Introduction

Home , Blood and the Moon, Declan Kiberd, Derek Walcott, The Rose Tree (poem), The Second Coming (poem), The Stolen Child

Notes

Introduction

1. The Collected Letters of W. B. Yeats, Volume III 1901–1904, ed. John Kelly and Ronald Schuchard (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994), 284. 2. The first quotation is from “The Municipal Gallery Re- visited,” the last from “Remorse for Intemperate Speech,” and all the others from “The Second Coming.” 3. Edward Said reads Yeats as a postcolonial poet in “Yeats and Decolonization,” in Culture and Imperialism (New York: Vintage, 1994); so too do a number of Irish critics, notably Declan Kiberd in his Inventing Ireland: The Literature of the Modern Nation (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995), a landmark book in both Irish Studies and postcolonial criticism. Lyn Innes also reads Yeats as a postcolonial writer in “Orientalism and Celticism,” in Irish and Postcolonial Writing: History, Theory, Practice, ed. Glenn Hooper and Colin Graham (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002). So does Jahan Ramazani, who points to Yeats’s influence on “writers as diverse as Derek Walcott and Lorna Goodison, Raja Rao and A. K. Ramanujan, Chinua Achebe, and Wole Soyinka” in “Is Yeats a Postcolonial Poet?” Raritan XVII: 3, Winter 1998, 64–89. Reading Yeats or other Irish writers as postcolonial is resisted by critics and historians who do not accept Ireland’s status as a former colony: these include Yeats’s biographer, historian R. F. Foster, W. B. Yeats: A Life I The Apprentice Mage 1865–1914 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997) and W. B. Yeats: A Life II The Arch- Poet 1915–1939 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), and numer- ous others, such as Stephen Howe in his Ireland and Empire (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), who argues that using such language to describe Irish history and culture distorts the Irish experience and puts one in the ideological company of Irish republicans. 4. Harold Bloom reads Yeats as a late Romantic poet in his Yeats (New York: Oxford University Press, 1970). 5. Terry Eagleton, Crazy John and the Bishop, and Other Essays on Irish Culture (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1998), 284. 6. Proinsias MacCana, Literature in Irish (Dublin: Department of Foreign Affairs, Government of Ireland, 1980), 50. Probably it is the musical- ity of Yeats’s verse that has inspired a number of popular musicians to set some of his poems to music, for example Van Morrison’s rendering of “Crazy Jane on God,” Elvis Costello’s “A Drunken Man’s Praise of Sobriety,” The Waterboys’ “The Stolen Child,” and many more. 210 Notes

7. MacCana, Literature in Irish, 16. 8. Andrew John Miller, “Fables of Progression: Modernism, Modernity, Narrative” in Modernism and Theory: A Critical Debate, ed. Stephen Ross (London: Routledge, 2009), 186.

Chapter One “Romantic Ireland”: The Early Poems and Plays (1885–1910)

1. W. B. Yeats, The Letters of W. B. Yeats, ed. Allan Wade (London: Rupert Hart-Davis, 1954), 701. 2. The Yeats quotation is from his Essays and Introductions (New York: Macmillan, 1961), pp. 519, 520. Since Yeats’s day, the debate over the language issue has recurred in former English colonies. In Africa the opposing spokes- men on this issue are, famously, Ngugi wa Thiong’o in his Decolonizing the Mind: the Politics of Language in African Literature (1986), taking Hyde’s point of view, approximately, and Chinua Achebe, taking Yeats’s perspective, roughly, in the essay “The African Writer and the English Language” (1964). In the Irish situation there was virtually no possibility, given their slim acquaintance with the language, that either of the great writers of the period, Yeats or Joyce, might have written in Gaelic. 3. Essays, 3. 4. Essays, 510. 5. Essays, 3. 6. W. B. Yeats, The Variorum Edition of the Poems of W. B. Yeats, ed. Peter Allt and Russell K. Alspach (New York: Macmillan, 1966), 837. 7. Lyn Innes, “Orientalism and Celticism” in Irish and Postcolonial Writing: History, Theory, Practice, ed. Glenn Hooper and Colin Graham (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002), 153. 8. Cited in John Hutchinson, The Dynamics of Cultural Nationalism: The Gaelic Revival and the Creation of the Irish Nation State (London: Allen & Unwin, 1987), 102. 9. D. George Boyce, Nationalism in Ireland (London: Routledge, 1991), 133. 10. Matthew Arnold, On the Study of Celtic Literature (London: Smith Elder, 1867). 11. Douglas Hyde, “On the Necessity for de- Anglicizing Ireland” 1892, reprinted in Irish Writing in the Twentieth Century: A Reader, ed. David Pierce (Cork: Cork University Press, 2000), 2–13. 12. W. B. Yeats, Letters to the New Island, ed. Horace Reynolds (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1970). See, for example, 153–54. 13. Yeats went back and forth between Ireland and England for much of his life and kept rooms in London for more than twenty years. 14. A. Norman Jeffares, W. B. Yeats: A New Biography (London: Arena, 1990), 26. Notes 211

15. James Blake “Yeats, Oisin and Irish Gaelic Literature” in Anglo-Irish and Irish Literature: Aspects of Language and Culture, Volume 1, ed. Birgit Bramsback and Martin Croghan (Uppsala: Almqvist & Wiksell, 1988), 40. 16. Ibid., 44. 17. The Countess Cathleen was, in Yeats’s words, “an attempt to write a national drama”; it was based on “a story I had found when compiling my Fairy and Folk Tales of the Irish Peasantry . . .” The Collected Letters of W. B. Yeats, Vol. 1 1865–1895, ed. John Kelly and Eric Domville (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986), 282. Yeats cites O’Curry’s “Manuscript Materials of Irish History” as his source for “The Madness of King Goll,” Variorum Poems, 857. Proinsias MacCana gives the source for On Baile’s Strand in Literature in Irish (Dublin: Department of Foreign Affairs, Government of Ireland, 1980) 31. For “A Cradle Song,” see Letters I 208, and Variorum Poems 118. Yeats’s note on “The Host of the Air” can be found in Variorum Poems 803. 18. Not only is Cathleen Ni Houlihan based on the aisling (“dream” or “vision”) Gaelic poems of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, in which a woman who embodies Ireland appears to the poet, but the play was suggested to Yeats in a dream/vision, as he wrote to Gregory his col- laborator on this play: “One night I had a dream almost as distinct as a vision, of a cottage where there was well- being and firelight and talk of a marriage, and into the midst of that cottage there came an old woman in a long cloak. She was Ireland herself, that Cathleen Ni Houlihan . . . for whose sake so many have gone to their death.” Cited in The Variorum Edition of the Plays of W. B. Yeats, ed. Russell and Catherine Alspach (New York: Macmillan, 1966) 232. Oisin’s voyage to the three islands of Tir n’a N’Og in “The Wanderings of Oisin” is a version of the immram narratives of the eighth century and later, in which “the voyager and his companions come to a succession of islands . . .” that constitute the Otherworld (MacCana, 25). The Gaelic dinnshenchas, a large number of which were collected in the eleventh or twelfth century, are writings in verse or prose that explain the names of places, and the lore associated with those places (MacCana, 33). 19. The Collected Works of W.B. Yeats, Vol. III Autobiographies, ed. William H. O’Donnell and Douglas N. Archibald (New York: Scribner, 1999), 167. 20. R. F. Foster, William Butler Yeats: A Life I: The Apprentice Mage 1865– 1914 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997), 112. 21. Benedict Anderson’s Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism Revised Edition (London: Verso, 1991) is by now the classic formulation of the idea that nations are cultural cre- ations or inventions, rather than the inevitable result of a natural political evolution. 22. David Lloyd, Anomalous States: Irish Writing and the Post- Colonial Moment (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1993), 59. 212 Notes

23. Only 500 copies of The Wanderings of Oisin were sold and 750 of The Wind Among the Reeds, but the 1895 collection Poems sold steadily, and better than any other volume, according to Yeats. See George Bornstein, Introduction, The Early Poetry Volume II Manuscript Materials by W. B. Yeats: “The Wanderings of Oisin” and Other Early Poems to 1895 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1994). 24. Autobiographies, 365. 25. It is a little misleading to refer to Yeats’s “early poetry,” since he revised his work so frequently and over such a long period of time that it is uncertain which version of a poem, if any, should be the definitive text. Most collections of Yeats’s verse print the last in the series of revisions, but this means that a poem in an early volume might have been strongly revised over a period of twenty years or more, and may be the product of Yeats’s middle (or even old) age rather than his youth. “The Man Who Dreamed of Fairyland,” for example, first published in 1891, was revised for the last time in 1933. See George Bornstein, “What is the Text of a Poem by Yeats?” in Palimpsest: Editorial Theory in the Humanities, ed. George Bornstein and Ralph G. Williams (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1993), 167–93. Yeats’s equation of Ireland with the western province of Connacht can be found in The Collected Works of W. B. Yeats Vol. VIII: The Irish Dramatic Movement, ed. Mary Fitzgerald and Richard J. Finneran (New York: Scribner, 2003), 115. 26. Homi K. Bhabha, The Location of Culture (London: Routledge, 2004), 205. 27. Fredric Jameson means by “national allegory” the way in which in postcolonial texts the apparently “private” life of an individual is shaped by colonization—see his “Third World Literature in the Era of Multi- National Capitalism,” Social Text 15 (1986): 65–88. Such a formulation seems particularly applicable to a text like James Joyce’s “The Dead” and the character of Gabriel Conroy; but Joyce’s more complex modern text is only one in a series of national allegories, dating from long before individuals are understood to have “private” lives, that usually involve the embodiment of Ireland as a woman, her oppression and dispossession, and the self- sacrifice of her sons in her defense. 28. Autobiographies, 104. 29. James Joyce, A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (New York: Viking, 1964), 181. 30. Richard Ellmann, James Joyce (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1983) 168, 159; James Joyce, “The Day of the Rabblement” in Critical Writings of James Joyce, ed. Ellsworth Mason and Richard Ellmann (New York: Viking, 1964), 71. 31. Ellmann, James Joyce, 159. 32. James Joyce, Ulysses (New York: Random House, 1961), 9. 33. Collected Letters I, 54–55. 34. G. J. Watson, Irish Identity and the Literary Revival: Synge, Yeats, Joyce and O’Casey (London: Croom Helm, 1979), 88–89. Notes 213

35. Anderson, Imagined Communities, 10. 36. The King’s Threshold: Manuscript Materials by W. B. Yeats, ed. Declan Kiely (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2005), l. 37. Charles Townshend, Ireland in the 20th Century (London: Arnold, 1999), 94. 38. Homi K. Bhabha, “DissemiNation: Time, Narrative and the Margins of the Modern Nation” in The Location of Culture (London: Routledge, 2004), 199–244. 39. Autobiographies, 104–5. 40. “The Irish Literary Theatre,” first published in the Dublin newspaper the Daily Express Jan. 14, 1899, is reprinted in Uncollected Prose by W. B. Yeats, Vol. 2, collected and edited by John P. Frayne and Colton Johnson (New York: Columbia University Press, 1976), 140. 41. Theodor Adorno, Minima Moralia: Reflections from Damaged Life (London: Verso, 1978), 241. 42. Innes, “Orientalism and Celticism,” 154. 43. Letter to Frank Fay, cited in The Collected Works of W. B. Yeats Vol. II: The Plays, ed. David R. Clark and Rosalind E. Clark (New York: Scribner, 2001), 849. 44. David Pierce, in his Yeats’s Worlds: Ireland, England, and the Poetic Imagination (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1995) writes, “It was a tradition in Connemara for boys up to the age of twelve to be dressed as girls, for it was thought that girls would not be taken by the fairies,” and reproduces a photograph of three boys dressed in skirts (39). 45. Both women shared Yeats’s interest in the occult (as did Georgie Hyde Lees, who became his wife in 1917, most of all). The long affair with Gonne seems to have been consummated on a visit to Paris (where she was living) in 1908, though the sexual relationship was apparently not continued (Foster I, 388). 46. The personae “Aedh,” “Hanrahan,” and “Robartes” were intended to represent different aspects of the lover, but were abandoned after the first edition: see The Wind Among the Reeds: Manuscript Materials by W. B. Yeats, ed. Carolyn Holdsworth (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1993), xxvii. Robartes reappears in Yeats’s later poetry, however. 47. Autobiographies, 120. 48. W. B. Yeats, Memoirs, ed. Denis Donoghue (New York: Macmillan, 1972), 247. 49. Autobiographies, 139. 50. Essays, 523–24. 51. Autobiographies, 81. 52. See, for example, Helen Vendler, “Technique in the Earlier Poems of Yeats” in Yeats Annual No. 8, ed. Warwick Gould (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1991), 3–20; Richard Taylor, “Metrical Variation in Yeats’s Verse” (same volume) 21–38; Thomas Parkinson, W. B. Yeats Self- Critic: 214 Notes

