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WILDLIFE COUNCILSM

Invasive

October 2006 and Habitat Management Leaflet Number 39

Introduction life colonized new areas very slowly as they moved to new areas, bringing with them and other ani- Invasive species are one of the world’s leading threats mals that were contained in their digestive tracts or to environmental . Invasive species can be stuck to their fur or feathers. In general, the native plants, animals, or other types of organisms. In their species were best adapted to local environmental con- native range, and animal are gener- ditions and had an advantage over these new species. ally kept in balance by factors such as , Depending on environmental conditions, the new , and disease. If introduced into new geo- plants and animals either died out or adapted to their graphic areas or if environmental conditions change new homes. While this process still happens today, substantially, species are sometimes freed from envi- the transport of potential invasive species has been ronmental constraints and can spread rapidly, becom- accelerated because of increased global commerce. ing invasive and potentially overly abundant. Invasive Furthermore, many are increasingly sus- species can have severe economic impacts and can ceptible to invasions because they have been degrad- wreak havoc on ecosystems and populations of native ed by inappropriate land uses. animal and plant species (see Key definitions). Many of today’s invasive species are introduced to The dispersal of and colonization by plant and ani- new areas through activities such as recre- mal species is a natural process that can be affected ation, transportation, and commerce. These introduc- by human activities. Historically, and other wild- tions can be either intentional or accidental. Many plant and animal introductions have been intention- al for food, fiber, ornamental purposes, or biological Key definitions control of invasive species. For example, the com- mon ( carpio), introduced for aquatic : a species that historically oc- plant control and recreational fishing, became an in- curred or currently occurs in a particular ecosys- tem (other than as a result of an introduction). Native species have adapted over thousands of years to their surrounding plant and animal com- munities and local climate and soil conditions.

Exotic species (also alien or nonnative spe- cies): a species, including its , eggs, spores, or other biological material capable of propagat- ing it, that is not native to a particular ecosys- tem.

Invasive species: a species whose causes harm to the economy or the environment. Invasive species can be native or exotic. Native species can become invasive if environmental conditions change substantially and the balance of the is disrupted. Exotic species U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service can become invasive when they are freed from The Asian Longhorned beetle (Anoplophora gla- the environmental constraints that are unique to bripennis), an invasive species, threatens hardwood their native range. in the northeastern United States. Invasive Species vasive species that eats desirable plants and indirectly Ecological impacts reduces by increasing turbidity, thereby replacing or causing declines of some native fish spe- The ecological impacts of invasive species can be cies. On the other hand, introductions of many other both severe and wide-ranging. For example, invasive organisms have been accidental. For example, zebra species can impact terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, mussels (Dreissena polymorpha) were accidental- natural fire and water regimes, soil and ly brought into the through ballast water stability, and wildlife habitat and diversity. discharged by ships. Impacts on terrestrial ecosystems In the United States, invasive species are often In some terrestrial ecosystems, transformations by in- thought of as species that come from other conti- vasive species are so complete that the landscape it- nents. However, invasive species in some regions of self has been changed. For example, bluegrass (Poa the United States are actually native to another re- pratensis), often associated with rural Kentucky, is an gion in the United States. For example, the bullfrog invasive species from that took over the re- (Rana catesbeiana) is native in the eastern United gion’s native after European settlement. States but is considered an invasive species west of the Rocky Mountains. Bullfrogs were introduced west Invasive plants often grow in dense patches, dis- of Rockies in the 1800s for human consumption. They placing native plants and degrading wildlife habitat. have since proliferated and have disrupted the exist- Invasive species often have an advantage when com- ing food chains by feeding on local amphibians. peting with native species for food, water, and sun- light. For example, in coastal , the iceplant This leaflet is intended to serve as a brief introduction (Carpobrotus edulis) takes up scarce water that na- to invasive species for landowners. The potential eco- tive plant species would otherwise use. It forms a mat logical and economic impacts of invasive species are over native plants blocking sunlight and, on some addressed. Case studies for six invasive species are California beaches, iceplant is destroying native vege- presented to illustrate the diverse and often detrimen- tation that is the habitat for . tal effects of these species invasions. General meth- ods of control are presented, and various assistance programs are listed for landowners wishing to control invasive species on their land.

