DAUGAVPILS UNIVERSITY

ART TEMPUS

Volume 1

2013 Journal ART TEMPUS is published and distributed by Institute of Art with the support of Daugavpils University (Daugavpils, Latvia).

Journal ART TEMPUS publishes original articles on art science: visual arts, musicology and choreography.

Manuscripts should be sent to the Editor in Chief. Journal ART TEMPUS will be published one time a year.

International editorioal board: Prof., Dr. «valds Daugulis ñ Daugavpils University, Daugavpils, LATVIA Prof., Dr. Mart Kalm ñ Estonian Academy of Arts, Tallin, ESTONIA Prof., Habil. Dr. Ludmila Kazantseva ñ Astrakhan Conservatory and Volgograd Art and Culture Institute, RUSSIA Dr. Galina Tsmyg ñ The State Scientific Institution ìThe K. Krapiva Institute of Arts, Ethnography and Folklore of National Academy of Sciences of Belarusî, BELARUS Prof., Dr. Rytis Urnie˛ius ñ –auliai University, –auliai, LITHUANIA

Editor in Chief: Mg. art., Mg. paed. ZeltÓte Barevska Institute of Art, Daugavpils University, VienÓbas Str. 13 ñ 230, Daugavpils, LV-5401, LATVIA e-mail: [email protected]

English Language Editor: Tatjana Kolota Designer: Dita Kiceja-Slavicka Lay-out: Marina StoËka

Publisher: INSTITUTE OF ART, DAUGAVPILS UNIVERSITY, VienÓbas Str. 13 ñ 230, Daugavpils, LV-5401, LATVIA

ISSN 2255-9396 © Institute of Art, Daugavpils University, 2013 CONTENTS

VISUAL ARTS ZeltÓte Barevska. Ornamentics of Latgalian Old-Believersí Traditional Towels (Beginning of the 20th Century) ...... 5 Andra IrbÓte. The Evolution of Design During 20th ñ 21st Centuries ...... 16 Laimdota Ivanova. Metamorphosis of the Altarpiece over the Last 145 Years ...... 28 Ilm‚rs Dirveiks. The Architecture of BÁr˛u Cemetery Chapel ...... 36 Inese Klestrova. An Insight into the Latgale Old-Believersí Manuscripts at the Pushkin House ...... 42 Inese Zelmane. Reflection of Sacred Art in the Context of Illustrated Mass Media in Soviet Latvia as a Sign of Political Changes of the Period ...... 49

MUSICOLOGY «valds Daugulis. The Influence of Dance Music on the Traditions of Folk Music Making in Latvia in the 2nd Half of the 20th Century ...... 55 Baiba Jaunslaviete. Novella Genre in the Composerís Approach: The Main Forms of Interaction between Literary and Musical Aspects ...... 64 J˚lija Jon‚ne. Denominational Features of the Beginning of Latvian Professional Sacred Music ...... 75 Nora L˚se. Latvian Folksong Arrangements for Piano Four Hands ...... 84 Tatjana Minakova. Significance of Synthesis of Arts in the Process of Musical Interpretation...... 92 GaÔina Zavadska. Some Parallels in the Art of AlfrÁds KalniÚ and Vilhelms PurvÓtis ...... 103

CHOREOGRAPHY Gunta B‚liÚa. Artistic and Pedagogical Work of Anna Stedelaube in the Ballet of Liep‚ja (1923 ñ 1933) ...... 110 RegÓna Kaupu˛a. Artistic Proclamation in Classical Ballet ...... 120 Valda Vidzemniece. The Early Days of Modern Dance in Latvia ...... 131

Requirements for the research manuscripts to be published in the journal ìART TEMPUSî ...... 144 . ART TEMPUS. 1/2013 ISSN 2255-9396

VISUAL ARTS

Ornamentics of Latgalian Old-Believersí Traditional Towels (Beginning of the 20th Century)

ZeltÓte Barevska Institute of Art, Daugavpils University VienÓbas Street 13 ñ 230, Daugavpils, LV-5401, Latvia [email protected]

Abstract Russian old-believers (staroveri) are a historically developed ethno-denominational group that came to Latgale in the second part of the 17th century. Having been living in the multi-cultural environment of the region for centuries, Russian old-believers have preserved their ancestral traditions not only in their religion, but also in craft and decorative art, including also the making, adornment and use of towels (ruÚiki).

The aim of the article is to study the ornamentics of Latgalian Russian old-believersí traditional towels at the beginning of the 20th century.

Key words: Latgale, Old-Believers, Ornamentics, Traditional Towel.

Introduction Old-believers (in Russian: староверцы, старообрядцы, расколъники, древлеправославные) appeared in the territory of Latvia (at that time Livonia or Livland) in the second part of the 17th century, quickly and successfully taking roots in its society and culture; becoming one of the most integrated religious and ethnical groups in Latvia.

Both in Russian and other languages (for example, English and German) the word ìold- believersî is etymologically close to the words ìoldî and ìbeliefî that precisely characterize the nature of this religious movement and its connection to the events in the history of Russian Orthodox Church at the second half of the 17th century when after the initiative of the Tsar Alexey Mikhailovich (1629 ñ 1676, time of reign: 1645 ñ 1676) in March of 1653 the Patriarch of Moscow and All Russia Nikon (1605 ñ 1681, the Patriarch since 1652) undertook the reform aimed to introduce corrections to the texts of Church books, and to modify some of the public worship rituals following the Byzantine model.

Part of the pastoral parish did not support it, in the result of which the Russian Orthodox Church split into two parts: the Orthodoxy accepted by the Patriarch Nikonís followers

5 Barevska ZeltÓte and the old-believers whose adherents denied the reform and preserved the old Church traditions. When the reform was acknowledged and legitimated by the Council of Moscow Russian Orthodox Church (1666 ñ 1667), old-believers were publicly declared secessionists (in the Russian language: расколъники), and there began brutal repressions and persecutions (Podmazovs 2010b).

Old-believers searched for rescue in the remote parts of Russia, far and near abroad (in Poland, Germany, Turkey, Sweden, even in the far situated America). Big groups of refugees came also to the Baltic, where citizensí ìtolerance to inoverts was very Western and not comparable with ìtotalitarianî Russiaî (Borgs 2001: 33).

Old-believers arrival to the territory of Latgale There are only few historical sources preserved about the arrival of old-believers in the territory of Latvia. One of the researches where this fact has been documented is, a collection of manuscripts, historically known as ìKurzeme ñ Lithuanian Chronographî or the ìDegut Chronicleî (firsts researcher of the document G. Markelovs thinks that the most eligible title in the Russian language is ìДегуцкий летописецî). It was compiled in the 40ís of the 19th century by Vasily Zolotov (1786 ñ after 1856) ñ old-believer who lived in the 40ís ñ 50ís of the century in the village of Degut, Koven province (now the village of DjaguË, Zarasai district, Lithuania). He described the history of old-believers from 1652 to 1850, by summarizing the information contained in ancient manuscripts, published sources and memoirs (Podmazovs 2001; Podmazovs 2010a; Podmazovs 2010b).

It is mentioned in the Chronicle that the first organized territory of the old-believersí settlements in Latvian appeared immediately after the ongoing reforms of Patriarch Nikon, already in 1659 in ìKurzeme ñ Zemgale Duchy, on the right side of Daugava river, from Druja till Jekabpils: LiginiÌi village near Daugavpils, Baltruku village near Il˚kste, VoitiÌi (now Daugavpils district, Skrudaliene rural municipality ñ Z. B.) and Volodina villages (now Daugavpils district, Laucesa rural municipality ñ Z. B.) near Daugavpils. In the 17th century from Kurzeme ñ Zemgale Duchy old-believersí communities gradually spread in Latgale and Lithuaniaî (–evkina 2010: 10). Unfortunately, the number of first old-believer settlers is not mentioned in the Chronicle.

The attitude toward them was favourable for the old believers as they were allowed to enter and reside the territory of Latvia, to indulge their specific lifestyle and ancient faith. This attitude can be explained by the fact that after devastating wars and the epidemic of plague, population had catastrophically diminished and there lacked simple work force at landlordsí farms (Zeile 2006).

With the arrival and settlement of old-believers, churches were quickly built. In the summer of 1660 near Dinaburg (Daugavpils), in LiginiÌi village was built the first old-believersí church in the Baltic. The church remained till 1837 when under the decree of Russian Emperor Nikolai I (1796 ñ 1855; time of reign 1825 ñ 1855) it was closed. Its further future is unknown. Supposedly, it was burnt or robbed and destroyed to get building materials.

6 Ornamentics of Latgalian Old-Believersí Traditional Towels (Beginning of the 20th Century)

Nowadays, this historic site is included in the territory of Daugavpils city and documented on the intersection of BaznÓcas and LiginiÌu streets. In 2003, in the place of the ancient site, Memorial Cross (height ñ 2.5 m, made of polished black Karelian granite) was solemnly set up and on July 21st of the same year consecrated (Podmazovs 2009; Podmazovs 2001; www.d-fakti.lv/lv/news/article/20623).

In 1699 the second old-believer church was built near Ilukste (Alikti) in Baltruku village whose spiritual father was consecrated by Terentij, and with his commitment a church was set up in the village of Volodin (Podmazovs 2001). In 1740 a church was also established in VoitiÌi (–evkina 2010).

Old-Believers in Latgale The history of old-believersí settlements was first studied by old-believers themselves (A. VoloviËs, M. SiÚicins, I. Zovoloko etc.), by issuing brochures and calendars, publishing articles in the cultural and historical almanac ìRodnaja Starinaî (in the Russian language ìРодная Старинаî), which was published from 1927 till 1933 (13 issues) and its editor was a well-known Russian old-believer and researcher of cultural heritage, educator and public figure, the founder and director of ìRussian antiquity loversí societyî (1927 ñ 1940) Ivan Zovoloko (Иван Зоволоко) (1897 ñ 1984) (Podmazovs 2001; Подмазов 1993).

According to the researches of the already mentioned authors and M. Skujenieks (1927), F. Kemps (1938), B. Bre˛go (1943), A. Podmazovs (1970; 1993; 1998; 2001; 2009; 2010a, 2010b), A. –ilde (1976), A. Zavarina (Заварина 1986; 1994), H. Strods (1989), M. Painins (1990), I. Apine, V. Volkovs (1998; 2007), P. Zeile (2006, 2010), V. Volkovs (2007), V. “ikonovs (Никонов 2008) and others, old-believers came into the territory of Latgale (then Polish Infanty) in the middle of 17th century ñ in 90ís mainly from Pleskava, Novgorod, Tver, rarely from Moscow and other North-Western Russian districts. The first old- believersí communities developed in the period of 1659 ñ 1670 in Vainova village (now ñ Rezekne district), and from 1673 to 1675 ñ in Lomu village (now ñ RiebiÚi district) (Podmazovs 2001; Barevska 2011a).

The next old-believersí immigration wave to Latgale coincided with the reign of Tsar Peter I (1682 ñ 1725) in Russia (1682 ñ 1725), when the bondage and the repressions intensified in the country. Old-believers who arrived settled both in rural areas and in cities (Ludza, RÁzekne, Daugavpils).

As B. Bre˛go (1943), A. Zavarina (Заварина 1986), H. Strods (1989) and other authors admit there are no objective data about the number of inhabitants and settlers in the region, their ethnic and confessional structure till 1772 when it was added to Russia and due to the need of tax collection in the new territories, the population census was carried out. In the result in the three Latgale districts (Daugavpils, Rezekne and Ludza) in 1772 were recorded approximately 12 thousands old-believers out of 170 thousands inhabitants (Podmazovs 2009; Apine, Volkovs 2007; Apine, Volkovs 1998).

7 Barevska ZeltÓte

Since 1897 there are already available reliable and consistent statistical information on total population in the territory of Latgale, ethnic and confessional structure that is based on the result of the organized population census (the first general census in Russia in 1897, four population census during the first independence of Latvia (1920, 1925, 1930, 1935)). According to them, the dynamic of the number of old-believers in Latgale is the following:

— In 1897 ñ 46 974 old-believers, — In 1930 ñ 71 617 old-believers (altogether in Latvia 96 802), — In 1935 ñ 78 582 (altogether in Latvia 174 389) (Zeile 2010; –ilde 1976; Заварина 1986).

Old-believersí lifestyle The old-believersí communities quickly integrated into and thus became an integral part of the Latgalian culture and society. A. Zavarina (Заварина 1986) characterizes the old- believersí lifestyle in Latgale as being archaic and secluded. Most of them were rather poor. Moving from their homeland to foreign lands did not introduce any essential changes into the types of old-believersí principal occupations: farming, cattle-breeding and craft.

As to their social life, the incomers suffered from the same hard bondage as the local peasants did. The old-believers continued to maintain the old traditions characteristic of Russian provinces also in Latgale: in house building, their structure, exterior decoration and interior, clothing, food and other spheres of everyday life. Their life values were steady and clear: to work in order to provide daily bread for their families, to maintain the ancestral faith, their native Russian language, household customs, the peculiar mental and material culture, which caused sincere respect on the part of their neighbors (Apine, Volkovs 1998; Volkovs 2007; Zeile 2010; Barevska 2011b).

Down to the middle of the 19th century the Latgalian old-believers observed their old traditions also in the design of handicraft, including that of various textiles (towels, fabrics, kerchiefs, clothes, etc.). But in the 2nd part of the century, and especially in the beginning of the 20th century, notwithstanding the stability of traditions, it was possible to notice contemporary trends in the design of old-believersí textiles, which are connected with the upswing of economic and cultural relations of Latvia:

— due to Western European literature on handicraft there appeared new ornamental compositions, — ornamentalism in dye selection (polychromy), which is connected with the production of synthetic textile dyes and availability of colourful handicraft materials in trade already since the end of the 19th century (Barevska 2011a; Barevska 2011b; Моши- нина 2004; Богуславская 1968).

8 Ornamentics of Latgalian Old-Believersí Traditional Towels (Beginning of the 20th Century)

Towels in Russian traditional material culture The traditions of use, making and decoration of textiles, including towels, in Russian culture history have been studied by I. Zavoloko (1937), G. Maslova (Маслова 1978), A. Lebedeva (Лебедева 1989), T. Moshnina (Мошнина 2004), A. Shangina (Шангина 2007) and other scholars.

In the Russian language towels are allotted more than forty names depending on the function of their use: ìблинник, божник, дарное, даръе, занавес, зеркалъное, крючковое, маховик, наблинник, набожник, наквашенник, наметка, намитка, наспишник, наспичник, накрючник, обиденник, обрус, перемитка, пивка, плат, подножник, полотенце, полка, постинник, пистен, пулка, рукобитное, рукотер, рукотерник, рукотерт, рушник, ручник, серпанок, скарач, скледнячка, спичное, спишник, стеновое, утренник, убрус, утиральник, утирка, ширинкаî (Лебедева 1989: 245).

There are two big groups of towels distinguished in Russian traditional culture:

1. Unornamented (or little ornamented) ordinary towels. 2. Ornamented towels: 2.1. the towels that are used to decorate interior on festivities (they are put on walls, windows, icons, photographs, mirrors), 2.2. the towels that are used as presents, 2.3. wedding towels (Barevska 2011b; Маслова 1978).

Unornamented ordinary towels (in Russian: nолотенце, рукобитное, рукотер, рукотерник, рукотерт, утирка, утиральник) were made of simple home-woven linen (~60 x 40 cm) and were used in household for utilitarian purposes (to wipe oneís hands, face, dishes). Sometimes there are lines of colour threads woven in the ends of such towels (Русская изба 1999).

Ornamented towels (in Russian: pушник, ручник, плат, etc.) were made of home-woven, bleached or more rarely colored linen (with inwrought red lines or geometrical background pattern) and their ends were decorated with embroidered or woven ornaments, red material belts (in Russian: кумач), crocheted, braided laces, etc. The length of ornamented towels was 2 ñ 4 m, the width ñ 36 ñ 38 cm (sometimes they were narrower 19 ñ 35 cm or wider ñ 40 ñ 41 cm). In the 19th century and at the beginning of the 20th century the manufactured fabrics began to prevail over the home ñ woven ones, therefore towels were more often made of bought cotton (Русская изба 1999; Barevska 2011b).

G. Maslova (Масловa 1978), T. Moshnina (Мошинина 2004) distinguishes four big thematic groups of the ornaments in towel ends that were used in the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century:

1. geometrical ornaments, 2. animalistic (zoomorphic) ornaments, 3. floral ornaments,

9 Barevska ZeltÓte

4. subject ornaments: 4.1. archaic, 4.2. household or genre ornaments.

The author considers this classification being a very conditional one, because in reality the synthesis of these groups is more frequent.

Traditional towels of Latgalian old-believersí and these ornaments at the beginning of the 20th century The aim of this article is to analyze the ornamentics of Latgalian old-believersí traditional towels in the beginning of the 20th century. The basis of the research is formed of the materials obtained during the exhibition ìEmbroidered Textiles of Latgalian Old-Believersî (Kr‚slava Museum of History and Art, June 2010) and the individual expeditions in Latgale (2007 ñ 2010); these are forty-five Latgalian old-believersí towels produced in the beginning of the 20th century.

After the analyses of research materials, the ornaments illustrated on the ends of Latgale old-believersí towels can be divided into five groups:

1. geometrical, 2. plant or floral, 3. animalistic or zoomorphic, 4. epigraphic or calligraphic (monograms, texts), 5. subject (archaic).

This classification is also very conditional as in reality in most textile compositions there are synthesis of two or three groups.

Ornaments are hand embroidered (satin stick, line stitch, cross-stitch, double cross-stitch, chain stitch, double-pull) or interweaved. Their color selection in the beginning of the 20th century, Latgalian old-believers usually retain the traditional monochromy (red or white color) or two colors ñ red and blue or red and black ñ the harmony of contrasts.