A Study of His Early Verse and the Later Poetry (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971). 53. Parkinson, W. B. Yeats Self-Critic , 191–92. 54. Michael North, The Political Aesthetic of Yeats, Eliot, and Pound (New York: Cambridge, 1991) 26. North suggests a connection between Yeats and Benjamin in his title linking politics and aesthetics, but he does not develop the connection; his sense of Yeats’s nationalism (and indeed Irish nationalism as a whole) is founded on what he sees as an irresolvable contradiction in nationalism between the individual and the community. But I see Yeats’s longed-for solitude in Sligo as, like Thoreau’s in Walden, a pastoral retreat, and not inconsistent with their lifetimes of political activism and involvement. North’s sense of Irish nationalism comes close to endorsing the colonialist stereotype of the Irish as essentially violent, since he argues that Yeats’s poetry discloses “what the Civil War and the Troubles also proved, that the Irish do not hold in common any ideals, beliefs or practices, but only the violence caused by the lack of these” (61). 55. Taylor, “Metrical Variation in Yeats’s Verse,” 21. 56. Vendler, “Technique in the Earlier Poems of Yeats,” 5. 57. Mary Kinzie, A Poet’s Guide to Poetry (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999), 290. 58. Ibid., 293. 59. Thomas MacDonagh, Literature in Ireland: Studies Irish and Anglo- Irish, first published 1916, reprinted by Kennikat Press, Port Washington, New York, 1970, 72. 60. Variorum Poems, 90. 61. A. Norman Jeffares, A New Commentary on the Poems of W. B. Yeats (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1984), 12. 62. W. B. Yeats, The Celtic Twilight (originally published 1893, 1902), reprinted with introduction by Kathleen Raine (Gerrard’s Cross: Colin Smythe, 1981), 153. 63. Letters I, 54–55. 64. W. B. Yeats: Short Fiction, ed. G. J. Watson (London: Penguin, 1995), xxix. 65. Vendler, “Technique in the Earlier Poems of Yeats,” 18–19.

Chapter Two Poems, Paintings, and the Newspaper: Nation and Class in Responsibilities (1914)

1. Walter Benjamin, “The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction” in Illuminations, trans. Harry Zohn, ed. with introduction by Hannah Arendt (New York: Schocken Books, 2007), 234. Notes 215

2. Ibid., 218–19. 3. Nietzsche and Eliot are both cited in John Carey, The Intellectuals and the Masses: Pride and Prejudice Among the Literary Intelligentsia, 1880–1939 (London: Faber, 1992), 7. 4. The term “culture industry,” referring to commodified popular culture and suggesting its analogies with fascism, is first used by Theodor Adorno and Max Horkheimer in their Dialectic of Enlightenment: Philosophical Fragments, ed. Gunzelin Schmid Noer, trans. Edmund Jephcott (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2002). 5. Benjamin, Illuminations, 224. 6. Ibid., 218. 7. Ibid., 234. 8. Ezra Pound, “Editorial Comment: Status Rerum,” Poetry: A Magazine of Verse 1 (1912–13), 123. 9. Ezra Pound, “The Later Yeats,” Poetry: A Magazine of Verse 4 (1914), 65. 10. Ibid., 65, 67. 11. Ibid., 68. 12. Harold Bloom, Yeats (New York, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1970), 171–73. 13. Denis Donoghue, “The Political Turn in Criticism,” Salmagundi 81 (1989): 104–22. 14. The Letters of W. B. Yeats, ed. Allan Wade (London: Rupert Hart- Davis, 1954), 575. 15. The controversy over the Lane paintings preoccupied Dublin for years. Sir Hugh Lane, Lady Gregory’s nephew, was willing to give his collection of French impressionist paintings to the city of Dublin if it would build a gallery over the Liffey to house them. William Martin Murphy and others opposed this, and finally, in September, 1913, the city refused to build the gallery. Lane drowned in the Lusitania: he left the paintings to the London National Gallery in his will, but in a codicil changed his mind again and left the paintings to Dublin. Unfortunately, the codicil was unwitnessed and as a consequence the paintings went to London. While Catholic nationalists in 1913 saw Lane as one of the Anglo- Irish clique associated with Yeats, Gregory, and the Abbey Theatre, the loss of the paintings to England soon became another grievance for them. For a lively account of the Lane controversy, see Lucy McDiarmid, The Irish Art of Controversy (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2005). 16. After meeting the editor W. E. Henley, for example, in 1888, Yeats wrote “Should like him greatly but for the journalists who flock about him. I hate journalists. There is nothing in them but tittering, jeering emptiness. The shallowest people on the ridge of the world!” (The Letters of W. B. Yeats, ed. Allan Wade, 83). For the literary modernists’ hatred of the newspapers, see John Carey, The Intellectuals and the Masses. 216 Notes

17. The Collected Works of W. B. Yeats: Volume III Autobiographies, ed. William H. O’Donnell and Douglas N. Archibald (New York: Scribner, 1999), 186. 18. In his notes for Responsibilities, Yeats described how he had been inspired as a writer by his reading of Irish newspapers: “In the thirty years or so during which I have been reading Irish newspapers, three public controversies have stirred my imagination” (The Variorum Edition of the Poems of W. B. Yeats, ed. Peter Allt and Russell Alspach (New York: Macmillan, 1966), 818]. These were the controversies over Parnell, over The Playboy of the Western World, and over the gallery to house the paintings Hugh Lane was conditionally willing to give to Dublin. 19. W. B. Yeats, Letters to the New Island, ed. Horace Reynolds (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1970), 104, 155. 20. Yeats, Autobiographies, 304. 21. Malcolm Brown, The Politics of Irish Literature: From Thomas Davis to W. B. Yeats (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1972), 354. 22. Yeats, Autobiographies, 365. 23. Foster, W. B. Yeats: A Life I The Apprentice Mage 1865–1915 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), 523–24. 24. Ibid., 496, 620 n. 10. 25. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (London: Verso, 1991), 7. 26. Thomas Davis, The Poems of Thomas Davis, introduction by John Mitchel (New York: Haverty, 1854); Anderson, Imagined Communities, 10. The naming of the dead in Irish nationalism, however, is quite the reverse of the anonymity Anderson describes in the nationalism of the United States and Britain, where there is a common veneration of the tomb of the unknown warrior. But whether in Yeats’s “Easter, 1916,” in which we are told that it is our part to “murmur name upon name” of the dead revolutionaries, or in the annual processions to the graves of the patriot dead, the naming of the dead is surely key to Irish nationalism. 27. The most persuasive critique of Anderson from a specifically Irish and postcolonial perspective is Luke Gibbons’s “Identity Without a Centre: Allegory, History and Irish Nationalism,” in his Transformations in Irish Culture (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1996), to which I am indebted in this chapter. Gibbons points out that the idea of the nation in Ireland long precedes the eighteenth century and the emergence of bourgeois capitalism; of course this does not conform to Anderson’s idea of the nation as inextricably tied to capitalism and the emergence of the middle classes, print, newspapers, and the prevalence of the English language, but rather to an idea of the nation as precapi- talist, and to the conception of a Gaelic culture that had its own laws, language, and literature. Even in eighteenth- century Ireland, this idea of an Irish nation was available in the mainly oral culture associated with the “hidden Ireland.” And when we look at Ireland in the late Notes 217

nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, Anderson’s idea of nationalism best describes the official nationalism that became the ideology of the independent state, and not the multiple strands of an insurgent nationalism that often resisted the increasingly narrow and exclusionary official version of nationalism. See also Brendan Bradshaw, “Nationalism and historical scholarship in modern Ireland,” Irish Historical Studies Vol. XXVI, No. 104, November 1989; Bradshaw argues the nationalist posi- tion, that “national consciousness can be discerned as a recurring cultural phenomenon in Ireland for, perhaps, a millennium before the onset of modernity” (345). 28. Anderson, Imagined Communities, 134; Niall O’Ciosain, “Print and Irish, 1570–1900: An Exception among the Celtic Languages?” Radharc, Vol. 5/7 (2004–2006): 73. 29. Anderson, Imagined Communities, 24, 26. 30. Ibid., 35. 31. David Cairns and Shaun Richards, Writing Ireland: Colonialism, Nationalism and Culture (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1990), 34–35. 32. Adrian Hastings, The Construction of Nationhood: Ethnicity, Religion and Nationalism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977), 94. 33. W. J. McCormack, “Nightmares of History: James Joyce and the Phenomenon of Anglo- Irish Literature,” in James Joyce and Modern Literature, ed. W. J. McCormack and Alastair Stead (London: Routledge, 1982), 99. 34. Cited in Stephen J. Brown, The Press in Ireland: A Survey and Guide (Dublin: Brown and Nolan, 1937), 40. 35. Adrian Pimley, “The Working- Class Movement and the Irish Revolution, 1896–1923,” in The Revolution in Ireland, 1879–1923, ed. D. G. Boyce (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1988), 200–201. 36. See Karen Steele, Women, Press, and Politics during the Irish Revival (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 2007), 22. 37. In a review in the Irish Times of Fainne an Lae agus Athbheochan (1898– 1900) by Caoilfhionn Nic Phaidin (20 November, 1998), Proinsias O’ Drisceoil argues that whereas “newspapers generally develop as a symp- tom of literacy, newspapers in Irish were uniquely intended to create literacy where little or none existed.” He describes the bilingual newspapers Fainne an Lae and An Claidheamh Soluis as failing to establish a readership. 38. O’Ciosain, “Print and Irish, 1570–1900,” 73. 39. James Joyce, Dubliners, with introduction and notes by Terence Brown (London: Penguin Books, 1992), 188. 40. Cited in Brown, The Press in Ireland, 35. 41. R. F. Foster, Modern Ireland 1600–1972 (London: Penguin, 1989), 455; Foster, W. B. Yeats I, 620, n. 4. 42. Foster, W. B. Yeats I, 484. 218 Notes