David R. Worley, Florida Departement of Environmental Protection, Steve Dewer, Utah State University, www.invasive.org www.invasive.org The tamarisk (Tamarix spp.) has invaded nearly one Water Hyacinth () is an invasive million acres in the . aquatic plant species.

 Invasive Species

Impacts on aquatic ecosystems Invasive species can also alter an ecosystem’s natu- Aquatic invasive are a significant problem in ral water regime, causing water tables to rise or low- the United States. For example, exotic aquatic plants er and, subsequently, making it difficult for native including hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes), hydril- plants and animals to survive. For example, tamarisk la ( verticillata), and water lettuce ( ( spp.), has invaded nearly one million acres stratiotes) are disrupting native aquatic animal food of flood plains, riparian areas, lake margins, and wet- sources and habitat, choking waterways, changing nu- lands in the western United States. Due to the deep trient cycles, and reducing recreational use of rivers tap and large water requirement of tamarisk, it and lakes in Florida and several other southern states. may deplete water from desert sands, lowering water Forty-four native fish species in the United States are tables and drying up springs upon which some rare considered threatened or endangered due to the pres- desert fish depend. ence of nonnative fish species. Impacts on soil composition Impacts on natural fire and water regimes Invasive plants can alter the physical or chemical Some invasive plant species may affect native ecosys- composition of soils, making it difficult for native tems by changing vegetation fuel properties, which plants to survive. Often, invasive species help to in- can either promote or suppress fire. Many native spe- crease the survival potential of other nonnative spe- cies are adapted to a characteristic and cies, thus, profoundly altering the biotic communi- can suffer when this fire regime is altered. If chang- ty. For example, firetree Morella( faya), a native of es in the fire regime subsequently promote the dom- the Canary Islands, is transforming soils in inance of the invasive species, an invasive plant/ Volcanoes National Park by fixing 90 times fire regime cycle can be established. For example, faster than native plants. In this area, native plants are European cheatgrass ( tectorum) has invad- being displaced by nonnative species that are able to ed and spread throughout the shrub-steppe habitat take root only on sites with fertile soils. Firetree also of the in Idaho and Utah, predisposing attracts the introduced Japanese white-eye (Zosterops the invaded habitat to fires. Before this invasion, fire japonicus), a competitor of several native spe- burned once every 60 to 110 years, and shrubs had a cies. chance to become well established. Now, fires occur every 3 to 5 years, leading to a decrease in shrubs and Direct impacts on wildlife other mid- and late-seral vegetation preferred by in- Native wildlife can be negatively impacted by both digenous wildlife. plant and animal invasives. Invasive plants are spread- ing and invading approximately 1,700,000 acres

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service USDA, APHIS PPQ Archives, USDA APHIS, www.invasive.org The invasive brown snake ( irregularis) In Texas, the red fire is the target for millions of prays on native wildlife on the island of . dollars in invasive species control.