As a contemporary trend in towel ornamentics polychromy is unusual which is related to the production of synthetic textile paint, its availability in Latgale or possibility of buying colorful cotton thread (Barevska 2011a; Barevska 2011b).

The forms of geometrical ornament (rhomb, triangle, cross, meander, etc.) are old and simple; they have appeared from observing the environment, natural phenomena and depicting these observations in the form of signs. It is not always possible to explain the semantics of geometrical ornaments depicted in the ends of towels that appeared at the beginning of the 20th century, but it is known for certain that they emanate good energy and protect from the evil, misfortunes, diseases, etc. (Figure 1).

10 Ornamentics of Latgalian Old-Believersí Traditional Towels (Beginning of the 20th Century)

In the Latgalian old-believersí towel the floral elements were popular: flowers, leaves, fruit, berries, trees, tree branches, etc. Their shapes are either curved or made geometric depending on the embroidery technique used. At the begin- ning of the 20th century, instead of this ornament the towel ends were decorated with the stylized motives of flower-vases or bunches of flowers (Figures 2, 3, 5, 6, 8).

In the compositions on the Latgalian old- believersí towels there are motives of various animal images or zoomorphic motives, the most popular one being a bird or an ornitho- morphic ornament. In most cases it is a genera- lized, stylized image, and it is difficult to define its species. Better actualized motives in the old- believersí towels are those of a cockerel, a peacock and a swan, and they are included in various compositions.

Considering the research materials oneís attention is attracted to one towel ñ its ends contain a belt-type composition with an embroidered entomomorphic image ñ a beetle, Figure 1. Geometrical ornament in a towel. which is a very rare motive in the traditional The author unknown. The towel belongs to the Slostovka old-believersí preaching-house textiles. Zoomorphic motives, geometrical and in –Ìeltova civil parish of Aglona region. The floral ornaments are often synthesized in the beginning of the 20th century (Photo by design of towels (Figures 4, 5, 8). Z. Barevska).

Figure 2. The floral ornament in a towel. The author unknown. The towel belongs Daugavpils Russian Culture Centre. The 30ís of the 20th century (Photo by Z. Barevska).

11 Barevska ZeltÓte century (Photo by th Barevska). Figure 5. Entomomorphic ornament in a towel. The author unknown. Towel belongs to Ksenija DemËenko. From Zinovija Zimovaís (JÁkabpils) private collection. The 20ís of the 20 Z. Barevska). century (Photo by Z. th Figure 4. Ornithomorphic ornament in a towel. The author unknown. towel belongs to the Slostovka old-believersí preaching-house in –Ìeltova civil parish of Aglona region. The beginning the 20 century (Photo by Z. Barevska). The motive of flower vase in a towel. th

Figure 3. The author unknown. towel belongs Daugavpils Russian Culture Centre. The 20ís of the 20

12 Ornamentics of Latgalian Old-Believersí Traditional Towels (Beginning of the 20th Century)

Epigraphic or calligraphic (monograms, texts) ornaments in textile decoration became popular in Latvia at the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century. The popularity and distribution of this motive was promoted by both the foreign (Germany, France, etc.) literature containing embroidery patterns available in Latgale, and the rise of ordinary peopleís educational level. Monograms and a text, which usually is a wish, old ñbelievers are used to ornament interior towels, gift towels and wedding towels (Figure 6).

At the ends of Latgale old-believersí towels in the beginning of the 20th century can be observed two variations of subject (archaic) ornament: stylized woman ñ bearer (Рoжаница), or in the ancient Slavic mythology ñ the figure of goddess of fertility and a stylized tree of life or the world tree. In textiles they are simplified and often transform into one geometrical element (Figures 4, 7).

Figure 6. Epigraphic (calligraphic) ornament Figure 7. Subject (archaic) ornament in a towel. The in a towel. The author unknown. Belongs to author unknown. Belongs to Pelageja Hrapunova. Kilineja Buklagina. From Zinovija Zimovaís PreiÔi. From Zinovija Zimovaís (JÁkabpils) private (JÁkabpils) private collection. The beginning collection. The beginning of the 20th century (Photo of the 20th century (Photo by Z. Barevska). by Z. Barevska).

Within the research materials the group of wedding towels is represented by two items, which, as to the Latgalian old-believers at the beginning of the 20th century, were especially luxurious, decorated with traditional and symbolic ornaments. In the compositions in towel ends there are two swans embroidered (the young coupleís symbol), initials of their names, a floral element ñ a guilder rose, which symbolizes the feminine beginning and continuation of a family, and a cross as a sign of protection and blessing for the new family (Figure 8).

13 Barevska ZeltÓte

Figure 8. Ornament in a wedding towel. The author unknown. The towel belongs to the Slostovka old- believersí preaching-house in –Ìeltova civil parish of Aglona region. The beginning of the 20th century (Photo by Z. Barevska).

Conclusions Since the 2nd half of the 17th century Russian old-believers, who entered Latgale and its multicultural environment, have preserved their traditional material cultural values, language and ancient faith.

By the middle of the 19th century old-believers strictly observed their ancestral traditions in making, ornamenting and use of towels.

In the ornamentics of the Latgalian old-believersí towels of the 2nd part of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century can be seen contemporary trends that indicate the development of Latvian economic and cultural contacts (availability of Western European handicraft literature, production of new fabrics, etc.).

The ornamentics of Latgalian old-believersí towels can be conditionally divided into five groups (geometrical, floral, zoomorphic, epigraphic or calligraphic, subject) that are usually in synthesis in the compositions of towels.

The predominant function in the ornamentics of the Latgalian old-believersí traditional towels of the beginning of the 20th century is decorative rather than symbolic.

References Apine, I., Volkovs, V. 1998. Sl‚vi Latvij‚. RÓga: IU M‚cÓbu apg‚ds. Apine, I., Volkovs, V. 2007. Latvijas krievu identit‚te: vÁsturisks un socioloÏisks apce- rÁjums. RÓga: LU Filozofijas un socioloÏijas instit˚ts. Barevska, Z. 2011a. Latgales vecticÓbnieku dvieÔi (20. gs. s‚kums). Latgale k‚ kult˚ras pierobe˛a II. Daugavpils: DU AkadÁmiskais apg‚ds ìSauleî. P. 143ñ152.

14 Ornamentics of Latgalian Old-Believersí Traditional Towels (Beginning of the 20th Century)

Barevska, Z. 2011b. Old-Believersí Towel Design in Latgale Region (The begining of the 20th century). The Spaces of Creation. Scholar Research Journal. 15. –auliai University. P. 68ñ76. Borgs, J. 2001. Miera sala bangu straumÁ. M‚ksla Plus, No. 4. P. 32ñ40. Bre˛go, B. 1943. Latgolas pagıtne I. DaugavpiÔs: V. LıËa izdevnÓceiba. Brika, B. 1984. Latgola muna t‚vzeme. P/s LatgaÔu izdevnÓceiba. DaugavpilÓ atzÓmÁja 350 gadus kop uzb˚vÁts pirmais vecticÓbnieku dievnams. www.d-fakti.lv /lv/news/article/20623 [21.10.2012.]. Erss, ¬. (1939, 1940) Kemps, F. 1938. Latgales likteÚi. Ainas no sen‚s un jaun‚k‚s pag‚tnes. RÓga. Painins, M. 1990. VecticÓbnieki Latvij‚. Atmoda, 23. oktobris. P. 8ñ9. Podmazovs, A. 2010a. RÓgas vecticÓbnieki. Рыжские староверы. The Old Believers of Riga. RÓga: Latvijas VecticÓbnieku biedrÓba. Podmazovs, A. 2010b. –Ìelan‚s un ìVec‚ ticÓbaî. http://www.russkije.lv/lv/pub/read/ rizhskie-starovery/starovery2.htm [20.10.2012.]. Podmazovs, A. 2009. VecticÓbai Latvij‚ ñ 350 gadu. Intelektu‚lais mantojums Latvij‚: filosofija un reliÏija. RÓga: FSI. P. 208ñ215. Podmazovs, A. 2001. VecticÓba Latvij‚. RÓga: LU Filozofijas un socioloÏijas instit˚ts. Skujenieks, M. 1927. Latvija. Zeme un iedzÓvot‚ji. RÓga. Strods, H. 1989. Latgales etnisk‚s vÁstures pÁtÓjumi un avoti. RÓga: P. StuËkas LVU. –evkina, G. 2010. VecticÓbnieku sakr‚l‚ arhitekt˚ra Austrumlatvijas pilsÁt‚s. Visp‚rÓgs ieskats. M‚kslas vÁsture un Teorija. 13: 9ñ18. –ilde, A. 1976. Latvijas vÁsture 1914. ñ 1940. Stoholma: Daugava. Volkovs, V. 2007. Krievi Latvij‚. Maz‚kumtautÓbas Latvij‚. VÁsture un tagadne. RÓga: LU Filozofijas un socioloÏijas instit˚ts. P. 91ñ140. Zavarina, A. 1994. Latgolys krÓvu Ódzeivıtıji pÁc 1772. goda tautys skaiteionys datim. Acta Latgalica. 8. RÁzekne: Latgolas kulturas centra izdevnÓceiba. P. 99ñ105. Zeile, P. 2010. Latgale un t‚s Ôaudis. RÁzekne: LKCI. Zeile, P. 2006. Latgales kult˚ras vÁsture. RÁzekne: LKCI. Богуславская, И. Я. 1968. Русское народное искусство. Ленинград: Советский Художник. Заварина, А. А. 1986. Русское население восточной Латвии во второий половине ХIX – начале XX века. Рига: Зинатне. Подмазов, А. 1993. Старообрядчество в Балтийском регионе: первое столетие истории. ReliÏija. VÁsture. DzÓve. ReliÏisk‚ dzÓve Latvij‚. RÓga: LZA Filozofijas un socioloÏijas instit˚ts. P. 152ñ174. Подмазов, А. 1970. Старообрядчество в Латвии. Рига. Мошинина, Т. 2004. Рукоделие в старообрядческой среде (сер. ХIX – сер. ХХ вв.). Naujienes pagasts IV. Daugavpils. P. 234ñ239. Никонов, 2008. Староверие Латгалии. Очерки по истории староверческих обществ Режиц- кого и Люцинского уездов (2-я половина XX вв.). Pезекне: издание Pезекненской КСО. Русская изба. 1999. Санкт-Петербург: Искусство-СПБ.

15 ART TEMPUS. 1/2013 ISSN 2255-9396

The Evolution of Design during 20th ñ 21st Centuries

Andra IrbÓte University of Latvia, Faculty of Education, Psychology and Art J˚rmalas gatve 74/76, RÓga, LV-1083, Latvia [email protected]

Abstract Throughout the 20th century design has been an inseparable part of human life. Design is the solution for satisfying both the needs of an individual and the society as well, as the indicator of status and a kind of investment. However, the term art, in some instances, is used to define the solutions for designing objects, service and environment.

Can design be perceived as art in the 21st century? The link between the two disciplines is not only the usage of the same visual composition methods and psycho-emotional impact on a viewer or end user, but it is also to be searched for in the evolution of philosophy, art and scientific thought. The analysis of theoretical literature gives the understanding of what circumstances have promoted the establishing of social beliefs.

Despite similar features in the process of creating design and art objects as well as in the perception of them, there exist crucial differences, as nowadays design is an independent discipline. Since the 70ís of the 20th century the term design has also been used not solely in the realm of it. Human ñ centred approach or the design thinking is considered to be useful in solving various problems, especially, in business and Strategic Management.

Key words: Art, Design, Emotional Design, Design Thinking, Business Management, Strategic Management, Innovation Arts.

Introduction Today, when the importance of design is growing both in the competition of separate enterprises as well as in the competition of states, the attitude and understanding of society about the essence of design and its link with other fields is growing as well. The fact that some fields of design are difficult to be found in NACE 2 classificator of professions, and design education is still considered to be a part of art education indicates, that it is necessary to search for the reasons of that. In design research separate developmental aspects of design are usually stressed, but it does not give the holistic perspective of its development and interrelation with other disciplines. The answer could be found analysing personal experience and theoretical literature, in the process of historic development of art and design, which is the basis for understanding each discipline and their relationship nowadays.

16 The Evolution of Design During 20th ñ 21st Centuries

Design and Art Today the term art is referred to humanís creative activity, expressiveness, skills; also, creating both material and immaterial values that can be perceived by mind and emotions (Figures 1, 2). The term design is referred to applied art whose origins dates back to the 20th century Bauhaus and Ulma design schoolsí activities in Germany. Walter Gropius (Gropius 1919), an architect, peda- gogue and designer, the founder of Bauhaus School, was one of the first to admit the necessity to integrate art in craft. The goal of Bauhaus was the unity of art and technology so that to give artistic direction for the industry.

Figure 1. Charles Harper Illustrations. Giant Golden Book of Biology (http://grainedit.com/2008/02/25/charles- harper-illustrations-giant-golden-book-of- biology/).

Figure 2. Boriss BÁrziÚ. Drawing ìSkirtî (http://www.delfi.lv/kultura/news/art/lnmm-bus- skatama-borisa-berzina-izstade-brunci. d?id=22591867).

Although, design is often interpreted as art with the reference to common features in the process of creating both art and design work, such as the ability to think laterally, to communicate, (for example, to create userís friendly inter- face), to dispute traditional solutions and points of view (European Affairs 2009), design is to be considered an independent discipline.

Both designers and artists acquire traditional art techniques: drawing, painting, modelling, 2 and 3 dimension compositions which refine their sense of colour and shape and help to understand how an image or shape is formed. If they are necessary for artists as means to develop their way of expression, then for designers they are a part and parcel of training system which, together with the acquiring of professional and special subjects, build and develop professional competences, necessary for their work in the field of design.

17 Andra IrbÓte

The qualities of design are felt and perceived while watching or using a product or service. Design is rational by its nature; its main objective is to satisfy the needs of an individual or the society. The difference between design and art is in the context of what particular artwork is being created for and what for it is going to be used (Figures 3, 4, 5). Evaluating design, it is important to understand its essence and the criteria of quality. The basic value of design is its functionality and applicability, it is not decorative art: human needs are the point of reference of any development or innovation in design. Good design is innovative, associated with new technologies and theories.

Designerís creativity is in the ability to feel, perceive and find the solutions for complex problems. Innovations in design are not only the generation of brilliant ideas, but also the outcome of hard work. Quality design is visually attractive, thorough down to the last detail, it mustnít mislead or generate illusions. Natural resources are coming to end quickly, climate changes, polarisation in the level of life ñ all these factors are clearly showing the incompatibility of consumerism with sustainable development. That is why good design is environmentally friendly design. In 1960ís of the 20th century Dieter Rams defined the principles of good design (Rams 2009) which are well known to every designer; regretfully, not to every end user.

The Essence of Design The term design nowadays has various definitions and interpretations. It is used as a noun, denoting technical parameters and aesthetic appearance of an object in particular environment, as well as a verb with connotation to the process of creating a product or service. Also, the term design is defined as a strategic approach for reaching the goal that sets the parameters and processes of a project ñ how to do and what to do: in accordance with legislative, political, social, environmental, safety, and economic restrictions, for reaching a particular goal. Despite the various interpretations, the essence of the design thinking has not changed since its historic origins: it is the detecting of problems and solving them creatively. The disciplines of design have become multidisciplinary by separate fields merging together or after basic disciplines have split into separate sub-disciplines which are related to new theories, technologies and social needs. Although, the term design was referred only to the design of new objects or environment in the first half of the 20th century, since 1970ís it has been applied outside the realm of design as well. Today the new disciplines of design are more closely linked with the immaterial sphere: systems, processes, organisations, communication, experience and relations.

I. Sotamaa, Aalto University Professor, argues that there will always be space for products based on traditions of art and craft as it is one of the design elements. However, today design involves the development of the society, regions, states, industries, entrepreneurship and services. It is not art in its generally accepted form, but settlement of problems that comprises the ability to work in multi-professional teams. I. Sotamaa assures that the huge potential of design will not be fully made use of, while working individually. Aesthetics will always be a component of the end product, but it is not, as in art and craft, the ultimate goal (http://www.dizainastudija.eu/index.php/lv/1/112/134/143/index.html).

18 The Evolution of Design During 20th ñ 21st Centuries

Figures 3, 4. MiÌelis Bastiks. The graphic identity of Latvia for World Expo 2010 (http://asketic.lv/ project/latvia-world-expo-2010).

Figure 5. Design Jakob Schneider, book ìThis is Service Design Thinkingî (Marc Stickdorn & Jakob Schneider), European Design Award, category: Book layout. ìCombining the seriousness of a classic textbook with visual aids, the book tries to provide a better ìservice experienceî during reading and learning with the actual object. So in order to be authentic, this book has to understand itself as a serviceî (http://www.europeandesign.org/ submissions/this-is-service-design-thinking/).

Despite the triumph of design in the 20th and 21st centuries, there are designers who consider that design should return to its former source ñ art, because art addresses an individual, not a customer. A human is the Human in art, not human capital. J. Maeda, the designer, considers that art shows us that humans are still important in the world where money speaks the lordliest, and a computer knows everything about everybody.

ìArtists ask the questions that others are afraid to ask and that money cannot answer. Occasionally, as in Appleís case, or Pixarís, or Harley Davidsonís, we witness an artist asking questions that have a profound effect on the marketplace ñ on the way we live and play and driveî (http://www.wired.com/opinion/2012/09/so-if-designs-no-longer-the-killer- differentiator-what-is/).

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Can design restore the original connection with art and incorporate it in achieving a particular goal?

