CULTURAL RESOURCE ASSESSMENT SURVEY OF THE WAKULLA AIRPORT WAKULLA COUNTY, FLORIDA

CLIENT PROJECT 040353022‐1 SEARCH PROJECT NO. 3676‐16076

PREPARED FOR

KIMLEY‐HORN AND ASSOCIATES, INC. AND WAKULLA COUNTY

BY

SEARCH

SEPTEMBER 2016

CULTURAL RESOURCE ASSESSMENT SURVEY OF THE WAKULLA AIRPORT WAKULLA COUNTY, FLORIDA

CLIENT PROJECT 040353022‐1 SEARCH PROJECT NO. 3676‐16076

PREPARED FOR

KIMLEY‐HORN AND ASSOCIATES, INC. AND WAKULLA COUNTY

PREPARED BY

SEARCH MICHAEL FOSTER, LAUREL BARTLETT, AND ALLEN KENT

______

MICHAEL FOSTER, MA, RPA PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR, ARCHAEOLOGY

______

LAUREL BARTLETT, MSHP PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR, ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY

WWW.SEARCHINC.COM

SEPTEMBER 2016

SEARCH September 2016 CRAS of the Wakulla Airport, Wakulla County, Florida Final Report

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

This report presents the findings of a Phase I cultural resource assessment survey (CRAS) conducted in support of runway realignment at the Wakulla Airport in Wakulla County, Florida. The project includes extension of the runway to the west approximately 250 feet (76 meters) from the existing runway, which runs north/south between Coastal Highway and Surf Road in the town of Panacea. The northern parcel of the project area is approximately 285 feet (87 meters) by 165 feet (50 meters) and is separated from the majority of the project area by a small paved road.

To encompass all potential effects, the Area of Potential Effect (APE) was defined to include the entire area proposed for the airport runway realignment. This “direct effects” APE was extended to the west side of Bay Drive at the southern end to encompass three historic structures. Both the archaeological survey and the historic structure survey were conducted within the direct APE. Additionally, the architectural survey included a half‐mile buffer (the “indirect effects” APE) around the direct APE that was examined for aboveground National Register of Historic Places (NRHP)‐eligible properties that could be affected by indirect impacts (e.g., visual, auditory, vibration) associated with the proposed undertaking.

The archaeological survey consisted of a systematic shovel test survey within the direct project APE. No artifacts were recovered, and no archaeological sites or occurrences were identified within the APE. No further archaeological survey is recommended in support of the proposed Wakulla Airport runway realignment.

The architectural survey of the direct Wakulla Airport APE resulted in the identification of one previously recorded historic building (8WA00936) and one newly recorded historic building (8WA01204) within the Wakulla Airport APE. Both resources within the direct Wakulla Airport APE lack the architectural distinction and significant historical associations necessary to be considered for individual listing in the NRHP and are recommended ineligible. No existing or potential historic districts were identified.

Background research conducted prior to the architectural field survey indicated that no NRHP‐ listed properties, proposed NRHP nominations, National Historic Landmarks, or bridges determined eligible for inclusion in the NRHP were located within the Wakulla Airport indirect APE. A total of 24 previously recorded structures were identified within the Wakulla Airport indirect APE. None of the previously recorded resources, nor the one newly recorded resource located within the direct Wakulla Airport APE, are eligible for or listed in the NRHP. As such, it is the opinion of SEARCH that the proposed undertaking will have no direct or indirect impacts to these resources. No further architectural history survey is recommended.

Given the results of the CRAS, it is the opinion of SEARCH that the proposed runway realignment will have no effect on cultural resources listed or eligible for listing on the NRHP. No further work is recommended.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Executive Summary ...... iii Table of Contents ...... v List of Figures ...... vi

Introduction ...... 1 Project Location and Environment ...... 4 Location and Modern Conditions ...... 4 Paleoenvironment ...... 4 Historic Overview ...... 6 Native American Culture History ...... 6 Post‐Contact History ...... 15 Background Research ...... 22 Florida Master Site File Review ...... 22 Historic Map and Aerial Photograph Review ...... 24 Research Design ...... 28 Project Goals ...... 28 NRHP Criteria ...... 28 Cultural Resource Potential ...... 29 Survey Methods ...... 29 Results ...... 31 Archaeological Resources ...... 31 Architectural Resources ...... 34 NRHP Evaluations ...... 34 Conclusion and Recommendations ...... 41 References Cited ...... 42

Appendix A: Wakulla Airport Project Plan Review Appendix B: FMSF Resource Form Appendix C: FDHR Survey Log Sheet

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. Wakulla Airport project location, Wakulla County, Florida ...... 2 Figure 2. Wakulla Airport APE, Wakulla County, Florida ...... 3 Figure 3. Soil drainage within the Wakulla Airport APE ...... 5 Figure 4. Clovis projectile point illustration ...... 6 Figure 5. Bolen projectile point ...... 8 Figure 6. Middle Archaic projectile points ...... 9 Figure 7. Swift Creek pottery ...... 11 Figure 8. Examples of Weeden Island vessels ...... 12 Figure 9. Examples of Lake Jackson Incised pottery ...... 13 Figure 10. Previously recorded resources within one mile of the Wakulla Airport APE ...... 23 Figure 11. 1943 USGS topographic map of Saint Teresa, Florida ...... 25 Figure 12. 1952 USDA aerial photograph of Wakulla County, Florida ...... 26 Figure 13. 1973 USDA aerial photograph of Wakulla County, Florida ...... 27 Figure 14. Archaeological survey results within the Wakulla Airport APE ...... 32 Figure 15. Representative views from the Wakulla Airport APE ...... 33 Figure 16. Historic resources located within the Wakulla Airport APE ...... 35 Figure 17. Resource 8WA00936, facing northwest ...... 36 Figure 18. Resource 8WA01204, facing southwest ...... 37 Figure 19. Previously recorded historic resources located within the Wakulla Airport Half Mile Indirect APE ...... 38 Figure 20. Representative views from the Wakulla Airport Half Mile Indirect APE ...... 39

vi SEARCH September 2016 CRAS of the Wakulla Airport, Wakulla County, Florida Final Report

INTRODUCTION

This report presents the findings of a Phase I cultural resource assessment survey (CRAS) conducted in support of runway realignment at the Wakulla Airport in Wakulla County, Florida (Figure 1). A review of the project plans, included as Appendix A, indicates that the current runway will be extended to the west approximately 250 feet (76 meters) from the existing runway, which runs north/south between Coastal Highway and Surf Road in the town of Panacea. The runway realignment includes the acquisition of the adjacent parcel to the west. The northern parcel of the project area is approximately 285 feet (87 meters) by 165 feet (50 meters) and is separated from the project area by a small paved road.

The project Area of Potential Effect (APE) was developed to consider any visual, audible, and atmospheric effects that the project may have on historic properties. The APE was defined to include the proposed runway realignment (Figure 2). This “direct effects” APE was extended to the west side of Bay Drive at the southern end to encompass three historic structures. Both the archaeological survey and the historic structure survey were conducted within the direct APE. Additionally, the architectural survey included a half‐mile buffer (the “indirect effects” APE) around the direct APE that was examined for aboveground National Register of Historic Places (NRHP)‐listed or eligible historic properties that could be indirectly affected by the proposed undertaking.

The purpose of the survey was to locate, identify, and bound any archaeological resources, historic structures, and potential districts within the project’s APE and assess their potential for listing in the NRHP. This study was conducted to comply with Chapter 267 of the Florida Statutes and Rule Chapter 1A‐46, Florida Administrative Code. All work was performed in accordance with Part 2, Chapter 12 of the FDOT’s Project Development & Environment (PD&E) Manual (revised January 1999) and Cultural Resource Management Handbook (revised November 2004), as well as the Florida Division of Historical Resources’ (FDHR) recommendations for such projects as stipulated in the FDHR’s Cultural Resource Management Standards & Operations Manual, Module Three: Guidelines for Use by Historic Preservation Professionals. The Principal Investigator for this project meets the Secretary of the Interior’s Standards and Guidelines for Archaeology and Historic Preservation (48 FR 44716‐42). This study also complies with Public Law 113‐287 (Title 54 U.S.C.), which incorporates the provisions of the National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA) of 1966, as amended, and the Archeological and Historic Preservation Act of 1979, as amended. The study also complies with the regulations for implementing NHPA Section 106 found in 36 CFR Part 800 (Protection of Historic Properties).

Michael Foster, MA, RPA, served as the Principal Investigator for this project; Laurel Bartlett, MSHP, served as Architectural Historian. The report was written by Mr. Foster, Ms. Bartlett, and Allen Kent, PhD. The fieldwork was conducted by Mr. Foster and Blake Ayala, MA, RPA. Elizabeth Chambless, MS, RPA, conducted the quality‐control review; Katy Harris, MS, and Rasha Slepow, BS, edited and produced the document.

1 Introduction September 2016 SEARCH Final Report CRAS of the Wakulla Airport, Wakulla County, Florida

Figure 1. Wakulla Airport project location, Wakulla County, Florida.

Introduction 2 SEARCH September 2016 CRAS of the Wakulla Airport, Wakulla County, Florida Final Report

Figure 2. Wakulla Airport APE, Wakulla County, Florida.

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PROJECT LOCATION AND ENVIRONMENT

LOCATION AND MODERN CONDITIONS

The project area is an approximately 0.63‐mile long corridor located near the community of Panacea in southern Wakulla County, Florida, within Section 2 of Township 6 South, Range 2 West. Beginning approximately 200 feet (61 meters) south of Coastal Highway, the project corridor runs south parallel with the existing Wakulla Airport runway terminating just north of Surf Road. An undeveloped housing community is located along the western portion of the project APE, and the current airport runway is located along the eastern portion. At the southeastern end, the project boundary extends east to Bay Drive which encompasses three private residences. The relatively flat and low terrain crossed by the project area consists of an elevation at 2 feet (60 centimeters) above mean sea level (amsl). Soils within the APE are primarily poorly drained with smaller amounts of somewhat poorly drained and very poorly drained soils. (Figure 3). The southern end of the APE is approximately 450 feet (137 meters) north of Ochlockonee Bay which continues east into Apalachee Bay and the Gulf of Mexico, approximately 11 miles (17.7 kilometers) to the southwest of the APE.

PALEOENVIRONMENT

Between 18,000 to 12,000 years before present (BP), Florida was a much cooler and drier place than it is today. Melting of the continental ice sheets led to a major global rise in sea level (summarized for long time scales by Rohling et al. 1998) that started from a low stand of ‐120 meters (‐394 feet) at 18,000 BP. The rise was slow while glacial conditions prevailed at high latitudes but became very rapid in the latest Pleistocene and earliest Holocene. It became warmer and wetter rather rapidly during the next three millennia. By about 9000 BP, a warmer and drier climate began to prevail. These changes were more drastic in northern Florida and southern Georgia than in southern Florida, where the “peninsular effect” and a more tropically influenced climate tempered the effects of the continental glaciers that were melting far to the north (Watts 1969, 1971, 1975, 1980). Sea levels, though higher, were still much lower than at present; surface water was limited, and extensive grasslands probably existed, which may have attracted mammoth, bison, and other large grazing mammals. By 6000–5000 BP, the climate had changed to one of increased precipitation and surface water flow. By the late Holocene, ca. 4000 BP, the climate, water levels, and plant communities of Florida attained essentially modern conditions. These have been relatively stable with only minor fluctuations over the past 4,000 years.

Project Location and Environment 4 SEARCH September 2016 CRAS of the Wakulla Airport, Wakulla County, Florida Final Report

Figure 3. Soil drainage within the Wakulla Airport APE.