 Invasive Species of wildlife habitat in the United States each year. past, the U.S. Department of (USDA) pro- Invasive animal species can reduce or even eliminate moted the use of some nonnative plant species (kud- populations of native wildlife through predation, graz- zu to decrease ) that quickly became inva- ing, competition, and habitat alteration. Through pre- sive. However, as a member of the National Invasive dation, the (Boiga irregularis), a Species Council (see Establishment of the National native of the South Pacific and Australia, has led to Invasive Species Council), the USDA now works to the extirpations of 10 native bird species, 6 native liz- prevent the introduction of invasive species and to ard species, and 2 native bat species on the island of minimize the economic, ecological, and human health Guam. impacts that invasive species cause. Though there may seem to be some initial economic benefits asso- Threatened or endangered species or those whose ciated with some nonnative species, landowners are natural range and size are already lim- strongly advised to encourage native species and dis- ited are particularly vulnerable to invasive species. courage nonnative or invasive species wherever pos- Approximately 42 percent of threatened or endan- sible. In the long run, native species generally will gered species in the United States are considered to provide more ecological and economic benefits than be at risk primarily due to competition with or preda- nonnative ones. tion by nonnative species. Case studies Economic impacts The case studies that follow will give the reader an Invasive species have caused major financial losses understanding of some of the most widespread and/or in agriculture, , and other economic sectors serious invasive species in the United States. The case around the world. These species impact the econo- studies include three invaders of terrestrial ecosys- my through loss of potential economic output (loss of tems, one of wetland ecosystems, and two of aquatic crop production, reductions in livestock ) and ecosystems. This list is by no means exhaustive and is through the direct costs of combating invasions in- simply intended to demonstrate the diversity of inva- cluding , control, and eradication. For ex- sive species and the damage they can do. For a more ample, the glassy-winged sharpshooter (Homalodisca comprehensive list of invasive species case studies, coagulata), an invasive insect in California, car- see www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov or http://www.issg. ries with it a disease that has caused nearly $40 mil- org/database/welcome/. Although control methods lion in losses of California grapes. The red fire ant are mentioned in this section, it is recommended that (Solenopsis invicta) kills poultry chicks, as well as the landowner consult with natural profes- wildlife species such as lizards, snakes, and ground- sionals before undertaking an invasive species control nesting birds. In Texas, $200 million per year is invest- plan for their specific situation. ed for controlling red fire ant. One study estimates that the total cost of invasive species in the United Management and control States amount to more than $100 billion each year. Eradication of invasive species is difficult and re- For individual landowners, the economic trade-offs of quires large inputs of time and money. Eradication is invasive species can be complicated. Some invasive easier if an invasive species is detected early and an species are considered valuable forage for livestock, eradication plan is undertaken quickly. Some erad- and others may reduce soil erosion. Furthermore, in- ication efforts have been successful. However, the vasive plant species often require less time and ef- complete eradication of invasive species is often im- fort to establish themselves than native species. In the possible, and efforts are more often focused on man-

Establishment of the National Invasive Species Council

On February 3, 1999, President Clinton signed Executive Order 13112, establishing the National Invasive Species Council. Executive Order 13112 is intended to prevent the introduction of invasive species and pro- vide for their control and to minimize the economic, ecological, and human health impacts that invasive species cause. The National Invasive Species Council is interdisciplinary and helps to coordinate and en- sure complementary, cost-efficient, and effective federal activities regarding invasive species.

 Invasive Species agement and control. Many invasions can be reversed these methods must be administered repeatedly to or slowed, and infested areas can be restored to prevent the plant from reestablishing in a given area. healthy ecosystems. Grazing—Depending on the invasive plant species, Before attempting to manage or control invasive spe- grazing can either promote or reduce its cies, landowners must first learn what, if any, inva- at a particular site. Grazing is often combined with sive species exist on their properties. The Natural chemical or biological control methods to reduce or Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) assess- eliminate infestations. Grazing animals can also be ment protocol can assist landowners in determin- used as part of a restoration program by breaking up ing to what extent invasives are present. Some in- the soil and incorporating seeds of desirable native vasive species may be well known to landowners, plants. Animals should be brought into an infested whereas others may be less well known. It is suggest- area at a time when they will be most likely to damage ed that landowners begin by compiling a list of aquat- the invasive species without significantly impacting ic and terrestrial plants, animals, and insects that can the desirable native species. This can be done during be found on their own or adjacent properties. From or flower production of the invasive plant. this list, landowners can consult with local natural re- source professionals to find out which species are in- Burning—Many invaded are best treated by vasive. Online invasive species databases may also be restoring the ecosystem’s natural disturbances such helpful in this regard. Many of these databases can be as fires or floods. In particular, prescribed burning can found at http://www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov/resourc- be used in some areas to promote native plant and an- es/databases.shtml. If invasive species are found to be imal species. The most effective burns for controlling present, the landowner can pursue management and invasive plant species are often those performed just control activities specific to those particular species. before flowers or seeds set or at the young seedling/ sapling stage. Repeated burns are sometimes neces- Landowners should remember that methods used to sary to effectively control invasive plants, and chem- control invasive species can both positively and nega- ical methods may be required in combination with tively affect the ecosystem. The landowner must de- burning. Caution must be exercised and profession- termine which control method or methods will be al advice obtained since, in some cases, prescribed most effective in controlling invasive species while burns can promote an invasive species, such as when being least damaging to the ecosystem. It is recom- their seeds are specially adapted to fire or when they mended that landowners consult with local natural re- resprout vigorously. source professionals before undertaking any invasive species management plan.

