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the : global evolution and challenges JANET ABBATE

The Internet, a global network of networks, is a offer. Rapid growth and diversity have forced network remarkably complex technical system built on the designers to overcome incompatibilities between creative contributions of scientists around the world systems and components, manage data from the 1950s to the present. Throughout its traffi c to avoid congestion and chaos, and reach evolution, the Internet and other networks have been international agreement on technical standards. These promoted by governments, researchers, educators, challenges have led to fundamental advances in and individuals as tools for meeting a range of research areas such as operating systems and queuing human needs. A combination of high-level policy theory. A second trend has been the modeling of and grassroots improvisation has produced social network functions as a series of layers, each of which benefi ts including easier and more widespread behaves according to a standard protocol, a set of rules access to and information; increased for interaction that is implemented in or scientifi c collaboration; economic growth; the hardware. Layering reduces the complexity of the formation of virtual communities and an increased network system and minimizes the amount of ability to maintain social ties over long distances; standardization necessary, which makes it easier for the democratization of content creation; and online networks to join the Internet. A third important feature political and social activism. The Internet’s rapid of the Internet’s technical development has been an growth has also spawned technical crises, such as unusually decentralized and participatory design congestion and a scarcity of network addresses, and process. This has opened the system to innovation from social dilemmas, including malicious and illegal a variety of directions and has encouraged informal activities and persistent digital divides based on worldwide collaboration. The following sections income, location, age, gender, and education. Such describe some of the major milestones in the evolution problems continue to demand creative solutions from of the Internet and its predecessors. scientists, policy makers, and citizens. Several general themes characterize the technical Beginnings: early terminal networks development of the Internet. First, from the 1950s to The fi rst electronic digital computers, invented during the present there has been a steady increase in the the World War II and commercialized immediately size of data networks and the variety of services they afterward, were solitary machines: they were not 144 FRONTIERS OF KNOWLEDGE

designed to interact with their human users or to For example, in the early 1960s American Airlines and communicate with other computers. Within a few years, IBM created the SABRE on-line reservation system however, computer scientists began experimenting with (based on IBM’s work on SAGE), which connected ways to access computers from a distance or transmit 2,000 terminals across the to a central data from one machine to another. The data networks computer. Similarly, the US National Association of of the 1950s and early 1960s were systems to connect Securities Dealers Automated Quotation System terminals to computers, rather than connecting (NASDAQ) created a network for stock quotations in computers to each other. Experiments with terminal 1970. In an early example of international collaboration networks provided an intriguing research area for in networking, a of airlines called SITA computer scientists, but they were also a response to (Société Internationale de Télécommunications contemporary political and economic realities, including Aéronautiques) built a network in 1969 using the the Cold War and the growth of global economic, technique (see below). The SITA transportation, and communication networks. network handled traffi c for 175 airlines through Computer research in the United States computer centers in Amsterdam, Brussels, Frankfurt, was largely funded by the military and refl ected that Hong Kong, , Madrid, , Paris, and country’s rivalry with the USSR. For example, an Rome (SITA, 2006). Such fi nancial and commercial important US development of the 1950s was Project networks helped accelerate the integration of the SAGE, a computerized early-warning defense system global economy. designed to detect missile attacks. Each SAGE center had an IBM computer that received data through Research networks lines from dozens of radar installations and Terminal networks were based on a relatively simple military bases. A key technology developed for SAGE hub-and-spoke model that connected numerous by AT&T Bell Laboratories was the , which users to a single central computer resource. More converts digital computer data into analog signals complex networks involving multiple computers were that can be sent over the . AT&T built by computer scientists from the late 1960s to the began to offer for general use in 1958, and late 1970s. Experimenting with new technologies, for several decades modems would provide the chief researchers aimed to break the barriers to sharing data means of network access for home users. between dissimilar computer systems. Scientists and Demand for terminal networks was driven by their government sponsors saw a threefold promise another technical milestone of the early 1960s: time in networking: the ability to share scarce and sharing operating systems. Invented independently expensive computers, which would increase access in 1959 by of the UK and while decreasing costs; the ability to share data John McCarthy of the US, time sharing allowed and work collaboratively with colleagues in other multiple users to run programs on a single computer locations; and the opportunity to advance the theory simultaneously. Because the cost of the computer