling Textiles in the Long Eighteenth Century: Comparative Perspectives from Western Europe, 193–209. Basington, Hampshire, England: Palgrave MacMillan, 2014. • Degano, Ilaria, Marco Mattonai, Francesca Sabatini, and Maria Perla Colombini. "A Mass Spectrometric Study on Tannin Degradation within Dyed Woolen Yarns." Molecules 24, no. 12 (June 22, 2019). Accessed June 30, 2019. https://www.mdpi.com/1420- 3049/24/12/2318/htm. • der Kinderen-Besier, J.H. De Kleeding Onzer Voorouders: 1700-1900. Amsterdam: S.L. Van Loy, 1926. • der Kinderen-Besier, J.H. Spelevaart Der Mode: De Kledij Onzer Voorouders in De Zeventiende Eeuw. Amsterdam: Querido, 1950. • Deveoğlu, Ozan, Emine Torgan, and Recep Karadağ. "High-performance Liquid Chromatography of Some Natural Dyes: Analysis of Plant Extracts and Dyed Textiles." Coloration Technology 128, no. 2 (2012): 133-38. doi:10.1111/j.1478-4408.2012.00358.x . • Diehl, Johanna M., A. J. de Graaf, and Daniël de Jonghe, eds. Textiellexicon: Verklarend Weeftechnisch Woordenboek. Amsterdam: Textielcommissie Musea, 1991. • Emery, Irene. The Primary Structure of Fabrics. London: Thames & Hudson, 2009. Reprint of 1980 edition. • de Garsault, François A. L'art De La Lingere. Paris: De L'imprimerie, L. F. Delatour, 1771. • Göpfrich, Jutta, and Brigitte Dreyspring. "Fabulous Beasts—leather, Silk and Gold: Recent Research on and Conservation of 12th Century Footwear from the Episcopal Tombs in Trèves Cathedral." In 14th Triennial Meeting, The Hague, 12-16 September 2005: Preprints, 243-48. Proceedings. Vol. I. London: James & James, 2005. • Gordenker, Emilie E. S. Anthony Van Dyck (1599-1641): And the Representation of Dress in Seventeenth-century Portraiture. Turnhout, Belgium: Brepols Publishers, 2001. • Groeneweg, Irene. "Over Zwarte Kleding in De Gouden Eeuw En Een Langdurig Misverstand." In Zwart / Bedrukt En Beschilderd Textiel, 10-19. Stichting Textielcommissie Jaarboek. Amsterdam: Stichting Textielcommissie Nederland, 1999. • Hofenk de Graaff, Judith. "Veranderend Kleurstofgebruik in De Leidse Textielververij in De Zestiende En Zeventiende Eeuw." Textielhistorische Bijdragen 36 (1996): 5-20. • Hofenk de Graaff, Judith H. Geschiedenis van de Textieltechniek: Een Drieluik. Amsterdam: Centraal Laboratorium voor onderzoek van Voorwerpen van Kunst en Wetenschap, 1992. • Hofenk de Graaff, Judith H., Wilma G. Th. Roelofs, and Maarten R. Van Bommel. The Colourful Past: Origins, Chemistry and Identification of Natural Dyestuffs. Riggisberg and London: Abegg-Stiftung and Archetype Publications Ltd., 2004.