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HISTORIC OVERVIEW

NATIVE AMERICAN CULTURE HISTORY

Paleoindian Period

The most widely accepted model for the peopling of the New World argues that Asian populations migrated to North America over the Bering land bridge that linked Siberia and Alaska, some 14,000 years ago. However, data are mounting in support of migrations that date to before 14,000 years ago (Adovasio et al. 1990; Dillehay et al. 2008; Waters et al. 2011). Alternative migration routes that have been hypothesized for early inhabitants include populations traveling along the Pacific and Atlantic Coasts using boats or following an exposed shoreline (Anderson and Gillam 2000; Bradley and Stanford 2004; Dixon 1993; Faught 2008; Fladmark 1979). These sites would now be inundated as a result of higher sea levels. Regardless of the precise timing of the first occupation of North America, the earliest radiocarbon dates in Florida that are firmly associated with human artifacts come from the Sloth Hole site in Jefferson County (Hemmings 2004) and indicate that Paleoindian people were in Florida by at least 11,000 years before present (BP). These early Native Americans may have been nomadic hunter‐gatherers who relied upon Pleistocene megafauna and wild plant foods for their subsistence (Clayton 1983; Dunbar 2006; Webb et al. 1984). However, big‐game hunting was not as common in Florida as in other portions of North America, since a rich and diverse Florida habitat during the Pleistocene/Holocene transition favored a generalized subsistence strategy (e.g., Dunbar et al. 2005). The Paleoindian tool assemblage contains lanceolate‐shaped projectile points, blades, bola stones, carinate scrapers, drills, end scrapers, thumbnail scrapers, gouges, and Edgefield scrapers, reflecting a reliance on the hunting and butchering of animals and the use of well‐made scraping tools for wood‐working, hide scraping, and other tasks. Large, lanceolate Clovis points (Figure 4), and Cumberland, Redstone, Suwannee, and Simpson points, are Figure 4. Clovis projectile typical diagnostic artifacts of the period (Anderson 1990; Dunbar point illustration. 2006).

The end of the Paleoindian period coincided with the Younger Dryas climatic event, a cold period that was followed by rapid warming (Anderson and Sassaman 2012:38). Firestone et al. (2007) has suggested that impact from a comet may have caused the cooling associated with the Younger Dryas, but this remains controversial (Anderson and Sassaman 2012:58).

Because the climate during the Paleoindian period was cooler and drier than at present, with coastal sea levels and the inland water table as much as 120 meters lower (Carbone 1983; Watts et al. 1996; Watts and Hansen 1988), many archaeologists believe that the paucity of

Historic Overview 6 SEARCH September 2016 CRAS of the Wakulla Airport, Wakulla County, Florida Final Report potable water sources played a crucial role in the distribution of Paleoindian groups across the landscape. They hypothesize that human groups frequented sinkholes and springs to collect water and to exploit the flora and fauna that were also attracted to these locations (Dunbar 1991). Many of these freshwater sources were located in areas of exposed Tertiary‐age limestone that had become silicified, providing Paleoindians a raw material source (chert) for tool manufacture. Thus, it is thought that permanent freshwater sources (sinkholes, springs) along with outcrops of high quality chert were primary factors influencing Paleoindian settlement patterns in Florida. Dunbar and Waller (1983) mapped the distribution of Paleoindian sites and found that evidence of Paleoindian occupation of west‐central Florida from Tampa Bay to the Big Bend is extensive and that Paleoindian sites are highly correlated with freshwater springs and chert outcrops. However, they found no sites of this period in the panhandle region. A more recent survey of Paleoindian projectile point finds indicates that lanceolate points have been found in small numbers in the interior regions of Calhoun (n=13), Jackson (n=24), Okaloosa (n=9), and Walton (n=2) counties (Paleoindian Database of the Americas [PIDBA] 2011). Some Paleoindian sites are likely submerged in offshore locations, drowned by rising sea levels since the late Pleistocene (Faught 2004; Faught and Gusick 2011).

A recent study conducted by Thulman (2006) looked at the distribution of lanceolate‐shaped forms in Florida, and the results support the hypothesis that Paleoindian groups began to settle into specific river drainages while maintaining social interaction networks with populations living elsewhere. According to this hypothesis, these networks would have enabled Paleoindian groups to colonize the southeastern United States rapidly with small groups of people while maintaining reproductive viability (Anderson 1990; Anderson and Sassaman 2012:50). Thulman’s study may have identified the earliest evidence for regionalization in Florida, which intensified during later periods.

Archaic Period

Around 10,000 BP (8000 BC) the environment and landscape of Florida underwent pronounced changes associated with the onset of the Holocene. These changes were interconnected and included a gradual warming trend, a rise in sea level, a reduction in the width of peninsular Florida, and the spread of oak‐dominated forests and hammocks throughout much of the state (Milanich 1994; Smith 1986). Concomitant with these environmental changes was the extinction of the Pleistocene fauna. Native subsistence strategies became more diverse due to the emergence of new plant, animal, and aquatic species. Also occurring at this time was a significant increase in population numbers and density, with native groups developing regional habitat‐specific adaptations and material assemblages (Milanich 1994; Smith 1986:10). As conditions became wetter, coastal, riparian, and lacustrine adaptations became increasingly more common. The Archaic period is typically divided into Early, Middle, and Late sub‐periods.

The Early Archaic period (10,000–8500 BP) in Florida is marked by small side‐ and corner‐ notched projectile points, such as the Bolen type (Figure 5), and by the invention of the spear thrower or atlatl. During this period, subsistence strategies became more diverse with the inclusion of new plant, animal, and aquatic species. This increase in subsistence adaptations

7 Historic Overview September 2016 SEARCH Final Report CRAS of the Wakulla Airport, Wakulla County, Florida

was due in large part to the physiographic and climatic changes occurring in Florida during this period. The coastal shoreline was about 60 meters below modern levels, and although generally warmer than the terminal Pleistocene, seasonal variation was greater than it is today, with warmer summer temperatures and colder winters. Research at Page‐Ladson, an inundated site in the Aucilla River, indicates that the water table in local sinkholes dropped dramatically at the beginning of the Holocene, suggesting drought‐like conditions (Dunbar 2002). The duration of the drought has been dated to about three centuries, based on radiometric dates obtained from Page‐Ladson (Dunbar 2002:148). Arid conditions may explain why many Early Archaic sites are found in similar locales as earlier Paleoindian sites, near springs and chert sources, although riverine settings also were Figure 5. Bolen projectile exploited (Austin and Mitchell 1999). As with the Paleoindian point. period, many Early Archaic sites are probably located in offshore locations, which were once exposed when sea levels were lower. By 8,500 years ago, the water table was near modern levels (Dunbar 2002; Watts and Hansen 1988).

Early Archaic sites generally are of two types, base camps and smaller extractive stations. The Early Archaic settlement pattern involved seasonal movements of small family‐based groups that occupied small short‐term camps for part of the year. During the fall, when food was more plentiful, these small groups may have gathered at larger base camps (Bense 1994). Subsistence information for the Early Archaic is limited. Based on preserved plants and animal remains at the Windover site in Brevard County, which date to the latter portion of the Early Archaic, it is presumed that Early Archaic peoples ate a variety of plants and animals, including acorn, hickory, persimmon, prickly pear, maypop, wild plum, wild grape, deer, opossum, rabbit, raccoon, and squirrel (Doran and Dickel 1988; Newsom 2002). Analysis of blood residue on side‐notched tools from 8LE02105 in Leon County indicates that they were used to kill or process rabbit and bear (Hornum et al. 1996). Evidence of bird species, including duck and heron, and fish, including largemouth bass and catfish, also was recovered from Windover (Doran and Dickel 1988).

The Middle Archaic period (8500–6000 BP) coincided with the climatic episode known as the Hypsithermal, a period in which temperatures peaked and rainfall diminished. This sub‐period is poorly understood in northwest Florida. Based on research elsewhere, it is presumed that there was a shift to a system of more nucleated floodplain base camps supported by smaller satellite camps. Subsistence strategies likely involved hunting, fishing, and gathering. Middle Archaic sites in the northwest Florida area are relatively rare, and few have been recorded in the area. Artifacts associated with this period include broad‐bladed, stemmed projectile points such as the Hardee, Sumter, Alachua, Putnam, and Newnan types (Figure 6); specialized tools such as microliths, burins, and large chopping implements; and an array of expedient tools (Bense 1994).

Historic Overview 8 SEARCH September 2016 CRAS of the Wakulla Airport, Wakulla County, Florida Final Report

Figure 6. Middle Archaic projectile points. From left to right: Alachua, Putnam, and Newnan.

During the Late Archaic period (6000–2500 BP), the coastal shoreline was near modern levels, the climate was wetter, and conditions became increasingly more similar to the modern environment (Bense 1994). However, perturbations in sea levels and rainfall did occur, which affected local populations (Austin et al. 2013; Mikell and Saunders 2007). Coastal shell middens began to appear, reflecting a greater reliance on marine resources. The projectile point styles that mark the Late Archaic include broad‐bladed, stemmed bifaces that are similar to those of the preceding Middle Archaic period. Ground and polished stone tools and ornaments were developed during this period, and steatite cooking vessels were used (Yates 2000). Toward the end of the Late Archaic, around 4000 BP, the first ceramic vessels appeared. This pottery, which was tempered with plant fibers, is referred to as Norwood in northwest Florida (Milanich 1994). This pottery is usually undecorated or stick‐impressed. It was later replaced by a sand‐tempered ware, some of which also have stick‐impressed designs, which were likely derived from the earlier Norwood pottery (Milanich 1994).

A northwest Florida variant of the Late Archaic, termed Elliott's Point, appeared around 4500 BP and is characterized by the presence of artifacts similar to those found at Poverty Point in Louisiana, such as baked‐clay objects, stonemicroliths, and exotic materials. It has been suggested that these materials indicate interaction with the Lower Mississippi Valley (Thomas and Campbell 1991, 1993). An alternative hypothesis is that materials such as baked‐clay objects and microliths are widely distributed in space and time, while exotic materials such as steatite and jasper may have arrived on the northwest gulf coast via long‐standing trade routes along the major north‐south rivers, such as the Apalachicola and the Escambia (Austin et al. 2013; Sassaman 2010; Yates 2000). Elliott’s Point is usually considered a localized expression of the Late Archaic focused around Choctawhatchee Bay; however, recent excavations at 8ES03427 in Pensacola suggest that the Elliott’s Point complex may have extended much farther west (Phillips 2009). Fiber‐tempered pottery was adopted by local Elliott’s Point groups beginning around 3000 BP (Campbell et al. 2004), although it appeared earlier (ca. 3900 BP) in the Apalachicola drainage basin to the east (White 2003).

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Although several Elliott’s Point sites have been recorded in Santa Rosa, Okaloosa, and Walton counties, only a few have received extensive excavation. Meig’s Pasture (8OK00102) and Bayou Park (8OK00898) contain arc‐shaped midden deposits, and the latter also contains numerous features, including a possible earth oven, smaller hearths, several large storage and/or refuse pits, smaller refuse pits, and postmolds from at least two structures (Austin et al. 2013; Curren 1987). Subsistence remains at the two sites were similar with an emphasis on estuarine resources, particularly oysters, augmented by a variety of fish and terrestrial species such as deer, squirrel, rabbit, turkey, alligator, and gopher tortoise. Elliott’s Point occupants at Bayou Park also collected and processed various plants including coontie, hackberry, wild grasses, and bottle gourd. The presence of this last species is suggestive of incipient horticulture.

Woodland Period

The widespread use of ceramics, the interment of the dead in mounds, and increased regionalization characterize the Woodland period, which began at around 2500 BP and continued until about 1200 BP.