and practice of . could be shared among a much larger number of Three of the most important early research users, time sharing made it practical to allow networks were the ARPANET (US, 1969), the NPL Mark individuals to use a computer interactively for long I (UK, 1969), and CYCLADES (, 1972). A key stretches of time, rather than being restricted to innovation of these experimental networks was a running a single program and receiving the results communications technique called packet switching. offl ine. Commercial time sharing services took Previous communication systems, such as the advantage of these economies of scale to provide telephone and the terminal networks, provided affordable computing to many academic and dedicated circuits between the two ends of a business customers. By the mid-1960s, commercial connection. In contrast, a packet switching network time sharing services were developing their own data divides the data to be transmitted into small units networks to give their customers low-cost access called packets that are sent out individually, sharing to their computers. the network circuits with packets from other Global capitalism and the growth of transportation connections. Packet switching allows communications and communication systems provided the impetus for links to be used more effi ciently, thus conserving an large-scale commercial terminal networks. In the expensive resource. In addition, packets from the same early 1960s, data-intensive industries, such as aviation connection can be sent to their destination by and stock trading, built cooperative networks to different routes, making it possible to distribute traffi c enable fi rms to share a common pool of information. among multiple links or respond to a breakdown in 145 THE INTERNET: GLOBAL EVOLUTION AND CHALLENGES JANET ABBATE

one part of the network by traffi c elsewhere. industry engineers to fi nd ways of bridging the This fl exibility helps prevent congestion and increases incompatibilities between computers, and their hard the reliability of the network. work made it much easier to build the next The concept of packet switching was invented generation of networks. The ARPANET also had a independently in early 1960s by of the US distributed topology featuring many switching nodes and of the UK; Davies put the technique with multiple , rather than a single into practice in the one- Mark I network at the central node. Distributed communications, fi rst National Physical Laboratory. In the US, the Defense described by Baran (1964), could spread out the Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) traffi c load and potentially increase reliability by sponsored the fi rst large-scale packet switching creating multiple paths between any two computers. network, ARPANET. One of the theorists contributing However, adopting this untried technique greatly to this project was , who developed increased the complexity of the routing system, some of the fi rst methods for analyzing packet forcing the ARPANET designers to analyze and network behavior. In France, pioneered manage unexpected network behavior. In another connectionless or networking techniques risky move, the network design called for the routing in the packet-switched CYCLADES network. operations to be decentralized and adaptive: each Datagram networks were simpler than connection- node would make its routing decisions independently oriented networks such as ARPANET, and this simplicity and would change its behavior in response to changes made it more feasible to interconnect different in traffi c conditions or network confi guration (for networks—an important step toward developing a example, if an adjacent node became disabled). The worldwide Internet. As Pouzin noted: “The more ARPANET’s decentralized design and autonomous sophisticated a network, the less likely it is going to routing behavior increased the diffi culty of analyzing interface properly with another.” (Pouzin 1975, 429.) network behavior; at the same time, these techniques Experiments in (connecting multiple would contribute to the future success of the networks) were already taking place by the early 1970s. Internet, because they would allow the network to For example, the NPL network was connected to grow without being limited by a central bottleneck. CYCLADES in 1974, and in 1976 both CYCLADES and One of the most novel features of the ARPANET NPL were connected with the new European project was not technical but organizational: an Informatics Network. EIN had grown out of a 1971 informal, decentralized decision-making process. science and technology study group of the European The network software was developed by a loose Economic Community (now the ), confederation of researchers and students called the which recommended the building of a multinational Network Working Group. Any member of the group network to help member countries share computer could suggest a new feature by circulating a Request resources and promote computer science research. By For Comments; after a period of discussion and trial 1976 the EIN was providing network service to ten implementations, the suggestion would be modifi ed, countries, with hubs in Italy, France, , and abandoned, or adopted by consensus as a network the (Laws and Hathway 1978). The standard. This collaborative process continues to be used convergence of networking systems thus mirrored for Internet standards (Bradner 1996) and has helped the political convergence of the cooperating states. the system grow and adapt by encouraging free debate A number of experimental techniques besides and wide participation in its technical development. packet switching were featured in the ARPANET. This By far the most successful application of the early network connected researchers across the United research networks was electronic mail, which became States working in areas such as time sharing, artifi cial a standard service in the