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• Landi, Sheila. The Textile Conservator's Manual. 2nd ed. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann, 1998. • Lennard, Frances, and Patricia Ewer, eds. Textile Conservation: Advances in Practice. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann, 2010. • Levey, Santina M. "Lace in the Early Modern Period, c. 1500-1780." In The Cambridge History of Western Textiles, 585-96. Vol. I. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2003. • Levey, Santina M. Lace: A History. London: Victoria & Albert Museum in association with W.S. Maney and Son, 1983. • Luxford, Naomi. "Reducing the Risk of Open Display: Optimising the Preventive Conservation of Historic Silks." PhD diss., University of Southampton, 2009. • Macquer, Pierre Joseph. “The Art of Dying Silk.” In The Art of Dyeing Wool, Silk and Cotton, 267–381. London: R. Baldwin, 1789. • du Mortier, Bianca M. Costume & Fashion. Amsterdam: Rijksmuseum, 2016. • du Mortier, Bianca M. "Features of Fashion in the Netherlands in the Seventeenth Century." In Netherlandish Fashion in the Seventeenth Century, 17-39. Riggisberg: Abegg- Stiftung, 2012. • Newman, Alex, and Zakee Shariff. Fashion A-Z: An Illustrated Dictionary. London: Laurence King Publishing, 2009. • Nieto-Galan, Agustí. "Calico Printing and Chemical Knowledge in Lancashire in the Early Nineteenth Century: The Life and ‘colours’ of John Mercer." Annals of Science 54, no. 1 (1997): 1-28. doi:10.1080/00033799700200101. • North, Susan, and Jenny Tiramani, eds. Seventeenth-Century Women's Dress Patterns: Book Two. London: V&A Publishing, 2012. • Ortega Saez, Natalia. "De Technologie Van Het Zwartverven / The Technology of Black Dyeing." In Zwart: Meesterlijk Zwart in Mode & Kostuum / Black: Masters of Black in Fashion & Costume, 57-67. Tielt, Belgium: Lannoo Publishers, 2010. • Peggie, David A., Jo Kirby, Jennifer Poulin, Wim Genuit, Julija Romanuka, David F. Wills, Alessio De Simone, and Alison N. Hulme. "Historical Mystery Solved: A Multi-analytical Approach to the Identification of a Key Marker for the Historical Use of Brazilwood (Caesalpinia Spp.) in Paintings and Textiles." Analytical Methods10, no. 6 (2018): 617-23. doi:10.1039/c7ay02626a. • Ortega Saez, Natalia. "Black Dyed Wool in North Western Europe, 1680-1850: The Relationship between Historical Recipes and the Current State of Preservation." PhD diss., University of Antwerp, 2018. • Ortega Saez, Natalia. "De Technologie Van Het Zwartverven / The Technology of Black Dyeing." In Zwart: Meesterlijk Zwart in Mode & Kostuum / Black: Masters of Black in Fashion & Costume, 57-67. Tielt, Belgium: Lanoo Publishers, 2010. • Ortega Saez, Natalia, Ina Vanden Berghe, Olivier Schalm, Bert De Munck, and Joost Caen. "Material Analysis versus Historical Dye Recipes: Ingredients Found in Black Dyed Wool from Five Belgian Archives (1650-1850)." Conservar Património 31 (2019): 115-32. doi:10.14568/cp2018025. • Pietsch, Johannes, and Anna Jolly, eds. Netherlandish Fashion in the Seventeenth Century. Riggisberg: Abegg-Stiftung, 2012. • Reissland, Birgit, Frank Ligterink, and Claire Phan Tan Luu. "Ink Corrosion - Risk Factors." The Iron Gall Ink Website. Accessed February 26, 2019. https://irongallink.org/igi_indexdb63.html.

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• Ribeiro, Aileen. “Dress in the Early Modern Period, c. 1500-1780.” In The Cambridge History of Western Textiles, 659–89. Cambridge , UK: Cambridge University Press, 2003. • Savary des Brûlons, Jacques. Dictionnaire universel de commerce. Geneva: Heritiers Cramer & Freres Philibert, 1742. • Scaturro, Sarah. "A Materials- and Values-Based Approach to The Conservation of Fashion." In ICOM-CC 18th Triennial Conference Copenhagen Preprints, 2017. Proceedings. Accessed February 22, 2019. https://www.icom-cc-publications- online.org/PublicationDetail.aspx?cid=a53957bd-d18a-4487-98b1-92270129117f. • Solar, Peter. "The Linen Industry in the Nineteenth Century." In The Cambridge History of Western Textiles, 809-23. Vol. II. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2003. • Stavenow-Hidemark, Elisabet. "Textile Design and Furnishings, C. 1780-1914." In The Cambridge History of Western Textiles, 860-81. Vol. II. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2003. • Sykas, Philip A. "Re-threading: Notes Toward a History of Sewing Thread in Britain." In Textiles Revealed: Object Lesson in Historic Textile and Costume Research, 123-35. London: Archetype Publications, 2000. • van Thienen, Frithjof. Das Kostüm Der Blütezeit Hollands 1600-1660. Berlin: Deutscher Kunstverlag, 1930. • Timár-Balázsy, Ágnes, and Dinah Eastop. Chemical Principles of Textile Conservation. Oxford: Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann, 1998. • Tortora, Phyllis G., and Ingrid Johnson. The Fairchild Books Dictionary of Textile. 8th ed. New York: Bloomsbury Publishing, 2013. • van de Velde-Lagendijk, Riet, and Gillian Vogelsang-Eastwood. Kanten Mutsen Uit Nederland / Dutch Lace Caps. Translated by Tineke Rooijakkers. Leiden: Textile Research Centre, 2007. • Verhoeven, Geert. "Basics of Photography for Cultural Heritage Imaging." In 3D Recording, Documentation and Management of Cultural Heritage, 127-251. Dunbeath, Scotland: Whittles Publishing, 2016. • Wardle, Patricia. 75 X Lace. Edited by Bianca M. du Mortier. Zwolle, Netherlands: Uitgeverij Waanders, 2000. • Wardle, Patricia. "Seventeenth-Century Black Silk Lace in the Rijksmuseum." Bulletin Van Het Rijksmuseum 33, no. 4 (1985): 207-25. • Whewell, Charles S., and Edward Noah Abrahart. "Textile: Finishes Enhancing Appearance." Encyclopædia Britannica. June 16, 2017. Accessed July 13, 2019. https://www.britannica.com/topic/textile/Finishes-enhancing-appearance. • de Winkel, Marieke. Fashion and Fancy: Dress and Meaning in Rembrandt's Paintings. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2006.