43. Lady Augusta Gregory, Sir Hugh Lane: His Life and Legacy (Gerrards Cross: Colin Smythe, 1973), 15. 44. Foster, W. B. Yeats I, 497–98. 45. Yeats, Autobiographies, 341. 46. Synge, “The Aran Islands,” cited in Luke Gibbons, Transformations in Irish Culture (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1996), 30. 47. Anderson, Imagined Communities, 81. 48. Benjamin, Illuminations, 255. 49. Foster, W. B. Yeats I, 428. 50. Terence Brown, The Life of W. B. Yeats: A Critical Biography (Oxford: Blackwell, 1999), 193. 51. Foster, W. B. Yeats I, 499. 52. Richard Ellmann, “Yeats and Joyce,” in The Dolmen Press Yeats Centenary Papers MCMLXV, ed. Liam Miller (Dublin: Dolmen, 1968), 468. 53. Joyce, Dubliners, 22, 23, 27. 54. James Joyce, A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man, with introduction and notes by Seamus Deane (London: Penguin Books, 1993), 199. 55. Gibbons, Transformations in Irish Culture, 144. 56. Ibid., 134. 57. W. B. Yeats, Essays and Introductions (New York: Macmillan, 1961), 246. 58. Reprinted in The Field Day Anthology of Irish Writing, v. 2, ed. Seamus Deane (Derry: Field Day Publications, 1991), 294. 59. Yeats, Autobiographies, 51. 60. Ibid., 206. 61. Antoinette Quinn, “Cathleen Ni Houlihan Writes Back,” in Gender and Sexuality in Modern Ireland, ed. Anthony Bradley and Maryann Gialanella Valiulis (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1997), 44. 62. Anderson uses the phrase “eroticized nationalism” (203n) to describe the relation between Huck and Jim in Twain’s Huckleberry Finn, but the phrase is so much more evocative of the aisling tradition in Irish writing, in which the beautiful but distressed young woman encountered in a dream vision by the poet represents Ireland. The Yeats quotation is from his Memoirs, ed. Denis Donoghue (New York: Macmillan, 1972), 247. 63. Terence Brown, Ireland’s Literature: Selected Essays (Mullingar: Lilliput, 1988), 77–90. 64. Gibbons, 145. 65. Cited in Emer Nolan, James Joyce and Nationalism (London: Routledge, 1995), 130. 66. Gary Owens, “Nationalist Monuments in Ireland, c1870–1914: Symbolism and Ritual,” in Ireland: Art into History, ed. Raymond Gillespie and Brian P. Kennedy (Dublin: Town House & Country House, 1994), 113. Notes 219

67. Foster, W. B. Yeats I, 195. 68. Cited in Owens, “Nationalist Monuments in Ireland,” 110. 69. Gibbons, 145. 70. Foster, W. B. Yeats I, 468. 71. Theodor Adorno, Minima Moralia: Reflections from Damaged Life (London: Verso, 1978), 241. 72. W. B. Yeats, A Vision (New York: Macmillan, 1956), 105. 73. George Steiner, In Bluebeard’s Castle: Some Notes towards the Redefinition of Culture (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1971), 20. 74. Cited in Anderson, Imagined Communities, 3–4. Anderson’s emphasis. 75. Wade, Letters, 339. 76. Cited in Foster, W. B. Yeats I, 254. 77. Yeats, Memoirs, 178–79. 78. Denis Donoghue’s acerbic reference to “the greatness commonly ascribed, in Pound as in Yeats, to Renaissance patrons of the arts who happened otherwise to be monsters” is refreshingly clear- sighted (“The Political Turn in Criticism,” 119). 79. Gibbons, 25. 80. William Hazlitt, “On the Jealousy and Spleen of Party,” in The Complete Works of William Hazlitt, v. 12, ed. P. P. Howe (London: J. M. Dent, 1931), 365–66. 81. W. B. Yeats, Uncollected Prose by W. B. Yeats, v. 2, ed. John Frayne and Colton Johnson (New York: Columbia University Press, 1976), 324. 82. John Kelly, “The Fifth Bell: Race and Class in Yeats’s Political Thought,” in Irish Writers and Politics, ed. Okifumi Komesu and Masaru Sekine (Gerrards Cross: Colin Smythe, 1990), 157. 83. The Gonne–Yeats Letters 1893–1938, ed. Anna MacBride White and A. Norman Jeffares (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1994), 302. 84. Anderson, Imagined Communities, 35. 85. Adrian Frazier, Behind the Scenes: Yeats, Horniman, and the Struggle for the Abbey Theatre (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990), 132–33. 86. Ibid., 117. 87. James Pethica, “Patronage and Creative Exchange: Yeats, Lady Gregory and the Economy of Indebtedness,” in Yeats and Women, ed. Deirdre Toomey (London: Macmillan, 1997), 192. 88. Yeats, Uncollected Prose 2, 407. 89. Ibid., 406. 90. Brown, The Politics of Irish Literature, 371. 91. Cited in Bernard G. Krimm, W. B. Yeats and the Emergence of the Irish Free State 1918–1939: Living in the Explosion (Troy, NY: Whitson Publishing Company, 1981), 265n8. 92. Ibid., 65: Krimm cites the comments of several British journalists who thought that Hardy should have been awarded the prize, and that its 220 Notes

award to Yeats was, in the words of one such comment, “Sweden’s way of congratulating Ireland on her new status among nations.” 93. According to Jeffrey Myers’ Joseph Conrad (New York: Scribner, 1991), Conrad told Jean-Aubry in November 1923: “Yeats has had the Nobel Prize. My opinion about that is that it is a literary recognition of the new Irish Free State (that’s what it seems to me), but that does not destroy my chances of getting it in one or two years” (355). Conrad died in 1924. 94. Wade, Letters, 701. 95. Cited in Krimm, W. B. Yeats, 63. 96. See Declan Kiberd’s “The Elephant of Revolutionary Forgetfulness,” in Revising the Rising, ed. Theo Dorgan and Mairin Ni Dhonnchadha (Derry: Field Day, 1991). 97. Anderson, Imagined Communities, 7. 98. Benjamin, Illuminations, 256. 99. Seamus Deane, “Yeats and the Idea of Revolution” in Celtic Revivals: Essays in Modern Irish Literature 1880–1980 (Winston- Salem: Wake Forest University Press, 1987), 38–50.

Chapter Three Anglo-Irish Pastoral, War, and Revolution: The Wild Swans at Coole (1919), Michael Robartes and the Dancer (1921)

1. R. F. Foster, W. B. Yeats: A Life II The Arch- Poet 1915–1939 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), 5. 2. W. B. Yeats, Introduction to The Oxford Book of Modern Verse 1892– 1935 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1937), xxxiv–xxxv. 3. Edward W. Said, Culture and Imperialism (New York: Vintage Books, 1994), 188. 4. Jonathan Bardon and Dermot Keough, “Introduction: Ireland, 1921–84” in A New History of Ireland VII: Ireland, 1921–84, ed. J. R. Hill (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), lv. 5. Foster, W. B. Yeats, 58–59. 6. Letter to Gregory, Dec. 12, 1920, cited Foster, W. B. Yeats, 184. 7. W. B. Yeats, The Collected Works of W. B. Yeats, Volume III Autobiographies, ed. William H. O’Donnell and Douglas N. Archibald (New York: Scribner, 1999), 304, 353. 8. For the complex ways in which the issues named in her title run together in Yeats’s work, see Marjorie Howes’ penetrating analysis in Yeats’s Nations: Gender, Class, and Irishness (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996). In particular, Chapter 4, “In the Bedroom of the Big House: Kindred, Crisis, and Anglo- Irish Nationality,” scrutinizes the implications of Yeats’s association of woman and house. Notes 221

9. John Kelly, “‘Friendship Is All the House I Have’: Lady Gregory and W. B. Yeats” in Lady Gregory: Fifty Years After, ed. Ann Saddlemyer and Colin Smythe (Gerrards Cross, Bucks.: Colin Smythe, 1987), 192. 10. James Pethica, “‘Upon a House Shaken’: The Struggle for Coole Park 1907–1912” in Yeats Annual No. 16, ed. Warwick Gould (Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005), 16. 11. Ibid., 48. 12. Kevin Kenny, “The Irish in the Empire” in Ireland and the British Empire, ed. Kevin Kenny (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004), 104. 13. Pethica, “Upon a House Shaken,” 47. 14. See Ann Saddlemyer, Becoming George: The Life of Mrs W. B. Yeats (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), 289–310. 15. Letter from Pound to John Quinn, cited in B. L. Reid, The Man from New York: John Quinn and His Friends (New York: Oxford University Press, 1968), 419. 16. Cited in H. D. Gribbon, “Economic and Social History, 1850–1921” in A New History of Ireland VI: Ireland Under the Union, II 1870–1921, ed. W. E. Vaughan (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996), 283, 284. 17. Ibid., 331–32. 18. F. S. L. Lyons, “The Aftermath of Parnell, 1891–1903” in A New History of Ireland VI, Ireland Under the Union, II 1870–1921, ed. W. E. Vaughan (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996), 96–97. 19. Kelly, “Friendship Is All the House I Have,” 246–47. 20. Foster, W. B. Yeats, 198. 21. Mary Kinzie, A Poet’s Guide to Poetry (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999), 291. 22. Kelly, “Friendship Is All the House I Have,” 245. 23. Kenny, “The Irish in the Empire” in Ireland and the British Empire, 106. 24. See F. S. L. Lyons, “The Revolution in Train, 1914–16” in A New History of Ireland VI, 189–90. Lyons states that 50,000 Irishmen joined the British Army in just the first six months of the war. 25. Wade, Letters, 647–48. 26. Kelly, “Friendship Is All the House I Have,” 243. 27. F. S. L. Lyons, “The War of Independence, 1919–21” in A New History of Ireland VI, 250. 28. Arthur Power, Conversations with James Joyce, ed. Clive Hart, (NY: Harper and Row, 1974), 35. 29. Elizabeth Butler Cullingford, “Yeats and Women: Michael Robartes and the Dancer” in Yeats and Women, ed. Deirdre Toomey (Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan, 1997), 247–248. Cullingford’s Gender and History in Yeats’s Love Poetry (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993) is the most comprehensive analysis of the gender politics of Yeats’s poetry. 222 Notes

30. W. B. Yeats, Memoirs, ed. Denis Donoghue (New York: Macmillan, 1972), 247. 31. W. B. Yeats, “Introduction,” written 1937 (published in Essays and Introductions, 1961, as “A General Introduction for my Work”) in W. B. Yeats, Collected Works of W. B. Yeats Vol. V Later Essays, ed. William H. O’Donnell (New York: Scribner, 1994), 211. 32. Unpublished letter, December 18, 1916, cited Kelly, “Friendship Is All the House I Have,” 234. 33. Terry Eagleton, “Politics and Sexuality in W. B. Yeats,” The Crane Bag 9:2, 1985, 140. 34. Kelly, “Friendship Is All the House I Have,” 232–33. 35. Ibid., 233. 36. Ibid., 234. 37. Ronald Schuchard argues that Yeats makes such a transfer of emotions by the time of the second edition of The Wild Swans at Coole. See his “Hawk and Butterfly: The Double Vision of The Wild Swans at Coole (1917, 1919)” Yeats Annual No. 10, ed. Warwick Gould (Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan, 1993), 111–134. 38. W. B. Yeats, The Collected Works of W. B. Yeats Vol. II: The Plays, ed. David R. Clark and Rosalind E. Clark (New York: Scribner, 2001), 692. 39. Wade, Letters, 633. 40. Lady Gregory’s version of the narrative was only one of several sources Yeats probably consulted. See the introduction to The Only Jealousy of Emer and Fighting the Waves: Manuscript Materials by W. B. Yeats, ed. Steven Winnett (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2004), xxix. 41. Saddlemyer, Becoming George, 124. 42. George Mills Harper, “The Making of Yeats’s ‘A Vision,’” cited in The Collected Works of W. B. Yeats Vol. II: The Plays, 877. 43. Foster, W. B. Yeats, 115. 44. W. B. Yeats, “Introduction,” 210. 45. Walter Benjamin, “Theses on the Philosophy of History” in Illuminations, ed. Hannah Arendt (New York: Schocken Books, 2007), 257–58. 46. Wade, Letters, 690. 47. Benjamin, Illuminations, 262–63. 48. Nietzsche refers to “the blond beast of prey, the magnificent blond beast avidly prowling round for spoil and victory” and to “some pack of blond beasts of prey, a conqueror and master race” in On the Genealogy of Morality: A Polemic (1887), included in The Nietzsche Reader, ed. Keith Ansell Pearson and Duncan Large (Oxford: Blackwell, 2006), 402, 420. The editors also note that “the original blond beast defeats Judeo- Christian morality” (251). 49. Erich Heller ascribes the phrase “wicked theology” to Yeats in The Importance of Nietzsche: Ten Essays (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988), 131. Notes 223