early 1970s. The popularity of intelligence, and graphics; because of generous came as a surprise to the ARPANET builders, who government funding and the large pool of computer had expected that research-oriented networks would science talent involved, the ARPANET builders were focus on sophisticated, computationally-intensive able to experiment with promising but extremely applications such as mathematics or graphics. While challenging techniques. For example, rather than email was adopted in part because it was simple to limiting the network to a single type of computer, as use, its popularity also refl ected the realization that had most other experiments in computer-to-computer scientifi c research depended as much on human communication, the ARPANET included a variety of collaboration as on access to machines. Email provided extremely diverse computers. This drove the team an unprecedented opportunity for ongoing interaction of computer scientists, graduate students, and with remote colleagues. 146 FRONTIERS OF KNOWLEDGE

Though they were not open to the general public, would be available to any user, regardless of the the early research networks went beyond providing brand of computer they used. computer access for a small group of scientists. The PTTs’ vision of data networking, modeled on They produced solutions to formidable technical the phone system, included not only universal access obstacles and established vital resources for future but also international connections. Realizing that innovation, including standard techniques and a this would require agreement on a shared network community of researchers and engineers experienced protocol, in 1975–76 the Consultative Committee in networking (Quarterman 1990). Early efforts to on International and of the build multi-national networks and also International Union developed a sowed the seeds of global cooperation, without which packet-switching network standard called X.25. X.25 today’s Internet could not exist. provided a reliable connection called a between two points on a network, allowing terminal Expanding access: proprietary, public, users to access online resources without having to and grassroots networks install complex networking software. Early adopters of In the mid-1970s, the emergence of research networks the new standard included Canada’s Datapac network was paralleled by three other trends: proprietary (1977), France’s Transpac (1978), Japan’s DDX (1979), networking systems offered by computer the British Post Offi ce’s PSS (1980), and the manufacturers; public data networks built by national multinational Euronet (1979). While X.25 was later telecommunications carriers (PTTs); and grassroots superseded by other technologies such as relay, networks that were improvised by individuals with it provided a base for the rapid development of public little funding. Companies such as IBM had provided networks around the world and avoided the chaos of limited networking capabilities since the 1960s, but competing incompatible standards. Another infl uential after the research networks had demonstrated the standards effort in the late 1970s was the Open viability of packet switching, computer fi rms began Systems model created by the offering their own packet-switching technologies. International Standards Organization. This defi ned the Widely used systems included IBM’s Systems Network functions for seven layers of network services, ranging Architecture (1974), Xerox Network Services (1975), from low-level hardware connections to high-level and Digital Equipment Corporation’s DECNET (1975). applications and user interfaces. Although there was Unlike research networks, these proprietary systems much debate over these standards (Abbate 1999), had many corporate users. Corporate networks adopting a common model helped computer scientists enabled businesses to be both more distributed and manufacturers move closer to creating fully —because branch operations could access the data interoperable network systems. they needed to operate independently—and more Public data networks provided the fi rst online centralized, because data from far-fl ung operations access for much of the world’s population. They also could be instantly monitored by the head offi ce. Thus sponsored new types of content and services that made computer networking refl ected and augmented the data networks relevant to non-technical users. For trend toward economic globalization that accelerated example, in the early France Telecom achieved in the 1980s and beyond. widespread public use of its Transpac network by While proprietary systems provided a vital service offering the innovative system: a free terminal, to organizations with many computers from the same given to customers in place of a telephone directory, manufacturer, these networks were generally not with access to a free online directory and a variety of compatible with computers from rival manufacturers. paid services. Minitel was in use for almost three This could be a problem within a single organization decades and served nearly half the French population. and certainly raised an obstacle to building a national With payments securely handled by the phone or international network. In addition, these commercial company, Minitel provided some of the world’s fi rst e- systems were under the control of private corporations commerce, including airline and train ticketing, mail- and did not adhere to publicly established technical order retail, banking and stock trading, information standards. This was of particular concern outside the services, and message boards (McGrath 2004). United States, where most of the large computer The development of public data networks refl ected manufacturers were located. To provide the public an emerging view—by both individual users and the with an alternative, in 1974–75 the national highest levels of government—that access to computer telecommunications carriers in Europe, Canada, and communications was a public good, a resource that Japan announced plans to build data networks that would be necessary for full citizenship in the twenty- 147 THE INTERNET: GLOBAL EVOLUTION AND CHALLENGES JANET ABBATE