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APPENDIX I: FIBRE IDENTIFICATION

The transmitted light microscope used for fibre identification was the Leica microscope DME model. This binocular microscope has the following specifications: C PLAN objectives with 4x, 10x, 20x, and 40x magnification. It also has darkfield and polarization (lambda plate) illumination accessories.

Photographs were taken with the mounted Leica EC3 digital colour camera and the associated Leica Application Suite software.

Sample Description Fibre Fibre at 20x magnification

1 Wide lace band Silk

2 Narrow lace band Silk

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3 Brownish side Silk lace band

4 Small side lace Silk band

5 Bottom side lace Silk band

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6 Brown support Linen fabric

7 Cream-coloured Linen fabric

8 Black thread 1 Silk

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9 Black thread 2 Merce rized cotton

10 Brown thread Cotto n

11 Cord – outer Silk fibres

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12 Cord – inner Linen fibres

All these images were taken by María José Moreno Parada with the same Leica DME microscope during March and May 2019. The images with a darker background were taken in the first period, while the ones with a lighter background were taken at a later date. Although the images taken in May have a fuzzier quality due to technical issues of the microscope, they still allow for identification of fibers from their characteristic features.

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APPENDIX II: DYE ANALYSIS

Re

A 17th-C black lace costume item: material

degradation & use

Unknown artisan and place of creation, 17th century

Research into the dye composition of the object

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Research report

Cultural Heritage Agency of the Netherlands (RCE) Cultural Heritage Laboratory UHPLC-PDA analysis of the colourants present in seven textile yarns from Hobbemastraat 22 1071 CZ Amsterdam a 17th-century black lace costume item www.cultureelerfgoed.nl

Date : 29 August 2019 RCE Contact person Author : Ana F. A. Serrano Ana F. A. Serrano [email protected] RCE project No. : 2019-042 RCE project No. Inventory No. : BK18836 2019-042

Request by

Museum / Institute University of Amsterdam

Contact person María José Moreno Parada

Position MA Textile Conservation student

Department Faculty of Humanities, Dept. of Conservation & Restoration

Street Hobbemastraat 22

Zip code / City 1071 ZC Amsterdam

Country Netherlands

Telephone 0641498665

E-mail [email protected]

Commissioned by / Involved persons

Museum / Institute University of Amsterdam

Contact person René Lugtigheid

Position Thesis supervisor

Department Faculty of Humanities, Dept. of Conservation & Restoration

Street Johannes Vermeerplein 1

Zip code / City 1071 DV Amsterdam

Country Netherlands

Telephone 0205254277 / 0205251880

E-mail [email protected]

Owner / Museum

Museum / Institute Rijksmuseum

Contact person Suzan Meijer

Position Head of Textile Conservation

Department Conservation Department

Street Hobbemastraat 22

Zip code / City 1071 ZC Amsterdam

RCE Project No. 2019-042 Page 64 / 90

Country Netherlands

Telephone

E-mail [email protected]

Object / Collection

Inventory Number BK-18836 Title Part of a hat or a collar of black bobbin lace Artist / Creator Anonymous Date of creation 17th century Place of creation Unknown Location Rijksmuseum depot Dimensions (HWD in cm) 41 x 22.5 cm Material / Technique Textiles - Lace

RCE Project 2019-0XXX Page 65 of 90

Index

1 Introduction 67

2 Experimental 69

2.1 UHPLC-PDA 69

3 Results 73

3.1 UHPLC-PDA 73

5 Conclusions 75

Appendix 1: References 76

Appendix 2: UHPLC-PDA data 77

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7 1 Introduction

The object is a rare example of a 17th century textile containing black lace, and also a rare costume piece of the period (Fig. 1, cover). However, the original function of the object has not been fully established, as well as the type/origin of the lace. The black lace is pleated to fit the shape of the piece on each side, instead of being made to fit such specific shape. There are at least 2, and possibly 3, lace bands covering the front, but it is hard to distinguish their design due to the pleating and the dark colour of the lace and support fabric (Fig. 2). The fabric used as lining/support also has a fold/pleat on each side and in the centre but it is not clear whether they match the pleating of the lace or have a functional purpose. The areas of loss in the lace partially coincide with the pleats of the support fabric (Fig. 3). A penetrative imaging technique would be useful to “unfold” the lace bands to be able to see its design and original shape, as well as possibly recognizing differences or similarities in type of lace or patterns. It would also help understand how the object was made and any other detail that is not possible to see through the pleats.