Art and Emotional Design Despite the differences between art and design, in some instances the term art is being used to characterize the performance of some designers. Is it the evidence that part of the society still consider design and architecture to be art and evaluate them according to the same criteria? Yes, because social understanding is often limited by stereotypes and personal experience. Art is associated with leisure, entertainment, visual and emotional enjoyment. Design, in its turn, is either considered to be egalitarian or is not evaluated as the basis of an object, thing, convenience of space or visual identity. Surplus value of material and immaterial culture, created by humans, is the positive impact it makes on the viewer, listener or user. Sensations or the first impression, which D. Norman (Norman 2005: 5ñ6) denotes as visceral impact, are intransient, they convey information prior to understanding and interpreting it by a human in the process of cognition. Good design is not pretentious, it is unperceivable to the persons who have no relevant knowledge; however, its user discovers and appreciates its quality in the process of using it. Sensations caused in the users by a new product or service, is an essential factor which should be taken into account in the process of designing and promoting them. The feedback from the user is the way how to find out drawbacks and improve them. Visual art is the oldest form of human creativity: more ancient than design, which originated and developed as a result of merging art and craft. Anyway, the link between the both is not only in the same complex of methods, applied in visual compositions or in psycho emotional impact on a human ñ it is traced in the historic development of philosophy, science, art and scientific thought.

Liberal Arts The concept of art has been interpreted in different ways. In ancient times it was any kind of useful skills. Architecture, painting, sculpture, war arts, metalwork etc. were classified as art. The Latin word ars (in plural, artes) was used to denote any skills or knowledge needed for making anything. The origin of the term liberal arts is traced back to the attitude of ancient Greeks and Romans to various skills (http://estudijas.lu.lv/pluginfile.php/ 101511/mod_resource/content/0/artes.pdf).

Ancient Greek philosophers did not separate art from the so called applied art. They differentiated artes liberales i.e. free arts from artes serviles or vulgares, i.e. ordinary art, including fine arts as an occupation of people from lower social layers (http://history- world.org/history_of_education.htm).

In the Middle Ages craftsmen and artists were called ñ artifices, the artists who studied or practised ìliberal artsî (Rubenis 1997). Liberal arts studies envisaged to form integrated comprehension of human experience and the exposure of it, available in those times. Out of seven liberal arts (Lat. septem artes liberales), studied at medieval European universities: grammar, rhetoric, logics, arithmetic, geometry, music and, astronomy, only music is

20 The Evolution of Design During 20th ñ 21st Centuries considered to be art in modern viewpoint. Artes consist of liberal arts and mechanical arts. While liberal arts were based on complex theoretical knowledge, mechanical arts were understood as craftsman`s artistry or technical skills for making useful and practical things.

Today the term Liberal Arts has varied interpretations: it is referred to such realms as literature, languages, philosophy, history, mathematics, psychology. It could be related to Liberal Arts study programmes, implying versatile education (Hanson 2010). The term Liberal Arts is not referred to vocational or technical education. Still, it is referred to design-the way how designers solve problems is Design Thinking.

Design Thinking The term appeared in 1980ís of the 20th century with the development of human ñ centred approach or Design Thinking. Human ñ centred approach or universal design is the design for creating products, environment targeted at as vast number of people as possible, including wheelchair users and people with special needs ñ having sight or hearing problems.

The concept of design as ìa way of thinkingî was interpreted by Herbert Simon in 1969 in his book ìThe Sciences of Artificialî. Artificial sciences, in his opinion, are, for example, engineering, informatics, medicine, business, architecture, painting, humanitarian and social sciences. Simon argues that particular phenomena are artificial in special connotation: they are created by a system, having purpose or intention, by the environment where they exist. Thus Simon considers systems of symbols or systems for processing information to be essential artefacts (Simon 1969). H. Simon interprets design as taking care of the user, to create would-be or should-be-like things in difference from natural sciences which focus on real existing things (Simon 1969/1996). Starting from the first issue of ìThe Sciences of the Artificialî (1969/1996) Simon reflects on the existence of design science as an independent discipline. However, as W. Visser (Visser 2010) points out in his lecture in 1987, Simon suggests a compromise, referring to ìart and design science ì.

H. Simon, together with Newell, develops basic principles of symbolic information processing (SIP) approach to problem solving. Newell and Simon, together with their colleagues, apply the approach not only to building concepts, verbal learning and perception, but also to administrative and organisational activities, creativity and scientific discoveries ñ even music and emotions (Visser 2010). Saimonës research is continued by some other researchers: Robert McKim in his book ìExperiences in Visual Thinkingî, Rolf Feist, who proceeded with McKimës research promoting the idea of Design Thinking as the kind of creative activity and adjusted it to the needs of entrepreneurship in the 80ís and 90ís of the 20th century (Visser 2010).

According to W. Visser (Visser 2010), the first remarkable usage of the term Design Thinking in the literature about design was by P. Rowe in his book ìDesign Thinkingî in 1987. Since then, several models of Design Thinking have been developed, that are based on various surveys on design process and situations in it.

21 Andra IrbÓte

Design Thinking is also called ìthinking outside the boxî. It is illustrated by the Nine Dots Puzzle, where 9 dots on the paper must be joined together with the help of only 4 lines without raising the pen (Figures 6, 7). Though the beginnings of applying this term did not exactly stat, its origin is referred to 80ís and 90ís of the 20th century.

Figure 6. The Nine Dots Puzzle (Sarcone G. A.) Figure 7. The Nine Dots Puzzle: Tridimensional (http://www.archimedes-lab.org/How_to_Solve/ solution (Kies D.) 9_dots.html). (http://papyr.com/hypertextbooks/comp2/ 9dots.htm).

The Nine Dots Puzzle illustrates the essence of design thinking ñ search for solutions, taking into account restrictions. E. Bernacki (Bernacki 2009) defines Design Thinking as a series of activities: to identify the problem by asking good questions and to find the best answers. The author remarks that there are many strategists who claim that Design Thinking is one of the best ways to cost-efficiency, as this approach helps to maintain customer targeted focus.

One of the most profound systems of Design Thinking is the matrix, developed by R. Buchanan (Buchanan 1992), design theoretician. He identified four areas entitled as ìordersî: communication (signs, symbols and words); construction (things); strategic planning (action), systemic integration (thinking that comprises systems, values, environ- ment).

In interior design, product design and product development the process of designing includes the system developed by Buchanan as a whole. Still, design is a creative process as well; despite the restrictions and conditions, the visual expressiveness and emotional effectiveness of the end product plays an important role.

In Buchananís (Buchanan 1992) opinion, design thinking is liberal art. He assures that in order to comprehend current changes it is important to acknowledge that, what is generally considered to be Liberal Art today should be traced back in the history. The author

22 The Evolution of Design During 20th ñ 21st Centuries considers that Design Thinking with its origins in the Renaissance has undergone a long period of development which reached its peak in the 19th century as a vision on encyclopedic education. Nowadays these separate study subjects are developing as autonomous branches of science promoting the accumulation of knowledge and thus forming more and more new values and facts. However, it facilitates the fragmentation of knowledge, because specialization is becoming narrower, the number of branches has risen and they have lost the connection among them, problems in common, and, to some extent, the connection with everyday issues. Buchanan stresses the importance of design thinking in the 20th century culture.

The author of the given article considers that the versatility characteristic to design education and design practice allows to interpret design as Liberal Art. During the process of planning and implementing a design project designers make use of the art of word (trivium): logics, grammar and rhetorics, as well as numerical art (quadrivium): mathe- matics, geometry. Design, not depending on the realm, nowadays is multidisciplinary; it is either real or virtual communication and exchange of knowledge among colleagues, designers and professionals from other fields, it is one of the key words when speaking about it. Design as an integral discipline is the bonding element among the separate disciplines which nowadays are classified as science and art.

The author of the given article agrees with R. Buchanan (1992) who claims: ìThe new liberal art of design thinking is turning to the modality of impossibility. ... This is not the thinking directed toward a technological ìquick fixî in hardware but toward new integra- tions of signs, things, actions, and environments that address the concrete needs and values of human beings in diverse circumstanceî (http://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/ 1511637?uid=3738496&uid=2&uid=4&sid=21101662474861).

The term Design Thinking does not have a single, generally accepted definition as various authors offer their explanations and interpretations of the term, stressing the importance of the approach in solving the problem or doubting its applicability in separate disciplines. However, Design Thinking has become a new paradigm that is considered to be useful in solving many problems, especially, in business and strategic management.

Design Thinking in Business Management Roger Martin (Dunne, Martin 2006), the Dean of Rotman Business School, was one of the first applied human centred approach and problem solving manner in project designing. Analysing learning methods in business management and design education, as well as he came to conclusion that in a good design school students are motivated to form much deeper understanding of usersí experience than in business schools. In the interview with D. Dunne, R. Martin stresses that the best designers can integrate aesthetic and usefulness perceiving restrictions as a challenge. He claims that designers ground their work on the research of how users make use of space, objects and service, they find solutions there, where the others see complexity and uncertainty, and synthesize new ideas from seemingly essentially different components. Thus they turn problems into opportunities. Analysing

23 Andra IrbÓte the organisation of work and responsibilities, the way of thinking, status basis and the dominating attitude in traditional and design enterprises, R. Martin finds differences in all posts, especially, in the attitude to customers and challenges. Martin defines Design Thinking as thinking system ñ to visualize a design object or a problem in a managerës work as a structural system, models, events, as well as to comprehend the importance of changes in each model and their impact on the entire system as a whole. Design Thinking combines the generation of new ideas with their analysis, assessment and generalization. R. Martin (Martin 2006) has developed his own design thinking model (Figure 8). Researching designing process, Martin also analyses the operation and products, designed in one of the most successful design companies in the world ñ IDEO. Tim Brown (Brown 2008), the president and CEO of IDEO, characterizes Design Thinking as a discipline where designerës sensitiveness and ways and means of work are used with the goal to comply with human needs in such a way that is technologically possible to implement, and to transform customersë values into tenacious business strategies and market empowerment. T. Brown is often invited to lecture on the importance of design thinking for business representatives and designers. He consults top managers and cooperates with such organizations as Mayo Clinic, Microsoft, PepsiCo, Procter & Gamble and Steelcase. Brown has summed his conclusions up in the book ìChange by Design: How Design Thinking Transforms Organizations and Inspires Innovationî, which is on high demand throughout the world. Trainor (Trainor 2011) considers design thinking to be a support to entrepreneurship in order to develop entrepreneurship strategies and decision making more efficient and clear; less based on analytical approach, but more related to opportunities, challenges and risks of the real world.

Figure 8. R. Martinís Model of Design Thinking (Martin 2006: 512ñ523).

Design and Strategic Management Design Thinking is a strategy, used by designers to reach the expected results. Any design product or service starts with research: evaluation of the situation, customer survey, involvement of contracting authority or potential clients in order to detect the needs they are not aware of and cannot formulate yet. Strategic planning, constructing of prototypes, marketing and feedback from end users are well-known, even self-evident principles for designers and design managers. Design thinking is systemic, communication oriented, relations among people, organisations, environment and technologies. It is purposeful,

24 The Evolution of Design During 20th ñ 21st Centuries action-oriented, includes both analysis and imagination in problem solving. Design Thinking in Strategic Management combines designersë creative thinking and business leadersë thinking.

Several Design Thinking models have been developed in strategic management (Liedtka, Ogilvie 2011). However, there are designers who share sceptical attitude to unifying design and business disciplines and have the unanimous opinion that the term design is out of place in this context. Still, the essence of Design Thinking as well as the nature of design is taking care of users. Human-centred approach is the way of how to add value and build product and service concepts, as well as make strategies meaningful.

Innovation Arts B. Nussbaum (Nussbaum 2010), Parson Design School Professor, considers that it is necessary to form a new system ñ Innovation Arts to replace the ruling Liberal Arts paradigm. That would be the next step in the evolution of Design Thinking. B. Nussbaum claims that the changes in the world and failures of social organisations demand the transition from the ruling Liberal Arts paradigm which teaches people how to learn from the existing world on the ground of the former knowledge, to a new paradigm that teaches people how to develop new social systems, based on profound cognition of current cultural rituals and human behaviour. It is necessary in social, economic and political context, developing a human ñ centred design tool set for policy creators. ìThe ìas ifÖ.î perspective of ritual, serious play and the making of the new embodied in the Innovation Arts paradigm are already dominant in much of Generation Y culture. Gen Y has much to teach and much to doî (http://www.businessweek.com/innovate/NussbaumOnDesign/archives/2010/ 03/the_future_of_design_stanford_conference.html). Time will show how this, just like Design Thinking, creativity-based theory, will develop.

Conclusions Nowadays design is not a trend of art, but an independent discipline. It has not lost the link with art, but its borders have widened since the end of the 20th century. If, historically, design was associated only with aesthetics ñ the shape and looks of artefacts and objects, then today it is becoming an important discipline in other areas of science: a possibility of how to generate ideas, transform them in user-friendly high quality products and services. Design Thinking is the way how to treat problems and their solutions. It has become the paradigm which is considered to be useful for solving various problems. If design is applied with efficiency, it is possible to do much more than only to improve the quality of a separate good or service ñ it is the process of strategic development; the necessity to make the choice of individuals, companies and society between the existing solutions and sustainable alternatives easier.

25 Andra IrbÓte

References Academy of Management Learning & Education. 2006. Vol. 5, No. 4, 512ñ523. http://intranet.ebc.edu.mx/contenido/faculty/archivos/pensamiento_diseno_221111.pdf [02.12.2012.]. Bastiks, M. 2010. Asketic Riga. The graphic identity of Latvia for World Expo 2010. http://asketic.lv/project/latvia-world-expo-2010 [02.12.2012.]. Bernacki, E. 2009. Why Design Thinking Matters. http://www.canadaone.com/ezine/oct09/ design_thinking.html [02.12.2012.]. BÁrziÚ, B. 1998. Skirt, drawing. http://www.delfi/news/art/lnmm-bus-skatama-borisa- bezina-izstade-brunci.d?id=22591867 [02.12.2012.]. Bogart, J. 2011. What Are Liberal Arts? My college guide. http://mycollegeguide.org/ articles/8/145/what-are-liberal-arts [02.12.2012.]. Brown, T. 2008. Definitions of design thinking. IDEO. IDEO. Design Thinking. Thoughts by Tim Brown. http://designthinking.ideo.com/?p=49 [02.12.2012.]. Buchanan, R. 1992. Wicked Problems in Design Thinking. Design Issues, Vol. 8, No. 2, 5ñ2. http://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/1511637?uid=3738496&uid=2&uid=4& sid=21101662474861 [02.12.2012.]. Dunne, D., Martin, R. 2006. Joseph L. Rotman School of Management. Design Thinking and How It Will Change Management Education: An Interview and Discussion. Academy of Management Learning & Education, Vol. 5, No. 4, 512ñ523. http://intranet.ebc.edu.mx/ contenido/faculty/archivos/pensamiento_diseno_221111.pdf [02.12.2012.]. Martin, R. 2006. EBSCOhost. Joseph L. Rotman School of Management. Design Thinking and How It Will Change Management Education: An Interview and Discussion. Academy of Management Learning & Education, Vol. 5, No. 4, 512ñ523. http://intranet.ebc.edu.mx/ contenido/faculty/archivos/pensamiento_diseno_221111.pdf [02.12.2012.]. European Affairs. 2009. Kult˚ras ietekme uz kreativit‚ti. http://lma.lv/downloads/ kreativitate-2009.pdf [02.12.2012.]. European Design Avards. 2011. Featured Winners. http://www.europeandesign.org/ submissions/this-is-service-design-thinking/ [02.12.2012.]. Gondek, M. J. Liberal Arts. Polskie Towarzystwo Tomasza z Akwinu. http://estudijas.lu.lv/ pluginfile.php/101511/mod_resource/content/0/artes.pdf [02.12.2012.]. Gropius,W. 1919. Bauhaus Manifesto and Program. http://www.thelearninglab.nl/ resources/Bauhaus-manifesto.pdf [02.12.2012.]. Harper, Ch. 1961. Illustrations. Giant Golden Book of Biology: Golden Press. http://grainedit.com/2008/02/25/charles-harper-illustrations-giant-golden-book-of-biology/ [02.12.2012.]. International World History Project. http://history-world.org/history_of_education.htm [02.12.2012.]. Hanson, V. D. 2010. In Defense of Liberal Arts. National Revievw Online. http:// www.nationalreview.com/articles/255390/defense-liberal-arts-victor-davis-hanson [02.12.2012.].

26 The Evolution of Design During 20th ñ 21st Centuries

Kies, D. 2013. One Solution to the Puzzle of the Nine Dots. papyr.com. One Solution to the Puzzle of the Nine Dots. http://papyr.com/hypertextbooks/comp2/9dots.htm [02.12.2012.]. LÓcÓte, Z., GailÓtis V. 2007. Dizains maina veidolu: saruna ar Yrjˆ Sotamaa. Dizaina Studija. 1. http://www.dizainastudija.eu/index.php/lv/1/112/134/143/index.html [02.12.2012.]. Maeda, J. 2012. If Designís No Longer the Killer Differentiator, What Is? http://www. wired.com/opinion/2012/09/so-if-designs-no-longer-the-killer-differentiator-what-is/ [02.12.2012.]. Norman, D. A. 2005. Emotional Design. Basic Books. P. 5ñ6. Nussbaum, B. 2010. The Future of Design. Stanford Conference. Bloomberg Buisnessweek. http://www.businessweek.com/innovate/NussbaumOnDesign/archives/2010/03/the_ future_of_design_stanford_conference.html [02.12.2012.]. Rams, D. 2009. Design Museum. Dieter Rams. http://designmuseum.org/design/dieter- rams [02.12.2012.]. Sarcone, G. A. Archmimedes Laboratory. Most Wanted Puzzle Solutions. The Nine Dot Puzzle. http://www.archimedes-lab.org/How_to_Solve/9_dots.html [02.12.2012.]. Simon, H. 1996. The Sciences Of The Artificial, Third Edition. The MIT Press. P. 4ñ5, 21. Trainor, G. 2011. Design Thinking and Itsí Application to the Practice of Business Strategy. Design Business Conference. http://www.designbusinessconference.com/wp-content/ uploads/2010/07/total-provocations1.pdf [02.12.2012.]. Visser, W. 2010. Simon: Design as a problem-solving activity. Collection, No. 2. Art + Design & Psychology: Parsons Paris School of Art and Design. P. 11ñ16. http://hal. archives-ouvertes.fr/docs/00/56/58/86/PDF/SimonDesignAsAProblemSolving.pdf [02.12.2012.].