There are three main approaches to invasive species control: mechanical, chemical, and biological control methods. More often than not, invasive species con- trol requires the combination of several methods. For example, cutting followed by herbicide applications is effective in controlling some invasive plant species.

Mechanical methods Mechanical methods for plants for controlling inva- sive species include pulling, cutting, or grazing; for an- imals, they include , trapping, and exclusion by physical barriers. Mechanical methods can be ex- tremely specific, minimizing damage to other organ- isms. Mechanical techniques are most effective when the invasive population is relatively small. For larger populations, mechanical controls can quickly become labor-intensive and cost-prohibitive. When using me- chanical techniques to control invasive plants, the na- ture of the plant must be known in advance; some- NRCS times plants can grow back much more quickly from Grazing is often combined with chemical or biological the root system than they did initially. Frequently, methods to reduce or eliminate infestations.

 Invasive Species

Chemical methods of invasive species; however, it may also be a viable Chemical methods involve the use of insecticides, option for landowners. herbicides, or other to kill the species in question. For example, herbicides and soil fumigants Biocontrols are carefully selected and screened to have been instrumental in the successful reduction make sure they will not attack crops or nontarget spe- of witchweed (Striga asiatica) from 400,000 acres cies before they are certified for use. Although slow- to 15,000 acres in . Unlike mechanical er acting than mechanical or chemical controls, bio- controls, chemical controls may not be specific to the logical controls may be the best choice for long-term species being controlled. In addition to killing the in- management of an invasive species problem. In gener- vasive species, applications can destroy na- al, biological control is cost-effective and the best al- tive plants and animals if not applied properly and ternative for stopping invasions which could consume safeguards followed. Chemicals must be used careful- production and support systems. Biocontrol contin- ly and according to the labeled directions to minimize ues to be the only potential method for controlling harmful effects on nontarget species. widely dispersed and inaccessible invasives like old world climbing () in the Biological methods . Biological control methods use organisms such as animals, fungi, or other microbes to feed upon, par- Control of invasive species that are well established asitize, or otherwise interfere with an invasive spe- and that occupy large areas may require the use of cies. For example, South two or more methods used at the appropriate times. ( philoxeroides) has been controlled Use of a number of methods for the control of an in- in Florida and by the alligator weed vasive or species is referred to as integrated pest beetle (Agascicles hygrophila), also from South management. For more information on integrated America. Biological controls are not expected to elim- pest management options, refer to Fish and Wildlife inate the invasive species but rather to control their Habitat Management Leaflet Number 24: Integrated abundance. When the invasive species increases in Pest Management (IPM) and Wildlife. Immediate me- numbers, the biocontrol organism increases corre- chanical or chemical control of an invasive species spondingly, causing the invasive species to decline. followed by biological control may be the most effec- Biological control is often used for large infestations tive approach for long-term management.

Robert H. Mohlenbrock, USDA NRCS Plants database, www.invasive.org Biocontrols are used on aligator weed (Alternanthera philoxeroides) in Florida and Georgia. University of Connecticut Dense mats of hydrilla impede recreational use of lakes and rivers, but also provide food and refuge for wintering waterfowl.

 Invasive Species Terrestrial ecosystem invaders ()