Analysing the dyes used in the object could tell whether the lace bands were all dyed simultaneously (and possibly to make the specific object) or if the object had been assembled using black lace bands from different sources. Additionally, the identification of black dyes used can also be related to the condition of the object and its future conservation measures. Also, analysing the dyes used in the support fabric may give information about whether its present brown colour was intended or it is the result of colour fading.

Figure 2: Detail of the front left side (© Maria José Moreno Parada, University of Amsterdam).

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Figure 3: Detail of the front left side, with areas of loss

(© Maria José Moreno Parada, University of Amsterdam).

8 2 Experimental

9 2.1 UHPLC-PDA

Sampling. All samples were taken at the Textile studio of the Rijksmuseum (Ateliergebouw) by the author of this report in presence of the student Maria José Moreno Parada and the conservator Suzan Meijer on 4 March 2019. Small yarns of circa 5 mm were sampled from several parts of the object, which precise locations are pointed out in Figure 4.

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As indicated in Table 1, the samples were weighed and then observed with an Olympus SZH10 stereo microscope (Olympus Scientific Solutions Americas Inc., MA, USA), coupled to a SZ-STU2 stand and using a 0.75x objective. This was digitally controlled with a microscope camera ZEISS Axiocam 105 color and using Zen 2.3 lite imaging software (Carl Zeiss Microscopy GmbH, Jena, Germany). Observation of the samples was carried out by setting magnifications between 5.3 and 11.3x. The colour of the samples was investigated, as well as the possible presence of contaminations and/or additional fibres with different characteristics. Nor mixtures of different dyed fibres, nor contaminations, were reported in the samples.

Figure 4: Overview of the object marked with the locations from where samples were collected.

(© Maria José Moreno Parada, University of Amsterdam).

Table 1: Samples observed with digital microscope (5.3 and 11.3x magnification) and respective weight.

BK18836.1 - Lace 1 (from larger band) – BK18836.2 - Lace 2 (from smaller band) – 0.1914 mg 0.0936 mg

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BK18836.3 – Cord – 0.2967 mg BK18836.4 - Lace 3 (fold, different colour) – 0.1134 mg

BK18836.5 - Support fabric – 0.2940 mg BK18836.6 - Lace 4 – 0.2289 mg

BK18836.7 - Lace 5 – 0.0951 mg

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Dyestuff analysis was performed with Ultra-high Performance Liquid Chromatography - Photo Diode Array detector (UHPLC-PDA), following a sample preparation and analytical conditions of previously published work [1].

Sample preparation. A two-step extraction method was used, using dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), prior to an acidic solution of hydrochloric acid (HCl) 37%: methanol (MeOH): H2O (2:1:1, v/v/v). In this way, information on the potential presence of different dyestuffs in unknown historical textile samples can be obtained, since DMSO is able to extract vat and direct dyes, whereas the acidic solution, mordant dyes:

1) 50 μL DMSO was added to the sample and heated up to 80 °C in a water bath for 10 min, after which, the extract was transferred to another vial.

2) 50 μL of an acidic extraction solution (HCl 37%:MeOH:H2O (2:1:1, v/v/v)) was added to the sample and heated up to 100 °C in a water bath for 10 min. After the extraction, the dye extract was evaporated to dryness under gentle nitrogen flow, and the resulting dry residue was reconstituted with the DMSO extract, thus combining the two steps.

The extract was submitted to mechanical agitation and centrifuged for 5 min at 7500 rpm and part of the resulting supernatant was transferred to a new vail. This vail was centrifuged once more prior to UHPLC analysis.

Analytical conditions. UHPLC-PDA analysis was performed using a Waters AcquityTM H-class UHPLC system (Waters Corporation, Milford, MA, U.S.A.) equipped with a quaternary solvent delivery system, a column oven, an autosampler and a photodiode array (PDA) detector. PDA data was recorded from 200 to 800 nm with a resolution of 1.2 nm (2 scan/s), and the analysis monitoring was settled at a detection wavelength of 254 nm. The equipment was controlled by Empower 3.0 Chromatography Data Software from Waters Corporation.