Deptford

Deptford culture flourished in northwest Florida between about 2500 BP and 1800 BP (500 BC– AD 200). Milanich and Fairbanks (1980:66) describe the Deptford people as primarily a “coastal dwelling culture” that relied heavily on maritime subsistence strategies. Tesar (1994) suggests that Deptford groups forged a transition between the earlier Late Archaic hunter‐gatherers and the later, more complex Swift Creek societies. Deptford villages located on the coast are usually found in conjunction with live oak, magnolia, and palm hammocks located near salt marshes. Interior Deptford is found along lakes and streams where hickory and oak are present. Deptford sites contain plain pottery or ceramics with checked patterns stamped on the exterior of the pot (Milanich 1994). These exterior patterns were produced by impressing or stamping the vessel with carved wooden paddles before firing. These paddled designs have been incorporated into the name of the wares by archaeologists. Deptford ceramics also are marked by a change from fiber‐tempering to sand and grit‐tempering. Besides check‐stamping, surface treatments can be plain, cord‐wrapped, brushed, punctated, or malleated, and many have distinctive podal supports (Milanich 1994).

Excavations at two Deptford sites in northwest Florida, Hawkshaw (8ES01287) and Pirate's Bay (8OK00183), have produced much information about Deptford subsistence and settlement (Bense 1985; Thomas and Campbell 1984). Both are coastal sites that provide evidence that Deptford people exploited a wide range of local marine and terrestrial food resources. In addition, trade items from the Lower Mississippi Valley and southern Georgia were recovered from both sites, providing evidence of participation in a far‐flung exchange network with neighboring cultures.

An important component of Deptford culture in northwest Florida is a mortuary‐ceremonial complex referred to as Yent and originally defined by Sears (1962). The Yent Complex included the

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inclusion of exotic goods obtained through exchange in mortuary contexts. These exotic items, which included galena, mica, artifacts made of metamorphic rock, and similarities in ceramic vessel design, may have come to Florida via exchange with Hopewell cultures farther north (Milanich 1994).

The Yent Complex appears strongest in the Big Bend region of northwest Florida. Farther east, burial mounds and characteristic Yent Complex artifacts are rare (Milanich 1994). Instead, Deptford people disposed of their dead in graves within or adjacent to their villages (Thomas and Campbell 1993).

Santa Rosa‐Swift Creek

The Santa Rosa‐Swift Creek culture replaced Deptford throughout northwest Florida, beginning about 1800 BP (AD 150), according to Milanich (1994), although Bense (1998) posits that the transition did not occur until about 1600 BP (AD 350) in the Pensacola region. It is marked by two ceramic series, Swift Creek and Santa Rosa. It seems that Swift Creek ceramic designs originated in southern Georgia and were subsequently adopted by Deptford people in Florida. Swift Creek pottery exhibits complicated stamped designs (Figure 7) consisting of scrolls, concentric circles, teardrops, and spirals. Check stamping also was used by Swift Creek potters. Swift Creek vessel Figure 7. Swift Creek pottery. Source: bartowdig.com. forms include squat bowls and deep cylindrical pots. The replacement of Deptford ceramics by Swift Creek in the Florida panhandle took place over several centuries. Santa Rosa ceramics contains incised, punctated, and rocker‐stamped designs and appears to be a continuation of ceramic traditions that originated in the Lower Mississippi Valley.

Santa Rosa‐Swift Creek villages were located on the coast and in the interior forests and river valleys throughout the panhandle. Excavations at the Bernath Place midden (8SR00986) in Santa Rosa County and Horseshoe Bayou (8WL00036) in Walton County have provided information about Santa Rosa‐Swift Creek subsistence, settlement, and socio‐political and religious organization (Bense 1998; Phillips 1992; Thomas et al. 2001). A wide range of local marine and terrestrial food resources were exploited (DeFrance 2001; Ruhl 2000). Mounds for the interment of burials also are common features at Santa Rosa‐Swift Creek sites (Milanich 1994).

The socio‐religious aspect of this culture has been defined as the Green Point complex (Sears 1962), which had associations with the Hopewell interaction sphere and may have developed from the preceding Yent Complex. Through this exchange network, Santa Rosa‐Swift Creek people gained access to exotic items, such as copper, mica, ear spools, and ceramics (Bense

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1998). Individuals interred with these materials in burial mounds have been interpreted as high‐status people, perhaps socio‐religious specialists (Milanich 1994).

Weeden Island/Wakulla

The emergence of Weeden Island cultural attributes in the panhandle of Florida began at about 1450 BP (AD 500). Weeden Island has been defined as a religious‐ceremonial complex that was adopted by local regional cultures in southern Georgia and Alabama and along the west coast of Florida (Milanich 1994). In northwest Florida, the early Weeden Island period is generally believed to have lasted until about 1250–1200 BP (AD 750–800) and was followed by the Wakulla period to approximately 800 BP (AD 1200) (Milanich 1994).

Early Weeden Island is characterized by the appearance of complicated stamped pottery along with the characteristic Weeden Island pottery decorated with incised and punctated lines (e.g., Carrabelle Incised, Carrabelle Punctated, Keith Incised, and Weeden Island Incised). There appears to be some continuity between Santa Rosa‐Swift Creek and Weeden Island occupations. Not only are both cultural expressions found in the same coastal environmental settings, but these cultures exploited similar marine resources. Fish remains include herring, saltwater catfish, sea catfish, jack, porgies, sheepshead, mullet, flounder, bowfin, drum, and gar. Shell middens indicate a preference for oysters, although conch, Rangia, and other species also are present. Vertebrate faunal remains include white‐tail deer, freshwater turtle, and birds. Acorns and hickory nuts were collected as were various plant species, such as yaupon, wild grape, palmetto shoots, and gallberry.

Mortuary ceremonialism reached its peak during early Weeden Island times. Ornately decorated ceramics and those shaped as stylized designs or animal effigies (Figure 8) were interred in burial mounds, often on the mounds’ east side (Milanich and Fairbanks 1980). Early Weeden Island villages also appear to have been arranged in circular patterns as evidence by several “ring” sites that were identified on the Tyndall Air Force Base (Russo et al. 2009).

Late Weeden Island (1250–800 BP; AD 750–1200) is identified by the presence of check‐stamped and cob‐ marked pottery and is referred to as Wakulla Weeden Island (Milanich 1994). Wakulla sites are located on the coast and in the interior of the panhandle, as well as in southwest Georgia and southeast Alabama. Maize agriculture was adopted in the panhandle during the Wakulla period (Milanich 1994). The higher frequency of sites and the use of Figure 8. Examples of Weeden Island vessels previously uninhabited environments suggest a (reproduced from Willey [1949:410]). larger population during the Wakulla period.

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Wakulla sites also are located on soils not previously preferred by Weeden Island groups. Tesar (1980) suggests that Wakulla people selected home sites based on soils more suitable for agriculture. The nucleated villages and mound centers that were characteristic of early Weeden Island were absent during the late Weeden Island period. Percy and Brose (1974) suggest that settlement was in single family groups, a trend that ultimately led to population pressure as soils became exhausted by agriculture.

Mississippi Period

Cultural influences emanating from the Mississippi Bottoms began to appear in northwest Florida around 800 years ago. These included maize agriculture, shell‐tempered pottery, institutionalized social inequality, a chiefdom level of political organization, and participation in long‐distance exchange relations that involved the movement of exotic items and religious iconography throughout the Southeast (Ashley and White 2012). However, these influences were not adopted uniformly, and two regional cultures are recognized for this period, Apalachicola‐Fort Walton and Pensacola.

Apalachicola‐Fort Walton

The Fort Walton culture was centered in the Red Hills surrounding modern Tallahassee and extended west to the Apalachicola River. It was only in the Red Hills, however, that most of the trappings of the wider Mississippian phenomenon, including maize agriculture, were adopted. In the Apalachicola River Basin, there is limited evidence of maize (all at upper river, interior sites), few large mound centers, and no evidence for complex chiefdoms (White et al. 2012). The lower river basin is low‐lying and swampy, offering little opportunity for growing crops but providing abundant aquatic resources. Shell middens are common along the river and in coastal settings.

Apalachicola‐Fort Walton is believed to have developed directly out of the preceding Weeden Island‐Wakulla culture about 1,200 to 1,000 years ago based on similarities in ceramic form, temper, and decoration. Ceramics include most of the diagnostic Fort Walton types, including Lake Jackson Plain and Incised (Figure 9), Cool Branch Incised, Point Washington Incised, and Marsh Island Incised. The pottery is Figure 9. Examples of Lake Jackson Incised pottery. tempered primarily with grit Source: http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/ceramiclab/mississippian_period.htm.

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with lesser amounts of sand and/or grog (pieces of fired clay). Shell‐tempering is rare.

White et al. (2012) document four mound centers, which include Yon (8LI00002), Cayson (8CA00002), Pierce (8FR00014), and Chattahoochee Landing (8GD00004), distributed along the length of the river. A few burial mounds and at least one cemetery (8JA00007) also are known. The only possible evidence for palisades or embankments is at Waddell’s Mill Pond (8JA00065; Gardner 1966), although White et al. (2012) raise doubts about its function and temporal association. A rectangular structure at Waddell’s Mill Pond was interpreted as a town house by Tesar and Jones (2009).

The Apalachee, who inhabited the Tallahassee area in the sixteenth century when Spanish explorers Narvaez and de Soto arrived, were probably the historic descendants of the Fort Walton culture (Payne and Scarry 1998). The Apalachee immediately began dying off as a result of contact with European diseases and were replaced by native groups from the north who brought a distinctive type of pottery known as Lamar (White et al. 2012). The evidence for Lamar occupation of the Apalachicola region is scant, and it is possible that without direct Spanish contact, the local Fort Walton populations continued practicing their traditions well into the seventeenth or eighteenth centuries.

Pensacola

The Pensacola variant of the Fort Walton culture evolved in place out of the preceding Wakulla Weeden Island culture and was influenced by cultural developments in Alabama (Milanich 1994). These contacts brought new ideas to the indigenous population for organizing increasingly larger societies and for developing more intensive and efficient agriculture. The culture was identified originally in the Mobile Bay area in Alabama (Fuller 1985; Stowe 1985), where two phases were defined, Bottle Creek (AD 1200–1450) and Bear Point (AD 1450–1700). Pensacola was considered to lack many of the key ingredients of Mississippianism, but excavations at the Bottle Creek site identified maize, numerous mounds, plazas, and middens all dating between AD 1250 and 1550 (Brown 2003).

Shell‐tempered pottery is the diagnostic ware for Pensacola sites, and it is found throughout southern Alabama and the Florida panhandle as far as the Apalachicola River. Its proportional representation, however, decreases the farther east one goes. There is an area of overlap between Mobile Bay and Apalachicola Bay where both shell‐tempered Pensacola Series pottery and grit‐tempered Fort Walton Series pottery occur, which has caused confusion in determining cultural relationships. Harris (2012) has suggested that this area may represent a third, as yet unnamed, regional variant along the Gulf Coast, which shared few characteristics with the core regions to the west and east.

Despite northern influences, the coastal Pensacola culture continued the earlier Weeden Island settlement pattern and subsistence system, and the Pensacola culture’s political system does not appear to have been as complex (Harris 2012; Payne 1991). Settlements were located in coastal hammocks with smaller satellite camps in both coastal and upland environments.

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Hunting, gathering, and fishing were the primary sources of subsistence, and agriculture may not have been as important as during the earlier Wakulla Weeden Island period. There also appears to be fewer ceremonial sites with mounds in the coastal zone occupied by the Pensacola culture when compared to areas to the north and east (e.g., Bottle Creek and Moundville in Alabama and Lake Jackson in Tallahassee). This lack of mounds may reflect the lower agricultural production potential of the coastal soils; greater dependence on hunting, gathering, and fishing; lower population densities; and consequently, less support of a chiefly ruling class.