European (Sturnus vulgaris) Description: Deciduous , 35 to 100 feet long, lobed three-leaflet leaves, large root crowns that in- Description: Medium-sized bird; in the summer, plum- crease in size with age age is black with purple and green iridescence and bill Native range: Japan and China is yellow and legs are reddish; in the winter, plumage is black with light colored tips on the feathers Invasive range: Most severe in the southeast- ern United States but can occur as far north as Native range: Eurasia and North Africa Connecticut and Illinois and as far west as Oklahoma Invasive range: Throughout the United States and Texas History: Introduced in New York in 1890 and 1891 by History: First introduced to the United States as an an individual who wanted all birds mentioned in the ornamental vine in 1876. Later, it was grown in south- work of William Shakespeare to be established in the ern states as a forage crop to reduce erosion and im- United States. In 1994, it was estimated that 140 mil- prove the soil. In 1935, the Service lion European lived in . began using it to prevent soil erosion on cuts and farmlands. By 1955, kudzu had overtaken native vege- Ecological and economic impacts: European star- tation and infrastructure in many areas. Today, kudzu lings contribute to the decline of native bird popula- has infested over 7 million acres in the Southeast. tions through competition for resources and nesting space. They usurp other birds’ by contamina- Ecological and economic impacts: Kudzu blankets tion and physical competition. They can damage in- the ground and existing vegetation with a dense cano- frastructure and pose health risks to and live- py through which little light can penetrate. Few plants stock. European starlings cost hundreds of millions of can survive when covered by kudzu. dollars in agricultural damage each year due to con- Control methods: Prescribed burning combined with sumption and contamination of livestock feed and herbicide application stored grain and damage to fruit crops. On the ben- eficial side, European starlings do consume some in- For more information, see Driesch et al. Biological sects and other pests. Control of Invasive Plants in the Eastern United Control methods: Exclusion, trapping, shooting, poi- States or Miller, J. H. Nonnative Invasive Plants of sons, tactile and sounds repellents, and startle devices Southern , or visit http://www.invasivespe- cies.gov/profiles/kudzu.shtml. For more information, visit http://www.invasivespe- cies.gov/profiles/eurostarling.shtml.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service European starling

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Kudzu

 Invasive Species Tree-of-heaven () Wetland ecosystem invader

Description: Deciduous tree, up to 90 feet tall with a Purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria) broad spreading crown of few branches, gray bark, 1- to 3-foot light green to reddish stalks divided into 12 Description: Wetland plant, 1 to 4 feet tall, 30 to 50 to 30 pointed leaflets, flowers between April and July square stems, lance-shaped leaves that grow opposite with small yellowish-green flowers, flowers develop each other on the stem or in whorls of three, spikes of into wing-shaped fruits on female trees purple flowers between June and September Native range: Eastern China Native range: Eurasia Invasive range: In the East, it is distributed from Invasive range: Much of the United States, particular- Massachusetts and southern Ontario south to Texas ly serious in the Northeast and Upper Midwest and northern Florida. Less abundant but still preva- lent in the West, it grows from New Mexico west to History: First introduced to the United States in the California and north to Washington. early 1800s, both accidentally (in ship ballast wa- ter) and intentionally (for medicinal and ornamental History: Introduced to North America on three uses). Since 1880, its distribution has been increasing distinct occasions. In 1784, it was introduced to rapidly. as an ornamental plant. In 1820, it was again planted as an ornamental in New York. Finally, Ecological and economic impacts: Purple loosestrife Chinese immigrants during the gold rush introduced out competes native plants and reduces the availabili- tree-of-heaven to California, probably due to its me- ty of food and shelter for wildlife. It has caused reduc- dicinal uses and cultural importance. Tree-of-heaven tions in 44 native plants and wildlife species includ- was available commercially by 1840. ing the endangered , waterfowl, amphibians, and butterflies. Stands can grow to thousands of acres Ecological and economic impacts: Tree-of-heaven in size, eliminating open water habitat. Purple loose- colonizes disturbed, semi-natural habitats and ripari- strife costs $45 million per year in control methods an areas. It grows rapidly and forms dense stands, dis- and forage losses. placing native vegetation. It colonizes by root sprouts and spreads by prolific wind and water-dispersed Control methods: Herbicides, hand pulling, and cut- seeds. ting. Digging should not be attempted because soil may enhance the spread. Control methods: Herbicides and cutting For more information, see Driesch et al., Biological For more information, see Miller, J. H., Nonnative Control of Invasive Plants in the Eastern United Invasive Plants of Southern Forests, or visit http:// States, or visit http://www.invasivespecies.gov/pro- www.invasivespecies.gov/profiles/treeoheaven.shtml. files/purplstrf.shtml.