fi rst century. In serving this mission, public data these random access systems could not guarantee networks were complemented by a third trend of this a reliable connection, and therefore would not work period: improvised grassroots networks. These low- well with existing wide-area network protocols. cost networks used existing software and simple dial- A new system was needed. up connections to exchange mail and discussion lists The Internet Program was led by Vinton Cerf and among an informal community of users. The most Robert Kahn, with the collaboration of computer well-known were , which was established scientists from around the world. In addition to US in 1979 using protocols, and BITNET, created in researchers at DARPA, Stanford, the University of 1981 using IBM protocols. These networks played an Southern , the University of , BBN, important role in providing communication to people and Xerox PARC, Cerf and Kahn consulted networking who had no access to formal networking infrastructure. experts from University College London, the NPL and CYCLADES groups, and the International Network Designing the Internet Working Group (Cerf 1990). The INWG had been How did these disparate data communications founded in 1972 and included representatives from systems become united into the global network that many national PTTs that were planning to build we know as the Internet? While some connections packet-switching networks. By sharing concerns and between networks were established in the 1970s, pooling ideas, this inclusive team was able to design design incompatibilities generally limited their services a system that could serve users with diverse to the exchange of mail and . The technologies infrastructural resources and networking needs. that allow the full range of network services to be The Internet architecture had two main elements. shared seamlessly across systems were initially The fi rst was a set of protocols called TCP/IP, or created for the ARPANET. DARPA’s explorations in Transmission Control Protocol and internetworking stemmed from its desire to connect (Cerf and Kahn 1974).2 TCP was an example of a the ARPANET with two new networks it had built, protocol, whose function is to set up and manage a which extended packet switching techniques to connection between two computers () across a and satellite communications. Since these media did network. The insight behind TCP was that the host not have the same technical characteristics as protocol could guarantee a reliable connection telephone lines—radio links were unreliable; satellites between hosts even if they were connected by an introduced delays—existing techniques such as X.25 or unreliable network, such as a or the original ARPANET protocols were not suitable for system. By lowering the requirement for reliability in such a diverse interconnected system. In the early the network, the use of TCP opened the Internet to 1970s, therefore, DARPA started an Internet Program many more networks than it might otherwise have to develop a more comprehensive solution. accommodated. To ensure dependable connections, Another technical development that helped drive TCP was designed to verify the safe arrival of packets, the demand for internetworking was local area using confi rmation messages called acknowledgments; networks. Ethernet, the most infl uential of these, was compensate for errors by retransmitting lost or invented in 1973 by , drawing on an damaged packets; and control the rate of data fl ow earlier network called Alohanet that was created by between the hosts by limiting the number of packets , Frank Kuo, and Richard Binder in transit. In contrast, the Internet Protocol performed (Metcalfe 1996; Abramson 1970). Ethernet and a much simpler set of tasks that allowed packets to be Alohanet pioneered a technique called random access passed from machine to machine as they made their that allowed many users to share a communication way through the network. IP became the common channel without the need for complex routing language of the Internet, the only required protocol procedures.1 The simplicity of the random access for a network wishing to join: member networks had design helped make LANs affordable for a broad range the freedom to choose among multiple protocols for of users. Ethernet became formally standardized and other layers of the system (though in practice most 1 Metcalfe’s improved version of the commercially available in the early 1980s and was eventually adopted TCP for their host protocol). random access system was called widely adopted by universities, businesses, and other Refl ecting the diverse needs and preferences of the Carrier Sense Multiple Access with organizations. Another popular LAN system, token experts who participated in its design, the Internet Collision Detection (CSMA/CD). ring, was invented by IBM researchers in Zurich and architecture accommodated variation and local 2 commercialized in 1985. The popularity of LANs would autonomy among its member networks. Originally there was a single protocol, TCP; it was split into create many new networks that potentially could be The second creative element was the use of special two protocols, TCP and IP, in 1980. interconnected; but, like the packet , computers called gateways as the interface between 150 FRONTIERS OF KNOWLEDGE