50. Cited Foster, W. B. Yeats, 657. 51. James Joyce, Ulysses (New York: Modern Library, 1961), 34. 52. T. S. Eliot, “Ulysses, Order, and Myth” (1923) in Selected Prose of T. S. Eliot, ed. Frank Kermode (New York: Harcourt Brace, 1975), 166–75. 53. George Steiner, In Bluebeard’s Castle: Some Notes towards the Redefinition of Culture (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1971). 54. Foster, W. B. Yeats, 291. 55. See Michael Robartes and the Dancer: Manuscript Materials by W. B. Yeats, ed. Thomas Parkinson (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1994), xxiii. 56. Seamus Deane, Strange Country: Modernity and Nationhood in Irish Writing since 1790 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997), 172; in support of his argument, Deane cites Gearoid O’ Tuathaigh’s “Nationalist Ireland 1912–1922: Aspects of Continuity and Change” in Nationalism and Unionism: Conflict in Ireland 1885–1921, ed. Peter Collins (Belfast: Institute of Irish Studies, 1994), 47–73. 57. Alvin Jackson, “Ireland, the Union, and the Empire, 1800–1960” in Ireland and the British Empire, 142. 58. See Tom Nairn, The Break- Up of Britain (London: Verso, 1981). 59. See especially Declan Kiberd, “The Elephant of Revolutionary Forge- tfulness” in Revising the Rising, ed. Mairin Ni Dhonnchadha and Theo Dorgan (Derry: Field Day, 1991), 1–19. 60. Helen Vendler, “The Later Poetry” in The Cambridge Companion to W. B. Yeats (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 82. 61. Letter to Pound, cited Foster, W. B. Yeats, 138. 62. Cited in Foster, W. B. Yeats, plate 4, following page 200. 63. Vendler, “The Later Poetry,” 81; Kinzie, A Poet’s Guide to Poetry, 276. 64. A. Norman Jeffares, “Iseult Gonne” in Yeats Annual No. 16, ed. Warwick Gould (Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005), 198. 65. Wade, Letters, 613. 66. Helen Vendler, “The Later Poetry,” 79; a similar account is given in Our Secret Discipline: Yeats and Lyric Form (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007), 193–194. 67. The Gonne–Yeats Letters 1893–1938, ed. Anna MacBride White and A. Norman Jeffares (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1994), 384. 68. See especially Edna Longley in her “Helicon and Ni Houlihan: Michael Robartes and the Dancer” in Jonathan Allison, ed., Yeats’s Political Identities (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1996), who characterizes Yeats as a proto- revisionist: “He encodes the doubts, the reser- vations, the revisionist questions about the Rising” (210). 69. Wade, Letters, 626, 654. 70. The Gonne–Yeats Letters, 372. 71. The Collected Works of W. B. Yeats Vol. II: The Plays, 692. 72. Ibid., 692. 224 Notes

73. Foster, W. B. Yeats, 165. 74. Charles Townshend, Ireland: The 20th Century (London: Arnold, 1999), 94. 75. Raymond Williams, Drama from Ibsen to Brecht (New York: Oxford University Press, 1969), 120. 76. Lionel Pilkington, Theatre and the State in Twentieth Century Ireland: Cultivating the People (London: Routledge, 2001), 85. 77. Terence J. MacSwiney, The Revolutionist: A Play in Five Acts (Dublin: Maunsel, 1914), 92. 78. Cited in Townshend, Ireland, 96. 79. Jan Mieszkowski, “Art Forms” in The Cambridge Companion to Walter Benjamin, ed. David S. Ferris (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 36.

Chapter Four W. B. Yeats and the Angel of History: The Tower (1928), The Winding Stair and Other Poems (1933)

1. Edward W. Said, Culture and Imperialism (New York: Vintage Books, 1994), 188. The collection of essays Modernism and Colonialism: British and Irish Literature, 1899–1939, ed. Richard Begam and Michael Valdez Moses (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2007) makes the case col- lectively that modernism is not always, as is usually thought, complicit with colonialism. This is particularly true in the case of the Irish modernists, of course. 2. Fredric Jameson, Nationalism, Colonialism and Literature: Modernism and Imperialism (Derry: Field Day, 1988), 20. 3. Seamus Deane, “Heroic Styles: The Tradition of an Idea” in Ireland’s Field Day (London: Hutchinson, 1985), 58. 4. In fact, Joseph Chadwick anticipated some of these connec- tions between Yeats and Benjamin in his thought-provoking essay “Violence in Yeats’s Later Politics and Poetry” in ELH, Vol. 55, no. 4, Winter 1988, 869–93. As his title suggests, Chadwick is concerned with the ways in which Yeats’s late poetry aestheticizes politics, and cites Benjamin in an effort to change how one talks about Yeats’s fascism. Michael Wood’s illuminating Yeats and Violence (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010) places Yeats’s “Nineteen Hundred and Nineteen,” the main focus of his book, in the same field of discourse as Benjamin, Giorgio Agamben, Garcia Lorca, Bertolt Brecht and Alexander Blok. 5. Michael Jennings, “Walter Benjamin and the European Avant- garde” in The Cambridge Companion to Walter Benjamin, ed. David. S. Ferris (New York: Cambridge University Press), 19. Notes 225

6. Hilary Thompson, “Time and Its Countermeasures: Modern Messianisms in Woolf, Benjamin, and Agamben” in Modernism and Theory: A Critical Debate, ed. Stephen Ross (London: Routledge, 2009), 87. Another interesting essay in this interesting collection which suggests that a different kind of critical theory and modernism are mutually illuminating, Susan Stanford Friedman’s “Theory,” argues that “the twenty- first century is producing new kinds of theory, with a ‘thematic focus on matters of ethnicity, transculturation, globalization’ ” 240. (Friedman is quoting J. Lezra’s paper, “Theory Today,” 2006.) 7. Terry Eagleton, The Ideology of the Aesthetic (Oxford: Blackwell, 1990), 333. 8. Cited in David S. Ferris, The Cambridge Introduction to Walter Benjamin (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 130–31. 9. Walter Benjamin, “The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction” in Illuminations, ed. Hannah Arendt (New York: Schocken Books, 2007), 242. 10. James Joyce, Ulysses (New York: Modern Library, 1961), 24. 11. David Dwan, The Great Community: Culture and Nationalism in Ireland (Dublin: Field Day, 2008), 1. 12. Benjamin, “Theses on the Philosophy of History” in Illuminations, 263. 13. Walter Benjamin, The Origin of German Tragic Drama translated by John Osborne (London: NLB, 1977), 162. 14. Walter Benjamin, “Literary History and the Study of Literature” in Selected Writings Volume 2 1927–1934, trans. Rodney Livingstone and Others, ed. Michael W. Jennings, Howard Eiland, and Gary Smith (Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 1999), 464. 15. Dwan, The Great Community, 136. 16. Neil Lazarus, Resistance in Postcolonial African Fiction (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1990), ix. 17. R. F. Foster, W. B. Yeats: A Life II: The Arch- Poet 1915–1939 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), 258. 18. Seamus Heaney, “Yeats’s Nobility” in Four Quarters, Vol. 3, no. 2 (Fall 1989): 12. 19. Friedrich Nietzsche, The Will to Power, trans. Walter Kaufman and R. J. Hollingdale, ed. Walter Kaufman (New York: Vintage, 1968), 18. 20. W. B. Yeats, “Ireland, 1921–1931” in The Collected Works of W. B. Yeats Volume X: Later Articles and Reviews, ed. Colton Johnson (New York: Scribner, 2000), 232–33. 21. W. B. Yeats, Letter to Robert Bridges, Jan. 4, 1923, in The Letters of W. B. Yeats, ed. Allan Wade (London: Rupert Hart- Davis, 1954), 696. 22. William M. Murphy, Prodigal Father: The Life of John Butler Yeats (1839–1922) (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1978), 633, n. 213. 23. T. S. Eliot, “Yeats” in Selected Prose, ed. John Hayward (London: Penguin, 1953), 203–204. 226 Notes

24. W. B. Yeats, Letters to Gregory February 24, 1928, and to Olivia Shakespear February 23, 1928, in Wade, Letters, 738, 737. 25. Foster, W. B. Yeats, 346. 26. M. L. Rosenthal and Sally M. Gall, The Modern Poetic Sequence: The Genius of Modern Poetry (New York: Oxford University Press, 1983), vii. 27. Ibid., 48–49. 28. Scholem is cited in Anson Rabinbach, “Introduction to Walter Benjamin’s ‘Doctrine of the Similar’ ” in New German Critique, 17, Special Walter Benjamin Issue (Spring, 1979), 62. 29. Benjamin, Origin, 34. 30. Eagleton, Ideology, 326. 31. Walter Benjamin, “Theses on the Philosophy of History” in Illuminations, 263. 32. Ibid., 255. 33. Ibid., 256. 34. Ibid., 255. 35. Ibid., 257. 36. Walter Benjamin, “Agesilaus Santander (First Version)” in Selected Writings Volume 2, 712–713. 37. George Steiner, In Bluebeard’s Castle: Some Notes towards the Redefinition of Culture (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1971), 19. 38. Ibid., 5. 39. Nicolas Allen, “Yeats, Spengler and A Vision after Empire,” in Modernism and Colonialism: British and Irish literature, 1899–1939, ed. Richard Begam and Michael Valdez Moses (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2007), 222. See also “W. B. Yeats and A Vision after empire” in Allen’s Modernism, Ireland and Civil War (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 66–80. 40. Allen, “Yeats,” 210. 41. Heaney, “Nobility,” 12. 42. Benjamin, “Theses on the Philosophy of History” in Illuminations, 255. 43. Dwan, The Great Community, 135. 44. Benjamin, “Theses on the Philosophy of History” in Illuminations, 256. 45. Rosenthal and Gall, The Modern Poetic Sequence, 101. 46. Mary Kinzie, A Poet’s Guide to Poetry (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999), 172. 47. Declan Kiberd, Inventing Ireland: The Literature of the Modern Nation (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995), 315. (Kiberd also suggests that “Leda and the Swan” is rooted in the Irish civil war, in that it reflects a sense of betrayal on Yeats’s part at what he felt was the premature withdrawal of British forces from Ireland.) Notes 227

