CUBAN REVOLUTIONARIES t AND I THE 1876 ELECTION DISPUTE

By JERRELL H. SHOFNER Mr. Shofner is Associate Professor of History, Florida State University.

On October 10, 1876, Frank Wick­ emerging cigar industry at Key West. historians and students of American er, chairman of the Monroe County, Many others, however, had been politics for nearly a century because it Florida, Republican executive commit­ driven from their homeland by the strained the nation's electoral process tee, wrote Presiden tial candidate ravages of civil war and the bloody to its limits and frightened many Rutherford B. Hayes that "I have efforts of the Spaniards to suppress it. patriotic citizens in to believing that taken the liberty of assuring [the Most of these also intended to stay in the system was about to fail. For Cubans] of your friendship for the the United States and become citizens, nearly four months (from November cause of 'Cuba Libre,' and a telegram but a sizable number were merely 7, 1876, to March 2, 1877) the out­ from you which could be read to them awaiting the restoration of peace to come of the Presidential election was before the election would be of great return to their homes. And some were unknown. Business was adversely af­ benefit. They are a very impulsive and residing in Key West simply because it fected by the stalemate and business­ was a convenient base from which to excitable people, but not given to men clamored for a settlement. Some launch raids on the Spaniards in Cuba. enthusiasm for any great length of Democratic governors threatened to Because American elections were con­ time." Wicker was referring to the use state militias to seat Samuel J. ducted on local as well as national Tilden by force. Joseph Pulitzer called more than four thousand Cuban im­ issues, the question of Cuban inde­ for 100,000 armed Democrats to migrants who had come to Key West pendence was more important on the march on Washington. President Grant from their native island since a violent island of Key West than that of strengthened the armed forces around revolution began there in 1868. About whether a Democrat or a Republican the national capital. It was the worst 1 ,03 2 of them were registered voters succeeded Ulysses S. Grant in the crisis to which the Presidential election intending to participate in the forth­ White House on March 4,1877. It was system has ever been subjected. coming Presidential election between for this reason that Wicker was earn­ But cooler heads were busily trying Republican Rutherford B. Hayes and estly trying to enlist Rutherford Hayes to work out a compromise. Their task Democrat Samuel J. Tilden. at least temporarily in the cause of was a difficult one. The nation had r. About the time of the revolution Cuban independence. That was the been divided for the past sixteen years Martinez Ybor had moved his cigar way he could best deliver the local by a bloody civil war followed by a factory from Cuba to Key West be­ vote for the Republican Party on violent period of reconstruction in cause of continuing difficulties with November 7,1876. which the national government had The disputed Presidential election incurred the wrath of most Southern I labor unions on the Spanish-owned island. Others followed him. Many of of 1876, however, is not remembered whites for trying to rebuild their soci­ the immigrants to Florida were per­ as a factor in the long struggle for ety to give newly-freed Negroes a place manent settlers coming to work in the Cuban independence. It has intrigued in it. Republican parties emerged in 21 ..

each of the Southern states with pre­ Times declared Tilden the winner. The two to one majority of the state domin,lI1tly black voting strength and Times mcrely noted that the election canvassing board, the Republicans had white leaders who were contemptu­ was in doubt. And indeed it was. an advantage in Florida just as in the ously referred to by most native Election to the Presidency in 1876 other two states, but their actions had Southerners as "carpetbaggers" and required 185 electoral votes and it to be plausible enough to satisfy an "scalawags." Hostility toward black appeared that Tilden had received 184 aroused and interested public. By the voters forced native whites of diverse which no one questioned. Hayes had time the canvassing board convened in political backgrounds to unite as Con­ 166 undisputed votes. No one was sure Tallahassee on November 27, the eyes serviltive-Democrats against these Re­ who had received the nineteen elec­ of the nation were fixed on its every pUblican parties and attempt to restore toral votes of Florida, Louisiana and move. white supremacy or "home rule." South Carolina. Since Tilden needed Both parties in Florida issued boast­ Elections became violent episodes in only one of them to win and Hayes ful claims of victory by as much as many Southern states and fraudulent had to have them