27 ART TEMPUS. 1/2013 ISSN 2255-9396

Metamorphosis of the Altarpiece over the Last 145 Years

Laimdota Ivanova Madona History and Art Museum Madona, Skolas Street 12, LV-4801, Latvia [email protected]

Abstract In 1867 Madona Evangelical Lutheran Church received the altarpiece ìGolgataî painted in Dusseldorf, Germany. Over the last 145 years the painting has been damaged for a few times and reconstructed twice (in 1906 by ZigfrÓds Aleksandrs BÓlenteins (Bielenstein)), two copies of the altarpiece were made (by J‚nis ZostiÚ and Daiga Simsone). In 2012 the restoration of the original altar painting was done by Laura KristlÓba.

Key words: Altarpiece, Original, Copy, Restoration.

White silhouette of the Madona Evangelical Lutheran Church of Lazdona, which is located near the south-west town border, from a distance only it appears visible in winter time while most of the building remains hidden by more than hundred years old trees and their leaves during spring, summer and autumn. It is partly hidden by a two-storey brick house just next to it that was built in the soviet years. The church was built from 1802 to 1805. It is the oldest non-modified building in the whole town of Madona (Figure 2). Its location has remained the same for more than 200 years, only the names of the two main roads have been changed a few times, the church is located in the intersection of these two roads, Madona-VarakÔ‚ni, and Kr‚slava-PreiÔi-Madona (Ivanova 2006) (Figure 1).

The Island Lake (also known as The Church Lake) with its underwater building remains from the 9th century, and is also located near the church. Continuing the tradition of lighting all the historical buildings in the town at night, the church is being lit every night since 16th November in 2004 (Madona City Council, verdict protocol number 16, 16th October 2004).

This publication intends to describe the history of the altarpiece at the Evangelical Lutheran church of Lazdona in Madona since 1867, its destructions, restorations and the creation of its copies. In order to write this article, there have been used references from National Cultural Monument Protection Inspection, Monument Documentation Centre, The Archive of Madona Evangelical Lutheran Church, Madona History and Art Museum, other publications and an unpublished dissertation by a post-graduate student Laura KristlÓba at The Art Academy of Latvia.

28 Metamorphosis of the Altarpiece over the last 145 years

Figure 1. View of the Lutheran church, around 1930. Madona Art and History Museum. Inv. No. MNM 25004.

If somebody from the 19th century would visit the church now, this person would most likely not recognise it at all. The exterior and location of the church have remained the same; however the interior has been modified a few times. Unfortunately, there are no records of the interior of the church up until 1840, when a few changes were made, including creation of the altar, two wooden frames carved with ornaments. In 1846 a new church organ was installed. Two church organ manufacturers began their existence in Latvia in the cities of Riga and Liepaja in 1840ís. The largest church organ production in Riga was managed by Figure 2. Lazdona Church (Photo by L. Ivanova). Augusts Martins; during 1840 ñ 1885 they 2012. had managed to build 67 church organs and 19 organs for schools. The 8-pipe organ that was bought from Martinsí shop for Lazdona Church was built in 1846. By 1929 this church organ had a total of 14 pipes installed. After the World War II the organ in the church was completely destroyed, some of the pipes were lying on the ground, some broken or taken away (National Cultural Monument Protection Inspection centre, Inv. No. 3423-23-KM). In the beginning of 1960ís the organ from Bulduri Church was transported to Lazdona. It was manufactured at a company called E. F. Walcker & Co in Ludvigsburgh, Germany; the same company had installed smaller church organs in a few other places throughout Latvia, including Bulduru Church in 1889 (GrauzdiÚa 1987).

29 Laimdota Ivanova

There used to be glass windows on both sides of the altar but later these windows were closed and ornaments were painted on the walls where the windows used to be. It remains unknown how long the windows were there, as they were probably bricked up and closed during a significant renovation (KlÁmanis 1929). Johans Vedekinds (Johann Wedekindt, birth date unknown, died in 1701) was the first priest in Lazdona. Almost 200 years later, priest R˚dolfs K‚rlis Eduards Guleke (Rudolf Guleke, 1830 ñ 1901) began to work at Lazdona Church in 1860. He studied Theology in the University of TÁrbata from 1851 to 1856, and other courses in Germany in 1858. Priest Guleke tried to introduce more education for children, there were small festivals for children organised and a church choir was founded (KlÁmanis 1929).

During Gulekeís time as a priest in Lazdona, a new part of the altar was installed, made of oak tree with a painting ìChrist on a crossî, also known as ìGolgothaî by an unknown author from Dusseldorf, Germany. A scene from the Bible was portrayed in this altar painting, with the Christ in the centre, crucified at the cross, Maria on the left and one of his Apostles Janis on the right. The characters were painted with great detail, visible in full body length, clothing of Maria and Janis were depicted as heavy, falling drapery (Figures 3, 6). The Christ was shown in a white cloth with ornaments covering him until knees, thorns on his head and a nimbus above it. His legs were painted with one nail connecting them to the cross. There was a sign on top of the cross with letters INRI ñ Iesvs Nazarenvs Rex Ivda- eorvm, translated from Latin it means Jesus from Nazareth, the Judaic King (KristlÓba 2012). The overall composition of the painting is central, with low horizon. The background is covered with painted golden leaves which create an arc shape that also matches the shape of the altar frame. The painting is a combination of classicism style, with the charac- teristic expressions of the people, and gothic golden elements (KristlÓba 2012). Priest Guleke worked in Lazdona for 14 years, and afterwards another two German priests worked there, TeofÓls GÁtgens Figure 3. Church interior (Photo by L. Ivanova). 2010. (Theophil Gaehtgens) and K‚rlis Ks‚vers Marnics (Xaver Marnitz). In 1893 the first Latvian priest J‚nis «rmanis (1862 ñ 1932) began his work at the church. He was remembered as a priest who took good care of the local schools, raising the level of education for everyone, also home education, and

30 Metamorphosis of the Altarpiece over the last 145 years he was organising various meetings and question-and-answer evenings at the church. He was the founder of the public Library of Lazdona, and was highly respected by the people of the church until the revolution in 1905 that brought many changes (KlÁmanis 1929).

In the spring of 1905 the first tremor happened during an Easter Service at the local Orthodox Church, when a pigeon was flown in the air with a ribbon attached to it saying ìDown with the power! Long live Democracy!î On 1st May after the church service in the Lutheran church a large demonstration began, going to the Lazdona Manor first and then further to M‚rciena, Grostona and BÁrzaune villages in Madona District. Over a thousand people took part in this demonstration. On 8th May during the service a lot of people appeared from the nearby villages, the sermon was disrupted and the priest was forced to go as part of the demonstration holding a red flag. A church service still took place on 15th May however, the threat was made towards the priest, and therefore a few churches including Lazdona Church were temporarily closed. In 9th June 1905 during night the church walls were damaged with various sentences written on it, which were also threats to the priest «rmanis. A few nights later the church door was broken into, and the altar candlestick and the memory plate of priests Bergmansí family [Heinrihs Eberhards Bergmanis (1794 ñ 1872) ñ L.I.] from the wall were missing, the church organ was slightly damaged, the sheet music was shredded and the altarpiece was cut. (Lazdonas Draudzes Hronika (Lazdona Church Chronicles) kept at Madona Art and History Museum. Inv. No. MNM 38979)

After the happenings in 1905, the priest J‚nis «rmanis was reporting that on 8th May during the sermon, a large crowd of unknown people appeared at the church, singing their songs loudly, so that the sermon had to be stopped. A man in a red mask got up to the altar and held a revolutionary speech. There were many men armed with knives, revolvers and bats, scaring the church people away. After the speech by the red masked man the crowd was cheering, singing and being very loud, and about 4 ñ 5 men made the priest go out of the church, hold a red flag, and join their demonstration («rmanis 1930). In 1906 «rmanis left Lazdona.

In 1906 the damaged altar painting was reconstructed by an artist ZigfrÓds Aleksandrs BÓlenteins (Bielenstein, 1869 ñ 1949), a son of Augusts BÓlenteins (Bielenstein, 1826 ñ 1907), German theology graduate and scientist, and the priest in Dobele (Damberga 1995).

This altarpiece remained at the church altar until 1974; however some significant damage was discovered during the soviet times. According to the documentation data of the National Cultural Monument Protection centre, the painting was severely damaged after the World War II, there was a 20 centimetres long tearing in the middle and 10 centimetres of smaller tearing that was attempted to be covered but was still visible (National Cultural Monument Protection Inspection centre. Inv. No. 3423-23-KM).

In 1974 the damaged altar painting was replaced by a new copy made by the decorator J‚nis ZostiÚ (1919 ñ 1989) but the original painting was kept behind the copy until 1982. J‚nis ZostiÚ was born on 18th March 1919 in Kukolka Village, Tjumena District.

31 Laimdota Ivanova

He was working in Madona at a painter workshop, and as a decorator in both the local theatre and local union.

When the copy of the altar painting was created, the original was kept in the church behind its copy. On 28th December, 1982 the church manager at the time Andrejs Kums‚rs gave the original painting to the Museum of Madona for storage. According to the data by The Government Monument Protection agency, after the inspection of the painting in 1983, it had cracks, a few dark spots and the paint had chipped in some parts of the painting (National Cultural Monument Protection Inspection centre. Inv. No. 3423-23-KM).

The painting was kept in the Museum of Madona until 16th December, 1992 when it was brought back to the church, accepted by the head of the church people Anda StradiÚa.

The painting made by J‚nis ZostiÚ was damaged in 1992 when unknown persons had cut out and stolen a part of the painting. The original painting was kept at the local museum at the time and remained unharmed (Figure 4).

The original altarpiece is a highly significant monument of art. The fact that at the time it was kept at the museum probably saved the painting from even more damage or disappearance. In the same year a teacher at Madona Art School and an artist Daiga Simsone (born in 1949) created a copy of the painting, excluding the original golden background, and it has been in the church since Christmas in 1992 (Figure 5). In 2012 the restoration of the original altar- piece was finished. It was a post-graduate study project by a student Laura KristlÓba at Latvian Art Academy. When inspecting the painting it was concluded that during the restoration the painting was put on a new canvas, the tearing was fixed, some over-painting was done and the golden background was covered with golden orna- ments again. BÓlenteins did not have specific restoration knowledge, however it had been documented that he worked on the restoration for a number of paintings during the 1920ís. Although, because of his actions a lot of the paint had been washed off and the painting was done rather roughly. BÓlenteins was Figure 4. Part of the altarpiece copy created reconstructing the painting, basing on his own by J‚nis ZostiÚ (Photo by L. Ivanova). artistic knowledge but not on following the 2012. original authorís paint layer (KristlÓba 2012).

32 Metamorphosis of the Altarpiece over the last 145 years

Figure 5. Copy of the altarpiece created by Daiga Figure 6. The original altarpiece before resto- Simsone, 2012 (Photo by L. Ivanova). ration, 2010 (Photo by L. Opmane).

During the restoration three major over-paintings had been done on the most torn areas and a few smaller ones. These paint-overs cover most of the original authorís work. They are done in a way to invisibly match with the original paint. The overall area that has been painted over is about 13 square decimetres. The golden part is created with golden leaves on an oil base. The leaves are about 8x8 centimetres large and have been done over the whole area of the original golden ornaments. During this process contours of the characters have been covered in some parts of the painting, even up to 5mm, creating strong lines and distorting the perspective of the painting (Figures 7, 8).

Figure 7. Close up of the painting before restoration Figure 8. Close up of the painting during the (Photo by L. Opmane). 2010. restoration process (Photo by L. Opmane). 2011.

33 Laimdota Ivanova

During the last restoration, nearly all of the over painted colour was removed, working patiently with a scalpel under a microscope. The original base material is a very fine and thin linen, and therefore solutions had to be found for strengthening the damaged and torn parts of the painting from the back side of it, to avoid any deformation of the canvas. A type of silk, a very fine, thin and strong material, was suitable for the restoration. The last part of the whole restoration process was toning. The original paint layer is very thin and even opaque on some areas, and after removing the paint layers from the first restoration, it was concluded that the original paint was rubbed off slightly in some parts of the painting. That is the reason why a so called ëimitation toningí was done there, instead of the missing original paint new one was applied in a fine line pattern to create an illusion of the necessary overall colour (KristlÓba 2012).

The original background of the painting is covered with a light golden decoration with some silver nuances. During the historical resto- ration the whole background was covered with golden leaves that were significantly different from the original golden shade, giving the painting a heavy look. However during the inspection and some test work, it was decided not to remove this golden layer from the first restoration because doing so might damage the original painting.

The surface of the painting is covered with a thin, slightly aged and uneven but elastic layer of varnish. Due to the many over paintings, it is most likely that separate parts of it have been varnished repeatedly and that creates an ap- pearance of it being uneven (KristlÓba 2012). Figure 9. The original altarpiece after the restoration (Photo by L. Opmane). 2012. Restoration of the altarpiece was finished in 2012. The official opening of the newly recon- structed painting took place in the Madona Evangelic Lutheran Church of Lazdona on 1st December. Many visitors during the Christmas time had a chance to see the original painting which now looks as close as possible to the original one.

Conclusions During the last 145 years the original altarpiece has been damaged a few times due to the political motives. Two copies have been created, one of which was damaged and stolen, and the other one is placed at the church altar at the moment in the beginning of 2013. The original painting was reconstructed in 1906, then slightly renewed after a few damages

34 Metamorphosis of the Altarpiece over the last 145 years during the soviet times, and now reconstructed in 2012. The original painting is a nationally significant art object, and after its reconstruction it is now returned to the church where it is going to be placed at the altar. After the reconstruction it has gained the original appearance that the author intended.

References Damberga, D. 1995. M‚ksla un arhitekt˚ra biogr‚fij‚s. RÓga: Latvijas enciklopÁdija. P. 64. «rmanis, J. 1930. M‚cÓt‚ju ziÚojumi par 1905. gada revol˚ciju. RÓga: Kult˚ras balss. P. 160ñ161. GrauzdiÚa, I. 1987. T˚ksto mÁlÁm ÁrÏeles spÁlÁ. RÓga: Liesma. P. 76. Ivanova, L. 2006. Lazdonas luter‚Úu baznÓca gadsimtu ritum‚. Madonas muzeja raksti. Madona: Madonas poligr‚fists. P. 65ñ74. KlÁmanis, G. 1929. Lazdonas draudze sen‚k un tagad. Lazdonas ev.-lut. draudzes izdevums. P. 34. KristlÓba L. 2012. Divu sakr‚l‚s st‚jglezniecÓbas darbu izpÁte un restaur‚cija. Masterís Thesis. P. 39. Lazdonas draudzes hronika. Madonas m‚kslas un vÁstures muzejs. Inv. No. MNM 38979. Madona Evangelical Lutheran Church Archive. 1982., 1992. Madona City Council Protocol Nr. 16. 2004. 16. 10. National Cultural Monument Protection Inspection centre. Inv. No. 3423-23-KM.

35 ART TEMPUS. 1/2013 ISSN 2255-9396

The Architecture of BÁr˛u Cemetery Chapel

Ilm‚rs Dirveiks Institute of Art, Daugavpils University VienÓbas Street 13 ñ 230, Daugavpils, LV-5401, Latvia [email protected]

Abstract BÁr˛u cemetery chapel was built in 1791 as an octagonal building, possibly a portico entry. This is a rather rare wooden church type of Latgaleís 18th century churches. There are remains of some original wall painting, which are important for the history of interior art design. In the 1st part of the 19th century the building was expanded by adding simple characteristic marks of late classicism as featured in the splendid entry doors. The chapel was relocated to BÁr˛u cemetery only in 1920. The present building is a result of complicated building history of various periods of constructionsí assemblage. Some original details are completely or partially lost, using new elements instead. Nevertheless, BÁr˛u cemetery chapel presents a unique example of sacral architecture of the Latgale district and Latvia in general.

Key words: Chapel, Hewed Log, Frieze, Meander, Cladding.

Introduction The architectonically artistic investigation of BÁr˛u cemetery chapel in BÁrzpils district, Balvu region was carried out due to the planned renovation works (Dirveiks 2011). The building is an architectural monument of state importance No. 2840 and it is believed to be the oldest wooden building in the region. Therefore, the project and conservation methodology have to be based on thorough inspection of the building. The architectural survey included buildingís facades and interior cladding audit, as well as fixing of culturally and historically important details and cladding elements, thus gaining broader concept of the objectís building history.

The original volume of current BÁr˛u cemetery chapel was built in 1791. The building initiator was the owner of Zosuli estate ñ Teofil Benislavski. The estate was situated near the Ruskulova ñ Krij‚Úi highroad approximately 6 km from BÁr˛i. The small wooden church or chapel operated as a branch of BÁr˛u church (Kr˚miÚ 2003: 39). As stated by J. Svil‚ns, the small church was called ìpublic oratoriumìor ìaula Zosuliì(Svil‚ns 1995: 43). Zosuli church was dedicated to Jesus Heart and a corresponding painting was held in it.

Until the middle of the 19th century the building was rebuilt and expanded. It is known that in 1866 public services were not held there anymore due to its old age (Svil‚ns 1995: 43).