Analytical conditions were carried out using a Waters Acquity® UHPLC BEH Shield RP18 1.7 µm of 2.1 x 150 mm column, protected by a filter unit (0.2 µm), with 2 µL injection volume, a flow rate of 0.2 ml min-1 and a constant temperature of 40 °C. The mobile phase comprised 10% aqueous methanol (v/v) (solvent A), pure methanol (solvent B) and 1% aqueous formic acid (v/v) (solvent Moreno Parada | UvA | 2019 72

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C) in a gradient elution program scheduled for a 40 min run: 0–1.33 min, isocratic gradient of 80A:10B:10C (v/v/v); 1.33–2.33, linear gradient to 74A:16B:10C (v/v/v); 2.33–5.33, linear gradient to 55A:35B:10C (v/v/v), kept in isocratic gradient until 9 min; 9–14 min, linear gradient to 30A:60B:10C (v/v/v); 14–25 min, linear gradient to 5A:85B:10C (v/v/v); 25–26 min, linear gradient to 100B, kept for 4 min; and 30–32 min, linear gradient to 80A:10B:10C (v/v/v), kept for 8 min.

The UHPLC-PDA results were interpreted by comparing the UV-visible spectra and the retention time of the detected compounds with that of (known) reference material, which data are stored in an UHPLC-library. At the time of the analyses (March 2019), this library comprised a total of 164 compounds, usually present in sources of natural dyes. With this interpretation, the dyestuffs used to colour the analysed samples were characterized.

Sometimes a precise identification is not possible, due to the detection of compounds with very low concentration or of unknown compounds that can be a result of the degradation of the original dye compounds. This may happen as a result of colour change mechanisms caused by light fading or archaeological burial, for instance. Moreover, identification may be hindered when comparable reference material is not available in the UHPLC-library. When this happens, the careful study of the UV-vis spectra from the unknown compounds can often lead to deductions about the original colour that the textile used to exhibit before undergoing colour degradation, or about potential dye sources that could have been used in the dyeing process, respectively.

10 3 Results

11 3.1 UHPLC-PDA

Below, the UHPLC chromatograms of the seven analysed samples, observed at 275 nm (at which the majority of the compounds are observed), with labelled compounds and respective dyestuff attribution – based on the compounds’ retention time and UV-vis spectra (Appendix 2). Unlabelled peaks in the chromatograms correspond to contaminations present in the DMSO solution used in the sample preparation, or to compounds below detection limit (very low concentration).

Samples 1, 2, 4, 6 and 7 (Figure 5) are characterized with the presence of gallic acid, ellagic acid, ellagic acid equivalent (eq.) and, in the case of sample 1, an unknown tannin marker as well. The identification of these compounds strongly suggests that a natural source of tannins was used to dye with black the analysed yarns (in combination with iron sulphate (?)) – samples taken from the lace parts of the object. The unknown compounds might be related to the dye source or to the degradation of the original dye compounds.

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Figure 5: Chromatographic results in which dye compounds from tannins are reported (from top to bottom): sample 1 (red), 6 (brown), 4 (dark blue), 2 (blue) and 7 (black).

Sample 3 (Figure 6) is reported with the presence of catechin hydrate. The identification of this compound, along with gallic acids and ellagic acid, possibly indicates that this sample (cord) was dyed with cutch tree (Acacia catechu (L. f.) Wild), a natural source of tannins [2]. In addition, the detection of urolidin C clearly points to the use of a brazilwood species [3], which could have been used in combination with the natural source of tannins.

Figure 6: Chromatographic results for sample 3.

In sample 7 (support fabric), the response of the compounds is very small. Yet, it is possible to identify the presence of ellagic acid, and possibly, luteolin-3’7-diglycoside (?). The latter is a

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yellow compound (flavonol) that could be present, along with ellagic acid, in the dye composition of the tannin source used [2].

Figure 7: Chromatographic results for sample 5.

12 5 Conclusions

Analyses with UHPLC-PDA have demonstrated that the lace parts of the object (samples 1, 2, 4, 6 and 7) were possibly dyed with one same source of tannins. However, the identification of catechin hydrate in sample 3 points to the use of a different source of tannins, likely cutch tree, for colouring the cord of the object. As for the support fabric (sample 5), this was possibly dyed with a source of tannins as well, but the chromatographic response is quite low and only ellagic acid could be identified with certainty.

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13 Appendix 1: References

[1] A. Serrano, M. Van Bommel, J. Hallett, Evaluation between ultrahigh pressure liquid chromatography and high-performance liquid chromatography analytical methods for characterizing natural dyestuffs, J. Chromatogr. A. 1318 (2013) 102–111.

[2] D. Cardon, Natural Dyes – Sources, Tradition, Technology and Science, Archetype Publications, London, 2007.