all, the Democrats 2,000 votes, but as the returns began voting was commonplace. Gradually were comparatively optimistic about drifting in from the county seats, it blacks were bludgeoned or intimidated their situation. was clear that the election would be into submission and native whites act­ That the disputed electoral votes decided by a mere handful of votes. ing through the Democratic Party re­ were in the three Southern states William E. Chandler, New Hampshire gained control of all the former Con­ where Republican regimes were still in Senator and Republican national com­ federate states except Florida, Louisi­ office was crucial. Disorderly elec­ mittee secretary, who supervised Re­ ana and South Carolina. tions, fraudulent practices in counting publican efforts in Tallahassec, wrote In this bitter context the 1876 the votes and alterations by election Hayes that he was afraid the Demo­ Presiden tial election took place. The boards were common in those states, crats had a small majority. scandals of the Grant administration but the Republicans had a distinct The canvassing board's procedural sent the Republican national nominat­ advantage. Each of the contested rules for conducting its count were a ing convention searching for a reform­ states had a canvassing board, appoint­ critical matter. It was agreed that the er as their candidate and Rutherford returns from all thirty-nine counties B. Hayes, the three-term Governor of ed by the governor, with power to would be called off in alphabetical Ohio, was nominated. His Democratic review all county returns, reject those opponent was Samuel J. Tilden, believed to be fraudulent or erroneous, order and the initial results would be Governor of New York, who also had determine the outcome of the election counted and recorded merely as a a reform image_ With such similar and declare the results. Both national preliminary total which was subject to candidates, the parties resorted to per­ parties sent prominent representatives possible future alteration. As the coun­ sonal attacks. The Republicans warned to Tallahassee, Baton Rouge and ty names were called off each side voters that Democrats could not be Columbia to watch the boards' pro­ would have an opportunity to protest trusted because of their former identi­ ceedings and protect their respective the results and its arguments would be fication with those who had broken up party interests. Violence and grossly heard later. The board would consider the Union. By the time the election fraudulent election returns had marred all the arguments offered and make was held on November 7, people were both the Louisiana and South Carolina such alterations as it deemed proper angrily aroused over the same issues elections while it was virtually impos­ before issuing its final, official count. which had divided the country since sible to tell how much the presence of During the preliminary count, each 1860. Noting that the election was federal troops had influenced the of the county returns was challenged going to be very close, political ob­ South Carolina election or how many by one of the parties, but the result servers· remarked on the intense sec­ thousands of votes had been affected showed a Republican majority of 43 tional animosities which the campaign by Democratic violence in Louisiana, votes out of about 48,000 cast. These had aroused. The New York Times the canvassing boards in both states figures were telegraphed all over the prophetically observed in late October altered enough county returns to de­ country and printed in newspapers as that with passions so aroused it would clare Hayes the winner. Most histori­ representing the vote of Florida. Many be unfortunate if a disputed election ans agree that an unfettered eJection in changes were made in the initial count occurred. The paper pointed out that both these states would have produced during the next few days and the there was no machinery established by the same results. official vote showed Hayes the victor Congress to decide between conflict­ The Florida case was different from by several hundred votes. The ap­ ing certificates of election from a the other two. Both sides had resorted parent reason for the difference was single state and that the mood of the to intimidation and other illegal acts, that the Republican state candidates •• nation was not conducive to compro­ but the election was much more order­ had run so far behind Hayes that the mise if such duplicate certificates ly and less violent than in South forty-three vote margin in his favor should be sent to Washington for Carolina and Louisiana. Both sides had would have left them defeated by the counting. kept a close watch on registration lists Democratic candidates for state of­ When the polls closed and unoffi­ during the campaign and had poll fices. Since the state canvassing board cial returns began to be reported on watchers