Although there were fewer mounds than in Weeden Island times, there is some evidence of mound centers, particularly in the Choctawhatchee Bay region. The most impressive example is the Fort Walton Temple Mound, 8OK00006, a large platform mound that is the type site of the Fort Walton culture, although it is more likely to have been a regional center for the Pensacola culture. The mound is associated with an adjacent village midden. The site has been the subject of several investigations that have produced evidence of multiple burials, shell and bone tools, shellfish, and vertebrate fauna, lithics, and mica (Fairbanks 1965; Lazarus and Fornaro 1975).

POST‐CONTACT HISTORY

Early Exploration

Florida served as an important stage for early European explorations of North America. Spanish explorer Ponce de Leon left Puerto Rico on March 3, 1513, and landed either north of Cape Canaveral (Milanich 1995) or south of the Cape near modern day Melbourne Beach on April 2, 1513 (Eriksen 1994; Gannon 1996). De Leon called this land La Florida since it was sighted during the Feast of Flowers (Pascua Florida) (Milanich 1995). De Leon was followed by Panfilo de Narvaez, who in 1528 landed near Tampa Bay and trekked into the interior of Florida, reaching the Apalachee region of west Florida within several months. He died later in the year when his fleet of ships sank en route to Mexico. Two survivors, Cabeza de Vaca and his companion, Estevan, began their 10‐year trek from Northwestern Florida, across southern North America, representing the first contact of Europeans with many indigenous groups of the Southeast and Southwest. Cabeza de Vaca’s account of his journey influenced subsequent explorers, particularly Hernando de Soto (Clayton et al. 1993).

Hernando de Soto landed near Tampa Bay in 1539 and proceeded to march inland through Florida in search of gold. The de Soto trail, as reconstructed, headed north from the village of Ocale (approximately 25 miles southwest of present‐day Ocala) to the west of Gainesville, in the area of the San Felasco Hammock that was inhabited by Potano and Utina bands of Timucua Indians. De Soto and his group then continued west toward the Apalachee region, which contains today’s Leon, Jefferson, and Wakulla Counties. Much of the area to the west of the St. Marks River was described by chroniclers as consisting of large fields overflowing with a variety of agricultural

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products with scattered Native American settlements (Clayton et al. 1993). De Soto encamped in present‐day Tallahassee before proceeding west and north, where he eventually died west of the Mississippi River on May 21, 1542 (Milanich and Hudson 1993).

First Spanish Period

The Spanish focused much of their early settlement along the coasts, particularly settlements at St. Augustine and Pensacola. In 1565, Admiral Pedro Menendez de Aviles established a base near present‐day St. Augustine and drove French explorers and settlers out of the region. The settlement at St. Augustine was maintained and a string of Spanish missions were established west across Florida towards Tallahassee in an attempt to consolidate Spain’s control over Florida. By Christianizing Indians, Menendez hoped to make loyal Spanish subjects of them (Tebeau 1971). Menendez had been ordered by the Crown to initiate a massive missionizing effort. Menendez petitioned the Jesuit Order for missionaries and they arrived in St. Augustine in June of 1566 (Thomas 1990). The Jesuits focused their missionizing efforts on the native villages around St. Augustine and along the lower St. Johns River, as well as among the Guale and Orista who lived farther north. They were unable to make many converts and abandoned Florida by 1572 (Milanich 1995; Thomas 1990). Menendez then turned to the Franciscan Order. The first Franciscan friar arrived at Santa Elena in South Carolina in 1573 and in 1578 a Franciscan friar was assigned to St. Augustine (Milanich 1995).

The strategy of the Franciscans involved the establishment of missions in existing native communities, preferably within the largest settlement in a region (Bushnell 1990). Friars assigned to these centralized missions would travel to smaller neighboring communities and attempt to convert the natives and establish visitas. The goal was to remake Indian communities into church‐ centered social units with Indian leadership remaining intact albeit under the direction of missionaries. Support of the local chiefs, called caciques, was considered the key to converting the general populous with the indigenous community remaining a functioning political, social, and economic unit (Spicer 1962).

A line of missions was established, linking St. Augustine on the east coast to the Apalachee province in the panhandle. By 1650, the Franciscans claimed that 26,000 Christianized Indians lived in Florida with 70 friars operating 40 missions. Once the Spanish established the missions, they built a road stretching from San Luis, near Tallahassee, to St. Augustine. The road was intended to facilitate the shipment of grain and other Apalachee products to St. Augustine and to avoid French and English pirate ships (Cash 1938).

During the sixteenth century, approximately 50,000 Apalachee Native Americans populated northwestern Florida in an area from the Aucilla River on the east to the Ochlockonee on the west, and from the Gulf to the present‐day Georgia line (Hann and McEwan 1998). They were a highly organized, prosperous tribe that grew corn, beans, and squash, in addition to hunting bear, deer, and small game. The Spanish colonists had very little contact with the Apalachee region prior to 1608 when informal missionary efforts occurred. Contact was limited due to the Apalachees fierce resistance to Spanish intrusions. In 1612, some Apalachee chiefs requested

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missionaries be sent to the region. Missionaries did not arrive until 1633 whereupon they established nine missions in the region (Jones et al. 1991). The Spanish also established cattle ranches in Apalachee during the seventeenth century (Paisley 1989). Not all Apalachee chiefs desired missionaries, and in 1647, seven missions were burned (Hann 1990; Jones et al. 1991). Native American resistance to Spanish hegemony and being Christianized was a common theme throughout the colonial experience (Wickman 1999).

The Spanish mission system remained intact until the latter part of the seventeenth century when they were destroyed during riots incited by the English. The last of the Spanish missions were destroyed between 1702 and 1704 during raids into Apalachee and Timucua lands led by James Moore, then Governor of South Carolina (Cash 1938). Creek Indians, allies of the British, tied many of their captives to the Stations of the Cross and burned them alive and then set fire to the missions (Hann 1990; Jones et al. 1991). The Apalachee missions were abandoned after the attacks, and the Spanish Road fell into disuse.

Fort San Marcos de Apalache

The juncture of the St. Marks and Wakulla Rivers was host to a series of forts that were occupied at different times by Spanish, British, and American forces (Page 2001). Under Spanish rule, efforts were made to fortify the strategic shipping port and in 1679, construction began on Fort San Marcos de Apalache, located in today’s Wakulla County. Built of logs covered in plaster to create the appearance of stone, the original fort was looted and burned by pirates within a few years (NRHP Nomination 1972). Upon repossessing the area, the Spanish built a second wooden fort and a considerable community grew in the area. Nonetheless, the fort was abandoned in 1704 after the Apalache region was invaded by Governor Moore of South Carolina (NRHP Nomination 1972).

The fort was once again reoccupied by the Spanish in 1718, at which point a new fort was constructed under the direction of Captain Joseph Primo de Rivera. In 1739, construction began on a fourth fort, this time of limestone quarried near the site. Construction was not yet complete when the territory was ceded to the British under the 1763 Treaty of Paris (NRHP Nomination 1972). At this time, the fort was known as Fort St. Marks and was manned by an English garrison. Under British control, in 1776 a trading post 6 miles north of the fort was established by Panton, Leslie, and Company that became a major site for Native American trade (Florida of the British n.d.). When the area was again reoccupied by the Spanish, the British trading company continued operation under special permission.

The British in Florida

By 1684, the Spaniards’ ability to finance and manage their various ventures in the New World was faltering. The English, who had settled in Charleston, South Carolina, had begun to influence the Indians to overthrow the Spanish in Florida (Tebeau 1971). During the shifting alliances between Native American groups and various colonial groups, the Spanish began

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courting Creek Native Americans to settle in the once thriving Apalachee region. Many took the invitation after the British defeated the Creeks in the Yamassee War of 1715 (Paisley 1989).

The British continued to vie for Florida, but not until the Seven Years War with Spain and England on opposing sides did the British realize their goal. At the end of the war in 1763, the British traded their recent conquest of Havana to Spain for the Florida peninsula. The new acquisition was divided along the Appalachicola River into East and West Florida, placing present‐day Wakulla County in East Florida. Britain took possession of Florida in July 1763 and held control until 1783 (Wright 1975). Prior to British rule, the native population in north Florida had been declining. The native population had been severely affected by war and disease that allowed the Creeks from Georgia and the Carolinas to migrate into the area. In 1765, these migrating Indians were referred to with the Spanish term cimarrone, or “wild” and “runaway,” in the field notes accompanying de Brahm’s 1765 map of Florida. The cimarrone Indians moved into wild, unsettled territories (Fairbanks 1973). The term “Seminole” is thought to have derived from this reference (Fernald and Purdum 1992).

The Seminoles established permanent towns from the Apalachicola River to the St. Johns River. Instead of the mission system of the Spanish, the British set up several trading posts in Florida. Seminoles traded deer, wild cattle, and furs in exchange for guns, iron tools, cloth, and a variety of ornamental jewelry (Fairbanks 1973). During this time, runaway black slaves from the Carolina colonies fled to Florida and sought refuge either in a black colony outside St. Augustine, where they were to become farmers and, occasionally, soldiers, or in the Seminole settlements in the interior of the colony. The Seminoles helped the runaways form their own settlements, and often prevented slave‐catchers from recapturing them (Fairbanks 1973).

Second Spanish Period

The American colonies declared their independence from British rule in 1776. Georgia and South Carolina required their citizens to take a strict oath of loyalty to the causes of the American colonies, thus forcing many British loyalists to seek shelter in British East Florida (Wright 1976). In 1783, the Treaty of Paris ended the American Revolution and returned Florida to Spain. During the Second Spanish period, Spain continued the British system of negotiating with the Seminoles through trade and supply. Rum became a common trade good and credit was extended to the Seminoles, who were unable to produce enough skins to balance their accounts because of the decreased deer population. Seminole land was often accepted as payment (Fairbanks 1973). Also, the Seminoles’ friendly manner toward escaped slaves angered the slave‐holding border states of Georgia, Alabama, South Carolina, and Mississippi; a factor that would eventually culminate in the Seminole wars.

American Possession and the Seminole Wars

Clashes between Euro‐American settlers residing along Florida’s northern border and Seminoles occurred with increasing frequency during the first decade of the nineteenth century. Both

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sides carried out cattle raids. Anger over runaway slaves seeking refuge in Spanish Florida added to the situation. Border incidents resulting in the loss of American lives led to the appointment of General Andrew Jackson as head of an effort to bring the Seminoles under control. The result was the First Seminole War. General Andrew Jackson, known to the Seminoles as “Sharp Knife,” invaded Seminole territory in Spanish Florida and destroyed Seminole towns. In March 1818, Jackson led a force of 3,500 men, the majority of whom were Creek warriors, against the Seminoles. Short of both guns and ammunition, the Seminoles were no match. Jackson’s forces quickly swept across north Florida and within five months captured the area from St. Marks to Pensacola. In August 1818, in an attempt to stabilize diplomatic relations with Spain, the United States returned lands captured by Jackson. In 1819, a treaty of cessation was arranged between the United States and Spain. This was followed by another treaty, ratified February 22, 1821, making Florida a territory of the United States.

Fort San Marcos de Apalache once again changed hands when it was seized by General Andrew Jackson and the US Army in 1818. At this time Jackson court‐martialed two Englishmen, Robert Ambrister and Alexander Arbuthnot, for assisting the Indians. Both were executed near the site on April 29 and control of the fort was again resumed by the Spanish (Page 2001). Three years later, Florida was transferred to the United States from Spain and troops were sent to occupy the fort. The fort was abandoned in 1824 and turned over to the state of Florida. In 1839, the fort was returned to the US government and a federal hospital was constructed to care for victims of yellow fever beginning in 1857. Limestone and flint rock from the previous fort was reused in the construction of the marine hospital (NRHP Nomination 1972).