Chuck Bargeron, , www.invasive.org Bernd Blossey, Corness University, www.invasive.org Tree-of-heaven Purple loosestrife

 Invasive Species invaders (Dreissena polymorpha)

Eurasian water-milfoil (Myriophyllum spica- Description: Thumbnail-sized mollusk with a striped tum) shell Native range: Caspian and Black Description: Submersed aquatic plant with many fine- ly divided leaves that are limp when out of the water; Invasive range: Most of the aquatic ecosystems in the long stems often branching at water surface, flowers eastern United States, from the Great Lakes through on emerged spikes the drainage. Native range: Eurasia and North Africa History: Accidentally introduced in 1988 to the Great Lakes from ballast water of a transatlantic freight- Invasive range: Throughout much of the United er. In less than 10 years, zebra mussels spread to all States, particularly problematic in the Northeast, five Great Lakes and into the Mississippi, Tennessee, northern Midwest, and Pacific Northwest. Hudson, and Ohio River basins. History: First introduction difficult to determine Ecological and economic impacts: Zebra mussels re- due to past confusion with a similar native aquatic duce the availability of food and oxygen for native plant. Established in the United States by the 1940s, fauna. They cement themselves to any and all sub- although may have been in the United States since merged hard surfaces and have been observed com- 1900 or earlier. Eurasian water-milfoil was probably pletely covering native mussels, clams, and snails, in- brought to the United States on a commercial or pri- terfering with these native species’ feeding, growth, vate boat or possibly dumped from an aquarium. movement, respiration, and . Zebra mus- Ecological and economic impacts: The Eurasian wa- sel invasions could result in the of up to ter-milfoil grows rapidly in ponds, lakes, and pools 140 species. Zebra mussels invade and clog water in- of stagnant or slowly moving fresh to slightly brack- take pipes at industrial and utility plants. Water treat- ish water, creating dense canopies at the surface that ment facilities have experienced fouling and loss of reduce light penetration. It reduces species diver- intake heads, obstruction of valves, corrosion of cast sity, fish spawning areas, and the abundance of na- iron and steel piping, and buildup of methane gasses tive water plants, macroinvertebrates, and native fish. from the decaying mussel tissue. It is estimated that Recreational use of waterways is virtually impossible zebra mussels will soon cause $100 million per year where the Eurasian water-milfoil grows. in damages and associated control costs. On the other hand, zebra mussels act as filters and can help to dras- Control methods: Mechanical methods and herbicides tically improve water clarity in lakes. Clearer water can increase recreational opportunities such as scu- For more information, see Driesch et al., Biological ba diving. However, clearer water can also lead to in- Control of Invasive Plants in the Eastern United creased vegetative growth, which can decrease oppor- States or visit http://www.invasivespecies.gov/pro- tunities for recreation. Generally, it is thought that the files/watermilfoil.shtml.

Alison Fox, University of Florida, www.invasive.org Randy Westbrooks, U.S. Geological Survey, www.invasive.org Eurasian water-milfoil Zebra mussel

 Invasive Species negative impacts of the zebra mussel largely outweigh Assistance programs its positive impacts. Control methods: Remove attached vegetation and Various public and private organizations are avail- wash boats or trailers before moving them to new able to provide technical and financial assistance to lakes or rivers. landowners interested in improving wildlife habitat by controlling invasive species. Table 1 lists some of For more information, visit http://www.invasivespe- these organization and specific programs. cies.gov/profiles/zebramussel.shtml or http://el.erdc. usace.army.mil/zebra/zmis/. Conclusion

Invasive species pose a serious environmental threat. They can destroy wildlife habitat, disrupt ecosystem functions, and impact native plant and animal popu- lations. Interference with agriculture and other com- mercial land uses may require expensive solutions. Invasive species problems must be approached in a coordinated, well-planned manner for successful treatment of their damaging effects. With advice and assistance from natural resource professionals, con- servation organizations, and government agencies, landowners can take a proactive approach to eradi- cating and/or managing invasive species on their land.

