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there will be something new for everyone. So join How it all began: a us for a walk, with musical accompaniment, down brief history of the memory lane.' Internet Revolution, Beginnings of [Authors' note: Those readers that already know that Internet had its beginnings as a defence project may jump to the next section.] by Alice Keefer and Tomas Baiget Following the Second World War and lasting through to the late 1980's, a Cold War was fought between the world's two superpowers -the When an article on the history of the Internet was United States and the now defunct Union of Soviet first suggested, our reaction was, "But doesn't Socialist Republics. While military build ups, everyone already know how it started?" Having political sparring, and diplomatic manoeuvring lived the experience (or, perhaps more aptly, were the most obvious activities, there were also having survived it), we had becomelike veterans many spin-off effects into other areas including of any major event who assume that certain facts some nearer and dearer to the heart of librarians will always be maintained in the collective and documentalists, such as research and educa- memory. However, we ourselves -from the US tion. For example, the USSR's jump-start ofthe and Spain, respectively- have noted with incredu- space race with the launch of the Sputnik satellite litYthe mistaken answers given by members of the in 1957 sparked a dedicated effort in the United younger generations among our compatriots to States to boost scientific research. Academic and such questions as: "In what Southeast Asian research libraries, by and large, became beneficiar- country did the US fight a war?" or "Who was ies of the government largesse that resulted from Francisco Franco?". While for some, the answers this "knowledge race." Collections boomed in are burnt into the cerebral circuitry, the younger arder to keep up with the production of scientific respondents treat the questions as so many Trivial literature. In order to control the resulting surge in Pursuit challenges, on the same par as "What team bibliographical data, computers were enlisted to did Brazil beat in the 1962 World Cup?" or "What process the information then published as print or was the name of the boy actor who played Timmy microfilmed indexes, and which subsequentIy in the original Lassie series?" would be transformed into databases accessible through the large host services that sprang up in While the Internet's development may lack the the early 1970s, such as Dialog, SDC-Orbit, ESA- emotional charge ofthe Vietnam War or the IRS (DialTech), Blaise, BRS, etc. Franco dictatorship, it has had a whopping effect on the society in which we live, including com- merce, finance, health, education, politics, leisure, Back in the US..., back in the etc. So,we accepted the charge to write a brief US..., back in the USSR historical review of the Internet at a time which very neatIy (albeit roughly) coincides with several significant anniversaries: approximately 30 years The 1960s saw several near collisions between the since the Internet' s inception; 10 years since its us and the USSR, the most notable being the liberalisation which opened the floodgates to new Cuban missile crisis in 1962, which had Americans users; and 5 years since the incorporation ofWeb scrambling to build and supply bomb shelters in applications into the mainstream.' their suburban back yards. Although that particu- lar crisis was defused when the USSR agreed to We imagine the article to be addressed to two withdraw its nuclear projectiles from Cuba, patri- different demographic groups: 1) those who were otic paranoia persisted. working in the information field during the past 5- 10 years and who have seen their professional With this mental set as a backdrop and as comput- activities (and perhaps their personallives) altered ers became more prevalent in large government by the Internet, and 2) those that have come into and research installations, the US Defense Depart- the labour market in the past 5 years, to whom the ment's Advanced Research Projects Agency Internet has always been a "given". We hope that (ARPA) was commissioned to establish a secure
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network Iinking centres working on military became the first international sites to connect to research in such a way that the communications ARPAnet. would remain intact even if some of the centres were knocked out (e.g., due to an enemy attack). As is well known, the original applications of This strategic requirement led to the development ARP Anet were Telnet for logging on as a local of a distributed network, whereby -theoreticalIy, at terminal to remote computers, File Transfer least - the connections would continue to work (FTP) for moving files between computers, and e- even in the absence of one or more of its parts. An mail (SMTP) for exchanging messages. initial trial between computers át UCLA and the Stanford Research Institute took place in 1969 as Although we may never know what military described below: secrets were passed between secure machines, one thing is sure: the people sitting behind those On the evening of October 29th, the first machines recognised the usefulness of sending attempt was made to connect from UCLA to human readable messages among themselves, thus SRI, 350 miles to the north. The machines turning e-mail into the Internet's first "killer app". were on, the digital circuit connecting the Although it may not have been ARPAnet's main IMPs [Interface Message Processor] was priority, it ensured that the Internet became en- ready, each end confirmed all was "go" via a trenched in the daily lives of millions of persons. phone connection. So it began. What types of messages were being exchanged by The idea was to first get the computers these high level techies? A glimpse into the connected to each other via the IMPs, then rarefied atmosphere of earIy Internet sites is do a little data transfer. To do the first part, providedby Bob Bell, who worked at the Stanford the UCLA site was to login to the SR! site. site in the early 1970s: With [Dr. Leonard] Kleinrock watching over his shoulder, Charley Kline typed an L. 1remember hearing that there was an SR! confirmed receipt of the L. He typed an ARP ANET "conference" on the Star Trek O. SR! confirmed receipt ofthe O. He game every Friday night. Star Trek was a typed a G. SR! confirmed a system crash! text based game where you used photon But all was not lost. In a few hours the torpedos and phasers to blast Klingons.' problem was fixed, LOGIN was received, a good connection was established, and the initial transmission experiments were Please Mr. Postman carried out. 3 How was it achieved? The ARP Anet developed By the end of that same year, computers at the the Internet protocol (IP), whereby messages are University of California Santa Barbara and the passed along by routers -computer nodes acting as University ofUtah also were connected to this mail sorters- that determine at any given moment pioneering venture, named ARP Anet. Ayear later the best path for directing a packet to its destina- there were ten nodes spanning the country. tion. Broken links in the network can thereby be avoided. The system is based on a simple address- At the time, one of the very novel qualities of ing scheme using the (now-ubiquitous) IP address. ARP Anet was its ability to connect heterogeneous The IP number, for instance 111.222.333.444, sites, since prior networking was for the most part begins with the code for the network on the left limited to same-system equipment. and works down to the number of an individual computer at the right side. Thus its structure goes The first public demonstration of ARP Anet took from general to specific, which curiously is just the place in October 1972 at an international confer- opposite of the traditional postal addressing ence on computer communications. In the words system, which begins with the specific (name of of Vinton Cerf -considered one of the "fathers" of intended recipient) and ends with the general the Internet, "The demo was a roaring success, (state/province and country). much to the surprise ofthe people at AT&T who were sceptical about whether it would work.?' The The related "domain names" were later introduced, following year the University College of London alIowing numbers-easily retained by machines - and the Norwegian Royal Radar Establishment to be replaced by alphabetical codes that are more
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easily retained by human memory. As everyone Continuing along this line, in his 1992 book, The knows, this is the addressing system used on the Whole Internet, that became the bible of many World Wide Web. The original top level domains first-time Internet users, Ed Krol explains the (TLDs) were limited to: .com, .edu, .gov, .mil, importance of self-regulation on the Net. Behav- .org, and .net, as well as two digit country codeso iour to be avoided at that time included: In response for growing demand, the Internet Corporation for Assigned Name~ and Numbers • Excessive game playing; (ICANN) recently approved seven new TLDs for subsequent negotiating of agreements: .aero, .biz, • Excessive ill-conceived use; .coop, .info, .museum, .name, and .pro.