different networks (Cerf 1979). Gateways are now international physics laboratory in . He commonly known as routers; as the name implies, envisioned the Internet as a collaborative space where they determine the route that packets should take to people could share information of all kinds. In his get from one network to another. A network would proposed system, users could create pages of content direct non-local packets to a nearby gateway, which on computers called web servers, and the web pages would forward the packets to their destination could be viewed with a program called a browser. network. By dividing routing responsibility between The Web would be able to handle multimedia as well networks and gateways, this architecture made the as text, and Web pages could be connected by Internet easier to scale up: individual networks did , so that people could navigate between not have to know the topology of the whole Internet, sites based on meaningful relationships between the only how to reach the nearest gateway; gateways ideas on different pages. This would create a web needed to know how to reach all the networks in of connections based on content, rather than the Internet, but not how to reach individual hosts infrastructure. Berners-Lee formulated his ideas in within a network. 1989, and he and collaborator created Another notable invention that would make the the fi rst operational version of the Web in 1990. The worldwide growth of the Internet manageable was technical underpinnings of the new system included the System, created in 1984 by Paul ( markup language, used to create web Mockapetris (Cerf 1993; Leiner et al 1997). One pages), http (hypertext transfer protocol, used to challenge of communicating across a large network is transmit data), and the url (uniform resource the need to know the address of the computer at the locator, a way of addressing web pages). far end. While human beings usually refer to computers The Web was popular with the physicists who by names (such as “”), the computers in the used it at CERN, and they spread it to other research network identify each other by numerical addresses. sites. At one such site, the US National Center for In the original ARPANET, the names and addresses of Applications, led the all the host computers had been kept in a large fi le, development of an improved browser called in which had to be frequently updated and distributed to 1993. Mosaic could run on personal computers as well all the hosts. Clearly, this mechanism would not scale as on larger machines, and NCSA made the browser up well for a network of thousands or millions of freely available over the Internet, which led to a fl ood computers. The decentralized of interest in the Web. By 1994 there were estimated the task of fi nding addresses by creating groups of to be a million or more copies of Mosaic in use (Schatz names called domains (such as .com or .org) and and Hardin 1994). special computers called name servers that would The Web’s hyperlinks were designed to solve a maintain databases of the addresses that corresponded long-standing problem for Internet users: how to fi nd to each domain name. To fi nd an address, the host information within such a large system? To address would simply query the appropriate name . The this need, various fi nding aids were developed in the new system also made it possible to decentralize the 1990s. One of the earliest tools for searching the authority to assign names, so that, for example, each Internet was (1990), which sent queries to country could control its own domain. computers on the Internet and gathered listings of publicly available fi les. (1991) was a listing The and other applications system specifi cally for the Web, while Yahoo (1994) The Internet architecture made it possible to build a was a directory of Web pages organized by themes. worldwide data communications infrastructure, but it Yahoo’s staff categorized Web pages by hand, rather did not directly address the question of content. In the than automatically; given the vast amount of data 1980s, almost all content on the Internet was plain accumulating on the Web, however, a variety of text. It was relatively diffi cult for users to locate new services tried to automate searching. The most information they wanted; the user had to know in successful of these search engines was (1998). advance the address of the site hosting the data, since Search engines transformed the way users fi nd there were no search engines or links between sites. information on the Web, allowing them to search a The breakthrough that transformed how Internet vast number of sources for a particular topic rather content was created, displayed, and found was the than having to know in advance which sources might World Wide Web. have relevant information. The World Wide Web was the brainchild of Tim Like the Internet itself, the Web was designed to be Berners-Lee, a British researcher at CERN, the fl exible, expandable, and decentralized, inviting people 151 THE INTERNET: GLOBAL EVOLUTION AND CHALLENGES JANET ABBATE

to invent new ways of using it. The spread of the monitored the online activities of their citizens; while World Wide Web coincided with the transition in 1995 groups protested this as of the US from government to and intimidating surveillance, the governments in private-sector control. This removed many barriers to question asserted their right to protect public safety commercial use of the Internet and ushered in the and morality. Other groups complained that the “dot-com” boom of the 1990s, in which huge amounts Internet was too open to objectionable or illegal of capital were invested in e-commerce schemes. content such as child pornography or pirated songs, While the dot-com bubble burst in 2000, it was movies, and software. Filters and copyright protection signifi cant in creating a popular understanding of the devices provided means to restrict the fl ow of such Internet as an economic engine and not merely a information, but these devices were themselves technical novelty. The beginning of the twenty-fi rst controversial. Internet was another thorny century also saw the proliferation of that issue, with many of the world’s nations calling for a provided new ways for people to interact and share more