10 Invasive Species

Table 1 Example assistance programs for invasive species management

Opportunities for invasive Program Description Land eligibility Contact species management Conservation Up to 50% cost-share for Highly erodible land, Annual rental payments may NRCS or FSA Reserve establishing permanent wetland, and certain other include an additional amount up State or local Program cover and conservation lands with cropping to $5 per acre per year as an office practices, and annual history, stream-side areas in incentive to perform certain rental payments for land pasture land maintenance obligations enrolled in 10- to 15-yr including invasive species contracts management activities

Conservation Financial and technical Tribal and private work- Technical and financial assis- NRCS State Security assistance to promote ing lands in selected water- tance available for invasive or local office Program the conservation and im- sheds, including cropland, species management provement of soil, , prairie land, im- water, air, energy, plant proved pasture, range land, and animal life, and oth- and forested land er conservation pur- poses Conservation Technical assistance, Private, Tribal, and other Technical assistance available NRCS State Technical including conservation non-Federal lands for invasive species manage- or local office Assistance planning, design, and ment implementation, to help preserve, maintain, and improve natural resources Cost-share and incentive Cropland, range, grazing Incentive payments may be NRCS State payments for conserva- land, and other agricultural provided for invasive species or local office tion practices in accor- land in need of conservation management as a component of dance with 1- to 10-yr a larger land management plan contracts Grassland Financial incentives, Restored, improved or nat- Participants must follow a site- NRCS State Reserve technical assistance, and ural grassland, , specific grassland resources or local office Program cost-share for enhance- pastureland, shrubland, and conservation plan, which can in- ment and restoration of certain other lands clude invasive species manage- in permanent ment. Land threatened by in- or 30-yr easements or vasive species is prioritized for rental agreements program eligibility Partners Up to 100% financial and Most degraded fish and/or Restoration projects may in- U.S. Fish for Fish technical assistance to wildlife habitat clude removing of invasive and Wildlife and Wildlife restore wildlife habitat plants and animals that compete Service Program under a minimum 10-yr with native fish and wildlife and local office cooperative agreement alter their natural habitats Waterways Technical and program Private lands Can provide State-specific ad- Wildlife for Wildlife development assistance vice and/or contacts for invasive Habitat to coalesce habitat ef- species management projects Council forts of corporations and private landowners to meet common water- shed level goals

11 Invasive Species

Table 1 Example assistance programs for invasive species management—Continued

Opportunities for invasive Program Description Land eligibility Contact species management Wetlands Up to 100% cost-share Previously degraded wet- Can provide technical and finan- NRCS State Reserve and technical assistance land and adjacent upland cial assistance for invasive spe- or local office Program to address wetland, buffer, with limited amount cies management provided these wildlife habitat, soil, wa- of natural wetland and ex- activities are consistent with the ter, and related natural isting or restorable ripari- protection and enhancement of resource concerns in an an areas wetland habitats environmentally bene- ficial and cost-effective manner under 10-yr con- tracts, 30-yr easements, or permanent easements Wildlife at Technical assistance on Corporate lands Can provide State-specific ad- Wildlife Work developing habitat vice and/or contacts for invasive Habitat projects into programs species management projects Council that allow companies to involve employees and the Wildlife Technical assistance and High-priority fish and wild- Cost-sharing is available to NRCS State Habitat up to 75% cost-share life habitats manage invasive species that or local office Incentives assistance to establish have negative impacts on the Program and improve fish and habitats of declining wildlife wildlife habitat for 5 to species 10 yr

12 Invasive Species References Marinelli, J., and B. Hanson, eds. 1996. Invasive plants: weeds of the global garden. Brooklyn Botanical Online sources Garden, Inc., Brooklyn, NY.