36 Architecture of BÁr˛u Cemetery Chapel

After the World War I the old estate was divided into new farms and the church was prepared for demolition. The chapel is situated in its current place ñ BÁr˛u cemetery on the castle mound, since 1920 when it was relocated from its former place in the territory of Zosuli estate by the order of J. Kindzulis, the dean of BÁr˛i (MDC) (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Southern view on BÁr˛u cemetery chapel. On the right ñ part of the original polygonal chapel (Photo by I. Dirveiks). 2011.

In July of 1972 it was surveyed by the employees of Rund‚le palace. The given building description reported interior equipment items and the fact that chippingsí roof had recently been replaced. Even then the description already contained a guess on the originally polygonal building volume (PDC). In October of 1975 three paintings were deposited in the museum of Rund‚le palace (RPM sc. arch. No. 5476). There were two paintings by unknown artists ñ ìSaint Magdaleneî (Inv. No. RPM 1375) and ìHeart of Jesusî (Inv. No. RPM 1377). On the reverse side of third paintingís canvas ñ ìJesus Body is laid in a Tombî (Inv. No. RPM 1376) ñ there was a writing with a possible name of the painter Pinxit Ciszkiewiez. The wooden sculpture ìCrucifixionî was deposited in the museum of Rund‚le palace in 1981. The present 19th century bench is mentioned in the description from 1996 and is named there incorrectly, i.e. most probably it is a patronage chair (MDC).

Building period I. 1791 ñ 1st quarter of the 19th century During the first building period which dated from 1791 till the 1st quarter of the 19th century the chapel was built as a thin octagonal volume (Figure 2). That is a rather rare type of Latgaleís 18th century wooden churches. Judging by analogy, the building could have had one or more frontons and an antechamber as it was, for example, in Dubna (Kr˚miÚ 2003: 40). There are not many clear solution examples, and small chapels built in such way may be found in Dzelzava, Kaln‚jui, Ludza (Kr˚miÚ 2003: 88). The building

37 Ilm‚rs Dirveiks

was built as a log house with dove- tail joints. The hewed logs are 23 to 27 cm high, but the wall is 16 cm wide. The side posts of the window box are tied into the logs. We have no information about original facade cladding. However, according to some analogies the original facades also had plank cladding (Kr˚miÚ 2003: 130).

The original window openings had a vertical rectangle shape. The Figure 2. Chapel of Zosuli estate in the end of the 18th assumption is based on the painted century. Theoretical dimensions reconstruction (I. Dirveiksí frieze in the interior, which is dis- sketch). 2011. rupted by the upper part of the cur- rent window, as well as the later built crude cut in the logs. Sup- posedly there had been plank floor in the altar space, but the rest is a lime floor. The walls are erected on stone basics, which is typical for churches in Latgale.

Figure 3. Wall friese painting. 80ís of the 18th century The original polychrome interior (Drawing by V. Strupule). 2011. decoration has been preserved. The walls are painted with glue colours directly onto the log construction. During the research the paint coats were cleared mechanically with a scalpel. Testing spaces and their number were limited. The chemical analysis of the paint has not been carried out yet. Most probably, the so-called ìhorizontal tree-partî composition was used ñ a dark socle part, a light monochrome wall and an ornamental friezeís belt at the upper part of the wall. Such painting system was widely used during the last quarter of the 18th century and the 1st part of the 19th century. At the lower part of the wall the logs are badly damaged due to humidity, therefore the painting of the socle has not been preserved. The main plane of the wall was painted light pink. The antique art motive of meander was used for the plinth and painted in darker and lighter shades of pink (Figure 3). Black and white chiaroscuro adds the illusion of dimension to the paining. There is no information about the original interior decoration for the beam and plank ceilings because they have not been preserved.

Building period II. 1st quarter of the 19th century ñ 1920ís Up to the middle of the 19th century the parish part of the building was extended; a rectangle room with entrance porch was attached to the octagonal part (Figure 4. A). It

38 Architecture of BÁr˛u Cemetery Chapel was decorated with a portico with 4 pillars and triangular fronton on top (pillars were replaced with simple logs in the 20th century). The middle part of the fronton is highlighted by the triangle made of profile ledges. It should be noted that the planks in the frontal plane were connected by ledges that were gudgeoned and integrated in the planks. This type of construction solution secures resistance against deformation. The plastic expression of the facade is highlighted by profiled cornices. Most part of the building is covered by the roof with two sloping surfaces. Eastern side has three surfaces that correspond to the apse plan of the first building period. Walls are based upon typical boulder fundamentals. After the parish room expansion in the 19th century, the walls were white- washed, thereby covering the original painting in the altar part.

Window openings became active element in the architecture of facades. Both the new molten upper parts and the decora- tive strutting are typical for the late classicism and Bieder- 4.A meier time (Figure 4.B). Only the lower part of big windows on the northern part under the balcony has survived. Alto- gether it contains 16 square-like panes.

Lavish double doors with a transom is the most important accent of the second building period in the primary ñ Western part of the facade. This is the most expressive architectural style element in the entire building (Figure 4.C). Leaves of the doors contain decors of Empire-Biedermeier style motive. At first the doors were painted in monochrome ochre colouring. The leaves of two panels have been hanged up in hinges of band hooks. Panels have double uplift that makes a specific relief on the facade side and it is attached to the 4.B foundation with wooden locking dowels. According to formal characteristics, the upper oval panel used to contain an octagonal star. One of the current locks could have survived from the 18th century, and lock of the second box has been made at the same time as leaves in the second third of the 19th century.

Figure 4. Changes in the building in the 1st part of the 19th century: A ñ Scheme of the plan with the contour of the original polygonal space to which the current parish part was attached in the 1st part of the 19th century; B ñ Window with a leaf from the 1st part of the 19th century; C ñ Exit doors with transoms. (Drawing by V. Strupule, Photos by I. Dirveiks). 2011. 4.C

39 Ilm‚rs Dirveiks

It has to be highlighted that two window leaves that have been built in the wall above the entrance ñ have been an important facade element in their original place because of the complex strutting. Each of those leaves belongs to a different building period, and only during the last reconstruction in 1920 they have been inserted in the overall architectural shape of the facade.

Important elements of this period are so called patronage benches and a part of worshiperís bench (without the front part). Altogether in the first part of the 19th century marks of simplified empire and classicism style were made to the building.

Building period III. 1920 ñ 21st century In 1920 the building was relocated from ZosuÔi estate to BÁr˛u cemetery. Before dismant- ling, parts of the building were marked with blue pencil. Facades were covered with paneling of horizontal 2 cm thick and 20 cm wide plank. Very few existing sources on BÁr˛u chapel stress that in 1920, there were used nails of local blacksmiths (Svil‚ns 1995: 43). The use of such material in 1920ís can be considered as a rare exception. In many nearby places hammered and industrial nails can be found. The connection between the polygonal ñ later attached part of the building has been reinforced by internal and external legs that have been braced together with screw-bolts.

Roof has been constructed of partly barked spruce round timber for rafters and non-barked laths. Up to 1993 the roof was covered with shingles, covered by asbestos cement plates. Ceiling bars were covered by distant planks. Walls were covered by plaster that was put on splinters and then whitewashed. Facades were painted in monochrome grey color.

In 1920 retablo and mensa were also made (Figure 5). During this period the balcony supported by two square-shaped pillars was also constructed. The balcony ascent was installed in the North-Western corner. New windows were made, preserving parts of the upper segmented leaves.

Figure 5. A view on the altar side in 2011 during the research. (Photo by I. Dirveiks). 2011.

40 Architecture of BÁr˛u Cemetery Chapel

After relocating the building, the 19th century dimensions and facade style of the building were preserved even though many of the original details had been lost.

Conclusions History of the building can be divided in three parts. 1st building period covers time from 1791 to the 1st part of the 19th century when the chapel of ZosuÔi estate was built as an octagonal and centric volume. Examples mentioned by A. Kr˚miÚ, a researcher of Latgale district churches, can be supplemented also by the former Jesus Heart chapel of ZosuÔi estate. The original interior ñ frieze that contains a polychrome variation of the classic meander ornament ñ has partly been preserved from the 18th century.

2nd building period includes all the 19th century up to 1920. It is characterized by significant changes in dimensions of the building. Up to the 19th century the parish part of the church has been extended by attaching a rectangular part and a covered porch to the octagonal volume; this new part had a portico with 4 pillars and triangular fronton on the top. Entrance doors from the 1st part of the 19th century are the most important architectural element ñ they contain elements of late classicism. Other important elements are so called patronage bench and a part of worshiperís bench, as well as parts of windows.

After the reconstruction church gained something similar to the B-type plan by A. Kr˚miÚ (2003) ñ rectangle with a polygonal choir part. Only in this case the choir part remained projective in the side facades ñ signifying the original dimensions.

The current building is the result of relocation of the constructions from ZosuÔi in 1920. Parts of the original details have been lost and new elements have been used; in many places new constructions degrade the original architectural quality. During this period the new altar was installed, new roof was placed and walls were plastered. After a number of reconstructions a compiled timber building has been formed. Small chapel has been turned into a small church that is still used as a chapel and contains building elements from the 1791, first part of the 19th century and 1920ís ñ altogether it presents a good example of sacral architecture from Latgale district and Latvia in general.

References Dirveiks, I. 2011. BÁr˛u kapliËas arhitektoniski m‚ksliniecisk‚ inventariz‚cija. Monument documentation center of the State Inspection for Heritage Protection. BÁr˛u chapel file. Kr˚miÚ, A. 2003. Latgales koka baznÓcas Romas katoÔu draudzÁs 18. gadsimt‚. RÓga: Jumava. MDC ñ Monument documentation centre of the State Inspection for Heritage Protection. RPM ñ Rund‚le Palace Museum archive. BÁr˛u chapel file. Svil‚ns, J. 1995. Latvijas Romas ñ katoÔu baznÓcas un kapelas. I. daÔa. RÓga: RÓgas Metro- polijas k˚rija.

41 ART TEMPUS. 1/2013 ISSN 2255-9396

An Insight into the Latgale Old-Believersí Manuscripts at the Pushkin House

Inese Klestrova Art Academy of Latvia Kalpaka Street 13, RÓga, LV-1050, Latvia [email protected]

Abstract The aim of this article is to shed light on a little explored topic in the Latvian history of art ñ the design of Latvian Old-Believersí manuscripts with an emphasis on the achievement of their known scribes. The known scribes should be understood as those authors who are identified by archeographs (graphology) from comments or handwritten signatures left in the manuscripts. Information concerning surnames of the authors was based on the opinion of various archeographs (graphologists) from the Russian Academy of Sciences Institute of Russian Literature (Pushkin House) and on the Pushkin House Manuscript Sectionís archive, involving the description of Latgale Collection. Visual material was analysed and collected in the above mentioned Saint-Petersburg archive. As a result, there were identified the book scribes of nine Latgale Old Believers, whose works could also be found in the Pushkinís House archive.

This article provides an insight into the accomplishments of five of those authors and focuses attention on some specific features of their work. Further exploration into these manuscripts indicates that a certain design scheme predominates in Latgale Old-Believersí books ñ vignettes were drawn using the samples of old printed books but ornamental initials were based on the ìPomorianî floral ornament.

Key words: Old-Believers, Latgale (Region of Latvia), Manuscript Decoration, Initials, Vignettes, Pomorian Ornament.

A Short History: the Formation of Latgale Collection Beginning with 1950ís, researchers from the Institute of Russian Literature (Pushkin House) of USSR Russian Academy of Sciences went on multiple archeographical expeditions to the settlements in Latvia in order to gather and investigate ancient Russian manuscripts and printed books.

According to the instituteís mission and its researchers, the main focus was placed more on the books with literary and historical value and less on the ornamentation of books. However, in 1973 during one of these expeditions through the Pushkinís House archive, a new regional collection was established ñ The Latgale Collection. This collection initially

42 An Insight into the Old Believer Manuscripts of Latgale at the Pushkin House consisted of 75 units and in the following decades it increased to its current 462 units. This collection contains books, their fragments, notebooks and separate pages. Mostly due to the work done by the archeographs of Pushkinís House several names and/ or surnames of scribes can now be recognized in the Latgale Collection. These authors were identified by their colophons, their notes on the sides of pages, auricular assurances from the last book owners and/or in the analogical manner of writing. There are 34 scribes named in the descriptions of Latgale Collection. 19 out of the 34 scribesí manuscripts are mentioned with decorative elements inside, which is the object of the current research.

For the most of the Latgale Collection, there is one manuscript from each author; never- theless, there are several manuscripts from some scribes in the archive as well. This makes it difficult to create an expanded impression of an individual scribeís decorative style if it is based exclusively on one example. Further research clarified that there were also manuscripts of the other regionsí scribes among the known Latgale scribesí books. Its presence in this collection can be explained by manuscriptís physical location at the time of archeographical expeditions. For example, scribes are listed from the regions of Latvia, such as Zemgale and Kurzeme, as well as from Lithuania and Russia. Due to this fact, the number of known Latgale scribesí names has been reduced to nine. This material covers the period from the middle of the 19th till the middle of the 20th century. Generally, the material contains song books. This is because this type of books was written by hand more often than the other types because of its specific notation. This type was usually richly decorated with splendid initials, vignettes and titles. Unlike other regions with large manuscript centers, rewriting of books in Latgale was left to individuals, mostly to old-believersí mentors. Owing to the fact that this material had not been researched widely enough, it was not possible to make generalizations about the Latgale old-believersí book decorations in general; rather, at the current stage of research it was possible to draw out only a few characteristic features in the cited manuscripts.

In spite of the fact that there are deep-rooted, hundred year old traditions of old-believersí manuscript decoration, one can see individual approach of the scribes in their ornamental interpretation, proportions and colour scheme. Regardless of the relatively low number of Latgale old-believersí manuscripts examined, there were many forms of decorative elements, such as simple and ornate initials, intro- duction and conclusion vignettes, vignettes-frames, vignettes from the printed material stuck in manuscripts and miniatures created by icon painters. Turning to the achievements of individual authors, specifically to the two manuscripts belonging to different scribes, completed at different times, found in the different places attracted much attention due to their great similarity (Figures 1, 2).

43 Inese Klestrova

Figure 1. ABC Song book (Latg. Nr. 140, 1927) Figure 2. ABC Song book (Latg. 283, 1931) was was written and decorated by Nil Ivanovich written and decorated by Filaret Markovich Dobrinsky (Pushkinís House Latgale Collection). (Pushkinís House Latgale Collection).

In 1927 the ABC Song book (Latg. Nr. 140, 1927) was written and decorated by Nil Ivanovich Dobrinsky from the village Losi. This song book was acquired in 1980 from Panina living in Zabolotje village. Three years later, another ABC Song book (Latg. 283, 1931) was written by Filaret Markovich that was acquired in 1981 from the old-believersí community in Kampiski.

Explanation of the similarities in the decoration of both manuscripts is hidden in the last page of the Markovich manuscript, where one can find an explanatory note. This Song book was rewritten by Filaret Markovich from Nil Ivanovichís (from Losi) book (ìСию богодухновенную книгу, нарицаимую Азбука солевая, списал головщик Филарет Маркович, взял перевод из Лоси1 у Нила Ивановича [...]î (Маркелов 1985: 438)).

One can maintain that the note mentioning Nil Ivanovich is the same Nil Ivanovich Dobrinsky as had been named before, and whose manuscript was located in the archive of Pushkinís House.

Both manuscripts are adorned with full-page initials decorated with coloured ink. Similar treatment of initials was also found in a manuscript which was written by another Latgale Old Believer I. Dobretsow ñ in another Song Book (Latg. 252, the last quarter of the 19th century).

44 An Insight into the Old Believer Manuscripts of Latgale at the Pushkin House

The origin of this initial decor responds to a classical Pomorian ornament that developed in the scriptoriums of Vyg-Leksa in 1720ís.

Many old-believers, mainly from the Pomorian congregations or soglasye2, settled in the Latvian territory of Latgale in the 17th and 18th century. So it is logical to assume that the Pomorian ornament was widespread in Latgale old-believersí manuscripts.

In the preceding examples (Latg. 140, 283, 252) one can certainly attest to a presence of Pomorian ornament and its typical elements that had changed their expression with time but maintained their traditional composition. In this case, the ornament was drawn from the base of letter on either side with the curved parts of plants, among which flowers and other floral motifs were arranged.

Gleb Markelov, at that time a Junior Research Fellow at the Pushkinís House and a member of multiple archeographic expeditions to Latvia, mentioned Larion Kuzmin Butsev as a typical example of Latgale Old Believersí manuscript tradition. There were five manuscripts written by Butsev in the archive of Pushkinís House (and one mentioned as similar to Butsevís style). Each manuscript was decorated with initials and vignettes. Chronologically, Butsevís manuscripts were made in the period from the 3rd quarter of the 19th century to 1888. There was a dominance of violet colors in the drawing of his decorative elements and it was a characteristic feature for all Butsevís books (yet such a style has not been encountered in any other book of the Latgale Collection).

Floral motifs, stark volute lines ordered in a certain contexture were typical for the Butsevís ornamental initials; from the letter base upside and downside flower stems curl and try to become symmetrical. The joining point of stems was decorated with a stylized bloom but the larger flower bell was directed toward the text. Such compositional solution gave the balance for the initial itself and made it organically fit in the page layout as a decorative, vertical formation on the left side of the page.

Although, Butsevís initials are characterized by relative laconism, a tendency to simplify lines, stylization of floral elements, and the Pomorian-type ornament can be seen as a prototype. Furthermore, Butsevís vignettes also follow a certain compositional pattern. Symmetrical plant stems were depicted with the curl from the center with leaves, flowers and tendrils on them. The central axis was emphasized with a larger bell-shaped blossom. Butsev used the hatch in leafy parts in order to get a more voluminous and splendid effect (Figure 3).

Such kind of symmetrical vignettes are common in the region of the Baltic Sea. Several researchers noticed its distant likeness to old printed vignettes that were fairly widespread and obtainable due to the circulation of old printed books elsewhere in the old-believersí community.