[3] D.A. Peggie, J.A. Poulin, Historical mystery solved: A multi-analytical approach to the identification of a key marker for the historical use of brazilwood Caesalpinia spp.) in paintings and textiles, Anal. Methods. 10 (2018) 617–623.

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15 Appendix 2: UHPLC-PDA data

Sample nr.: BK18836.1 – Lace 1 (larger band)

Date of analysis: 30/03/2019

dyestuff attribution: tannins (gallic acid + ellagic acid), unknown yellow compounds

0.060

0.050

0.040 3.211

0.030 13.955

0.020 6.287

4.535

7.435

8.287 8.910

0.010 20.750

13.483 10.683

(AU) nm 275 at Absorption 0.000 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00 8.00 9.00 10.00 11.00 12.00 13.00 14.00 15.00 16.00 17.00 18.00 19.00 20.00 21.00 22.00 Retention time (min) Compounds detected

3.211 4.535 6.287 nm nm nm 300.00 300.00 300.00 400.00 500.00 600.00 700.00 400.00 500.00 600.00 700.00 400.00 500.00 600.00 700.00 3.21 4.53 6.28

270.9 272.1 272.1

409.4444.5467.6 663.1682.8 345.7382.9 535.8621.4668.0717.2 361.2 511.4529.7 644.7664.3

Gallic acid

(reference from Riedel de Gallic acid eq. Gallic acid eq. Haen)

7.435 8.287 8.910 10.683 nm nm nm nm 400.00 400.00 400.00 400.00 600.00 600.00 600.00 600.00 7.44 8.29 275.7 8.92228.3 10.68

355.2 270.9

273.3 663.1 345.7 425.1521.1551.7 331.8 663.1 416.7432.4 668.0 323.4 449.4 636.1 794.6 489.5561.4645.9664.3

Unknown compound Unknown compound Unknown compound Unknown compound

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13.483 13.955 20.750 nm nm nm 300.00 300.00 300.00 400.00 500.00 600.00 700.00 400.00 500.00 600.00 700.00 400.00 500.00 600.00 700.00 249.6 13.48253.1 13.96220.0 20.75 279.3

387.7 438.5 501.6 530.9 670.5 786.0

366.0

274.5 434.8 649.6666.8711.0 663.1

Ellagic acid Unknown tannin marker Unknown compound (reference from Sigma)

Sample nr.: BK18836.2 – Lace 2 (smaller band)

Date of analysis: 30/03/2019

dyestuff attribution: tannins (gallic acid + ellagic acid), unknown yellow compounds

0.025

0.020 3.216

0.015 13.965

0.010 6.292

8.923

7.443

8.295

4.538 14.773

0.005 20.757

0.000 (AU) nm 275 at Absorption 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00 8.00 9.00 10.00 11.00 12.00 13.00 14.00 15.00 16.00 17.00 18.00 19.00 20.00 21.00 22.00 Retention time (min) Compounds detected

3.216 4.538 6.292 nm nm nm 300.00 300.00 300.00 400.00 500.00 600.00 700.00 400.00 500.00 600.00 700.00 400.00 500.00 600.00 700.00 222.4 3.22 4.54 6.29 269.8

272.1 273.3

663.1 408.2431.2 641.0663.1713.5 364.8380.5502.9555.3 784.7 356.4408.2 507.7529.7645.9665.6

Gallic acid

(reference from Riedel de Gallic acid eq. Gallic acid eq. Haen)

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7.443 8.295 8.923 nm nm nm 300.00 300.00 300.00 400.00 500.00 600.00 700.00 400.00 500.00 600.00 700.00 400.00 500.00 600.00 700.00 7.44 8.29 275.7 8.92

278.1

344.5 351.6

797.0 272.1 517.5537.0 672.9 453.0 754.0 337.7 663.1 647.2671.7 488.3533.3566.3 403.4460.3 545.5566.3 706.1

Unknown compound Unknown compound Unknown compound

13.965 14.773 20.757 nm nm nm 300.00 300.00 300.00 400.00 500.00 600.00 700.00 400.00 500.00 600.00 700.00 400.00 500.00 600.00 700.00 253.1 13.97 262.6 14.77 20.76

350.4 367.2 663.1 722.1 431.2 566.3 274.5 427.6 557.8647.2665.6712.2 663.1691.4

Ellagic acid Ellagic acid eq. Unknown compound (reference from Sigma)

Sample nr.: BK18836.3 – Cord

Date of analysis: 30/03/2019

dyestuff attribution: tannins (gallic acid + catechin hydrate + ellagic acid), unknown yellow compound, brazilwood (urolithin C)