Jackson was appointed Governor and organized the Territory of Florida into two counties, Escambia and St. Johns. The legislative council for Florida met in Pensacola in 1822, and again in St. Augustine in 1823 (Tebeau 1971). The First Seminole War ended with the Treaty of Moultree Creek in 1823, which stipulated that all Indians in Florida move onto a reservation in the middle of the state. Most of the state’s white population resided in the northern half of Florida, leaving much of the central and southern half of the state bereft of homesteaders. Because of the Treaty of Moultree Creek, the Native American village of Tallahassee was abandoned and was subsequently chosen as the seat of the territorial government (Ellis and Rogers 1999:35). By 1830, nine years after becoming a territory, 34,730 people called Florida home (Andriot 1993:96).

The Payne's Landing Treaty of 1832 reversed the Treaty of Moultree Creek and required the Seminoles to relinquish their land within three years and move to reservations on Indian Territories in the western United States (Sprague 1964[1848]). When the three years had expired and the Payne's Landing Treaty was to be enforced, a group of 180 Seminole warriors, led by Chiefs Micanopy and Alligator, attacked a column of 108 US Army soldiers led by Major Francis Dade. The attack took place near the Withlacoochee River on December 28, 1835, near present‐day Bushnell while Dade and his men were en route from Fort Brooke (present‐day Tampa) to Fort King (near present‐day Ocala). The attack left only three soldiers alive at the battlefield (Sprague 1964[1848]; Tebeau 1971). The raid was an overwhelming victory for the Seminoles, who sustained minimal casualties. The battle demonstrated to the US Army that the

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Seminoles, when organized, represented a considerable military force. In addition, the victory resulted in the capture of more than 100 US Army muskets by the Seminole.

The Second Seminole War lasted from 1835 to 1842. During this conflict, the Seminole guerilla warfare tactics and Florida’s swampy terrain confused Federal forces. Before it ended, the Second Seminole War had spread into south Florida as far as Lake Okeechobee and the Everglades. At the close of the Second Seminole War, the US government shipped several hundred Seminoles to the western territories. In total, this war cost the United States an estimated $40,000,000 and the lives of 1,500 American troops. Casualties to the Seminoles are unknown. The war, however, did slow the number of people moving into the sparsely settled territory. Between 1830 and 1840, the territory’s population increased by only 19,747 to 54,477 (Andriot 1993). Leon County’s population grew from 6,494 to 10,713 during the same period (State of Florida 1945).

The Tallahassee‐St. Marks Railroad

The northern portions of Leon and Jefferson counties along with significant portion of Madison, Gadsden, and Jackson counties constituted Florida’s cotton belt (Paisley 1968). Lakes Jackson, Iamonia, Miccusukee, and Lafayette formed a ring around the mostly highly prized cotton land in Leon County. The region was prosperous because of its fertile soil and its links to important transportation routes. Conceived of and financed by plantation owners, the Tallahassee‐St. Marks Railroad brought cotton to the ports at the St. Marks River for shipment to distant textile mills. Passengers and cargo could now be easily transferred to and from the capital city. As one of the state’s first rail lines, the line was chartered in 1834 and in operation by 1836 connecting Tallahassee to the shipping ports at St. Marks, approximately 20 miles away. By 1838 the rail extended to Leon until the hurricane of 1843 leveled the town (Explore Southern History n.d.).

In 1856, the Pensacola and Georgia Railroad Company acquired the St. Marks to Tallahassee railroad, improved its lines, and replaced the mules that hauled the cotton with steam locomotives. This rail line was complemented by the Pensacola and Georgia rail line that ran east‐west through the county (Paisley 1989). During the Civil War, trains transferred troops. The line to St. Marks remained in operation for 147 years. In 1984, the line was paved and converted into a 20‐mile long recreational trail known as the Tallahassee‐St. Marks Historic Railroad State Trail (Explore Southern History n.d.).

Founding of Wakulla County

Wakulla County was established on March 11, 1843, from portions of Leon County (Page 2001). The county was named after the Wakulla Springs, one of the world’s longest and deepest freshwater springs from which 183 million gallons of water is discharged daily, located about 15 miles south of Tallahassee (Friends of Wakulla Springs n.d.). Sources vary on the origin of the name, but Wakulla was likely in its original form a Timucua word and may contain the word ‘kala,’ which signified a spring of water (Morris 1995). It is also recorded that Wakulla may be a

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corrupted form of the Spanish name for a native tribe, the Guacara (Works Progress Administration [WPA] 1939).

The mouth of the St. Marks River on the Apalachee Bay was a significant port for the agricultural areas around Tallahassee. Florida’s territorial governor William Pope Duval stressed the need for a lighthouse at the mouth of the St. Marks River and funds were allotted on May 23, 1828, for the construction of Florida’s second lighthouse (US Fish and Wildlife Service n.d.). The St. Marks Lighthouse, located 25 miles south of Tallahassee on the east side of the St. Marks River, was constructed in 1830, in part from stones taken from the former San Marcos de Apalache fort. Winslow Lewis of Boston was awarded the construction contract and Benjamin Beal and Jairus Thayer built the structure. Upon completion the tower was found to have hollow rather than solid walls as the contract had specified and the tower was thereafter rebuilt in 1831 by Calvin Knowlton, Lewis’ partner, according to specifications. That year the first keeper, Samuel Crosby, lit the tower lamps with whale oil (Visit Wakulla n.d.).

Due to erosion and continual weather damage, the lighthouse lantern was moved in 1842 to a more sheltered location. The tower was torn down and Calvin Knowlton constructed a new one. The base of the lighthouse tower was damaged during the Civil War when the Confederates tried to demolish the structure. Nonetheless, the lighthouse was up and running on January 8, 1867. Seventeen keepers and their families resided at the lighthouse until the US Coast Guard automated the tower in 1960 (Visit Wakulla n.d.).

Civil War

Action on both land and sea was limited in Florida during the Civil War (Tebeau 1971). Union forces raided and occupied at will Florida coastal communities. In a blockaded south where supplies were difficult to obtain, the Confederate Impressment Act collected food supplies including beef, pork, rice, and potatoes from Floridians that were stored in warehouse depots throughout the state. Despite these depots, there were few military objectives in the interior to draw attention, and no Union invasion occurred until 1864, resulting in a Confederate victory at the Battle of Olustee (Tebeau 1971). The Confederate troops retained control of Florida's interior until the end of the war. In late February and early March 1865, Federal troops landed and attempted to extricate Confederate soldiers stationed at the St. Marks fort (Ellis and Rogers 1999). Confederate forces from Tallahassee and the surrounding areas were able to prepare for the attack because Union forces were delayed by their ships running aground. A decisive battle occurred at Natural Bridge, in a swampy area in neighboring Leon County, where the St. Marks River flows underground. The Confederates repulsed two Union charges on March 6, resulting in 21 Federal deaths, 89 wounded, and 38 missing while the Confederates had three killed and 23 wounded (Ellis and Rogers 1999). The Union troops withdrew, escaping by boat. On April 9, 1865, General Lee surrendered his forces at Appomattox, and Union forces occupied Tallahassee on May 20, 1865 (Paisley 1989).

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Post‐Bellum

The Civil War disrupted the local plantation economy. Many planters left the region or the state for greener pastures. The cotton crop of 1865 was bountiful, but declined in the following years. African Americans continued to work the plantation fields and were compensated through a wage labor system. This wage labor system evolved into a sharecropping and share‐renting arrangement (Paisley 1968, 1989). The sharecropping and share‐renting arrangement resulted in African Americans renting 30‐ and 40‐acre tracts on former plantations. At the end of the year, many renters remained in debt that was carried over to the next year (Paisley 1968). This system created a cycle of debt that was very difficult to end.

During the 1880s, many plantation owners sold their land and homes for a few dollars an acre (Paisley 1968). The majority of plantation purchases were for speculation, winter homes, and a few were operated as farms (Paisley 1968). The majority of the region’s cotton lands were worn out by the turn of the twentieth century and the boll weevil destroyed the remaining cotton crops in 1916 (Paisley 1989). Northern capitalist purchased these plantations, changing the land from growing cotton to hunting quail. Despite the change, many tenant farmers still operated on the lands (Paisley 1989).

BACKGROUND RESEARCH

FLORIDA MASTER SITE FILE REVIEW

Florida Master Site File (FMSF) data from July 2016 were reviewed to identify any previously recorded cultural resources within the project APE. The FMSF review indicates that four previous cultural resource surveys have been conducted within one mile of the current project area. Of these, the most relevant to the current project are two surveys conducted by SEARCH in 2013 and 2014 (Survey Nos. 20570 and 21219). Survey No. 20570 was a survey conducted along the north side of Surf Road, just west of the Wakulla Airport APE. Survey No. 21219 was a survey conducted along Surf Road and abuts the Wakulla Airport APE at the southern end. No previous shovel testing has been conducted within the APE.

The FMSF review indicates that one cultural resource has been previously recorded within the project APE (Figure 10). 8WA00936 is a historic structure at the southeastern end of the APE just west of Bay Drive at 2526 Surf Road, and was recorded by SEARCH in 2014 (Survey No. 21219). It is a vacant, private residence in the Masonry Vernacular style built around 1950.

According to the FMSF database, 8WA00936 was evaluated by SHPO as ineligible for NRHP due to the lack of sufficient historical significance and architectural distinction. Of note, are three prehistoric sites (8WA00051, 8WA00806, and 8WA01055) within a half‐mile of the APE spanning the archaic, Deptford, and Weeden Island culture types which have revealed shell midden and ceramic artifacts. Two of the sites have been evaluated by the SHPO as ineligible

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Figure 10. Previously recorded resources within one mile of the Wakulla Airport APE.

23 Background Research September 2016 SEARCH Final Report CRAS of the Wakulla Airport, Wakulla County, Florida for NRHP listing (8WA00806 and 8WA01055), and the third site has not been evaluated by SHPO (8WA00051).

HISTORIC MAP AND AERIAL PHOTOGRAPH REVIEW

Historic maps and aerial photographs were examined in order to identify past land use in the vicinity of the Wakulla Airport APE. As the southern portions of the county are especially rural, covered in forests, and sporadically inhabited, early maps of the project area are difficult to locate. No General Land Office (GLO) maps were found for this area; the earliest maps examined were historic county maps of Wakulla County that give general information about the land and the positioning of the project area within the larger county. These maps show little detail in regards to the project area, which is located on the north side of the Ochlockonee Bay. The nearest settlement is at Sopchoppy, located northwest of the APE (Rand, McNally and Company 1898).

Wakulla County was created from the southern portion of Leon County in 1843. Other than its changing border with Leon, the boundaries of present‐day Wakulla County are nearly identical to their original boundaries (Map of US 2016). Wakulla’s position along the Gulf of Mexico gave it an importance early in Florida history, particularly the city of St. Marks, which served to link Tallahassee to a gulf port. Fishing played a major role in the economic development of the county. The county boasts four first‐magnitude natural springs, and a vast majority of the county is taken up by the Apalachicola National Forest and the St. Mark’s National Wildlife Refuge (Page 2001). The county is rural and sparsely populated; the county population first topped 10,000 people in 1980 and contained 30,000 in 2010 (US Census Bureau 1995, 2010).

Historic topographic maps and aerial photographs were also examined to determine the modern developments in the project area. A topographic map from 1943 confirms the rural nature of the area, as much of the land is illustrated as covered in plant life (US Geological Survey [USGS] 1943) (Figure 11). The APE is shown as a north to south strip that ends near the Ochlockonee Bay. North of the APE, US 98 is illustrated traveling southeast to northwest; an unimproved road branches off of the highway and travels south through the APE. Another unimproved road travels through the APE from southeast to northwest. Multiple ponds are illustrated around the APE as well. These features are largely confirmed in a 1952 aerial photograph of Wakulla County (US Department of Agriculture [USDA] 1952) (Figure 12). A new, improved road is evident passing south of the APE from east to west that crosses over the north‐south unimproved road that runs through the project area.