48. Michael Hopkinson, “Civil War and Aftermath, 1922–4” in A New History of Ireland VII: Ireland, 1921–84, ed. J. R. Hill, 52–53. 49. Foster, W. B. Yeats, 243. 50. Eagleton, Ideology, 316. 51. George Watson, “Yeats’s View of History: The Contemplation of Ruin” in The Maynooth Review 2, 12, 1978, 30. A revised version of this essay is included in Chapter 3 of Watson’s Irish Identity and the Literary Revival: Synge, Yeats, Joyce and O’Casey (London: Croom Helm, 1979). 52. Benjamin, “Theses on the Philosophy of History,” in Illuminations, 262; Benjamin uses the violent language of blasting open the continuum of history repeatedly, but usually without the sexual connotations of this passage. 53. Benjamin, “Theses on the Philosophy of History,” in Illuminations, 257. 54. See Michael Farrell, Emergency Legislation: The Apparatus of Repression (Derry: Field Day, 1986) and Eanna Mulloy, Emergency Legislation: Dynasties of Coercion (Derry: Field Day, 1986). 55. W. B. Yeats, “The Child and the State” in Collected Works X, 193. 56. Ibid., 195–96. 57. See such books as Utilitarianism and Beyond, ed. Amarta Sen and Bernard Williams (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982) for more complex accounts of this distinction. 58. W. B. Yeats: Memoirs, ed. Denis Donoghue (New York: Macmillan, 1972), 124. 59. Yeats, “The Child and the State,” 195. 60. The Senate Speeches of W. B. Yeats, ed. Donald R. Pearce (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1960), 97–98. 61. The Winding Stair (1929): Manuscript Materials by W. B. Yeats, ed. David R. Clark (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1995), xxiii. The 1929 edition of The Winding Stair contained six poems; Words for Music Perhaps and Other Poems and “Crazy Jane Talks with the Bishop” were later added to form the 1933 edition (xix). 62. Anne Fogarty, “Yeats, Ireland and Modernism” in The Cambridge Companion to Modernist Poetry, ed. Alex Davis and Lee M. Jenkins (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 142–143. Fogarty makes an eloquent and convincing case for Yeats as a modernist in the context of modernisms (not just Anglo-American high modernism) that would include Ireland and Scotland, as well as European and American literary movements. 63. See especially Chapter 5, “Desiring Women: Feminine Sexuality and Irish Nationality in ‘A Woman Young and Old’ ” in Marjorie Howes, Yeats’s Nations: Gender, Class, and Irishness (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 131–59. 64. Terence Brown, Ireland: A Social and Cultural History 1922–1979 (Glasgow: Fontana, 1981), 110. 228 Notes

65. Hopkinson, “Civil War and Aftermath, 1922–4,” 50. 66. Foster, W. B. Yeats, 214. 67. Eunan O’Halpin, “Politics and the State, 1922–32” in A New History of Ireland VII: Ireland, 1921–84, ed. J. R. Hill, 121. 68. Charles Townshend, Ireland: The 20th Century (London: Arnold, 1999), 116. 69. Ibid., 116. 70. W. B. Yeats, “Ireland, 1921–1931,” 231. 71. Conor Cruise O’Brien, Passion and Cunning: Essays on Nationalism, Terrorism and Revolution (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1988), 34. 72. Mulloy, 13. 73. Clark, The Winding Stair, xxii. 74. Foster, W. B. Yeats, 345. 75. Donald Davie, “A Fascist Poem: Yeats’s ‘Blood and the Moon’ ” in Donald Davie, Modernist Essays: Yeats, Pound, Eliot, ed. Clive Wilmer (Manchester: Carcanet, 2004), 176. 76. Walter Benjamin, “Critique of Violence” in Walter Benjamin, Reflections: Essays, Aphorisms, Autobiographical Writings, ed. Peter Demetz (New York: Schocken Books, 1986), 296. 77. Ibid., 297, 296. 78. Ibid., 297. 79. Ibid., 297. 80. Letters on Poetry from W. B. Yeats to Dorothy Wellesley (London: Oxford University Press, 1940), 68. 81. Foster, W. B. Yeats, 372. 82. Ibid., 376. 83. Senate Speeches, 99. 84. Ibid., 100. 85. Rob Doggett, Deep-Rooted Things: Empire and Nation in the Poetry and Drama of William Butler Yeats (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 2006), 97. 86. Homi Bhabha, The Location of Culture (London: Routledge, 2004), 209. 87. Gillian McIntosh, “Acts of ‘National Communion’: The Centenary Celebrations for Catholic Emancipation, the Forerunner of the Eucharistic Congress” in Ireland in the 1930s: New Perspectives, ed. Joost Augusteijn (Dublin: Four Courts, 1999), 86, 83. 88. Lionel Pilkington, Theatre and the State in Twentieth Century Ireland: Cultivating the People (London: Routledge, 2001), 117. 89. John Whyte, Church & State in Modern Ireland 1923–1979 (Dublin: Gill and Macmillan, 1984), 47. 90. The Variorum Edition of the Poems of W. B. Yeats, ed. Peter Allt and Russell K. Alspach (New York: Macmillan, 1987), 831. 91. Colin Meir, The Ballads and Songs of W. B. Yeats (New York: Harper and Row, 1974), 73–74. Notes 229

92. W. B. Yeats, The Collected Works of W. B. Yeats Volume II: The Plays (New York: Scribner, 2001), 840–41. 93. Variorum Poems, 830. 94. Whyte, Church & State in Modern Ireland 1923–1979, 49. 95. R. V. Comerford, Inventing the Nation: Ireland (London: Arnold, 2003), 195. 96. Daniel Albright, W. B. Yeats: The Poems (London: Dent, 1990), 744. 97. Cited Foster, W. B. Yeats, 320. 98. Letter from Gonne to Yeats July 26, 1908, in The Gonne–Yeats Letters 1893–1938, ed. Anna MacBride White and A. Norman Jeffares (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1994), 257.

Chapter Five Modernism, Fascism, and Irish Nationalism: New Poems (1938), Last Poems (1939)

1. Last Poems: Manuscript Materials by W. B. Yeats, ed. James Pethica (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1997), xxvi. 2. New Poems: Manuscript Materials by W. B. Yeats, ed. J. C. C. Mays and Stephen Parrish (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2000), xxix. 3. Walter Benjamin, “The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction” in Illuminations, ed. Hannah Arendt (New York: Schocken Books, 2007), 242. 4. Terry Eagleton, The Ideology of the Aesthetic (Oxford: Blackwell, 1990), 338. 5. Walter Benjamin, “Theses on the Philosophy of History” in Illuminations, 264. 6. The terms of the dispute as to whether or not Yeats was fascist are set forth incisively in Conor Cruise O’Brien’s “Passion and Cunning: An Essay on the Politics of W. B. Yeats” (1965), on the one hand, and Elizabeth Cullingford’s Yeats, Ireland and Fascism (1981), on the other. 7. Lucy McDiarmid detects a similarity of tone between the belligerent rhetoric of some of Yeats’s late poems and that of the dictators Mussolini and Hitler; see her Saving Civilization: Yeats, Eliot and Auden between the Wars (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), 68. 8. W. B. Yeats, “Per Amica Silentia Lunae”(1917) reprinted in Collected Works of W.B.Yeats, Vol. V: Later Essays ed. William H. O’Donnell (New York: Scribner, 1994), 8. 9. John Carey, Intellectuals and the Masses: Pride and Prejudice among the Literary Intelligentsia, 1880–1939 (London: Faber and Faber, 1992), 3–22. Carey points out that the leftist Frankfurt group, with the exception of Benjamin, shared the conservative modernists’ opinion of mass culture (43). 230 Notes

10. Fredric Jameson, The Political Unconscious: Narrative as a Socially Symbolic Act (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1981), 298. 11. W. B. Yeats, On the Boiler (Dublin: Cuala Press, 1938), 19. 12. Benjamin cites Marinetti’s repeated assertions that war is beautiful in “The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction” in Illuminations, 241–42. 13. On the Boiler, 20. 14. Ibid., 19. 15. Ibid., 30. 16. Ibid., 12. 17. Walter Benjamin, “Critique of Violence” in Reflections: Essays, Aphorisms, Autobiographical Writings, trans. Edmund Jephcott, ed. Peter Demetz (New York: Schocken Books, 2007), 295. 18. On the Boiler, 7. 19. The Collected Works of W. B. Yeats Vol. III Autobiographies, ed. William H. O’Donnell and Douglas N. Archibald (New York: Scribner, 1999), 73. 20. W. B. Yeats, “The Wicked Hawthorn Tree” in Broadsides. A Collection of Old and New Songs 1935 (Dublin: Cuala Press, 1935). 21. Marjorie Howes, Yeats’s Nations: Gender, Class, and Irishness (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 185. 22. See R. F. Foster, W. B. Yeats: A Life II The Arch- Poet 1915–1939 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003): “the label of para-fascism seems most appropriate” (472). Mike Cronin “The Blueshirt Movement, 1932–5: Ireland’s Fascists?” in the Journal of Contemporary History, Vol. 30 (1995), says “The Blueshirts clearly deserve the label of potential para- fascists” (330). Fearghal McGarry, “General O’Duffy, the National Corporate Party and the Irish Brigade” in Ireland in the 1930s: New Perspectives, ed. Joost Augusteijn (Dublin: Four Courts Press, 1999), describes the Blueshirts as “semi- fascist” (117). Cronin lists Yeats, Alfred O’Rahilly, Desmond Fitzgerald, Francis Stuart, Walter Starkie, T. F. O’Higgins, Ernest Blythe, and others as belonging to this grouping of artists and intellectuals who supported the Blueshirts (313–14). 23. Letter to Olivia Shakespeare, July 13, 1933, in Wade, Letters, 812. 24. Foster, W. B. Yeats, 575. 25. Ibid., 755n7. 26. Ibid., 519. 27. Wade, Letters, 871. 28. The phrase is attributed to Yeats in an essay on Yeats and Nietzsche by Erich Heller, in his The Importance of Nietzsche: Ten Essays (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988), 131. 29. Brian Girvin, “The Republicanization of Irish Society, 1932–48” in A New History of Ireland VII Ireland, 1921–84, ed. J. R. Hill (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), 141. 30. Michael Farrell, Emergency Legislation: The Apparatus of Repression (Derry: Field Day, 1986), 10. Notes 231

31. Theodor W. Adorno, “Cultural Criticism and Society” in Prisms, trans. Samuel and Shierry Weber (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1981), 34. 32. W. J. Maloney’s The Forged Casement Diaries was published in Dublin, by Talbot Press, in 1936. 33. Yeats had sent a personal telegram to the British Prime Minister Asquith urging clemency for Casement in 1916 (see Foster, W. B. Yeats, 52). 34. Girvin, “Republicanization of Irish Society,” 146. 35. In the years leading up to the war and for its early years there was con- siderable pro-German sentiment in the Free State: de Valera said “the people were pro- German . . .” Cited in Girvin, “Republicanization of Irish Society,” 151. 36. Wade, Letters, 881. 37. Yeats’s letter to Sir William Rothenstein of December, 1938, refers to the statue of Cuchulain as “bad.” Cited in Scattering Branches: Tributes to the Memory of W. B. Yeats, ed. Stephen Gwynn (New York: Macmillan, 1940), 53. 38. Helen Vendler, Our Secret Discipline: Yeats and Lyric Form (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press), 271–72. 39. Frank O’Connor gave Yeats his translation of the early eighteenth-century Gaelic song “Kilcash” lamenting the fall of a Gaelic big house in the aftermath of the Cromwellian conquest and dispossession. Foster, 575. 40. Aidan Clarke, “The Colonisation of Ulster and the rebellion of 1641 (1603–60)” in The Course of Irish History, ed. T. W. Moody and F. X. Martin (Cork: Mercier Press, 1967), 189. 41. A. Norman Jeffares, A New Commentary on the Poems of W. B. Yeats (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1984), 383. 42. Letter to Dorothy Wellesley, January 8, 1937 in Letters on Poetry from W. B. Yeats to Dorothy Wellesley, introduction by Kathleen Raine (New York: Oxford University Press, 1940), 131. 43. David Lloyd, Anomalous States: Irish Writing and the Postcolonial Moment (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1993), 69. 44. The Oxford Book of Modern Verse, ed. W. B. Yeats (New York: Oxford University Press, 1937), xi. 45. Walter Benjamin, “The Paris of the Second Empire in Baudelaire” in Selected Writings Volume 4 1938–1940, trans. Edmund Jephcott et al., ed. Howard Eiland and Michael W. Jennings (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003), 48, 8. 46. Wade, Letters, 922. 47. Maud Gonne, “Yeats and Ireland” in Scattering Branches: Tributes to W. B. Yeats, ed. Stephen Gwynn (New York: Macmillan, 1940), 27. 48. Stephen Gwynn, Irish Literature and Drama in the English Language: A Short History (London: Nelson, 1936), 158–59. 49. Autobiographies, 74. 50. Seamus Heaney, “Joy or Night: Last Things in the Poetry of W. B. Yeats and Philip Larkin” in The Redress of Poetry (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1995), 162. 232 Notes