The Invasive Species Specialist Group. 2005. Global Miller, J.H. 2003. Nonnative invasive plants of south- invasive species database. http://www.issg.org/ ern forests: a field guide for identification and database/welcome/ [Accessed 25 March 2005]. control. Southern Research Station, Auburn University, Asheville, NC. National Invasive Species Council. 2005. The nation’s invasive species information system. http:// Pimentel, D., L. Lach, R. Zuniga, and D. Morrison. www.invasivespecies.gov/ [Accessed 22 March 2000. Environmental and economic costs of 2005]. nonindigenous species in the United States. BioScience 50: 53–65. The Conservancy. 2005. Invasive species initia- tive. http://tncweeds.ucdavis.edu/methods.html Stein, B.A., and S.R. Flack, eds. 1996. America’s least [Accessed 22 March 2005]. wanted: alien species invasions of U.S. ecosys- tems. The Nature Conservancy, Arlington, VA. University of Georgia Bugwood Network, USDA Service, and USDA APHIS PPQ. 2005. Tu, M., C. Hurd, and J.M. Randall. 2001. Weed con- Invasive and exotic insects, diseases, and weeds: trol methods handbook: tools and techniques for information and images. www.invasive.org use in natural areas. The Nature Conservancy. [Accessed 6 April 2005]. Available at: http://tncweeds.ucdavis.edu/hand- book.html. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 2002. Zebra mussel in- formation system. http://el.erdc.usace.army. van Driesche, R., B. Blossey, M. Hoddle, S. Lyon, and mil/zebra/zmis/ [Accessed 25 March 2005]. R. Reardon. 2002. Biological control of invasive plants in the eastern United States. USDA Forest U.S. Department of Agriculture National Agriculture Service Publication FHTET–2002–04. Library. 2006. National invasive species informa- tion center. http://www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov [Accessed 14 February 2006].

U.S. Department of Agriculture Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2006. Plants database. http://plants.usda.gov [Accessed 14 February 2006].

Printed sources

Brooks, M.L., C.M. D’Antonio, D.M. Richardson, J.B. Grace, J.E. Keeley, J.M. DiTomaso, R.J. Hobbs, M. Pellant, and D. Pyke. 2004. Effects of inva- sive alien plants on fire regimes. BioScience 54: 677–688.

Florida Cooperative Extension Service. 2001. European starling. Fact Sheet SS–WEC–118, Department of Wildlife & Conservation, Florida Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida. Available at: http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/ UW118.

Mack, R.N., D. Simberloff, W.M. Lonsdale, H. Evans, M. Clout, and F. Bazzaz. 2000. Biotic invasions: causes, epidemiology, global consequences and control. Issues in Ecology 5: 1–20.

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Natural Resources Conservation Wildlife Habitat Council Service 8737 Colesville Road, Suite 800 Mailing address: Silver Spring, Maryland 20910 P.O. Box 2890 (301) 588–8994 Washington, DC 20013 The mission of the Wildlife Habitat Council Street address: is to increase the amount of quality wildlife 14th and Independence Avenue SW habitat on corporate, private, and public land. Washington, DC 20250 WHC engages corporations, public agencies, and private, nonprofit organizations on a The Natural Resources Conservation Service voluntary basis as one team for the recovery, provides leadership in a partnership effort to development, and preservation of wildlife help people conserve, maintain, and improve habitat worldwide. our natural resources and environment. © 1988 WHC

WILDLIFE HABITAT COUNCILSM

www.nrcs.usda.gov www.wildlifehc.org

Acknowledgements: Primary author: Raisssa Marks, Wildlife Habitat Council. Edited by Erika T. Smith, Wildlife Habitat Council. Drafts reviewed by Rob Pauline, Wildlife Habitat Council; William Hohman, Natural Resources Conservation Service; Dave Dewald, Natural Resources Conservation Service; Doug Holy, U.S. Department of Agriculture; James Miller, U.S. Department of Agriculture; Larry Allain, U.S. Geological Survey; Jim Dinsmore, Iowa State University

The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of race, color, national origin, age, disability, and where applicable, sex, marital status, familial status, pa- rental status, religion, sexual orientation, genetic information, political beliefs, reprisal, or because all or a part of an individual’s income is derived from any public assistance program. (Not all prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities who require alternative means for communication of program informa- tion (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact USDA’s TARGET Center at (202) 720–2600 (voice and TDD). To file a complaint of discrimination write to USDA, Director, Office of Civil Rights, 1400 Independence Avenue, S.W., Washington, D.C. 20250–9410 or call (800) 795–3272 (voice) or (202) 720–6382 (TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity provider and employer.

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