The Wakulla County Airport was opened in 1964 and built on land that was donated by Fenton Jones. It contains a grass runway and is a public airport operated by the county (Wakulla County Board of Commissioners 2013). The runway is evident on a 1973 aerial photograph taken by the USDA (Figure 13). The APE follows the course of the runway, traveling north to south and ending at Surf Road. By the time of this photograph, the land around the APE is still heavily vegetated and contains more than a dozen ponds.

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Figure 11. 1943 USGS topographic map of Saint Teresa, Florida.

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Figure 12. 1952 USDA aerial photograph of Wakulla County, Florida.

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Figure 13. 1973 USDA aerial photograph of Wakulla County, Florida.

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RESEARCH DESIGN

PROJECT GOALS

A research design is a plan to coordinate the cultural resource investigation from inception to the completion of the project. This plan should minimally account for three things: (1) it should make explicit the goals and intentions of the research, (2) it should define the sequence of events to be undertaken in pursuit of the research goals, and (3) it should provide a basis for evaluating the findings and conclusions drawn from the investigation.

The goal of this cultural resource survey was to locate and document evidence of historic or prehistoric occupation or use within the APE (archaeological or historic sites, historic structures, or archaeological occurrences [isolated artifact finds]), and to evaluate these for their potential eligibility for listing in the NRHP. The research strategy was composed of background investigation, a historical document search, and field survey. The background investigation involved a perusal of relevant archaeological literature, producing a summary of previous archaeological work undertaken near the project area. The FMSF was checked for previously recorded sites within the project corridor, which provided an indication of prehistoric settlement and land‐use patterns for the region. Current soil surveys, vegetation maps, and relevant literature were consulted to provide a description of the physiographic and geological region of which the project area is a part. These data were used in combination to develop expectations regarding the types of archaeological sites that may be present and their likely locations (site probability areas).

The historical document search involved a review of primary and secondary historic sources as well as a review of the FMSF for any previously recorded historic structures. The original township plat maps, early aerial photographs, and other relevant sources were checked for information pertaining to the existence of historic structures, sites of historic events, and historically occupied or noted aboriginal settlements within the project limits.

NRHP CRITERIA

Cultural resources identified within the project APE were evaluated according to the criteria for listing in the NRHP. As defined by the National Park Service (NPS), the quality of significance in American history, architecture, archaeology, engineering, and culture is present in districts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects that possess integrity of location, design, setting, materials, workmanship, feeling, and association, and:

A. that are associated with events or activities have made a significant contribution to the broad patterns of our history; or B. that are associated with the lives of persons significant in our past; or

Research Design 28 SEARCH September 2016 CRAS of the Wakulla Airport, Wakulla County, Florida Final Report

C. that embody the distinctive characteristics of a type, period, or method of construction, or that represent the work of a master, or that possess high artistic values, or that represent a significant and distinguishable entity whose components may lack individual distinction; or D. that have yielded, or may yield, information important in prehistory or history.

NRHP‐eligible districts must possess a significant concentration, linkage, or continuity of sites, buildings, structures, or objects united historically or aesthetically by plan or physical development. NRHP‐eligible districts and buildings must also possess historic significance, historic integrity, and historical context.

CULTURAL RESOURCE POTENTIAL

Based on an examination of environmental variables (soil drainage, access to wetlands and marine resources, relative elevation), as well as the results of previously conducted surveys, the potential for prehistoric archaeological sites to be present within the project APE was considered to be moderate to high. Although soils are mostly poorly drained, three prehistoric sites are located within a half‐mile of the APE, thus the moderate to high potential for prehistoric resources. The Wakulla Airport APE was also judged to have a moderate to high potential for historic‐period archaeological sites and historic structures.

SURVEY METHODS

Archaeological Field Methods

The Phase I field survey consisted of systematic subsurface shovel testing according to the potential for containing buried archaeological sites, as well as a pedestrian survey for the presence of exposed artifacts and aboveground features (e.g., structural remains, prehistoric mounds). In addition to information regarding previously recorded archaeological sites, soil drainage characteristics were examined in order to develop testing strategies for the project APE (see Figure 3). Soils within the APE range from very poorly drained to somewhat poorly drained. The southern end of the APE was considered an area of high archaeological potential, thus shovel tests were excavated at 25‐meter intervals. In areas of moderate to low site potential (i.e., those areas which contain hydric soils or are currently inundated with water), shovel tests were excavated at 50‐meter and 100‐meter intervals.

Shovel tests measured approximately 50 centimeters in diameter and were excavated to a minimum depth of 100 centimeters below surface (cmbs) (39 inches) unless prevented by groundwater inundation or impenetrable zones such as rubble/fill, spodic subsoils, or clay. Excavated soil was screened through 1/4‐inch (6.4‐millimeters) mesh hardware cloth. The location of each shovel test was marked on aerial photographs and recorded with handheld

29 Research Design September 2016 SEARCH Final Report CRAS of the Wakulla Airport, Wakulla County, Florida

GPS units that used the Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS). The soil strata and environmental setting of each shovel test were recorded in field notebooks.

Architectural Field Methods

The architectural survey for the project utilized standard procedures for the location, investigation, and recording of historic properties. In addition to a search of the FMSF for previously recorded historic properties within the project area, USGS quadrangle maps were reviewed for structures that were constructed prior to 1972. The field survey inventoried existing buildings, structures, and other aspects of the built environment within the project APE. Each historic resource was plotted with a GPS unit on USGS quadrangle maps and on project aerials. All identified historic resources were photographed with a digital camera, and all pertinent information regarding the architectural style, distinguishing characteristics, and condition was recorded on FMSF structure forms. Upon completion of fieldwork, forms and photographs were returned to the SEARCH offices for analysis. Date of construction, design, architectural features, condition, and integrity of the structure, as well as how the resources relate to the surrounding landscape, were carefully considered. The resources were categorized according to their significance for listing in the NRHP and then recommended eligible, potentially eligible, or not eligible.

Laboratory Methods

No artifacts were recovered as a result of this survey, and therefore, no laboratory analysis was required.

Curation

The original maps and field notes are presently housed at the Newberry, Florida, office of SEARCH. The original maps and field notes will be turned over to the client upon project completion; copies will be retained by SEARCH.

Informant Interviews

Field archaeologists met on‐site with Wakulla County Airport Manager Steve Fults to coordinate the work schedule and gain access to the project area. Mr. Fults directed the field team to northern and southern access points and stressed the need to avoid the current airport runway as a safety precaution. At the end of each work day, Mr. Fults was updated on the day’s progress via phone call.

Research Design 30 SEARCH September 2016 CRAS of the Wakulla Airport, Wakulla County, Florida Final Report

Certified Local Government Consultation

Because this project is located in Wakulla County, a Certified Local Government (CLG), SEARCH initiated consultation with Ms. Somer Strickland, the CLG representative for the county. On June 21, 2016, SEARCH archaeologist Michael Foster emailed Ms. Strickland to discuss the project and inquire whether the county might have any concerns related to cultural resources associated with the project. In the email, Mr. Foster provided the project maps to Ms. Strickland for review.

On June 24, 2016, Mr. Foster was emailed by Melissa Corbett, who has recently taken over as the staff representative for the Wakulla County CLG. The email states that, based on a review of local and state historical resources, there are no concerns regarding the project.

Procedures to Deal with Unexpected Discoveries

Every reasonable effort has been made during this investigation to identify and evaluate possible locations of prehistoric and historic archaeological sites; however, the possibility exists that evidence of cultural resources may yet be encountered within the project limits. Should evidence of unrecorded cultural resources be discovered during construction activities, all work in that portion of the project area must stop. Evidence of cultural resources includes aboriginal or historic pottery, prehistoric stone tools, bone or shell tools, historic trash pits, and historic building foundations. Should questionable materials be uncovered during the excavation of the project area, a qualified professional archaeological should be contacted to assist in the identification and preliminary assessment of the materials. If such evidence is found, the FDHR will be notified within two working days.

RESULTS

ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESOURCES

A total of 22 shovel tests were excavated throughout the Wakulla Airport APE (Figure 14). Additional areas were inspected for surface artifacts, but were not excavated due to hydric soils and water inundation. Representative photographs of the APE are presented in Figure 15.

Overall, the project area is partially cleared, with the exception of the northern end (forested) and the southern end (developed with three structures). A representative shovel test profile from the somewhat poorly drained area at the southern end of the APE includes two strata: Stratum I is gray sand to a depth of 40 centimeters (16 inches), and Stratum II is very dark brown compact spodic soil to the water table at 60 centimeters (24 inches). Further north, shovel tests typically showed three strata: Stratum I is gray sand to a depth of 20 centimeters (8 inches), Stratum II is yellowish gray coarse sand to a depth of 30 centimeters (12 inches), and

31 Results September 2016 SEARCH Final Report CRAS of the Wakulla Airport, Wakulla County, Florida

Figure 14. Archaeological survey results within the Wakulla Airport APE.

Results 32 SEARCH September 2016 CRAS of the Wakulla Airport, Wakulla County, Florida Final Report

Figure 15. Representative views from the Wakulla Airport APE. South wall profile of Shovel Test 1 with very dark brown compact spodic soil at the base (top left); wetland area west of Shovel Test 3 (top right); south view of Shovel Test 5 with water table visible at the base (middle left); a small pond west of Shovel Test 9 (middle right); east view from Shovel Test 11 of environment, runway, and residence (bottom left); and east view of wetland area at Shovel Test 18 (bottom right)

33 Results September 2016 SEARCH Final Report CRAS of the Wakulla Airport, Wakulla County, Florida

Stratum III is very dark brown compact spodic soil to the water table at 40 centimeters (16 inches). No cultural material was recovered from any of the shovel tests excavated within the Wakulla Airport APE. No archaeological sites or occurrences were identified in the APE, and no further archaeological survey is recommended.

ARCHITECTURAL RESOURCES

Due to the nature of the proposed undertaking, the architectural survey consisted of both a direct and indirect APE. The APE for direct effects was defined as the previously described Wakulla County Airport APE. Additionally, a half‐mile buffer around the direct Wakulla Airport APE was examined for aboveground NRHP‐eligible or listed historic properties that could be affected by indirect impacts (e.g., visual, auditory, vibration) associated with the proposed undertaking. This is referred to as the Wakulla Airport Half Mile Indirect APE.

The architectural survey of the direct Wakulla Airport APE resulted in the identification of one previously recorded historic building (8WA00936) and one newly recorded historic building (8WA01204) within the Wakulla Airport APE (Figure 16). The historic resources were evaluated to determine their significance and potential for listing in the NRHP. Both resources within the Wakulla Airport APE lack the architectural distinction and significant historical associations necessary to be considered for individual listing in the NRHP are recommended ineligible. FMSF forms were completed for all of the resources and are provided in Appendix B. The survey log sheet is provided in Appendix C.

Background research conducted prior to the architectural field survey indicated that no NRHP‐ listed properties, proposed NRHP nominations, National Historic Landmarks, or bridges determined eligible for inclusion in the NRHP were identified within the Wakulla Airport Half Mile Indirect APE. There are 24 previously recorded structures located within the Wakulla Airport Half Mile Indirect APE; however, none of these resources are listed in or are eligible for the NRHP. As such, it is the opinion of SEARCH that the proposed undertaking will not have any direct or indirect effects on these resources. No further architectural history survey is recommended.

NRHP EVALUATIONS

Historic Structures

8WA00936, 2526 Surf Road

Resource 8WA00936 is a previously recorded building located at 2526 Surf Road in Section 1 of Township 6 South, Range 2 West, as shown on the 1982 Saint Teresa, Florida USGS quadrangle map (see Figure 16). The ca. 1950 building is situated on the south of a rectangular‐shaped

Results 34 SEARCH September 2016 CRAS of the Wakulla Airport, Wakulla County, Florida Final Report

Figure 16. Historic resources located within the Wakulla Airport APE.