Four manuscripts of the middle period (Latg. 173 (1875), Latg. 123 (1877), Latg. 417 (1879) and Latg. 418 (1883)) undoubtedly were written by Butsev.3 Their artistic design convincingly demonstrates manifestations of a single style. In spite of using Butsevís favorite violet ink, the first (Latg. 57) and the last (Latg. 124) decoration of the book noticeably

45 Inese Klestrova

stand out. The description of the last manus- cript highlights the manner of writing that was only similar (Маркелов 1989: 435) to those of Butsev. Similar to the previous examples, the initials of the last manuscript were ornamented with a floral decor (so familiar to the Pomorian ornament). Although the composition lost its expression and became more fragmented, lines were drawn in a more awkward way and minute details were placed on the page more compactly.

The design of the last mentioned book in com- parison to the rest attributed to Butsevís manus- cripts makes one think that its ornamentation actually was not created by Butsev. Most likely, the text was written by Butsev but the initials were decorated by someone else using the previous Butsevís samples of work as templates.

The possibility that the last manuscript was decorated by Butsev himself and that the stylistic changes could be explained by the authorís venerable age seems to be unlikely. Between the last two manuscripts there was only a five Figure 3. Larion Kuzmin Butsev, Sbornik years gap, and until then Butsev had already (Latg. 123, 1877) (Pushkinís House Latgale made his own characteristic and recognizable Collection). decoration style.

Unfortunately, there was not any biographical data about the scribe and decorator of this book. Judging from the Pushkinís House research publications, one can assume that Butsev was a local Latgale old-believer. It is very likely that he lived in Rezekne or its surroundings. This is implied due to the location where these manuscripts were found ñ Lipushki, Rudushki, Danishevka, Rezekne and Daugavpils. Never- theless, absolute verification of an exact location cannot be ascertained due to the books being so spread out in vast area.

Some more information can be found concerning the second prolific Figure 4. Daniel Davidovich Michailov (1885 ñ 1973) known as another Latgale old- (Л. М. 1978: 81).

46 An Insight into the Old Believer Manuscripts of Latgale at the Pushkin House believersí book scribe ñ Daniel Davidovich Michailov (1885 ñ 1973) (Figure 4). He was a mentor in the 1st Daugavpils old-believersí community. He was not only a book scribe but also a book-binder, a conservator, a collector as well as an author and a compiler of his original essays in the Old Russian style (Л. М. 1978: 81).

There are 15 Michailovís manuscripts in the Latgale Collection. Three of them were designed, and two of these three examples were decorated with aquarelle miniatures by the Latgale icon painter Yevgeny Ivanov. There are also some initials and title pages that were drawn by Michailov in these manuscripts. Still, Michailov was an author and a writer first and foremost, not a decorator.

For example, in the Hermology (Latg. 73, 1943) there was a colored and gilded title page and a frontispiece which were drawn by Michailov. Although the drawing is a little gauche, it demonstrates great accuracy. In this case, one can see direct references to the traditional Pomorian ornament as well.

In other Michailovís books there were no vignettes made by the author. In two of his works, vignettes with a cross were cut from some printed material and were glued on to the page. However, these aforementioned manuscripts were made at different times ñ in 1940ís and 1951, respectively. Moreover, these vignettes were identical. Probably cut out from the same publication.

The most magnificent transcribed book of Michailov is the Feast Service book (Latg. 29, 1951). This book was decorated with introduction vignettes and miniatures by Yevgeny Ivanov. It is an only manuscript with known scribeís and miniaturistís names among those of the Latgale Collection. This could be explained by the fact that this book was comparatively new.

Yevgeny Ivanov (1910 ñ 1991) was a painter of icons from Latgale. He was born in the village of Mascovska in Daugavpils region. He worked at The Boris and Gleb Cathedral in Daugavpils as a regent (Ю. П. 2010: 12ñ13). Ivanov was a pupil of Tatjana Kosinska, who was the pupil of the famous icon painter Pimen Sofronov.

Yevgeny Ivanov decorated the Feast Service book with hooks (Latg. 29, 1951) and vignettes and 16 miniatures that, as was mentioned by Gleb Markelov, were painted from the iconostasis holiday icon series reproductions (Маркелов 1989: 420). Unfortunately, the source of the previous reproductions has remained unknown so far. While in the written Hermology (Latg. 73, 1943), next to John Demasceneís miniature (which the Pushkin House archeographs attribute to Ivanovís brush), a cut-out reproduction4 has been sewn in with the 18th century illustration from the Vigas cloister, from which the miniature was clearly derived.

Testimony of the Latgale Old Believerís books could be measured in a few hundred units, and there are decorative elements in several of them. At times, they are professional and skilful, at others, simpler but no less warm hearted. In fact the lack of knowledge of the ornamental structure is replaced by figments of the imagination.

47 Inese Klestrova

The aforementioned achievements of the known book scribes provide only a narrow insight into the tradition of the Latgale old-believerís manuscripts. Despite the fact that these are not the most shining examples of graphic design in the Latgale manuscripts, the exploration of these manuscripts and enlightenment gained from them could provide new material and support points for further research.

Conclusions The survey based on the revision of numerous initials and vignettes shows that known Latgale old-believersí manuscript scribes mainly used a certain design to decorate their manuscripts. Vignettes were drawn according to the samples of old printed books, whereas initials were based on the Pomorian floral ornament.

It is important to further explore known surnames of scribes from the old-believer commu- nity in Latvia as it could help to identify unknown authorsí manuscripts for further research.

References Л. М. 1978. Памяти дух. наставника Д. Д. Михайлова (к 5-летию со дня смерти). Старо- обрядческий церковный календарь на 1978 г. Рига: Высш. Старообряд. Совет ЛитССР, Риж. Гребенщик. старообряд. община, Москов. Помор. старообряд. община, Москов. Преображ. старообряд. община, Ленинград. Помор. старообряд. община. C. 81. Маркелов, Г. В. 1989. Латгальская рукописно-книжная традиция. Материалы к изучению. Отв. ред. Д. С. Лихачев. Труды Отдела древнерусской литературы. Т. 42. Ленинград: Наука. C. 410–438. Маркелов, Г. В. 1985. Латгальские рукописные находки 1981 и 1982 гг. Отв. ред. Д. С. Лихачев. Труды Отдела древнерусской литературы. Т. 39. Ленинград: Наука. C. 426–443. Ю. П. Памяти иконописца. Православная жизнь. http://dinaburg.ru/viewtopic.php? id=2775 [11.2010.].

1 In the article (Маркелов 1985: 438) it is written: ì[...] взял перевод из ласк (?) у Нила Ивановича [..]î, however due to the fact, that there is mentioned Nil Ivanovich from Losi, the note prompts to consider that ìиз ласк (?)î should be read as ìиз Лосиî. 2 The Pomorian soglasiye (Согласие, in the meaning of ìcreedî, ìconfessionî) is a creed of bespo- povtsy (ìpriestlessî) old-believers. In Pomorye, by the Vyg River, the Vygovsky monastery was established, which became the spiritual center of the entire creed from the early 17th to the middle of the 19th century. 3 In Latg. 173, Latg. 123 and Latg. 418 there were the authorís endnotes. 4 Reproductionís title: ìНастоящее изображение Препод. Иоанна Дамаскина. Взято из певчаго Октая поморских (Даниловскаго монастыря на Выге) писем начала XVIII века от известнаго собирателя старины В. Г. Дружинина в Спб. и помещено в служебных октаях 1 – 5 гласа, напечатанных слово в слово Уральск. старообрядч. типографией с октая в 7 лето патриарха Иосифа (См. кат.)î

48 ART TEMPUS. 1/2013 ISSN 2255-9396

Reflection of Sacred Art in the Context of Illustrated Mass Media in Soviet Latvia as a Sign of Political Changes of the Period

Inese Zelmane Gallery ìM‚kslas Bankaî Jauniela 14, RÓga, LV-1050, Latvia [email protected]

Abstract The image of illustrated magazines published in Soviet Latvia is the mirror of political tendencies of the period. Reflection of sacred themes as well as art in mass media was not very common. Especially during the first years after the Soviet occupation, which belong to the so called classical socialist realism period, reflection of religious themes as well as images was strongly prohibited. Only after the political situation in Soviet Latvia started to change and official censorship was not so strict along with the politically correct images some reproductions of sacred art and architecture were printed on magazine covers.

Key words: Visual Communication, Magazine ìZvaigzneî, Soviet Mass Media, Sacred Art, Socialist Realism.

Images as well as articles in the context of Soviet mass media are important tools of propaganda. For example, images of dominant industrial and rural development scenes published in mass media represent the life in Soviet Latvia in a positive way which was not necessarily to coincide with the real life facts. At the same time changes of visual narratives in the illustrated mass media reflect the changes in political and social life of the period.

This paper describes in brief the role, ways and means of visual communication within magazine ìZvaigzneî, one of the most popular printed mass media in Soviet Latvia. The author mainly analyses front covers of the magazine. These are considered to be the most important within the visual content of the magazine. In magazines which were published in Soviet Latvia (especially during the first years after Soviet occupation) large scale coloured images were printed mainly on magazine covers and in so called attachments (large scale photographs and very often art reproductions published on different paper of higher quality). Besides everything mentioned above, front covers of the magazine are ads for the magazine itself (Bignell 2002: 59).

During the 1950ís and the beginning of 1960ís dominant themes within the visual content of the magazine are representations of industrial and rural development, portraits of so

49 Inese Zelmane

called ìwork heroesî, smiling children and youth, as well as portraits of Soviet leaders V. I. Lenin and J. V. Stalin. Beginning of the 1950ís belongs to the so called classical socialist realism period, but J. V. Stalinís death in 1953 brings changes in political as well as cultural life. In the magazine ìZvaigzneî this is evident by comparing, for example, dominant themes and the ways they are depicted in the earlier and later parts of the period. For example, on the covers of magazine ìZvaigzneî printed during 1950ís bright red Soviet flags are very often depicted (Figure 1) but at the end of 1980ís these flags are replaced by red-white-red Latvian national flags (Figure 2). In the visual content of the magazine, replacing the flag is very powerful sign that signifies political changes in Soviet Latvia. Although mass meeting on the streets of Riga at the first sight might Figure 1. ìZvaigzneî 1953, No. 9 (front cover) (Photo by I. Zelmane). look like one of those Socialist celebrations, flags are the signs indicating that something has changed. Cer- tainly a flag is very important element, symbol of the country yet there are much more subtle visual signs before that. One of the key conclusions is that art reproductions are an important part of the magazineís visual image. Just looking through the front covers of ìZvaigzneî we meet many of the well-known works of socialist realism as well as other artworks by outstanding Latvian artists of the period. In the context of themes discussed within ìZvaigzneî it seems logical, as besides the actual political and socially important issues, visual art works and exhibitions, and other cultural events are discussed there. More surprising is that very often art reproductions are printed on the covers of, for example, magazine ìVeselÓbaî, where different health care issues and medical problems are discussed. Figure 2. ìZvaigzneî 1989, No. 20 (front cover) (Photo by I. Zelmane). Analysing art reproductions printed on magazine ìZvaigzneî covers during the Soviet period, it is evident that typical examples of socialist realism in the early years are replaced by contemporary and modern artworks created by local and foreign artists in the last decades of Soviet regime. Among artworks which mark the borderline in the visual content of ìZvaigzneî there are reproductions of sacred art and architecture.

50 Reflection of Sacred Art in the Context of Illustrated Mass Media in Soviet Latvia..

During 1980ís the interest in history and cultural heritage of Latvia was growing and there are series of articles published in ìZvaigzneî revealing the history of ancient buildings and artworks (ìAncient Works of Artî, ìArchitectural Monumentsî, ìStained Glassî etc.). These articles accompanied by large scale images are usually printed on third or fourth page of the magazineís cover. Among other examples of art and architecture we can find sacred art like, for example, stained glass depicting religious scenes (Figure 3) and silver ritual items from the collection of Rund‚le Palace (Figure 4).

The cover of 1982 magazineís ìZvaigzneî first issue is symbolic in the context of the subject discussed here. The photo taken by R. Rencis is printed there and its title is ìNew Yearís morningî (Figure 5). Panorama of the Old Town is depicted there and we see dark silhouettes of three churches and bright morning sky and rising sun behind them. The changes of visual narratives during the period are more obvious if we compare this photo to earlier examples. Typical repre- sentations of the coming New Year in previous decades (1950ís ñ 1970ís) are smiling children, cranes and construction works as well as spaceships and beautiful visions of Soviet Latviaís future (Figure 6). In contrast Figure 3. ìZvaigzneî 1987, No. 3 to these dynamic and optimistic images R. Rencis photo (back cover) (Photo by I. Zelmane). is more subtle and contemplative. And if reading of this visual text is based on our preliminary knowledge, we understand that the image like this on the first cover of a popular journal printed in Soviet Latvia is something unusual because every reading of a visual text is ìinformed and influenced by our intertextual reference and knowledge of the text types that charac- terise our cultureî (Schiratto, Webb 2006: 30). For example, during 1950ís and 1960ís typical photos of Riga were those, where the new buildings and the development of the city is represented (Figure 7). And only during 1980ís there are many Riga panorama photos printed on the magazine ìZvaigzneî first covers, where instead of dominant building scenes we can see representations of sacred buildings.

The first issue of 1982 in such context can be consi- dered as a symbol of upcoming political changes in Soviet Latvia although this issue was published almost Figure 4. ìZvaigzneî 1990, No. 22 ten years before Latvia gained independence. (back cover) (Photo by I. Zelmane).

51 Inese Zelmane 6 Zelmane). Figure 7. ìZvaigzneî 1960, No. (front cover) (Photo by I. Figure 8. ìZvaigzneî 1990, No. 10 (front cover) (Photo by I. Zelmane). 1 (front cover) (Photo by Zelmane). Zelmane). Figure 6. ìZvaigzneî 1957, No. I. Figure 5. ìZvaigzneî 1982, No. 1 (front cover) (Photo by I.

52 Reflection of Sacred Art in the Context of Illustrated Mass Media in Soviet Latvia..

At the end of 1980ís approaching the end of Soviet era in Latvia, changes in the visual content of the magazine ìZvaigzneî are even more evident. For example, images of beauty queens are represented more often than outstanding factory workers, well known politicians or famous actors. Among other themes there are representations of sacred art on the covers of ìZvaigzneî. This is something that was not possible during the first years of Soviet era because any religious activity as well as reflection of religious themes was forbidden. And if the church towers in the panorama of Old Riga can be considered a coin- cidence, the front cover of the magazine ìZvaigzneî where the large scale photo of Aglona Basilica (Figure 8) is definitely something new and different.

Another outstanding example is the photo of archbishop K‚rlis GailÓtis printed on ìZvaigzneî Christmas issue cover in 1990 (Figure 9). On back cover of the same issue there is an image of painting by 15th century painter Filippo Lippi ìMadonna with Little Jesusî (Figure 10). This issue of the magazine marks the end of the year and corresponds to the one of the most important holidays in the Christian calendar. During the whole Soviet period this is the first time when image on the cover of the last issue of the year refers Figure 9. ìZvaigzneî 1990, No. 23 to Christian culture and is celebrating the birth of (front cover) (Photo by I. Zelmane). Jesus Christ at the end of December.

The issue with archbishopís GailÓtis portrait on its first cover in a symbolic way marks an end of maga- zineís ìZvaigzneî history. This is one of the last issues where we see magazine in a traditional form which was so familiar for the readers of Soviet Latvia for more than forty years. The main reason for it was the political situation in Latvia which dramatically changed in the beginning of 1990ís. Along with political changes economical situation of the country changed completely. In the context of ìZvaigzneî it is evident by observing how quality of the paper and size are changing. Besides all that, magazineís design standards are weakening. And, for example, magazine cover design which was quite strong during all Soviet period in the beginning of 1990ís becomes less attractive and less artistic in comparison with what it was before. Starting from 1991 quality of the paper on which the Figure 10. ìZvaigzneî 1990, No. 23 magazine was printed deteriorates and the format (back cover) (Photo by I. Zelmane).

53 Inese Zelmane becomes smaller. Instead of twenty four issues per year only twelve and even less than that were printed. And in 1994 the last issue of the magazine ìZvaigzneî came out.

Conclusions Images as well as articles in the context of Soviet mass media are important tools of propaganda.

Changes of visual narratives in the illustrated mass media reflect the changes in political and social life of the period.

Art reproductions are an important part of the visual image of the magazines printed in Soviet Latvia and very often are depicted on magazineís first cover.

During 1980ís approaching the end of the Soviet regime, in Latvia among other themes there are representations of sacred art on the covers of ìZvaigzneî, something that was not possible during the first years of the Soviet era because any religious activity as well as reflection of religious themes was forbidden.

References Bignell, J. 2002. Media semiotics. An introduction. Manchester: Manchester University Press. P. 241. Schiratto, T., Webb, I. 2006. Understanding the Visual. London: SAGE Publications. P. 213. ìZvaigzneî 1953, No. 9. ìZvaigzneî 1957, No. 1. ìZvaigzneî 1960, No. 6. ìZvaigzneî 1982, No. 1. ìZvaigzneî 1987, No. 3. ìZvaigzneî 1989, No. 20. ìZvaigzneî 1990, No. 10. ìZvaigzneî 1990, No. 22. ìZvaigzneî 1990, No. 23.

54 ART TEMPUS. 1/2013 ISSN 2255-9396

MUSICOLOGY

The Influence of Dance Music on the Traditions of Folk Music Making in Latvia in the 2nd Half of the 20th Century

«valds Daugulis Daugavpils University Saules Street 1/3, Daugavpils, LV-5401, Latvia [email protected]

Abstract Dance music in Latvia can hardly be considered separately from the turns and twists of its history ñ as a mirror it reflects the whole intricate and complicated course of the 20th century. The music changed in the course of time, but it did not change in its essence, namely, its simplicity and availability. Dance music in the 1st part of the 20th century in Latvian towns and countryside. Dance music repertoire, set of instruments, and its functional attachment. The kings of dance music AlfrÁds Vinters, the brothers Laivinieki, the so-called king of tango Oskars Stroks, and others. Fundamental changes in dance music after World War II. The impact of dance music on the traditions of music making in Latvia.