at every ballot box to prevent members had no wish to see the November 7, it appeared that Tilden illegal voting. Since the election had Democrats replacing them in office, and the Democratic Party had won the been closely scrutinized by both sides they threw out enough opposition Presidency. Nearly every newspaper in at every level, it was difficult for votes to find a majority for the Repub­ the country except the New York illegalities to go undetected. With a lican state ticket as well as Hayes. But 22 in doing so, they acted with such in 1876. All were eligible to declare thetic with the Florida Republican flagrant disregard of propriety that the their inlention of becoming United Party. But with the Democrats chip­ Florida Supreme Court vacated their States citizens and taking out first ping away at their tenuous hold on decision and gave the state election to papers as soon as they arrived. One Florida's state government after 1872, the Democrats while leaving Hayes's year later they would be eligible to the Republicans wasted much of their electoral victory intact. The narrow register and vote. These immigrants energy on intra-party bickering which, forty-three vote margin on the initial were responsible for considerable ex­ among other things, cost them some of count thus played a decisive role. citement on the island after 1868 and the support they had enjoyed from the There is no way to be certain how "Cuba Libre" became the dominant Cubans. The most important Cuban many of the 1,032 Cubans registered political issue. Just as politicians in the policy-making body was the local to vote in Monroe County, Florida, in northeastern part of the country at the Junta which was heavily influenced by 1876 were alien revolutionaries intent time were "twisting the British lion's the New York Junta. But as Florida on eventually returning to Cuba and tail" for the benefit of the Irish voters politicians began vying for their sup­ 1 , how many were bona fide future in Northern cities, Florida politicians port as individuals rather than party i United States citizens. But that a cast a few verbal stones at Spain and members, the Cubans tended more i number of those registered were Cu­ made known their support of Cuban often to disagree and the likelihood of ban nationals fighting the Spaniards independence. a Cuban bloc vote was correspondingly I from their Key West base is certain. While most of the Cubans favored diminished. There were also several transient Negro independence, there were enough pro­ After 1873 one of the several Re­ laborers from the Bahamas who were Spaniards at Key West to cause con­ publican intra-party rivalries was be­ registered to vote in the election. Both siderable disruption when the two tween Governor Marcellus L. Stearns groups raised the ire of editors on the groups met. The Spanish consulate in and United States Senator Simon B. mainland. The Republican Tallahassee Key West was a frequent target of the Conover. The Senator was better able Sentinel, believing that the Cubans revolutionary sympathizers. The mili­ to attract Cuban support because he were hostile to its candidate, declared tary commander at Fort Taylor was could help them obtain a share of the that the Cubans and Nassau Negroes at alerted on several occasions to the numerous federal appointments in the Key West "are not naturalized and possibility that some of them planned custom house, marine hospital and therefore cannot vote." The Tampa to cut the telegraph cable from Cuba navy yard at Key West. Conover and Tribune and the Monticello Constitu­ to Key West. When Gonzalo Castanon, Florida Congressman William J. Pur­ tion, both Democratic papers, protest­ editor of the influential pro-Spanish man, in whose district Key West was ed the possibility of aliens from the newspaper, Voz de Cuba, came to Key located, were alarmed when a sizable two islands participating in the elec­ West to speak to a group, he was met number of Key West Cubans voted the tion. The Tallahassee Floridian, whose at the dock by an incensed crowd Democratic ticket in 1874. Anxious well-informed Democratic editor which was barely restrained from vio­ for their undivided support in the hoped for a while that his party would lence by a soldier escort. On the 1876 contest, the two men began benefit from the foreign voters, was following day he was killed in a trying to satisfy Cuban desires for more moderate. Its editorials pointed shootout in a Key West hotel. Tempers public office early in the year. out that it was entirely legitimate for a were at fever pitch while former Con­ Two of the most influential Cuban person to vote who had lived in the federate Secretary of the Navy leaders were Manuel Govin and C. M. state for one year and declared his Stephen R. Mallory escorted the ed­ de Cespedes. Both of them were nat­ intention of becoming a citizen. It itor's body back to Havana for