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0.040

0.030 2.916

0.020

3.195

7.681

7.940

6.296 7.040

0.010 6.786

10.686

14.903

13.955 20.757

0.000 (AU) nm 275 at Absorption 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00 8.00 9.00 10.00 11.00 12.00 13.00 14.00 15.00 16.00 17.00 18.00 19.00 20.00 21.00 22.00 Retention time (min) Compounds detected

2.916 3.195 6.296 6.786 nm nm nm nm 400.00 400.00 400.00 400.00 600.00 600.00 600.00 600.00 284.0 2.92 272.1 3.19 6.29 6.78 275.7

663.1 272.1 663.1 432.4474.9524.8539.4 788.4 328.2 369.6 524.8 783.5 663.1 559.0 455.4616.5641.0671.7 350.4 507.7

Unknown compound Gallic acid Gallic acid eq. Unknown compound

7.040 7.681 7.940 10.686 nm nm nm nm 400.00 400.00 400.00 400.00 600.00 600.00 600.00 600.00 7.03 284.0 7.68230.6 7.94229.5 10.69

307.9

663.1 279.3 321.0 479.7502.9539.4 773.7 410.6423.9 663.1 380.5541.9633.7649.6671.7 425.1555.3644.7666.8

Catechin hydrate

(reference 4799, CI Unknown compound Unknown compound Unknown compound 75250, CI Natural brown 3)

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13.955 14.903 20.757 nm nm nm 300.00 300.00 300.00 400.00 500.00 600.00 700.00 400.00 500.00 600.00 700.00 400.00 500.00 600.00 700.00 13.95 260.3 14.90220.0 20.76

253.1

356.4 374.4 671.7715.9 515.0 648.4670.5 396.1428.8476.1528.5 617.7 275.7 366.0 488.3 641.0668.0 762.6

urolithin C Ellagic acid (reference from redwood Unknown compound (reference from Sigma) dyed wool, prepared by J. Kirby, 1991)

Sample nr.: BK18836.4 – Lace 3 (fold, different colour)

Date of analysis: 30/03/2019

dyestuff attribution: tannins (gallic acid + ellagic acid), unknown yellow compound

0.035

0.030

0.025 3.209

0.020

0.015 6.285 7.712

0.010 7.644

4.533

8.290 13.956

0.005 20.755 0.000 (AU) nm 275 at Absorption -0.005 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00 8.00 9.00 10.00 11.00 12.00 13.00 14.00 15.00 16.00 17.00 18.00 19.00 20.00 21.00 Retention time (min) Compounds detected

3.209 4.533 6.285 nm nm nm 300.00 300.00 300.00 400.00 500.00 600.00 700.00 400.00 500.00 600.00 700.00 400.00 500.00 600.00 700.00 3.21 4.53 6.28

270.9

272.1 274.5

403.4433.6460.3 663.1720.8 362.4376.9474.9 645.9668.0 782.3 363.6399.8 491.9 649.6664.3728.2

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Gallic acid

(reference from Riedel de Gallic acid eq. Gallic acid eq. Haen)

7.644 7.712 8.290 13.956 20.755 nm nm nm nm nm 400.00 400.00 400.00 400.00 400.00 600.00 600.00 600.00 600.00 600.00 255.5 7.64 284.0 7.71 8.29253.1 13.96 20.76

274.5

315.0333.0 671.7 433.6 648.4 364.8

416.7 642.3 274.5 337.7 528.5647.2 425.1438.5 693.8 505.3552.9 789.7

Ellagic acid Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown compound compound compound (reference from compound Sigma)

Sample nr.: BK18836.5 – support fabric

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Date of analysis: 30/03/2019

dyestuff attribution: tannins (ellagic acid), unknown yellow compounds

0.025 2.916

0.020

0.015 7.681

0.010

7.939

7.836

8.780 10.685

0.005 13.965 20.755

0.000 (AU) nm 275 at Absorption 4.00 6.00 8.00 10.00 12.00 14.00 16.00 18.00 20.00 22.00 Retention time (min) Compounds detected

2.916 7.681 7.836 7.939 nm nm nm nm 400.00 400.00 400.00 400.00 600.00 600.00 600.00 600.00 284.0 2.92 282.8 7.68 7.83229.5 7.94

310.3 260.3

290.0 663.1 663.1 484.6505.3554.1641.0670.5 426.4470.0 647.2664.3 352.8 530.9 712.2 378.1 529.7 695.0

Unknown compound Unknown compound Unknown compound Unknown compound

8.780 10.685 13.965 20.755 nm nm nm nm 400.00 400.00 400.00 400.00 600.00 600.00 600.00 600.00 8.78228.3 10.69 13.96 20.76

267.4 346.8 253.1

472.4636.1680.3696.3 368.4 319.8 513.8 690.1713.5 663.1 274.5 420.3494.3649.6677.9 482.2505.3529.7 697.5