Key words: Dance Music, Evolution, Set of Instruments, Repertoire.

Introduction The aim is to generalize on the influence of dance music on the traditions of music making in the second half of the 20th century in Latvia.

The objectives: to consider the history of dance music; to analyze the genres, repertoire, set of instruments of dance music and its functional attachment; to find out the regularities in the aspect of heritage.

The methods: analysis, comparison, generalization.

From the history of dance music Social party music has always existed in European culture since the Middle Ages. It changed over time, but it did not change in its essence: its simplicity and availability.

55 «valds Daugulis

Latvians have been dancing since time immemorial, even before the birth of Christ. But we began to study our dance only in the 1870s. The history of Latvian ballet begins with the year 1870, when at the Riga Latvian Theatre songs and dances had to be performed by actors. The father of the Latvian Theater, the actor and director ¬dolfs Alun‚ns was our first professional dancer. People danced at parties in the same way as it was done in Europe. But the basis of everything, of course, was dance music. What was it like?

Considering party music, one can notice that it has experienced the appearance of one of the most significant principles and mechanisms of composing, which is relevant also nowadays: to take over the stylistic models, techniques and means of expression of academic music and adapt them to a different environment. In other words, those models and techniques were simplified.

Dance music in Latvia can hardly be considered separately from the turns and twists of its history ñ as a mirror it reflects the whole intricate and complicated course of the 20th century. In our opinion, in the evolution of party music in Latvia in the 20th century it is possible to distinguish several stages: the first ñ by the year 1925, the second ñ 1925 ñ 1940, the third one ñ from 1941 to 1945, the fourth ñ the 1950s ñ 1960s; and the last ñ the 1990s up to date.

At the end of the 19th century the progress in sound recording was crowned with the appearance of first records1. Finally, people could listen to the most popular dance music of that time Europe. A lot of them were already known to Latvians. At the beginning of the 20th century, waltzes, polkas, quadrilles, krakowiaks, padespans (more often in the countryside) were played at parties. In the late 1920s there appeared tango2, foxtrot3, Charleston4, etc.. Both Latvian and other nationsí contribution acculturated in dance music, so to speak, in playing European dance music there appeared some elements of Latvian music, while in Latvian dance music one could notice ethnically strange musical elements. We consider that that was a mutual enrichment, provided that the ethnic basis was the dominant one. If it is vice versa, we lose the roots...

Party music has always demanded melodies that are functionally colourful and great in range. Therefore one cannot deny the entrance of more technically mighty musical instru- ments into the tradition of party music playing. In Latvia, at the beginning of the 19th century, such instruments were cymbals, in the middle of the century ñ harmonicas, at the end of the century ñ cithers, later ñ also mandolins. The entry of factory-made instruments in household music making promoted the appearance of new collectives (bands), as well as the search for new repertoire. Cithers made in Latvia, if compared with the ones that were imported from Europe and envisaged for domestic playing, were essentially improved and were instruments with a strong and full sound to be played by bands (Daugulis 2006).

The appearance of brass instruments in the domestic music making was essential in Latvia at the beginning of the 20th century, too. In Western Europe and America wind instrument or horn bands had for long proved to be belonging to that genre. Orchestras were established also in Latvia, both in urban and rural areas, especially at various associations.

56 The Influence of Dance Music on the Traditions of Folk Music Making in Latvia..

Most of them were small structures ñ a trumpet, a cornet, althorns, a baritone, and a tuba; sometimes they included also a drum. Their sound provided the functions of melody, counterpoint, rhythm and bass. In comparison with the string (violin and cither) bands that dominated at the beginning of the century and harmonica players, whose playing generally was based on traditional music, the sound of horn bands was more expressive, more powerful, suitable for playing outdoors, more related to the traditions of professional music making, since orchestras were usually run by educated conductors (Daugulis 2006: 27). Their sound influenced the style of party music and its professional level. At the beginning of the 20th century, the repertoire included popular dance music ñ waltz, polka, quadrille, gallop, corner dance, foxtrot, charleston, as well as dances and songs of more recent origin, including tango. Household songs or popular songs were demanded as well. We can assert that in Latvia, at the beginning of the 20th century, the fashion of party music was determined by American popular music. A little later, the repertoire included also Argentinean tango, samba, bossa-nova, and other dances. These dances gradually conquered the whole Europe and Latvia was not an exception. The just-appeared jazz also seems to be essential. One can notice the mixture of various cultures. The tradition of playing dance music also came from the USA ñ party musicians used the guitar. During World War I the melodies of Latvian Riflemen songs5 were played at parties, too. Thus, already in the 1920s more than a half of party bands were brass bands (various in their size and structure), including also military orchestras6. But as to the 1930s, a special mention should be made of the active participation of Aizsargsí orchestras in the process of vecherinkas and open-air parties.

Latvian party music fashion in the 1930s Further we will take an in-depth look at the second stage of the evolution of dance music. A significant milestone in party music was marked by the appearance of sound records and especially the radio broadcasts7 in Riga, which began in 1925 and directly and rapidly provided listeners with new sound material and made them au fait with the trends of party music in the world. But sheet music was not available to a wider audience yet. Rural musicians did not actually need them as they played by ear. Bandmasters of brass orchestras, in their turn, transcribed and arranged popular melodies by themselves. At the same time, also jazz bands became popular in Latvian towns during that period. Thus there appeared new musical instruments and new repertoire. Mandolins and guitars were replaced by banjos of different systems; the previously-played drums were substituted by modern orchestral percussion kit. But concertinas and harmonicas, as well as the diatonic folk musical instruments were replaced by sonorous and modern accordion, which offered also the possibility to perform chromatic melodies. Consequently, the set of party music instruments was modernized and became more professional. The changes were gradual and purposeful (Daugulis 2006: 28).

In the 1930s, jazz had already fully conquered Europe. Jazz did not reach Latvia to the same extent, since people in Latvia loved German Schlager songs and some popular English melodies8. Jazz music was played at cafes, restaurants and cinemas before shows. It was

57 «valds Daugulis played by small collectives, the most often used instruments were the violin and the saxophone. Performance was rather simple in terms of rhythm. Musicians played salon music and some artists tried to improvise accompanied by jazz music. Notwithstanding the strong influence of jazz, Schlager music still was the determinant genre at parties in Latvia at the end of the 1930s. One of the most prolific songwriters was the founder of the genre of Schlager music in Latvia, the composer and songwriter AlfrÁds Vinters (1908 ñ 1976), one of the most popular groups was br‚Ôi Laivinieki, whose songs have now become folklore (Peters 1982). Among the popular musicians there was also one born in Daugavpils, the so-called King of Tango Oskars Stroks (1893 ñ 1975), the author of the so-called sentimental tango; his tango Meln‚s acis (Black Eyes) became popular in the whole world (Гиммерверт 2006). Nowadays some of the melodies are considered to be composed by R. Pauls. Daiga MazvÁrsÓte, the musicologist and researcher of popular music in Latvia, has said that ìa Latvian folk-song ran from a shepherd boyís birch-bark pipe to a town, where it became a popular song, then it made friends with foreign table songs, peeked into church tune books, dances at fairs and came round the theatreî (MazvÁrsÓte 2006: 60). We would like to add ñ it entered and stayed at parties. Some German songs were given Latvian names and became very popular Schlager songs, for instance, Rozamunde, Pie dzintara j˚ras, –alc zaÔais me˛s.

In the 1930s ñ 1940s, the label of German Schlager still dominated in Latvia. Radio often played world-wide popular German Schlager songs with lyrics in Latvian ñ –alc zaÔais me˛s, Pie dzintara j˚ras, the localized Polish polka Rozamunde, etc. (MazvÁrsÓte 2006).

During the war (1941 ñ 1944), German Schlager songs were still played at dancing parties. New trends in the repertoire of party music appeared in the post-war years. There began a severe control of the dance music repertoire, the repertoire had to be coordinated with different Communist authorities. More and more Soviet mass song and dance melodies, including popular wartime tunes (Katjua, UguntiÚa, etc.) were played in occupied Latvia increasingly often. Significant changes in party music were promoted by the possibilities offered by electricity after World War II. Initially, only the correlation between the amplified voice and the instrumental accompaniment changed, but a little later that affected the party music as a whole. Electric guitars, percussion sets, and synthesizers gradually entered the practice of playing party music. The repertoire had not undergone a lot of changes so far. A new turn in the genre of Latvian dance music began in the 1950s, when the regime after Stalinís death became a little more liberal and there appeared young musicians ñ repre- sentatives of the after-war generation. The leading role was taken by the pianist and composer Raimonds Pauls (born in1936). The people quickly grew fond of Paulís songs and they formed a stable repertoire of dance music of that time and the following years. Below we present a concise insight into the evolution of Latvian dance music in the first half of the 20th century. We will discuss the traditions of making music by people, identify common and different, typical and atypical features of various traditions.

58 The Influence of Dance Music on the Traditions of Folk Music Making in Latvia..

The evolution of folk music making Everything said above is related to the development of dance music in Latvia in the first half of the 20th century. It is obvious that for the needs of dance music there developed a certain sets of instruments, repertoire, functional attachment (restaurants, clubs, open-air parties, etc.), style and type of music making.

Now let us consider the influence of dance music on the traditions of folk music making. What is meant by the term tradition of folk music making? In the authorís opinion, it is the tradition of making music by people (type and style of playing, instruments, the degree of maintaining the tradition (traditional and amateur playing)), which is inherited and passed from generation to generation and which has not been in contact with the expression of professional music9. The difference between the traditions of folk music making and professional music was established by German ethnomusicologist Curt Sachs10 as early as in the first half of the 20th century. Sachs discovered that in ethnographic or folk playing musical instruments the artistic goals are not of the primary importance; what is important is the affect, i.e., music making as such, playing a musical instrument as an element of a ritual; the musician himself is a symbol and a participant of the ritual. But the academic type of performance, according to Sachs, is meant for aesthetic delight. The scholar strictly distinguishes between artistic (professional) and ethnographic (folk) music; and this finding is essential.

The first half of the 20th century was the era of new discoveries. Progress influenced the life of people both in towns and in the countryside; people tried to keep up with the new things offered in all the spheres of life including fashion, life style and mode, but, in our case, the acquisition and playing new dance melodies. That condition influenced also the manner of music making in the countryside. As to the urban traditions of music making, one can observe a different picture ñ there were dance orchestras, jazz bands, and brass bands. Town dwellers had kept pace with the time in all times, and in household music making they had always tried to approximate the academic music. But this issue has already been discussed above.

In the countryside, the tradition of music making, as well as the evolution of the tradition, in the authorís opinion, was influenced by three key factors ñ instrumentation, repertoire and artistic quality.

Rural people moved to rapidly growing cities, they acquired education, learned the rules of conduct worthy of a city dweller, and received cultural and artistic information. After some time, some of them returned to the countryside, but then they already had different life experiences, perception and needs, including the desire to enjoy music of the quality that they had enjoyed in cities. Consequently, the folk musical tradition saw a gradual and orderly appearance of the techniques of musical expression characteristic of jazz and professional music. The tradition that had been cultivated for decades experienced evolution, at the same time moving away from the source. In what way? Very simple. The traditional music making in the countryside gradually became acculturated.

59 «valds Daugulis

Young people with professional musical education brought the air of classical, jazz and urban household music. Of course, it can hardly be referred to all folk musicians. Many of them consistently continued the tradition of music making, manner, style and repertoire of performance established by their fathers and grandfathers. They continued playing compositions in the already approbated manner and style and did not try to incorporate anything new (repertoire, instruments); on the contrary, they tried to preserve the tradition. However, there were also those who did introduce innovations into their manner of music making.

Let us first consider instruments. Concertinas and harmonicas that were very popular in traditional music making at the beginning of the 20th century were replaced by accordion in the 1930s, since accordion allowed for performing all modern dance melodies that came from Europe and the whole world. In the course of time, the practice of music making saw the entrance of musical instruments from jazz bands, brass bands and dance orchestras, which, in their turn, were heavily based on the set of instruments characteristic of classical music. Mandolins and guitars so loved by people were supplemented with banjo. The instruments that came from brass bands were cornet, trumpet, and, after a while, also clarinet and saxophone. The use of chromatic musical instruments allowed for the pos- sibility to perform the newest dance melodies also in the countryside. Musicians played instruments that were available, they tried to stylize the traditional manner of playing music. Besides polkas, waltzes, krakowiaks and quadrilles played in the Latvian rural households there appeared the dance melodies of modern tango, foxtrot, charleston, etc.

The then new dance music was not limited to diatonic melody and two or three chords. In order to play the then modern dance tunes, it was necessary to train a lot, therefore more and more people, who had already received musical education, got involved into the traditional music making, some of them had academic experience of playing a musical instrument. That is when the tradition of folk playing music was stopped and there began, let us say, the modernization or evolution of the tradition.

First of all, we should mention the inclusion of a new means of musical expression, namely, the harmonic minor. So far, folk tunes (because they were melodies composed and sung by people) were played in the natural major and the natural minor, moreover, it could not have been otherwise ñ the dominant musical instruments were diatonic folk musical instru- ments (concertinas, harmonicas, cither, which, by the way, also developed and were improved over time). The new mode, the harmonic minor (later also major) provided many more possibilities to play and freely variegate different modern melodies, but at the same time it made musicians estranged from the natural modes, which had been maintained and used in folk music making for centuries. Undoubtedly, one might oppose and shout out: But the style and manner of playing remained the same! Yes, they remained, but it was not enough. The content (mode, harmony and other elements) was different, but the form (style and manner of playing), remained.

The essence of folkís musical traditions accumulated for centuries diluted unnoticed. We can say that there developed a modernized version of the tradition of folk music making.

60 The Influence of Dance Music on the Traditions of Folk Music Making in Latvia..

There was no rural musician who wanted to stay ignorant or incapable, to feel the shame; they had to learn how to play those new dance melodies.

Secondly, the harmony. It is not a secret that the manner of playing within the folk tradi- tion is based on two or three chords covering the tonic, the dominant and the subdominant. These chords are sufficient in playing diatonic musical instruments since the structure of an instrument is perfectly adapted for such needs. But dance melodies and the modes of modern foxtrot, charleston and tango ask for the use of consonant or dissonant chords based on the adjacent tones, i.e. cords of the seventh and cords of the ninth. Thus the tradition acculturated and moved further away from the original source. All the aforesaid allows for the conclusion that in the traditional harmony they used the tones I, V and IV, while the harmony of dance music included also the chords of the adjacent tones II, III, VI, VII, including the cords of seventh, ninth, chords of non-third structure, etc. The latter, though, should be considered as the expression of contemporary harmony and are to be referred to the second half of the 20th century.

Thirdly, melody and diapason. Foxtrot, tango and other dance melodies of modern age contain chromatisms that are manifested in various alterations, deviations and modulations. The relatively older folk dance melodies are diatonic, with the diapason not exceeding the range of one octave, but this is not the case of modern dance melodies (their diapason is up to two octaves). The beat of harmony (the rhythm of chords) also becomes free; it especially refers to the Latin American dance melodies, where a number of chords alternate within a single beat, while in the traditional playing music one chord may lie in the basis of several beats.

Fourthly, the form. The traditional play is dominated by the form of variation or rondo. Dances of newer origin may be of two-part (a couplet and a refrain in songs), three-part or a free form dance. The development of the form of these dances is influenced by the drama and the imagery of music, as well as by the tradition of household music playing cultivated for many decades.

Fifthly, the texture. Folk music making is characterized by homophonic harmonic texture with a clear distinction between the melody (for example, the violin) and the accom- paniment (cither), but in dance music, especially under the influence of jazz improvisation, there appeared polyphonic elements, i.e. a simultaneous series of various melodies, imitations of different types and the transposition counterpoint.

All of the above-mentioned elements of musical expression are related to the tradition of household music making, which has once borrowed many means of musical expression from jazz and professional music. In this respect, there appears a supposition that the genre of arranged folk music appeared after World War II. Is it possible to say that the beginnings are to be found in the pre-war period? Taking a closer look at the history, we can conclude that the genre of arranged folk music in Latvia in the 1960s ñ 1980s was not a new pheno- menon, but rather the purposeful development of the genre of pre-war dance music in new circumstances. This is testified by the examples of music. If we compare the song Skaista

61 «valds Daugulis ir dzÓve (Life is beautiful) by AlfrÁds Vinters with the composition for country bands DancÓtis jaunajam puisÓtim (Dance for the young boy) composed by the outstanding master of instrumental arrangements of folk music Gun‚rs Ordelovskis, we notice that a number of means of musical expression are identical: the major key, the key of F dur; the simple two- part form (a couplet and a refrain) with the introduction and the conclusion. The harmony in both compositions is based on three chords, namely, the chords of the seventh with the notes I, IV and V as their roots. The cadences are formed in a similar way: both songs end with a complete final cadence. Besides that, Vinters has managed to include a less frequently used chord of the group of the dominant, i.e. the dominant seventh with the sixth. In both compositions we find homophone texture with polyphonic elements in the form of variations. The sets of instruments include the same instruments: in Vintersí composition these are the accordion, the cither, the violins, the contrabass, the clarinet, and the voice. But the composition by Ordelovskisí is to be performed playing the accordion, the cither, the flute, the clarinet, the trumpet, the drums, the violins, and the contrabass. These instru- ments were generally typical of the pre-war urban household dance orchestras. Both com- posers, Vinters and Ordelovskis, use the accordion to fulfil the functions of harmony, rhythm and additional melodic sounds. The melody is performed by the violins; the clarinet plays the counterpoint. This is true also for the dance by Ordelovskis, in which the arrange- ment is enriched by magnificent colours of the flute and the trumpet. As to the style, there is no much difference between Vintersí dance music original and Ordelovskisí arrangement of a folk melody. They both have similar sets of instruments and sounding. Obviously, the instrumental arrangements of folk music of the post-war period (J. Grigalis, V. Salaks, a.o.) and their style basically continue the traditions of the pre-war dance music in a new quality. The only difference is that the genre of arranged folk music is generally meant for concert performances, while dance music belongs to the guild of household music. It should be mentioned that the tradition of folk music making in the post-war period became acculturated significantly. In such a situation it is difficult to speak about authen- ticity, rather it is a stylized authenticity (Daugulis 2006: 25).