burial. uralized citizens who had lived in the hastened to add that "permanent By 1872 the Cubans were a power­ United States several years and both abode" was the test and no one had ful force in Monroe County politics. had held offices in the United States intended that "foreigners seeking tem­ They decided the local elections in customs service. Unfortunately they porary refuge on our shores from that year and again in 1874. With had also been removed from office for oppression should be allowed to con­ 1,032 of them registered to vote in malfeasance. It appeared that they had trol our state." There was never any 1876, no serious politician dared to mishandled public funds and that Sen­ likelihood that the number of Cuban leave Key West off his campaign itiner­ ator Conover had been involved with nationals who voted were significant ary or fail to make frequent reference them. But restitution of the money enough to "control the state," but it is to his desire for Cuban independence. had been made and no charges were entirely possible that they were Florida's representatives in Congress filed. enough to influence the Presidential made several speeches in favor of the Floridians were understandably election. Cuban cause, both state parties men­ astounded when Manuel Gavin was Whether they were bona fide set­ tioned it in their campaign platforms suddenly appointed to the vacant post­ tlers intent on working in the cigar and the legislature passed resolutions mastership of Jacksonville in 1876. factories located at Key West or mere­ supporting it. There was good reason This most desirable of all postal jobs in ly temporary visitors using the island for this solicitous cultivation of the the state was coveted by several as a base for operations against the Cubans at Key West. The Republicans powerful East Florida politicians who Spaniards, thousands of Cubans im­ and Democrats were so closely divided considered it a possession of their migrated from their native island to in Florida that a thousand voters could region. Either tremendous audacity or Florida during the ten-year revolution very well decide the outcome of a dire necessity motivated the Florida which lasted from 1868 to 1878. statewide election. delegation to give the position to a There were nearly 5,000 of them there The Cubans were at first sympa- man whose political base was so far

23 removed from that Republican strong­ to the conclusion that you are un­ Out of the race, Conover still retained hold. Govin's appointment was con­ friendly to my political in­ a sizable amount of support among the sidered absolutely necessary if the terests .... By this I will judge your Key West Cubans whose disdain for Cuban vote was to be delivered to the friendship towards myself and vice Stearns made it difficult for them to Republican Party in 1876. versa." Knight squirmed under the work up much enthusiasm for the Conover and Purman encountered pressure bu t stuck to his original deci­ Republican cause. more difficulty in finding another ap­ sion. Both Govin and Cespedes worked With the Cuban voters so undecid­ pointment for Cespedes. The only diligently for the Republican ticket in ed, both state parties spent a dispro­ suitable position was in the customs Key West in 1876. portionate amount of time on speak­ office from which he had already been At the RepUblican state nominating ing engagements at Key West. Purman, removed for cause_ Collector Alva A. convention, Governor Stearns won re­ who was fighting for his own political Knight. who had been immensely re­ nomination in an angry, disorderly life, urged Govin and Cespedes to lieved to be rid of both Gavin and battle with Senator Conover who also work for Hayes's election as well as his Cespedes, was reluctant to agree to the sought the gubernatorial post. Unsuc­ own and they dutifully complied. But re-appointment of the Cuban political cessful in the convention the Senator he did not stop there. A defunct boss_ But Purman and Conover insist­ accepted the nomination of a rump Spanish language newspaper, El Re­ ed. With the Senator's endorsement, meeting and the Republicans had two publicano, was revived to appeal for Purman wrote- Knight, whose own job gubernatorial candidates campaigning Cuban support. was an appointive one and therefore across the state. Conover finally with­ Recognizing the influence of the vulnerable, that "the appointment of drew from the race in early September New York junta on the local Cuban Cespedes is utterly imperative and at the insistence of the national Re­ leaders, Purman also visited that group cannot be deferred any longer. Action publican committee which felt that and asked its endorsement for the is a political necessity . __ and if you the state division was hurting Hayes's Republican ticket. But he was beatCll do not [appoint him], I will be forced chances of winning the Presidency. to New York by the Democrats.