As local area networks expanded in the 1980s, Move over, Beethoven other institutions also adopted the IP protocol and, as more and more joined the club, they were all able to communicate amongst themselves, thus Throughout the 1980s and early 1990s the Internet effectively creating the network of networks that enjoyed steady, sustained growth. In 1989,Tim was to receive the name "Internet". But perhaps Berners-Lee ofthe European Organisation for the most significant shift took place in the mid- Nuclear Research (CERN) wrote a proposal for 1980s when the US government, through the establishing a global hypertext system with the 9 National Science Foundation, funded the establish- suggested name of MESH. It worked its way ment of a network of five supercomputing centres, from proposal to demonstrable prototype to full NSFnet. As demand grew, regional centres were fledged system over the next several years. But established, opening up functionality previously the lid was finally blown off the relatively compla- limited to highly specialised users and making it cent evolution of the Internet when, in the generally available to huge and diverse university mid-1990s, the World Wide Web became accessi- populations, thus contributing to the acceptance of ble to millions, thanks to the development of the IP protocol as the ad hoc standard. user-friendly web browsers, beginning with Mo- saic. The Mosaic Communications Corp. (now The intention ofNSFnet was to support research Netscape), created in March 1994, was staffed by and education in US institutions. The NSF's policy the original team of developers from the University declaration for the acceptable use of the Internet of Illinois, who had been drafted en masse by their prohibited the following activities on its portion of former colleague, Marc Andreesen. the Net: At that point, all ofthe previous soul-searching Unacceptable uses - NSFnet: about the proper uses of the Internet and reticence concerning its commercialisation, became moot • Use for for-profit activities, unless covered issues as the existing walls set up by academic and by the General Principle or as a specifically government efforts were flattened by the incoming acceptable use. stampede of interests from every sector.
• Extensive use for private or personal As of November 2000, there were calculated to be business. 407.1 mili ion users, 113.14 million of which are
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estimated to Europe. Obviously, size and usage STING (Evaluation of Scientific & figures are quickly outdated, and so interested Technological Innovation and Progress in readers are advised to check other sites for the Europe through Patents)
ECATT (Benchmarking Progress on Electronic STAR (Socio-economic Trends Assessment for Commerce and New Methods of Work) the Digital Revolution)
NEWKIND (New Indicators for the Knowledge CLAMOUR (CLAssifications MOdelling and Based Economy) Utilities Research)
DIASTASIS (Digital Era Statistical Indicators) ERMIS (Electronic commeRce Measurement This project is still in its infancy and had no through Intelligent agentS) website at the time of writing this article. It will
EICSTES (European Indicators, Cybermetrics The Internet, being the base of the so-called the and the Science- Technology-Economy System) "New" or "Emerging Economy", has prompted
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are trying to determine the value of this new Some major initiatives that will determine the commerce, new goods, new ways of selling, etc. future ofthe Internet are the US government's In addition to identifying new activities, national Next Generation Internet (NGI) and the US govemments are especially focussed on the poten- university consortium, Internet2.Much oftheir tial effect of another phenomenon: the blurring of attention is being focussed on setting up a faster national borders. Of special concern is the abso- backbone and creating a more stable networking lute ease with which goods can be bought and sold environment, in a replay ofthe NSFnet objectives on the Web, oblivious to existing borders or tax ofthe 1980s. laws.This is especially true in the case of intangi- ble commodities and services (software, images, The NGI initiative
• Universal access; When we arrive in the Neoelectronic era, we will have developed sophisticated network • Semantic web; agents to be sent into the network to search • Trust; and retrieve data with a high level of precision and recal\. High-speed • lnteroperability; bandwidths will permit greater amounts of data to be delivered and processed than ever Evo lvability; • previously conceived. • Decentralisation; ...multimedia information will be available • Cooler Multimedia! 11 from a wide variety of sources and will be
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easily processed using powerful computing Crossroads of Internet History
2. We provide the title, you provide the 12. Lane, Elizabeth; Summerhill, Craig.Internet tune! Primer for Information Professionals: a basic guide to internet networking 3. De Violini, Robert. "Sesca199 Notes the technology. Westport: Mecklermedia, 1993. Start of the Internet at VCLA".
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