51. Wade, Letters, 63: Yeats characterizes his early verse as too much “the cry of the heart against necessity” and hopes in the future to write “poetry of insight and knowledge.” 52. Jeffares, A New Commentary, 409. 53. Foster, W. B. Yeats, 648. 54. W. B. Yeats, The Celtic Twilight introduction Kathleen Raine (Gerrards Cross: Colin Smythe, 1981), 128. 55. Cited in Yeats: Last Poems, ed. Jon Stallworthy (London: Macmillan, 1968), 199. 56. Brian Girvin writes “Perhaps the most serious challenge to neutrality came when Churchill offered [DeValera] an arrangement on Northern Ireland if the south joined in the war effort.” Girvin, “Republicanization of Irish Society,” 152. There may have been some degree of uncertainty both about the seriousness and the trustworthiness of Churchill’s pro- posal, yet it seems to have been serious enough to have caused consterna- tion in the North. 57. Letter from Yeats to Maud Gonne, June 16, 1938, in The Gonne–Yeats Letters 1893–1938, ed. Anna MacBride White and A. Norman Jeffares (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1994), 451. 58. Ibid., 437. 59. Maud Gonne, “Yeats and Ireland,” 23, 25. 60. Terence Brown, The Life of W. B. Yeats: A Critical Biography (Oxford: Blackwell, 1999), 92.

Chapter Six Taking Its Place among the Nations: Ireland and Irish Poetry after Yeats

1. R. F. Foster, W. B. Yeats: A Life II The Arch-Poet 1915–1939 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), 213. 2. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (London: Verso, 1991). 3. Homi K. Bhabha, The Location of Culture (London: Routledge, 2004). See especially Chapter 8, “DissemiNation: Time, Narrative and the Margins of the Modern Nation” 199–204. An earlier form of this chapter was published in Nation and Narration, ed. Bhabha (London: Routledge, 1990). 4. Ibid., 201. 5. Colin Graham, Deconstructing Ireland: Identity, Theory, Culture (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2001), 93. 6. See Terence Brown, The Whole Protestant Community: The Making of a Historical Myth (Derry: Field Day, 1985), and Marianne Elliot, Watchmen in Sion: The Protestant Idea of Liberty (Derry: Field Day, Notes 233

1985). The poet Tom Paulin’s work often invokes (in, for example, Liberty Tree) the eighteenth-century Presbyterian radicals of the north. 7. John Whyte, Interpreting Northern Ireland (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990), 178. 8. Brown, Whole Protestant Community, 20. 9. Neil Corcoran writes that Heaney identifies the Master as Milosz in an interview; see his “Heaney and Yeats” in The Cambridge Companion to Seamus Heaney, ed. Bernard O’Donoghue (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 167. 10. Seamus Heaney, Preoccupations: Selected Prose 1968–1978 (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1980), 137. 11. Seamus Heaney, “The Placeless Heaven: Another Look at Kavanagh” in The Government of the Tongue: Selected Prose 1978–1987 (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1989), 9–10. 12. Bhabha, Location of Culture, 205. 13. These poets are included in such dual language anthologies as The Bright Wave/An Tonn Gheal: Poetry in Irish Now, ed. Dermot Bolger (Dublin: Raven Arts Press, 1986), and The Flowering Tree/An Crann Faoi Blath: Contemporary Irish Poetry in Verse Translations, ed. Declan Kiberd and Gabriel Fitzmaurice (Dublin: Wolfhound, 1991). 14. W. B. Yeats, “The Irish Literary Theatre” in Uncollected Prose by W. B. Yeats, 2: Reviews, Articles and other Miscellaneous Prose1 1897–1939, collected and edited by John P. Frayne and Colton Johnson (New York: Columbia University Press, 1976), 140. The essay originally appeared in the Dublin Daily Express. 15. Edna Longley is cited in Marilynn J. Richtarik, Acting Between the Lines: The Field Day Theatre Company and Irish Cultural Politics 1980–1984 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994), 252. 16. Such playwrights as Stewart Parker, Graham Reid, and Martin Lynch are among the best-known writers of working class drama in Northern Ireland. 17. Ireland’s Field Day: Field Day Theatre Company (London: Hutchinson, 1985), viii. 18. The Field Day Anthology of Irish Writing Vols. IV and V, Women’s Writing and Traditions, ed. Angela Bourke et al. (New York: New York University Press, 2002). 19. Seamus Heaney, Introduction to “William Butler Yeats (1865–1939)” in The Field Day Anthology of Irish Writing, Vol. II (Derry: Field Day, 1991), 783. 20. Seamus Heaney, “Crediting Poetry: The Nobel Lecture, 1995” in Opened Ground: Selected Poems 1966–1996 (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1998), 428. 21. Terence Brown, The Life of W. B. Yeats: A Critical Biography (Oxford: Blackwell, 1999), 381. 22. Foster, W. B. Yeats, 187. 234 Notes

23. Ibid., 188. 24. Seamus Heaney, “Extending the Alphabet: On Christopher Marlowe’s ‘Hero and Leander’ ” in The Redress of Poetry (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1995), 22. 25. Ibid., 22. 26. Jon Stallworthy “The Poet as Archeologist: W. B. Yeats and Seamus Heaney” in The Review of English Studies 1982, XXXIII, 159. 27. Heaney, Redress, 150. 28. Paul Muldoon, To Ireland, I: The Clarendon Lectures in English Literature 1998 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), 8. Works Cited

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Abbey Theatre/Irish national 224n4, 225n6, 227n52, theater, 2, 12, 27–28, 42, 56, 229n9, 230n12 66, 67, 172, 200, 203, “Critique of Violence,” 123, 133, 215n15 135, 159 Adorno, Gretel, 100 “Theses on the Philosophy of Adorno, Theodor, 18, 29, 53, 168, History,” 97, 153, 227n52 215n4, 231n31 Berkeley, George, 102–3, 105, 127, aisling, 9, 12, 122, 196, 204, 130, 136–37 211n18, 218n62 Bhabha, Homi, 12, 17, 141, 176, Allen, Nicholas, 114, 226n39 189–91, 198, 202 Anderson, Benedict, 16, 36–41, 44, see also nationalism, theories of 47–48, 56, 59–60, 108, 176, Blake, William, 1, 6, 75, 80, 207 190, 211n21, 216n26, Bloom, Harold, 33, 209n4 217n27, 218n62 Blueshirts, 99, 142, 155, 161–62, see also nationalism, theories of 230n22 Angel of History/Angelus Novus, Bornstein, George, 212n25 30, 81, 97, 111 Bradshaw, Brendan, 217n27 Anglo-Irish, 2, 6–8, 10, 13, 17, Brecht, Bertolt, 113, 224n4 24, 35, 52, 54, 61, 66–74, Bridges, Robert, 106 87–90, 96, 98, 101–3, Brown, Malcolm, 34, 58 105–6, 115, 117–19, Brown, Terence, 50, 130, 187, 193, 130–34, 136–37, 140–41, 204, 232n6 160, 164–65, 175–77, 185, Burke, Edmund, 103, 117, 127, 203, 215n15 136–37 see also Ascendancy Artisson, Robert, 116 Carey, John, 29, 215n3, 215n16, Ascendancy, 10, 55, 60, 63, 66, 72, 229n9 105, 117, 134, 147, 160, 165 Casement, Roger, 169–70, 174, 176, see also Anglo-Irish 231n33 Catholic Emancipation, 141–42 ballad, 9–10, 12–13, 16, 21, 23–24, Catholicism, 6, 7, 10–11, 17–19, 39, 31, 38, 47, 50, 90–92, 144, 41–44, 54, 72, 89–90, 92, 152, 159, 165, 167, 169, 171, 96, 99, 105, 107, 119, 125, 174, 178, 181, 184 127–29, 136, 139–40, Benjamin, Walter, 27–30, 37–38, 141–44, 146–48, 152, 154, 44, 50, 60, 81, 96–97, 160–66, 176–77, 190–92, 99–103, 109–11, 113, 194, 197, 200, 207, 215n15 115–16, 118, 122–23, 133, Chadwick, Joseph, 224n4 135–37, 149, 152–54, 157, Churchill, Winston, 186, 232n56 159, 168, 180, 214n54, Clarke, Austin, 191, 196 248 Index