international, less US-dominated mechanism information and entertainment online. These included for managing the Internet’s name and address system. weblogs (1997), (1995), fi le sharing (1999), Another technical issue with political ramifi cations podcasting (2004), social networking sites, and a was the proposed transition from the old Internet variety of multi-player games. Protocol, called IPv4, to a new protocol called IPv6 that would provide a much larger number of addresses The Internet and society: (Bradner and Mankin 1995); this was in part a successes and challenges response to the fact that the United States held a After half a century of research and innovation, the disproportionate share of the IPv4 addresses. Ipv6 was Internet was fi rmly established as a widely available proposed as an Internet standard in 1994, but due to resource offering an array of potential benefi ts. Users technical and political disagreements the protocol was had greater access to information of all kinds, and still only used for a tiny percentage of Internet traffi c governments and businesses had a new platform 15 years later (DeNardis 2009). Given these many for providing information and services. E-commerce obstacles, the Internet’s decentralized, consensus- brought economic growth, greater choices for based development process continued to work consumers, and opportunities for producers in remarkably well to keep the system thriving amid disadvantaged areas to reach new markets. A variety rapid growth and change. of communications options, from email to elaborate Perhaps most troubling was the persistent social networking sites, made it easier for friends and inequality of access to the Internet and its family to stay in touch over long distances and for opportunities for economic development, political strangers to form “virtual communities” around participation, government transparency, and the common interests. Grassroots organizers adopted the growth of local science and technology. Signifi cant Internet for political and social activism and used it to gaps remained between rich and poor regions, urban mobilize worldwide responses to natural disasters and and rural citizens, young and old. The human rights abuses. Users of all ages embraced the reported in 2007 that the global was Internet as a medium for personal expression, and new still enormous: “Over half the population in developed applications helped democratize the technology by regions were using the Internet in 2005, compared to making it easier for ordinary people to independently 9 per cent in developing regions and 1 per cent in the produce and disseminate news, information, opinion, 50 least developed countries.” (UN, 2007, 32.) To help 3 and entertainment. address this issue, the UN and International “Internationalizing” the However, many challenges remained as the Internet Telecommunications Union sponsored a two-part governance of the Internet was entered the twenty-fi rst century. Users faced abusive World Summit on the Information Society in Geneva a central issue at the UN- sponsored World Summit on the practices such as spam (unwanted commercial email), (2003) and (2005) to devise a plan of action to Information Society in 2005. viruses, identity theft, and break-ins. Technical experts bring access to information and communication

4 responded with solutions that attempted to minimize technologies to all of the world’s people (WSIS 2008). The creators and trustees of these ongoing dangers, providing anti-virus systems, Computer scientists also devoted their ingenuity to the Simputer project were Vijay fi lters, secure web transactions, and improved security making the Internet more accessible to the world’s Chandru, Swami Manohar, Ramesh Hariharan, V. Vinay, systems. But other issues were too divisive for a poor. For example, in 2001 a group of Indian computer Vinay Deshpande, Shashank Garg, technical solution to satisfy confl icting public opinion, scientists reversed the paradigm of expensive, energy- and Mark Mathias (http://www. simputer.org/simputer/people/ especially when activities crossed national boundaries. consuming personal computers by creating the trustees.). Some governments severely limited and closely Simputer: a simple, low-cost, low-energy computer 152 FRONTIERS OF KNOWLEDGE

that would provide a multilingual interface and could social as well as technical innovation and the be shared among the residents of a village (Sterling collaboration of researchers, businesses, civil society 2001). Similarly, Nicholas Negroponte initiated the organizations, governments, and ordinary people. One Laptop Per Child project in 2005 to serve The values guiding the Internet’s social and technical educational needs in developing countries. To help fi t development have been complementary: increasing the technology to local needs, lead designer Mary access, accommodating diversity, decentralizing Lou Jepsen invented an inexpensive, power-effi cient authority, making decisions by consensus with a wide screen readable in outdoor light, and software range of participants, and allowing users to take an designer Walter Bender created an intuitive graphical active role in adding features to the network. On the (One Laptop Per Child 2008; Roush technical side, these goals have been achieved 2008). The Stockholm Challenge, an annual event through layered architecture, open protocols, and a since 1995, showcases hundreds of innovative projects collaborative process for approving design changes, from around the world that use ICTs to promote while social goals have been advanced through development (Stockholm Challenge 2008). government leadership and the inspiration of No longer simply the domain of scientists, pushing individuals who saw the Internet’s potential for the frontiers of the Internet increasingly involves communication, cooperation, and self-expression. 153

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