Key West Illustrations: Strozier Library, Florida State University

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.:. : II 24 Ij George D. Allen, a longtime resident canvassing board found the slight ma­ among other things, that if Hayes of Key West who had been a Repub­ jority of 43 votes which was men­ would agree to remove the troops lican before switching to the Demo­ tioned earlier. It was that initial major­ from the two Southern capitals when I crats in 1872, wrote George M. Lap­ ity which ultimately sustained Hayes's he became President, the Democrats ham, a New York acquaintance who electoral victory in Florida. Without would not oppose his inauguration. had the respect of the Junta in that the Cuban votes he would never have Hayes was inaugurated on March 5, city, asking him to intercede in behalf received even that narrow majority. 1877 and about six weeks later he of the Key West Democrats. Lapham When the electoral college met on withdrew the soldiers. Since this was conferred with General Aldaince, head December 6, the votes of Florida, the last time that federal military of the New York Junta, and convinced Louisiana and South Carolina were all authority was used for purposes of him that the Democratic Party was a i cast for Hayes and certificates to that reconstructing the South after the I friend to Cuban independence. The effect were forwarded to the President Civil War, the peaceful resolution of

Ji General endorsed the Democratic Pres­ of the United States Senate. Demo­ the disputed Presidential election has idential ticket in a letter to the Key crats in each of the contested states long been regarded as the "compro­ West Junta. Although it was late in the also sent electoral certificates pro­ mise of 1877" and the end of Re­ r campaign when the letter was received, claiming Tilden's victory. It was these construction. a Cuban Democratic club was organ­ duplicate certificates which threw the The election crisis made evident the ized and was claiming about 300 mem­ nation into the four-month quandary shortcomings of the electoral college bers before the election. which some people thought might system and for a while there was a The Democratic club may have result in a renewal of the Civil War. discussion of changing it. But many over-estimated its membership, but it The problem was a constitutional one. people pointed with pride at the con­ frightened the local Republican lead­ The Presidential article merely stated troversy and applaUded the American ers. It was at this time that Wicker that the electoral certificates were to people for finding a peaceful solution wrote the previously mentioned letter be opened by the President of the and abiding by the outcome rather to Rutherford Hayes asking for the Senate in the presence of both houses than staging a violent revolution as pre-election telegram. There were of Congress jointly assembled and "the might have been done in countries 2,828 voters registered in Monroe votes shall then be counted." But it where the democratic process was less County in 1876, nearly all of whom did not say who was to count them firmly established. lived in Key West. Almost a thousand and that was the decisive point. If Little was said about the lax voter of them were native whites, about 800 Republican Senator Thomas W. Ferry registration rules in the states, where were native Negroes and a few were were to do so as the Republicans said total authority for regulating elections Bahama blacks erroneously registered he should, he would simply count the rested. Nor was there much comment for the election. Cubans who were Hayes certificates and ignore the about the disparity between the local registered numbered slightly over a Democratic ones. The Democrats said issues over which Americans often thousand. Wicker claimed a member­ that the House of Representatives divided at home and which frequently ship of 832 for the Cuban Republican which had a Democratic majority influenced the way they voted on the club, and the Democrats claimed 300 should decide since no candidate had a national elections. While Reconstruc­ members for theirs. Someone was ex­ clear majority. tion of the South was an issue which aggerating slightly, but the estimates A joint committee of Congress met overshadowed local issues in many were not far wrong. in December and eventually came up places across the country in 1876, the There is no way to tell exactly how with an acceptable compromise. An Key West election turned on the un­ many Cubans voted for each party, electoral commission of fifteen mem­ related question of "Cuba Libre." nor is it clear how many were future bers, chosen from both houses of Whether it was revolutionaries in exile United States citizens and how many Congress and the Supreme Court was or future citizens of the United States, were revolutionaries living in exile. But to decide between the contested certi­ about a thousand of the people who it is clear that the Cubans split their ficates. It ultimately decided by a cast votes on that island on November votes with a minority supporting Sam­ partisan vote of eight Republicans to 7, 1876 were more concerned with uel J. Tilden and the Democratic state seven Democrats that Republican Cuban independence than whether a ticket. The election took place in an Rutherford B. Hayes had been elected Republican or a Democrat won the atmosphere of excitement with some to the Presidency in 1876. Meanwhile, Presidency. If they had not gone to I alleged voter intimidation and irregular rumors spread that the Democrats the polls, there is every likelihood that conduct on the part of election offi­ would not abide peacefully by such a Hayes would not have received his cials, but there was no violence. Only decision. Hurried conferences were miniscule 43 vote majority on the t 2,027 of the 2,828 registered voters held between prominent men on both Florida canvassing board's initial cast their ballots. The Democrats car­ sides and another compromise was count. Without that boost to their ried Monroe County by the slim mar­ worked out. Under Congressional au­ cause, the Republican visiting states­ gin of 1,047 to 980. The returns were thority there were federal troops sta­ men would probably have been unable tallied by the county canvassing board tioned in Baton Rouge and Columbia to place Florida in their column for and forwarded to Tallahassee where protecting Republican state admin­ the Presidential election. If they had they were received along with the istrations against contesting Demo­ failed in that, there would have been returns from the other thirty-eight cratic ones. This was a situation which no disputed election of 1876, and counties. On its initial count of the Southerners desperately wanted end­ Rutherford B. Hayes would not have votes from the county returns, the ed. Accordingly, it was decided, become President. 25