Clarke, Thomas, 43 Connolly, James, 10, 30, 40, 54–55, class, 5–6, 8, 10–11, 13–14, 17, 27, 91–92, 171, 173 33, 37, 39, 40, 42–44, 53–55, Conrad, Joseph, 58, 112, 220n93 58, 60–61, 63, 66, 69–70, constellations, 102, 108, 110, 114, 72–74, 76, 87–91, 95–96, 98, 117, 138, 144 106, 115, 119, 130, 141, and Benjamin, 100, 102, 109–10 156–57, 160, 165, 175, see also modernist poetic 190–91, 195, 197, 201, 204, sequence 216n27, 219n82, 220n8 Cromwell, Oliver, 160, 174–75, aristocracy, 31, 35, 48, 52, 231n39 54–55, 60, 65, 67, 75, 77, 79, Cuchulain, 12, 18, 21, 44, 79–80, 83, 86, 87, 96, 103, 117–18, 158, 172–74, 185, 231n37 160, 173, 175–76 Cullingford, Elizabeth, 75, 221n29, landlords, 6, 66–67, 70, 229n6 73–74, 76, 88, 98, 131, culture, 3, 9, 24, 29, 42, 52, 61–62, 134, 165 85, 192, 198–99, 203 middle class/bourgeoisie, 10–11, ancient/Gaelic, 6–8, 13, 19, 24, 14, 37, 39, 40, 42, 44, 46, 47, 61, 85, 119, 138, 176, 50, 53–54, 58, 60–61, 63, 182, 190, 216n27 81, 89, 90–91, 95–96, 98, and Benjamin, 28–29, 60, 101 105, 119, 136, 141, 152, 163, and diversity, 191, 199, 201–2 165, 168, 175, 180, 204, elitist/aristocratic, 2, 8, 29, 42, 216n27 101, 118, 131, 162, 176 peasantry, 10, 12, 14, 17, 24, English, 8, 24, 75, 197 35, 49, 67, 74, 76, 98, 119, European/modernist, 3, 65, 144, 175–76, 179, 197–99, 68–69, 83, 96–98, 101, 211n17 112–13, 115–16, 168 working class, 10, 28, 40–41, popular/ mass, 29, 34, 38, 42, 53, 54, 57–58, 60–61, 87, 129, 61, 142, 154, 215n 4, 229n9 200–1, 217n35, 233n16 and women, 21, 75, 85, 87, 202 colonialism and postcolonialism, see also landscape 1–3, 13, 17, 24, 31, 33, 50, Cumann na mBan, 87 52, 59, 64–65, 67–68, 73, Cumann na nGaedheal, 161, 163 84–85, 93, 95, 97–99, 103–4, 115, 124, 132, 134, Dante (Dante Alighieri), 80, 136, 142, 149–50, 158, 163, 120–21, 158 165,191, 193, 198–99, Davis, Thomas, 1, 6–7, 30, 35–36, 200–2, 205–6, 209n3 38, 52, 216n26 see also imperialism Deane, Seamus, 33, 61, 83, 98, 202, community, 2, 5, 10, 12, 17, 27, 31, 223n56 47, 55, 59–60, 101, 154, 160, de Valera, Eamon, 133, 142–43, 184–85, 187, 214 155, 157, 161–64, 169–70, and Benjamin, 38 186, 198, 231n35, 232n56 and newspapers, 30, 36–37, 39, Despard, Charlotte, 18, 88 42, 47 Dickinson, Emily, 108–9 and Protestant, 194 Dickinson, Mabel, 45–46 Index 249 dinnshenchas, 9, 185, 199, 211n18 Gentile, Giovanni, 125 Doggett, Rob, 141 Gibbons, Luke, 47, 50, 55, 216n27 Donoghue, Denis, 33, 219n78 Gonne, Maud, 5, 10,15, 18–21, 41, Dwan, David, 101, 103, 117 46, 49–50, 53, 56, 71, 75–78, 80, 85–92, 124, 126, Eagleton, Terry, 1, 76, 100, 110, 122, 146, 148, 177, 179, 182, 187, 152 213n45 Easter Rising (1916), 16, 24, 36, 40, Gore-Booth, Eva, 18, 25, 41, 52, 59, 65, 77, 81, 84–85, 87, 129–30 89, 91, 93, 95, 98, 133, 141, Gosse, Edmund, 58 169, 171–73, 182, 184–86, Goya, Francisco de, 112–13, 115, 196, 205 121 Eucharistic Congress (1932), 142–44, Graham, Colin, 191 162–63 Gregory, Lady Augusta, 12–13, 28, eugenics, 141, 152, 154, 156–57, 160 34, 39, 42, 45, 49, 54, 56–57, 59, 65–77, 79–80, 86, 88–89, Fanon, Franz, 141 92, 107, 115, 118–19, 122, fascism, 99, 113, 134, 149, 151–57, 129, 131–32, 166, 176–77, 160–62, 215n4, 224n4, 182, 199, 211n18, 215n15, 229n6, 230n22 222n40 and Benjamin, 29–30, 100, 110, Gregory, Major Robert, 65, 70, 123, 152 72–74, 115 Fianna, 87, 185–86 Griffith, Arthur, 10, 40, 56, 161, Fianna Fail, 95, 143,163, 169 176 Field Day, 97, 199–202 Gwynn, Stephen, 59, 92, 182 First World War, 11, 27, 52, 63–66, 69, 81, 84, 92, 112, 117, Hardy, Thomas, 58, 219n92 135–36, 157, 167, 186 Heaney, Seamus, 105, 112, 183, Fogarty, Anne, 129, 227n62 194–95, 197, 199–200, Foster, R. F., 35, 42, 45, 52, 71, 203–6, 233n9 105, 108, 131, 162, 185, 203, Herbert, George, 181–82 209n3, 213n45, 220n6, Howe, Stephen, 209n3 223n62, 230n22, 231n33, Howes, Marjorie, 129, 160, 220n8 231n39 Hyde, Douglas, 8–11, 16, 24, 34, Frazer, James, 138 41, 131, 210n2 Frazier, Adrian, 56 Friedman, Susan Stanford, 225n6 idealism, 14–15, 19, 45, 88, 119, 124, 136–38, 158, 184, 187 Gaelic, 1–2, 6–10, 12–13, 15, immram, 9, 107, 211n18 24–25, 35, 71, 95, 107, imperialism, 10, 16, 18, 41, 50, 144–45, 162, 166, 174–75, 59–60, 64, 72, 84, 97–99, 185, 190, 198–200, 204–6, 149, 154, 196, 200, 206, 210n2, 211n15, 211n18, 209n3, 224n2 216n27, 231n39 see also colonialism gender, 39, 56, 129, 147, 190, 195, Inghinidhe na hEireann, 10 200, 221n29, 227n63 Innes, Lyn, 7, 18, 209n3 250 Index

IRA (Irish Republican Army), MacBride, Sean, 106, 134 70–71, 84, 190, 193, 205 MacCana, Proinsias, 209n6, Irish Civil War (1922–23), 2, 65, 211n18 70, 84, 98, 105, 110–11, MacDonagh, Thomas, 24, 42, 117–23, 131, 133, 137, 91–92, 95, 196 142–43, 164–65, 190, 204, MacSwiney, Mary, 106 214n54, 228n47 MacSwiney, Terence, 16, 89, 93–96, Irish Free State, 5, 39, 58, 64, 70, 122, 207 98–99, 104–7, 119, 122, Mahon, Derek, 194 124–5, 127, 129–30, Mannin, Ethel, 162 133–34, 142, 144–46, 148, Markievicz, Countess Constance 152, 155, 161–64, 166, 169, (nee Gore-Booth), 10, 25, 41, 187, 189, 196–98, 219n91, 87–90, 129–31 231n35 materialism, 12, 14, 17, 38, 43–44, see also state 49, 53, 61–62, 102, 206 Irish War of Independence (1919–21), McDiarmid, Lucy, 215n5, 229n7 16, 74, 84, 89, 92, 111–12, Milosz, Czeslaw, 195, 233n9 115, 196, 204–5 modernism and Benjamin, 81, 99–101, 149, Jameson, Fredric, 97, 154, 212n27 152 Jeffares, A. Norman, 9 and Ireland, 63–64, 97, 98 Joyce, James, 3, 5, 13–14, 28–30, and poetic sequence, 108–9 41, 46–47, 50–51, 63–64, and Yeats, 2–3, 31–32, 61, 74–75, 81–83, 97–99, 101, 63–65, 68, 72, 82, 84, 99, 104, 149, 154, 195, 198, 103–4, 114–15, 150, 154, 202–3, 212n27 164–65, 167–69, 173, 224n1, 227n62 Kavanagh, Patrick, 197–99, 203–4 Moore, George, 48, 57, 131 Kelly, John, 55, 63, 72, 76, 203 Morrell, Lady Ottoline, 118 Kiberd, Declan, 121, 209n3, Muldoon, Paul, 182, 195, 200, 220n96, 226n47 204–7 Kinsella, Thomas, 196, 199, 204 myth, 10, 13, 15, 18–19, 25, 32, 53, Kinzie, Mary, 23, 71, 120 71, 79, 83, 88, 109, 116, Krimm, Bernard, 219n91 121–23, 126, 135–37, 143, 153, 157–59, 164, 172–75, landscape, 10, 12, 18–19, 43, 69, 179–80, 184–85, 187, 207 71, 93, 104, 116, 119, 132, 159, 166–67, 172, 181, nationalism 184–85, 197–99, 207 and class, 5–6, 8, 10–11, 13–14, Lane, Sir Hugh, 28, 32–33, 42, 17, 27, 33, 35, 37, 39, 51–52, 56–58, 60, 105, 131, 40–44, 46–47, 50, 53–55, 215n15, 216n18 58, 60–61, 63, 66, 76, 87, Lloyd, David, 11, 176 89–91, 96, 106, 141, 160, Longley, Edna, 201, 223n68 201, 217n35, 219n82, 220n8 and feminism, 10, 15, 18, 41, 77, MacBride, John, 44, 77, 88, 91 87, 89, 129–30 Index 251

and Irish poetry after Yeats, 190–93, O’Brien, Conor Cruise, 134, 229n6 195–98, 200–1, 203–5 occult, 17–19, 51, 53, 69, 75, 80, and the newspaper, 8, 12, 16, 128, 153, 207 28–31, 33–34, 36–42, 47, O’Connell, Daniel, 7, 35, 52, 105, 51, 56, 58, 60–61, 95, 152, 127, 141 169, 177, 213n37, 213n40, O’Donnell, Peadar, 106 215n16, 216n27 O’Duffy, Eoin, 99, 142, 155, and performance, 1, 17, 36, 38, 161–62, 164, 230n22 52, 95–96, 141–42, 171, 191, O’Grady, Standish, 12, 177, 185 193 O’Higgins, Kevin, 58, 105, 133–36, and the postcolonial state, 139–40, 161, 164, 176 153–55, 160, 163, 165, O’Leary, John, 11, 33–34, 48–50, 167–68, 170–71, 173, 52, 177 175–77, 182, 184, 187 and religion, 5, 14–15, 17–18, Parkinson, Thomas, 22, 24 36–38, 47, 92, 154, 161–62, pastoral, 63, 65, 67, 69–70, 73, 103, 175, 200–1 214n54 and revolution, 10–12, 24, 36, Parnell, Charles Stewart, 47–48, 40, 50–52, 54, 61–62, 51–52, 58, 127, 155, 164–65, 64–66, 74–75, 79, 81, 83, 184, 216n18 84–85, 87–88, 91, 92–96, Paulin, Tom, 94–95, 233n6 101–2, 104–5, 131, 134–36, Pearse, Patrick, 10, 48, 91–92, 95, 138, 140–42, 149, 152–53, 171–73, 185 155, 157, 160, 165–66, 167, Pethica, James, 57, 67 172–73, 176, 184, 186, Plunkett, Horace, 11 195–96, 216n26 Plunkett, Joseph Mary, 205 romantic and cultural, 1–3, 5–8, poetic and dramatic form, 9, 14, 10–16, 17–19, 20–21, 25, 31, 21–24, 31, 67, 69–70, 71–73, 36, 49, 75, 93 79, 80, 82–83, 86, 90–92, theories of, 12, 16–17, 36–41, 44, 107–9, 111, 114, 123, 128, 47–48, 59, 141, 176, 189–91, 136, 138–39, 143–44, 149, 198, 202, 211n21, 216n27, 152, 165, 167, 169, 171–75, 219n62 178–79, 180–81, 183–84, Yeats’s ideas of, 5–6, 10–13, 198, 204, 206 15–17, 19, 31, 36, 59, 94–95, Poor Old Woman /Sean Bhean 101, 104, 129, 136, 141, 153, Bhocht/Cathleen, 15, 49, 88 176 Pound, Ezra, 2, 21, 31–32, 61, 63, Nazis, 30, 113, 156–57, 161–62 68, 79, 81, 98–99, 103, 115, Nietzsche, Friedrich, 1, 29, 63, 77, 120, 134, 149, 169, 219n78 82–83, 98–101, 103, 105, Protestantism, 6, 8, 13, 17–18, 35, 39, 113, 131, 151, 153–54, 157, 59, 61, 102, 105, 140, 142, 167–68, 183, 215n3, 147, 163, 189, 192–94, 232n6 222n48, 230n28 nihilism, 98, 100, 103, 105, 110, Quinn, Mrs. Eileen (sometimes 116 referred to as Ellen Quinn), North, Michael, 22, 214n54 74 252 Index