35 Results September 2016 SEARCH Final Report CRAS of the Wakulla Airport, Wakulla County, Florida parcel located on the northwest corner of Surf Road and Bay Drive. Resource 8WA00936 is a one‐story, rectangular‐ plan Masonry Vernacular building that features elements of the Mission style (Figure 17). The building is set on a continuous concrete block foundation and has a gabled roof clad with 5V‐crimp sheet metal. The roof features a louvered vent in the north gable and an arched brick architrave surrounding a window opening in the south gable. A metal ventilator intersects the east slope of the roof. The exterior fabric consists of Figure 17. Resource 8WA00936, facing northwest. painted concrete block. The windows are not arranged in any particular pattern, but include four‐ and twelve‐light fixed‐sash wood windows set on brick sills. The windows have been covered with sheets of 5V‐crimp sheet metal. The main entry on the south façade has been covered by a roll‐up metal door. The entry is set within a screened‐in shed‐roofed porch accessed by a glass and metal storm door. The screen has been removed from around the porch, but the wood framework remains. A non‐historic shed‐roofed porch, attached to the east façade, has partially collapsed. The building is currently vacant and in a state of deterioration.

Resource 8WA00936 is a Masonry Vernacular building that represents a highly prevalent approach to architectural design in Florida, as well as the United States in general. Based on the historic context, it is the opinion of SEARCH that 8WA00936 is not significant under NRHP Criterion A because it is not indicative of a particular era and is not associated with any significant period, event, or theme. Furthermore, the resource is not eligible under Criterion B because it lacks association with any person(s) significant in history. Also, the resource is not eligible under Criterion C due to its lack of architectural distinction. Finally, the building is not significant under Criterion D because it lacks the potential to yield further information of historical importance. It is the opinion of SEARCH that 8WA00936 lacks the minimum criteria for listing in the NRHP, either individually or as a contributing resource to a historic district.

8WA01204, 24 Bay Drive

Resource 8WA01204 is a newly recorded building located at 24 Bay Drive in Section 1 of Township 6 South, Range 2 West, as shown on the 1982 Saint Teresa, Florida USGS quadrangle map (see Figure 16). The ca. 1961 building is situated in the center of a rectangular parcel that fronts Bay Drive to the east. Resource 8WA01204 is a one‐and‐a‐half story, rectangular‐plan Masonry Vernacular residence set on a concrete slab foundation (Figure 18). The building has a front‐gabled roof covered with composition shingles, with gable dormers on the north and south slopes and six‐over‐six single‐hung wood‐sash windows in the gable ends. The exterior fabric consists of stucco with T1‐11 plywood siding in the gables. The main entry is located on

Results 36 SEARCH September 2016 CRAS of the Wakulla Airport, Wakulla County, Florida Final Report

the east façade and features a glass‐over‐ panel wood door, with a glass and metal storm door attached. A garage bay to the north of the main entry features a set of wood double doors with single‐light windows above a concrete ramp. Side entries are located on the north and south façades.

Resource 8WA01204 is a Masonry Vernacular building that represents a highly prevalent approach to architectural design in Florida, as well as the United Figure 18. Resource 8WA01204, facing southwest. States in general. Based on the historic context, it is the opinion of SEARCH that 8WA01204 is not significant under NRHP Criterion A because it is not indicative of a particular era and is not associated with any significant period, event, or theme. Furthermore, the resource is not eligible under Criterion B because it lacks association with any person(s) significant in history. Also, the resource is not eligible under Criterion C due to its lack of architectural distinction. Finally, the building is not significant under Criterion D because it lacks the potential to yield further information of historical importance. It is the opinion of SEARCH that 8WA01204 lacks the minimum criteria for listing in the NRHP, either individually or as a contributing resource to a historic district.

Indirect Effects

The APE for visual, auditory, and vibratory (indirect) effects is defined as a half‐mile radius around the direct Wakulla Airport APE. A review of the FMSF GIS data (updated July 2016) revealed 24 previously documented structures within the APE, none of which are eligible for or potentially eligible for listing on the NRHP (Figure 19). Only one of the previously recorded structures is located within the direct Wakulla Airport APE, as such in addition to the one newly recorded structure, this is the only previously recorded resource that was documented and updated to the FMSF. No additional cultural resources including historic‐age cemeteries, bridges, railroads, or resource groups are located within the indirect APE. SEARCH completed a field survey of the indirect APE from the areas nearest the airport as well as from the farthest accessible extents of the half‐mile APE.

A review of the project plans, included as Appendix A, indicates that the current runway will be extended to the west approximately 250 feet (76 meters) from the existing runway, which runs north/south between Coastal Highway and Surf Road. The runway realignment also includes the acquisition of the adjacent parcel to the west. The airport and flightpaths are currently visible from only select locations throughout the indirect APE (Figure 20). With the exception of an area along US 98 near Tarpin Drive at the northern end of the current runway and along the southern end near Bay Drive, the airport and its associated property, including the runway,

37 Results September 2016 SEARCH Final Report CRAS of the Wakulla Airport, Wakulla County, Florida

Figure 19. Previously recorded historic resources located within the Wakulla Airport Half Mile Indirect APE.

Results 38 SEARCH September 2016 CRAS of the Wakulla Airport, Wakulla County, Florida Final Report

Figure 20. Representative views from the Wakulla Airport Half Mile Indirect APE. Looking northwest from Surf Road at near southeast edge of indirect APE (top left); looking north from Surf Road (top right); looking north at south end of runway along Bay Drive (middle left); looking southwest along SR 30 (middle right); looking south at north end of runway (bottom left); and looking southwest along SR 30 from northern end of indirect APE (bottom right).

39 Results September 2016 SEARCH Final Report CRAS of the Wakulla Airport, Wakulla County, Florida are not visible within the indirect APE. Much of the area surrounding the airport is rural, undeveloped, and surrounded by large trees and power lines. Any portion of the proposed runway realignment that could potentially be visible will not compromise the existing view shed as the existing runway is present and existing power and electric poles are present throughout the view shed between the previously recorded ineligible resources and the proposed construction. Lastly, since the proposed undertaking will not add to increased air traffic flow, nor a change in the size of airplanes accessing the airport, nor will it encroach upon any historic resources or historic districts, the proposed project will not add to any increase in any previously documented or existing auditory or vibratory effects. As such, it is the opinion of SEARCH that the current project will not have an indirect effect on any resources listed in or eligible for the NRHP.

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

This report presents the findings of a Phase I CRAS conducted in support of runway realignment at the Wakulla Airport in Wakulla County, Florida. The project includes extension of the runway to the west approximately 250 feet (76 meters) from the existing runway, which runs north/south between Coastal Highway and Surf Road in the town of Panacea. The northern parcel of the project area is approximately 285 feet (87 meters) by 165 feet (50 meters) and is separated from the majority of the project area by a small paved road.

A total of 22 shovel tests were excavated throughout the Wakulla Airport APE. Additional areas were inspected for surface artifacts, but were not excavated due to hydric soils and water inundation. No cultural material was recovered from any of the shovel tests excavated within the Wakulla Airport APE. No archaeological sites or occurrences were identified in the APE, and no further archaeological survey is recommended.

The architectural survey of the direct Wakulla Airport APE resulted in the identification of one previously recorded historic building (8WA00936) and one newly recorded historic building (8WA01204) within the Wakulla Airport APE. Both resources within the direct Wakulla Airport APE lack the architectural distinction and significant historical associations necessary to be considered for individual listing in the NRHP and are recommended ineligible. No existing or potential historic districts were identified.

Background research conducted prior to the architectural field survey indicated that no NRHP‐ listed properties, proposed NRHP nominations, National Historic Landmarks, or bridges determined eligible for inclusion in the NRHP were identified within the Wakulla Airport Half Mile Indirect APE. A total of 24 previously recorded structures were identified within the Wakulla Airport Half Mile Indirect APE. None of the previously recorded resources or the one newly recorded resource located within the direct Wakulla Airport APE are eligible for or listed in the NRHP. As such, it is the opinion of SEARCH that the proposed undertaking will not have

Conclusion and Recommendations 40 SEARCH September 2016 CRAS of the Wakulla Airport, Wakulla County, Florida Final Report any direct or indirect impacts to these resources. No further architectural history survey is recommended.

It is the opinion of SEARCH that the runway realignment at the Wakulla Airport in Wakulla County, Florida, will have no effect on cultural resources listed or eligible for listing in the NRHP. No further work is recommended.

41 Conclusion and Recommendations September 2016 SEARCH Final Report CRAS of the Wakulla Airport, Wakulla County, Florida

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APPENDIX A.

WAKULLA AIRPORT PROJECT PLAN REVIEW

APPENDIX B.

FMSF RESOURCE FORMS

WA00936 Page 1 HISTORICAL STRUCTURE FORM SSite #8 ______FField Date ______7-20-2016 FLORIDA MASTER SITE FILE † Original FForm Date ______7-25-2016 Version 4.0 1/07 † Update RRecorder # ______SShaded Fields represent the minimum acceptable level of documentation. Consult the Guide to Historical Structure Forms for detailed instructions.

SSite Name(s) (address if none) _2526______Surf____ _Road______MMultiple Listing (DHR only) ______SSurvey Project Name _CRAS____ _of___ _the___ _Wakulla______Airport______SSurvey # (DHR only) ______NNational Register Category (please check one) † building † structure † district † site † object OOwnership: †private-profit †private-nonprofit †private-individual †private-nonspecific †city †county †state †federal †Native American †foreign †unknown LOCATION & MAPPING Street Number Direction Street Name Street Type Suffix Direction AAddress: 2526 Surf Road CCross Streets (nearest / between) ______UUSGS 7.5 Map Name ______ST. TERESA BEACH UUSGS Date ______1982 PPlat or Other Map ______CCity / Town (within 3 miles) ______Panacea IIn City Limits? †yes †no †unknown CCounty ____Wakulla______TTownship ______6S RRange ______2W SSection ______1 ¼ section: †NW †SW †SE †NE Irregular-name: ______TTax Parcel # ______01-6S-02W-000-03585-000 LLandgrant ______SSubdivision Name ______BBlock ______LLot ______UUTM Coordinates: ZZone †16 †17 EEasting NNorthing OOther Coordinates: X: ______Y: ______CCoordinate System & Datum ______NName of Public Tract (e.g., park) ______HISTORY CConstruction Year: ______1950 †approximately †year listed or earlier †year listed or later OOriginal Use ______Private Residence (House/Cottage/Cabin) From (year):______1950 To (year):______Unk CCurrent Use ______Abandoned/Vacant From (year):______Unk To (year):______2016 OOther Use ______From (year):______To (year):______MMoves: †yes †no †unknown Date: ______Original address ______AAlterations: †yes †no †unknown Date: ______Nature ______Windows and doors covered. AAdditions: †yes †no †unknown Date: ______Nature ______Shed porch added to east facade. AArchitect (last name first): ______BBuilder (last name first): ______OOwnership History (especially original owner, dates, profession, etc.) ______IIs the Resource Affected by a Local Preservation Ordinance? †yes †no †unknown Describe ______DESCRIPTION SStyle ______Masonry Vernacular EExterior Plan ______Rectangular NNumber of Stories ______1 EExterior Fabric(s) 1. ______Concrete block 2. ______3. ______RRoof Type(s) 1. ______Gable 2. ______3. ______RRoof Material(s) 1. ______Sheet metal:5V crimp 2. ______3. ______RRoof secondary strucs. (dormers etc.) 1. ______2. ______WWindows (types, materials, etc.) ______The windows are not arranged in any particular pattern but include four- and twelve- ______light fixed-sash wood windows set on brick sills. DDistinguishing Architectural Features (exterior or interior ornaments) ______The roof features a louvered vent in the north gable and an arched______brick architrave surrounding a window opening in the south gable. ______AAncillary Features / Outbuildings (record outbuildings, major landscape features; use continuation sheet if needed.) ______Unknown ______