Ellagic acid Luteolin 3', 7- Unknown compound Unknown compound diglycoside? (reference from Sigma)

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Sample nr.: BK18836.6 – Lace 4

Date of analysis: 30/03/2019

dyestuff attribution: tannins (gallic acid + ellagic acid), unknown yellow compounds

0.050

0.040 3.211 0.030

0.020 6.285

13.950

7.709

7.667

4.533

8.915

8.287 8.478

0.010 4.257

14.760

20.754 15.288

0.000 (AU) nm 275 at Absorption 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00 8.00 9.00 10.00 11.00 12.00 13.00 14.00 15.00 16.00 17.00 18.00 19.00 20.00 21.00 22.00 Retention time (min) Compounds detected

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3.211 4.257 4.533 6.285 nm nm nm nm 400.00 400.00 400.00 400.00 600.00 600.00 600.00 600.00 220.0 3.21 4.27 4.53 6.28

254.3 270.9 295.9 272.1 272.1

432.4482.2 741.7788.4 422.7445.7 663.1 356.4 530.9672.9691.4 375.6407.0532.1 669.3

Gallic acid

(reference from Riedel Unknown compound Gallic acid eq. Gallic acid eq. de Haen)

7.667 7.709 8.287 8.478 8.915 nm nm nm nm nm 400.00 400.00 400.00 400.00 400.00 600.00 600.00 600.00 600.00 600.00 256.7 7.67 282.8 7.71 8.28 8.48275.7 8.92

351.6

272.1 267.4 338.8 663.1 634.9664.3700.0 345.7 648.4668.0720.8 663.1 437.3481.0 700.0 337.7 533.3 432.4470.0663.1

Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown Gallic acid eq. compound compound compound compound

13.950 14.760 15.288 20.754 nm nm nm nm 400.00 400.00 400.00 400.00 600.00 600.00 600.00 600.00 253.1 13.95262.6 14.76 275.7 15.28 20.75 373.2 431.2494.3 676.6

356.4 366.0

462.7505.3 666.8 274.5 427.6444.5 663.1 644.7665.6

Ellagic acid Ellagic acid eq. Ellagic acid eq. Unknown compound (reference from Sigma)

Sample nr.: BK18836.7 – Lace 5

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Date of analysis: 30/03/2019

dyestuff attribution: tannins (gallic acid + ellagic acid), unknown yellow compounds

0.025 3.209

0.020 13.955

0.015 6.285

0.010

7.714

4.531 8.894

0.005 14.762 20.756

0.000 (AU) nm 275 at Absorption 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00 8.00 9.00 10.00 11.00 12.00 13.00 14.00 15.00 16.00 17.00 18.00 19.00 20.00 21.00 Retention time (min) Compounds detected

3.209 4.531 6.285 7.714 nm nm nm nm 400.00 400.00 400.00 400.00 600.00 600.00 600.00 600.00 220.0 3.21 4.53 6.28 284.0 7.72

270.9

272.1 274.5

454.2546.8650.8669.3 663.1 410.6455.4495.6649.6 344.5 526.0 432.4500.4 664.3

Gallic acid

(reference from Riedel Gallic acid eq. Gallic acid eq. Unknown compound de Haen)

8.894 13.955 14.762 20.756 nm nm nm nm 400.00 400.00 400.00 400.00 600.00 600.00 600.00 600.00 273.3 8.90253.1 13.96263.8 14.76 20.76

352.8

356.4 663.1 671.7 431.2 549.2 367.2 703.6 448.2489.5 274.5 425.1439.7 668.0720.8 399.8 523.6 663.1

Ellagic acid Unknown compound Ellagic acid eq. Unknown compound (reference from Sigma)

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A cap? A collar? A 17th century puzzle from the Rijksmuseum collection

APPENDIX III: CONSTRUCTION OF THE THESIS OBJECT

Figure 44: Cut patterns of pieces in brown linen fabric and cream-coloured fabric. Source: María José Moreno Parada.

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A cap? A collar? A 17th century puzzle from the Rijksmuseum collection

Figure 45: Heights of the different lace bands. The lace bands are colour-coded to recognise them. Heights of lace bands: Green = 8 cm., Yellow = 4.7 cm., Red = 3.7 cm., Blue = 2.8 cm. Source: María José Moreno Parada.

Figure 46: Outline of the designs of the different lace bands as they are on the thesis object. Source: María José Moreno Parada.

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Figure 47: The outline of the lace patterns from Fig. 46 laid "straight". It is possible to recognize in the wide lace band (green) three repeats in its length. Source: María José Moreno Parada.

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