Ramazani, Jahan, 209n3 Ulster, 9, 52, 185, 189, 191, Redmond, John, 11, 52, 72 193–94, 199–200, 202 religion, 53, 58, 64, 80, 85, 95, 101, utopia, 55, 130, 153–54, 184 109–10, 122, 128, 142, 144, 166, 194 Vendler, Helen, 23, 25, 86, 90, 172 see also Catholicism; violence, 32, 65, 70, 84–85, 99, Protestantism; nationalism 105, 112–17, 120–23, Rosenthal, M. L. and Sally Gall, 135–38, 158, 160, 193, 205 108–9 apocalyptic, 19, 21, 32, 53–54, 80–83, 100, 105, 113, 116, Said, Edward, 63, 97, 209n3, 224n1 122, 149, 152, 168, 187, 207 St. Patrick, 19, 80, 107, 161, 166 and fascism, 83, 99, 154–56 Schuchard, Ronald, 222n37 and history, 112–13, 115, Second World War, 100, 111, 153, 122–23, 135–38, 143, 157, 168, 198 161–62 senate speeches by W. B. Yeats, 88, revolutionary and state, 51, 66, 119, 136–38, 158, 184, 187 70, 84–85, 99, 103, 110–11, Shakespear, Olivia, 20, 107, 134, 114, 116–17, 120–22, 146 133–35, 182, 190, 193–94, Shakespeare, William, 6, 75, 144, 203–5, 214n54, 224n4 156, 168 Shelley, Percy Bysshe, 1, 6, 68, 137 Watson, G. J., 15, 25, 122 Soyinka, Wole, 95, 209n3 Wellesley, Dorothy, 162, 228n80 Spengler, Oswald, 99, 114, 149 Weston, Jesse, 138 Spenser, Edmund, 6, 73, 75, 115, Whyte, John, 193 206 Williams, Raymond, 95 spirituality, 12–13, 18, 44, 126, women, 10, 14, 18–20, 41, 74–80, 128, 146–48, 187 85, 87–89, 101, 126–27, state, 3, 11, 59, 84, 85, 111, 116, 129–30, 145–46, 147–48, 126, 128, 131,135–41, 143, 167, 178, 190–91, 195–96, 147, 149, 153, 158, 175, 190, 201–2 192–93, 195, 204, 220n93, see also nationalism and 224n76, 227n55, 228n89, feminism; gender 231n35 see also Irish Free State Yeats, Mrs. George, nee Hyde Lees, Steiner, George, 53, 83, 113 67–68, 71, 75–76, 78, 80, supernatural, 10, 19–20, 27, 82, 82, 86, 95, 151, 153, 167, 159–60, 166–67, 175, 185, 205, 213n45 185–86, 206–7 Yeats, Jack, 106 Synge, John Millington, 12–13, 24, Yeats, William Butler: 42–43, 59, 66, 131, 176, PLAYS 197–98 At the Hawk’s Well, 78–79 Cathleen Ni Houlihan (with Tir n’a N’Og, 19, 211n18 Lady Gregory), 9, 11–12, 15, Tone, Wolfe, 35–36, 47–49, 52, 92, 20, 48–49, 102, 182, 191, 102, 193 211n18, 218n61 Index 253

The Countess Cathleen, 9, 14, “Come Gather Round Me 20, 95, 179, 211n17 Parnellites,” 165 The Death of Cuchulain, 173 “Coole and Ballylee, 1931,” Deirdre, 24, 203 132 The Dreaming of the Bones, “Coole Park, 1929,” 131 92–93 “A Cradle Song,” 9, 211n17 The Green Helmet, 21, 25, 44 “Crazy Jane on God,” 209n6 The King’s Threshold, 15–17, “Crazy Jane on the Day of 93–95, 190 Judgment,” 144 On Baile’s Strand, 9, 179, “Crazy Jane on the Mountain,” 211n17 157–58 The Only Jealousy of Emer, “Crazy Jane Talks with the 78–80, 222n40 Bishop,” 145, 227n61 Purgatory, 82, 157, 159–60, 175 Crossways, 7, 9 The Resurrection, 82, 138 “Cuchulain Comforted,” 174 POEMS and COLLECTIONS OF “The Curse of Cromwell,” 160, POEMS 174 “An Acre of Grass,” 156 “The Dedication to a Book of “All Souls’ Night,” 128, 207 Stories selected from the Irish “Among School Children,” Novelists,” 11 124, 126, 130, 136, 145, 163 “A Deep-sworn Vow,” 77 “Ancestral Houses,” 33, 103, “A Dialogue of Self and Soul,” 117–8, 120, 129 144–45 “Anashuya and Vijaya,” 7 “The Dolls,” 45–46 “Baille and Aillinn,” 166 “Down by the Salley Gardens,” “Beautiful Lofty Things,” 177 13, 24 “Before the World was Made,” “A Dream of Death,” 20, 23 148 “A Drunken Man’s Praise of “Beggar to Beggar Cried,” Sobriety,” 209n6 44–45 “Easter, 1916,” 16, 24, 38, 42, “The Black Tower,” 185–86 44, 47, 65, 87, 89, 112, 130, “Blood and the Moon,” 103–4, 149, 171, 196, 216n26 108, 127, 134–38, 140, “A Faery Song,” 9 228n75 “Fallen Majesty,” 49 “Broken Dreams,” 77 “Father and Child,” 146 “A Bronze Head,” 177 “A First Confession,” 147 “Byzantium,” 102, 128 “Friends,” 50 “Church and State,” 164 “From the Antigone,” 147 “The Circus Animals’ “The Ghost of Roger Desertion,” 152, 167, Casement,” 170 178–80 “The Great Day,” 165 “A Coat,” 179 The Green Helmet and Other “The Cold Heaven,” 33, Poems, 21, 25, 44 49–50, 53, 174, 206 “The Grey Rock,” 35, 53 “The Collar-Bone of a Hare,” “The Gyres,” 167 76 “He reproves the Curlew,” 20 254 Index

Yeats, William Butler—Continued “The Man who Dreamed of “He wishes for the Cloths of Faeryland,” 10, 14, 25, 184, Heaven,” 23 212n25 “He wishes his Beloved were “A Man Young and Old,” 129 Dead,” 20 “Meditations in Time of Civil “Her Triumph,” 148 War,” 101–2, 108, 110–11, “High Talk,” 178, 180 117, 120, 204 “The Host of the Air,” 9, “Meeting,” 148 211n17 “A Memory of Youth,” 33 “The Hour before Dawn,” 44, “Meru,” 137 53 Michael Robartes and the “‘I am of Ireland,” 145 Dancer, 64–65, 76, 78–79, “I See Phantoms of Hatred and 81, 85, 102, 221n29, 223n68 of the Heart’s Fullness and “Michael Robartes and the of the Coming Emptiness,” Dancer,” 85 117, 121 “The Mother of God,” 143 “An Image from a Past Life,” “The Municipal Gallery 86 Re-visited,” 12, 37, 58, 175, “In Memory of Eva Gore- 209n2 Booth and Con Markiewicz,” “My House,” 117 25, 100–1, 129–31 “The New Faces,” 119 “In Memory of Major Robert New Poems, 151, 165–68, 174 Gregory,” 72 “Nineteen Hundred and In the Seven Woods, 25 Nineteen,” 38, 101, 110–15, “The Indian to His Love,” 7 120, 128, 128, 145, 186, “The Indian upon God,” 7 224n4 “An Irish Airman foresees his “The Nineteenth Century and Death,” 73–74 After,” 139 “The Lake Isle of Innisfree,” 9, “Oil and Blood,” 138, 140 21–22 “The Old Stone Cross,” 177–78 “The Lamentation of the Old “On a Political Prisoner,” 87, Pensioner,” 25 90 “Lapis Lazuli,” 167–68 “On being asked for a War “A Last Confession,” 147 Poem,” 64 Last Poems, 22, 64, 151, 166, “On Woman,” 75, 78 168, 183 “The O’Rahilly,” 171, 173 “Leda and the Swan,” 25, 102, “Pardon, old fathers…” 48, 56 121–23, 143, 147, 226n47 “Parnell,” 165 “Long-legged Fly,” 181 Parnell’s Funeral and Other “The Lover mourns for the Poems, 166 Loss of Love,” 20 “Parnell’s Funeral,” 137, 164 “The Madness of King Goll,” “Paudeen,” 43 9, 211n17 “The People,” 77 “The Magi,” 32–33, 53 “The Phases of the Moon,” 82 “Man and the Echo,” 181, 183, “Politics,” 64, 183–84 206 Index 255

“A Prayer for my Daughter,” “Those Dancing Days are 81, 86 Gone,” 132 “Presences,” 77 “The Three Beggars,” 44 “Red Hanrahan’s Song about “The Three Hermits,” 44 Ireland,” 12 “Three Marching Songs,” 155 “Remorse for Intemperate “The Three Monuments,” 127 Speech,” 140, 209n2 “Three Movements,” 139 “Reprisals,” 74, 115–16, 133 “Three Songs to the One Responsibilities, 27–28, 31–33, Burden,” 171 35–36, 41, 44–50, 53–55, 57, “To a Friend whose Work has 59–61, 63, 105, 216n18 come to Nothing,” 33 “Ribh at the Tomb of Baile and “To a Shade,” 33, 51–52 Aillinn,” 166 “To a Wealthy Man who “Ribh considers Christian Love promised a second insufficient,” 268 Subscription to the Dublin “Ribh denounces Patrick,” 166 Municipal Gallery if it were “The Road at My Door,” 102, proved the People wanted 117 Pictures,” 33, 41–42, 55–57 “Roger Casement,” 169 “To a Young Girl,” 78 The Rose, 9, 11 “To be carved on a Stone at “The Rose Tree,” 91 Thoor Ballylee,” 68 “Running to Paradise,” 45, “To Ireland in the Coming 55 Times,” 18 “Sailing to Byzantium,” 14, “The Tower,” 101, 106, 111 106–8, 111–12, 125, 129, The Tower, 33, 68, 100–2, 104, 144 107–8, 110–11, 114, 127–29, “The Second Coming,” 25, 32, 138, 143–44, 149, 150, 167, 81–83, 86, 101–2, 104, 116, 169 122, 159, 168, 209n2 “The Two Kings,” 33, 35, 53 “The Secret Rose,” 7 “Two Songs from a Play,” 112, “September 1913,” 7, 33, 138 35, 38, 41–43, 47–48, 52, “Under Ben Bulben,” 90, 60–61, 90, 92, 102, 199 155–56, 168, 195 “Shepherd and Goatherd,” 73 “Under Saturn,” 78 “Sixteen Dead Men,” 92 “Vacillation,” 139, 145 “The Song of Wandering “The Valley of the Black Pig,” Aengus,” 25 185 “Spilt Milk,” 139 “Veronica’s Napkin,” 138 “The Stare’s Nest by my “The Wanderings of Oisin,” 9, Window,” 117, 120, 204 19, 107, 166, 179, 211n18 “A Statesman’s Holiday,” 152, The Wanderings of Oisin, 159 212n23 “The Statues,” 172–73 “Who goes with Fergus?” “A Stick of Incense,” 152 13–14 “The Stolen Child,” 14, “Why should not Old Men be 209n6 Mad?” 157–58 256 Index

Yeats, William Butler—Continued “A Woman Young and Old,” “The Wicked Hawthorn Tree,” 129, 143, 146–47 159–60 “Words for Music Perhaps,” The Wild Swans at Coole, 23, 143–46, 158, 166, 227n61 63–66, 69–70, 72, 78–79, PROSE 81, 85, 102, 222n37 The Celtic Twilight, 24, 185 “The Wild Swans at Coole,” “A General Introduction for my 23, 71, 132 Work,” 222n31 The Wind Among the Reeds, 9, “The Irish Literary Theatre,” 13, 19, 23, 25, 185, 212n23, 200–1, 213n4 213n46 On the Boiler, 134, 155–59 The Winding Stair and Other Samhain 1901, 54 Poems, 68, 101–2, 104, A Vision, 80–83, 111, 113–14, 204 107–8, 110–11, 127–29, see also W. B. Yeats in “Works 144, 146, 149–50, 167, 169, Cited” 227n61 Young Ireland movement, 6–7, 12, “The Witch,” 45 19, 35, 48