DHR USE ONLY OFFICIAL EVALUATION DHR USE ONLY NR List Date SHPO – Appears to meet criteria for NR listing: †yes †no †insufficient info Date ______Init.______KEEPER – Determined eligible: †yes †no Date ______† Owner Objection NR Criteria for Evaluation: †a †b †c †d (see National Register Bulletin 15, p. 2)

HR6E046R0107 Florida Master Site File / Division of Historical Resources / R. A. Gray Building / 500 South Bronough Street, Tallahassee, FL 32399-0250 Phone (850) 245-6440 / Fax (850)245-6439 / E-mail [email protected] Page 2 HISTORICAL STRUCTURE FORM Site #8 ______WA00936

DESCRIPTION (continued)

Chimney: No.____0 Chimney Material(s): 1. ______2. ______Structural System(s): 1. ______Concrete block 2. ______3. ______Foundation Type(s): 1. ______Continuous 2. ______Foundation Material(s): 1. ______Concrete Block 2. ______Main Entrance (stylistic details) ______The main entry on the south façade has been covered by a roll-up metal door. ______Porch Descriptions (types, locations, roof types, etc.) ______Open/S/Shed/Square wood piers/once screened Open/E/Shed ______Condition (overall resource condition): "excellent "good "fair "deteriorated "ruinous Narrative Description of Resource ______Resource 8WA00936 is a one-story, rectangular-plan Masonry Vernacular building ______that features elements of the Mission style. The screen has been removed from around the porch, but the ______wood framework remains. Archaeological Remains ______" Check if Archaeological Form Completed RESEARCH METHODS (check all that apply)

" FMSF record search (sites/surveys) " library research " building permits " Sanborn maps " FL State Archives/photo collection " city directory " occupant/owner interview " plat maps " property appraiser / tax records " newspaper files " neighbor interview " Public Lands Survey (DEP) " cultural resource survey (CRAS) " historic photos " interior inspection " HABS/HAER record search " other methods (describe) ______Bibliographic References (give FMSF manuscript # if relevant, use continuation sheet if needed) ______OPINION OF RESOURCE SIGNIFICANCE

Appears to meet the criteria for National Register listing individually? "yes "no "insufficient information Appears to meet the criteria for National Register listing as part of a district? "yes "no "insufficient information Explanation of Evaluation (required, whether significant or not; use separate sheet if needed) ______Due to lack of sufficient historic significance______and architectural distinction, 8WA00936 is ineligible for listing in the NRHP, either individually______or as a contributing resource within a potential or existing historic district. Area(s) of Historical Significance (see National Register Bulletin 15, p. 8 for categories: e.g. “architecture”, “ethnic heritage”, “community planning & development”, etc.) 1. ______3. ______5. ______2. ______4. ______6. ______DOCUMENTATION

Accessible Documentation Not Filed with the Site File - including field notes, analysis notes, photos, plans and other important documents Document type ______All materials at one location Maintaining organization ______Southeastern Archaeological Research 1) Document description ______Photos, Maps, Field Notes, Aerials File or accession #’s ______3676-16076T Document type ______Maintaining organization ______2) Document description ______File or accession #’s ______RECORDER INFORMATION

Recorder Name ______Cothran, Drew Affiliation ______Southeastern Archaeological Research Recorder Contact Information ______315 NW 138 Terr, Newberry, FL 32669/352-333-0049/352-333-0069/[email protected] (address / phone / fax / e-mail)

USGS 7.5’ MAP WITH STRUCTURE LOCATION PINPOINTED IN RED Required LARGE SCALE STREET, PLAT OR PARCEL MAP (available from most property appraiser web sites) Attachments PHOTO OF MAIN FACADE, ARCHIVAL B&W PRINT OR DIGITAL IMAGE FILE If submitting an image file, it must be included on disk or CD AND in hard copy format (plain paper is acceptable). Digital image must be at least 1600 x 1200 pixels, 24-bit color, jpeg or tiff. 8WA00936_a Facing North 8WA00936_b Facing Northwest

8WA00936_c Facing Northeast 8WA00936_d Facing Southwest

8WA00936_e Facing South 8WA00936_f Facing Southeast

WA01204 Page 1 HISTORICAL STRUCTURE FORM SSite #8 ______FField Date ______7-20-2016 FLORIDA MASTER SITE FILE † Original FForm Date ______7-25-2016 Version 4.0 1/07 † Update RRecorder # ______SShaded Fields represent the minimum acceptable level of documentation. Consult the Guide to Historical Structure Forms for detailed instructions.

SSite Name(s) (address if none) _24__ _Bay____ _Drive______MMultiple Listing (DHR only) ______SSurvey Project Name _CRAS____ _of___ _the___ _Wakulla______Airport______SSurvey # (DHR only) ______NNational Register Category (please check one) † building † structure † district † site † object OOwnership: †private-profit †private-nonprofit †private-individual †private-nonspecific †city †county †state †federal †Native American †foreign †unknown LOCATION & MAPPING Street Number Direction Street Name Street Type Suffix Direction AAddress: 24 Bay Drive CCross Streets (nearest / between) ______UUSGS 7.5 Map Name ______ST. TERESA BEACH UUSGS Date ______1982 PPlat or Other Map ______CCity / Town (within 3 miles) ______Panacea IIn City Limits? †yes †no †unknown CCounty ____Wakulla______TTownship ______6S RRange ______2W SSection ______1 ¼ section: †NW †SW †SE †NE Irregular-name: ______TTax Parcel # ______01-6S-02W-034-03590-000 LLandgrant ______SSubdivision Name ______BBlock ______LLot ______UUTM Coordinates: ZZone †16 †17 EEasting NNorthing OOther Coordinates: X: ______Y: ______CCoordinate System & Datum ______NName of Public Tract (e.g., park) ______HISTORY CConstruction Year: ______1961 †approximately †year listed or earlier †year listed or later OOriginal Use ______Private Residence (House/Cottage/Cabin) From (year):______1961 To (year):______2016 CCurrent Use ______Private Residence (House/Cottage/Cabin) From (year):______1961 To (year):______2016 OOther Use ______From (year):______To (year):______MMoves: †yes †no †unknown Date: ______Original address ______AAlterations: †yes †no †unknown Date: ______Nature ______Replacement windows. AAdditions: †yes †no †unknown Date: ______Nature ______AArchitect (last name first): ______BBuilder (last name first): ______OOwnership History (especially original owner, dates, profession, etc.) ______IIs the Resource Affected by a Local Preservation Ordinance? †yes †no †unknown Describe ______DESCRIPTION SStyle ______Masonry Vernacular EExterior Plan ______Rectangular NNumber of Stories ______1.5 EExterior Fabric(s) 1. ______Concrete block 2. ______Wood/Plywood 3. ______T1-11 plywood siding RRoof Type(s) 1. ______Gable 2. ______3. ______RRoof Material(s) 1. ______Composition shingles 2. ______3. ______RRoof secondary strucs. (dormers etc.) 1. ______Gable dormer 2. ______WWindows (types, materials, etc.) ______Replacement six-over-six single-hung wood-sash windows, and decorative paned fixed- ______sash wood windows in the dormers. DDistinguishing Architectural Features (exterior or interior ornaments) ______Gable dormers on the north and south slopes and six-over- six______single-hung wood-sash windows in the gable ends. ______AAncillary Features / Outbuildings (record outbuildings, major landscape features; use continuation sheet if needed.) ______Unknown ______

DHR USE ONLY OFFICIAL EVALUATION DHR USE ONLY NR List Date SHPO – Appears to meet criteria for NR listing: †yes †no †insufficient info Date ______Init.______KEEPER – Determined eligible: †yes †no Date ______† Owner Objection NR Criteria for Evaluation: †a †b †c †d (see National Register Bulletin 15, p. 2)

HR6E046R0107 Florida Master Site File / Division of Historical Resources / R. A. Gray Building / 500 South Bronough Street, Tallahassee, FL 32399-0250 Phone (850) 245-6440 / Fax (850)245-6439 / E-mail [email protected] Page 2 HISTORICAL STRUCTURE FORM Site #8 ______WA01204

DESCRIPTION (continued)

Chimney: No.____0 Chimney Material(s): 1. ______2. ______Structural System(s): 1. ______Concrete block 2. ______3. ______Foundation Type(s): 1. ______Continuous 2. ______Foundation Material(s): 1. ______Concrete Block 2. ______Main Entrance (stylistic details) ______The main entry is located on the east façade and features a glass-over-panel wood ______door, with a glass & metal storm door. Porch Descriptions (types, locations, roof types, etc.) ______N/A ______Condition (overall resource condition): "excellent "good "fair "deteriorated "ruinous Narrative Description of Resource ______Resource 8WA00936 is a one-and-a-half story, rectangular-plan Masonry Vernacular ______residence set on a concrete slab foundation. A garage bay to the north of the main entry features a set of ______wood double doors with single-light windows above a concrete ramp. Archaeological Remains ______" Check if Archaeological Form Completed RESEARCH METHODS (check all that apply)

" FMSF record search (sites/surveys) " library research " building permits " Sanborn maps " FL State Archives/photo collection " city directory " occupant/owner interview " plat maps " property appraiser / tax records " newspaper files " neighbor interview " Public Lands Survey (DEP) " cultural resource survey (CRAS) " historic photos " interior inspection " HABS/HAER record search " other methods (describe) ______Bibliographic References (give FMSF manuscript # if relevant, use continuation sheet if needed) ______OPINION OF RESOURCE SIGNIFICANCE

Appears to meet the criteria for National Register listing individually? "yes "no "insufficient information Appears to meet the criteria for National Register listing as part of a district? "yes "no "insufficient information Explanation of Evaluation (required, whether significant or not; use separate sheet if needed) ______Due to lack of sufficient historic significance______and architectural distinction, 8WA01204 is ineligible for listing in the NRHP, either individually______or as a contributing resource within a potential or existing historic district. Area(s) of Historical Significance (see National Register Bulletin 15, p. 8 for categories: e.g. “architecture”, “ethnic heritage”, “community planning & development”, etc.) 1. ______3. ______5. ______2. ______4. ______6. ______DOCUMENTATION

Accessible Documentation Not Filed with the Site File - including field notes, analysis notes, photos, plans and other important documents Document type ______All materials at one location Maintaining organization ______Southeastern Archaeological Research 1) Document description ______Photos, Maps, Field Notes, Aerials File or accession #’s ______3676-16076T Document type ______Maintaining organization ______2) Document description ______File or accession #’s ______RECORDER INFORMATION

Recorder Name ______Cothran, Drew Affiliation ______Southeastern Archaeological Research Recorder Contact Information ______315 NW 138 Terr, Newberry, FL 32669/352-333-0049/352-333-0069/[email protected] (address / phone / fax / e-mail)

USGS 7.5’ MAP WITH STRUCTURE LOCATION PINPOINTED IN RED Required LARGE SCALE STREET, PLAT OR PARCEL MAP (available from most property appraiser web sites) Attachments PHOTO OF MAIN FACADE, ARCHIVAL B&W PRINT OR DIGITAL IMAGE FILE If submitting an image file, it must be included on disk or CD AND in hard copy format (plain paper is acceptable). Digital image must be at least 1600 x 1200 pixels, 24-bit color, jpeg or tiff. 8WA01204_a Facing West 8WA01204_b Facing Southwest

8WA01204_c Facing West 8WA01204_d Facing Northwest

APPENDIX C.

FDHR SURVEY LOG SHEET

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