Conclusions The evolution of dance music in Latvia can hardly be considered separately from the turns and twists of its history ñ as a mirror it reflects the whole intricate and complicated course of the 20th century. At the beginning of the 20th century, music in Latvia was influenced by European musical traditions. The most significant stage in the evolution of dance music in Latvia is the period 1925 ñ 1940. During this period, the Latvian dance music fashion and taste developed and strengthened, which, having imbibed the latest European dance music trends and technologies, in its essence remains the same up to date. Under the influence of dance music, the tradition of folk music making became strongly acculturated.

62 The Influence of Dance Music on the Traditions of Folk Music Making in Latvia..

The genre of instrumental arrangement of folk melodies, which was established during the 1960s ñ 1980s and which has developed up to date, continues the traditions established already in the pre-war Latvian dance music and household music in a new quality thus meeting the demands of the period.

References Daugulis, «. 2006. Latvieu tradicion‚l‚ instrument‚l‚ muzicÁana 20. gadsimt‚: stili, veidi, mijiedarbe. Daugavpils Universit‚tes zin‚tniskie raksti. Latvieu tautas instrument‚l‚ m˚zika: process, mijiedarbe, problÁmas. Daugavpils: DU Saule. P. 23ñ34. Daugulis, «. 2005. Tautas instrument‚l‚ m˚zika LatgalÁ 20. gadsimt‚. Daugavpils Universit‚tes zin‚tniskie raksti. Latgales m˚zikas kult˚ra vakar un odien. Daugavpils: DU Saule. P. 80ñ87. Garu, garu, uzmet garu. Br‚Ôu Laivinieku dziesmas un to tekstu autors JÁkabs Jansons. 2004. Sast. Jansons, A. RÓga: Rasa ABC. P. 78. MazvÁrsÓte, D. 2006. Raimonds Pauls un latvieu m˚zikas kult˚ra. RÓga: Madris. P. 130. Peters, J. 1982. Raimonds Pauls: Versijas, vÓzijas, dokumenti. RÓga: Liesma. P. 167. Гиммерверт, А. 2006. Оскар Строк – король и подданный. Нижний Новгород: Издательство ДЕКОМ. 250 с.

1 On November 8, 1887, the immigrant of German Jewish origin, engineer Emile Berliner (1851 ñ 1929) patented gramophone [gr. gramma record + phonÁ sound], which could record on and reproduce sound from a flat disc. At last there appeared a chance to listen to popular melodies of that time. The standards for records were established as soon as in 1910 ñ a record was to be done on both sides, the rotational speed ñ 78 rpm. But in 1940 the long-playing record was invented, its rotational speed was 33.3 rpm, as well as the record with the rotational speed 45.5 rpm. 2 Tango appeared in Argentina in the 1880s. The characteristic features of this dance are the empha- sized accentuation of rhythm with the main emphasis on the upbeat. In the 1920s tango became sentimental (tango song). That was that tango which began to spread in Europe and North America. 3 Foxtrot. This dance was introduced in 1914 by an American, Harry Fox. Time 4/4, moderate tempo. 4 Charleston appeared in Charleston, the USA city in the 1920s. Syncopated rhythm, 4/4, a sub- type of fast foxtrot. 5 The waltzes ÕemmermiestiÚ‚, StrÁlnieku dziesma, Gar‚m ejot, foxtrots Mirdzot ÌÁpiem, Kareivja Ìiran‚s, and the one in minor Aizg‚ja latvietis pasaulÁ t‚lu. 6 The first military orchestras in Latvia were established in 1919. 7 The first radio station began its work in the USA in 1920, but in 1925 the radio station BBC started to function in London; it still is one of the leading radio stations in the world. 8 The song that was brought from England Old Spinning Wheel (Vecais ratiÚ). 9 The academic environment of culture, various styles and genres of music, music theory that has been purposefully developed during centuries, regularities in composing, performing and evaluating music. 10 Curt Sachs (1881 ñ 1959) ñ the outstanding German musicologist, the author of one of the first classifications of folk music instruments.

63 ART TEMPUS. 1/2013 ISSN 2255-9396

Novella Genre in the Composerís Approach: The Main Forms of Interaction between Literary and Musical Aspects

Baiba Jaunslaviete J. VÓtols Latvian Academy of Music, K. Barona Street 1, RÓga, LV-1050, Latvia Daugavpils University, VienÓbas Street 13 ñ 230, Daugavpils, LV-5401, Latvia [email protected]

Abstract Although the interaction of literature and music in different areas has often drawn the attention of researchers, there are still blank pages in this thematic research. Some of them are associated with the history of certain genres. For example, the musical novella and novelette have been influenced by literature in many aspects. Although the linguist Aleksandr Reformatskij has addressed this issue during his time (1922), this field has not been researched in detail. This paper is intended as a first step to achieve this and the following questions will be analysed: — characteristic content and development peculiarities of the novella (tense, mostly dramatic work, objects-symbols that repeat, the fateful role of chance, swift changes, culmination frequently at the very end of the work), which can be seen in compositions with different titles in many varied genres; examples from the music of Ludwig van Beethoven, Franz Schubert and Kristaps PÁtersons are studied; — compositions with the titles Novella or Novelette: The traditions founded by Robert Schumann for genre interpretation (The Noveletten for piano, 1839) and their further development, particularly highlighting the lyrical novella (Nikolai Medtner, Francis Poulenc, and others) and the novella-ballad interaction (AlfrÁds KalniÚ, J‚nis Ivanovs, and others). It is concluded that there is no basis to search for some strong regularity in the musical expressions of the novella genre that all composers have implemented. The examples from this genre (much like literature) are varied and the interactions with other genres can be encountered more frequently than a novella-like essence in a pure form. Still, in any case, in the analysis process one has to consider the novella-like essence in a composition: it will assist the understanding of vital edges both in the creative personality of a composer as well as in the contents of composition ñ sources of influences, the text and subtext. Key words: Novella, Novella-like Essence, Tense Action, Dramaticism, Fateful Chance, Objects-Symbols, Conclusion-Culmination, Interaction with Other Genres, Particularly with Ballad.

64 Novella Genre in the Composerís Approach: The Main Forms of Interaction between..

Introduction The interaction of literature and music has always interested composers and writers, as well as researchers of their works. There have been papers and monographs dedicated to this theme, which reflect both particular methods of expression of literature and music as well as the mutual influence of the principle of development characteristic to both forms of art. Still, not all the aspects of this theme have been analysed in detail. One of the fields where there is still an opportunity for research is the usage of literary genres in music. The only genre in this field that has gained significant attention by musicologists is ballad ñ varied aspects of the literary ballad influence on music have been analysed by Sydney Northcote (Northcote 1942), Lev Mazel (Мазель 1960), Nina Vieru (Виеру 1974) and other authors. However no other literary genre used in music has been given so much attention by researchers, even though some of them have a rich history. Particularly I would like to note the expression of novella in music ñ I have selected this as the object of my research. It is a theme that attracts attention in the following areas:

— how characteristic principles of the development of novella are revealed in music as a whole, not only in compositions with the titles novella and novelette; — how these principles appear in compositions which have been given the name of a novella (or novelette) by composer.

Characteristic principles of the development in novella and their expression in music The structure, as well the features of content and the development of novella have been broadly analysed by literary researchers of varied eras. While not attempting to present an analysis of all their conclusions, I will note a few fundamental positions that are significant when searching for parallels between novella and some musical compositions.

As it is already known, novella is a genre of short prose, which, in contrast to short story, has less of a tendency towards detailed descriptions but more towards activity ñ at its centre is mostly one, and often an unusual, extraordinary event. Research literature often quotes the statement by the 19th century German writer Theodor Storm (1881) regarding novella as the sister of drama (Storm 1976): the common features are a high proportion of dialogue, compactness and intensity of events, and often some conflict is presented in foreground. Still, in contrast to drama, novella is characteristically laconic ñ meaning only a minimal exposition of the lead characters; usually novella is introduced by activity at the very beginning, at the very epicentre of events. It is also interesting to note the conclusion of the linguist Aleksandr Reformatsky. He is one of the few researchers who have searched for similarities between the literary novella and music and he stated that there are some similarities with the sonata form. Reformatsky states: ìIn many ways, the construction of novella is close to the construction of sonata form. From a thematic point of view, the sonata canon requires two themes (the first subject and the second subject), though at times this scheme is made more complex by the presence of a third and fourth subject. Novella also has a characteristic two element structure, and, additionally, with a very varied motivation. Most often it is:

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1a) a + b (he + she) hero and heroine, the dynamic is motivated by love, that is a two- element romantic novella; 1b) a + a (he + he or she + she) two heroes (or heroines) ñ the first and the second. [..] After the definition by M. A. Petrovski, that is ìthe construction of plot, which is based on a duel-like collision of two themesî. In this scenario, the motivation is complex ñ usually it is a competition or rivalryî (Реформатский 1922: 6)1.

Commenting on the thoughts of Reformatsky, one must admit that some other authors, for example, ValentÓna Holopova (Холопова 1999: 327), have discerned the sonata form analogy not in novella, but in another genre of literary origin ñ namely drama. In their own way, these parallels interact with the previous conclusion about the relationship between novella and drama. However, novella is more laconic. That is why, if one allows the analogy with the sonata form, then only in such a way, in which the spirit of develop- ment (with the separate theme experiences, its inclusion in the most varied events, confron- tations, etc.) expressly dominates separate theme exposition (with a reminder that the literary analogous term to the musical theme is characters). In this way, one could consider some works by Ludwig van Beethoven as having novella-like features, and these will be researched further.

Another significant characteristic of novella: it often unites something with a symbolic significance. This feature was noted already by the 19th century scientist Paul von Heyse, presenting what he called the falcon theory (Falkentheorie, relating to the significance of the eaten falcon in Tale V, 9 from Giovanni Boccaccioís Decameron) (Heyse, Kurz 1871)2. This object-symbol appears frequently over time, in varied situations, and a musical analogy might be the leitmotif or also the leitintonation, refrain. Additionally: even though, for the most part, events of novella are very strained, purposeful, conclusion is often sudden ñ ìchange of the situation as a result of fright, fear, lunacy can gain a tragic conclusionî, justifiably noted by Latvian novella researcher Benita SmilktiÚa (SmilktiÚa 1999: 12). Often a fateful matter of chance has a vital role. Many novellas end with a culmination and, at the same time, retain a nuance of mysteriousness ñ not everything is explained.

Of course, the previously offered overall characterisation of novella does not need to be considered as unchangeable, since every author more or less individualises the genre and brings into it differing traits from the overall model. This overall characterisation is only a broad foundation to rely on when investigating how the development model, charac- teristic to literary novella, is expressed in music.

Here we can see that a composition with novella-like features is not always given the name novella or novelette3. If we are discussing the early novella-like examples of expression in instrumental music then, in the opinion of the author of this paper, those can be seen in certain first movements of Beethovenís sonatas and symphonies. I would like to specifically mention the 8th (Pathetique) piano sonata, and particularly the 23rd piano sonata (Apassio- nata) and the Fifth Symphony. All three of these works are interwoven with a threatening fateful expression thematic element, like a refrain (the analogy with the object-symbol in the literary novella): in the Eighth Sonata it is the introduction, in the Fifth Symphony ñ

66 Novella Genre in the Composerís Approach: The Main Forms of Interaction between.. the fate motif of the first subject and in the 23rd Sonata ñ one of the elements of the first subject (the motif in the left hand in the 10th measure, as well as fate in the rhythm). What is common and, related to the novella, in all three works there is a quick dramaturgical tempo, where exposition has a significantly smaller role than development (i.e. there is no exposi- tion in a pure form because some elements of development are seen already in the expositions); that is the most significant difference with the predecessors of Ludwig van Beethoven ñ the sonata forms of Joseph Haydn and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. Two of these works also vividly display the significant surprise of novella ñ frequent and unexpected changes4. Namely, in the first movement of both the Fifth Symphony, as well as the 23rd Sonata, a powerful impression is left by the receding from the bright mood of the major (from the second subject of the recapitulation) to the stormy, turbulent minor (coda); that is truly associated with the dramatic turning-point, which in many novellas is marked at the very end. Of course, the novella-like parallels in this case are only conditional, since we are not dis- cussing self-contained works, but only the first movements of the sonata/symphony cycle.

As an example of the elements of novellas in works of other genres it is worth mentioning the famous Franz Schubert ballad for voice and piano Der Erlkˆnig (The Alder King) with lyrics by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe. Ballad ñ that is a designation given by Goethe himself, and his poem truly has many characteristics that researchers (for example, KursÓte 2002: 57) have noted as being vital to the ballad genre ñ inscrutability, mysticism (in this case, this relates to the image of Alder King), tragic atmosphere, and dramatic dialogue. Of course, all of these features are characteristic to many novellas, too. However, another characteristic epic or foreshadowing element in the musical scope of ballad, voice of the narrator, does not appear in Schubertís Der Erlkˆnig5. Even Goethe text that has been designated for the narrator (the first and last of the eight quadruplets6) in Schubertís interpretation are not entirely sung in the epic message tone ñ from the very beginning it is dominated by dramaticism, anxiety, accented by the image of a galloping horse formed by quick triplets in the piano background ñ the mood created also submits to the vocal part. In that way, in Der Erlkˆnig the reader/listener is immediately thrown, without an expressed introduction by the narrator, into the vortex of events, an intensive zone of activity which is so characteristic of the novella (but not ballad) genre. Also particularly novella-like is the suddenly abrupt, tragic (though previously anticipated) conclusion at the very end of novella ñ the declamatory stated words war tot/ is dead on a suddenly stunned background accompaniment. There is also a musical analogy to objects-symbols, namely, leitintonations which repeat (micro-refrains). The most significant of those ñ words Mein Vater, mein Vater (My father, my father), called by the son in his feverish nightmares, which, over the course of the song, are sung exactly three times with the same minor second intonation ñ every time it is a second higher, and, in the final time, it becomes the songís dramatic culmination.

Altogether, we can consider Schubertís Der Erlkˆnig as a unique, novella-like ballad type, which synthesises traits of two genres. In the expressive dialogues (the direct speaking), of course, appears the sphere of a third genre ñ theatricality, too, which as previously noted is a characteristic novella-like peculiarity.

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The novella-like traits also appear in many works which are formed on the basis of a specific novella, but represent other genres ñ opera (Georges Bizetís Carmen, 1875, based on the novella with the same title by Prosper Mérimée, 1845), ballet (Christian Spuckís Das Fr‰ulein von S., 2011, based on Ernst Theodor Hoffmanís Das Fr‰ulein von Scuderi, 1819/1821 ñ considered to be the first German crime novel) and others. One of these examples is also encountered in the newest Latvian music ñ that is Kristaps PÁtersonsí composition Ligeia for twelve voices and piano (2009)7 based upon motifs from the novella with the same title by Edgar Allan Poe (1838). Concept of the work is revealed by com- poserís comments: ìThis work displays the victory of desire over weakness. In the first part of the story Ligeia, the wife of the lead character, dies. Next, the lead character marries a second time, though again the second wife becomes very sick and dies. In the night of her death she changes (and returns to life) into Ligeia. The music portrays the final scene in the novella ñ the supernatural permutation of one woman into another. Raw material in the harmony of composition is the division of octave into 26 parts, which corresponds to the number of letters in the English alphabet. The music is formed by literally changing into sound the text of Poeís novella [this refers to the epigraph of the novella, the quote by Joseph Glanvill ñ B. J.] ñ each letter corresponds to a specific tone8î.

In this example, the scope of the genre has gained a unique viewpoint: the foundation of composition is not the entire novella, but only a fragment of it ñ the ending. The composition does not have any of the traditionally characteristic swift development of novella. The supernatural permutation form is externally static (possibly associations with film frames which are shown in slow motion), created mainly with sonoric tools of the choir, giving a personís voice very varied colours ñ stretched sounds dominate, without changing level of the pitch freely and flowing the gradation or timbre of volume, in the way that the internal life of the sound is hidden in dynamic fullness. The abandonment of the quick development tempo is compensated by another, also a hypertrophic display of novella-like traits ñ as a result of terrifying, mystical changes there the revelation is at the very end, which becomes the culmination of development in both a dramaturgical as well as a dynamic way (fff possible). Altogether, PÁtersonsí composition can be considered a vivid and truly contem- porary example of genre transformation.

Compositions entitled novella or novelette Composers, who have freely given the name of novella or novelette to their compositions, have also turned to other genres of literary origin. For example, the founder of instrumental novelette, the German Romantic Robert Schumann, also composed M‰rchenbilder (Fairy Tale Pictures) for viola and piano. In the first half of the 20th century, the Russian composer Nikolai Medtner composed Novellas for piano, as well as Fairy Tales and a Sonata Ballad. The Latvian classical composer AlfrÁds KalniÚ has not only a Novelette, but also a Ballad and Seven Poems for piano. Finally, in the second half of the 20th century, among the symphonic works by the avant-gardist Witold Lutos˘awski is Novelette for orchestra as well as Book for orchestra, etc.

68 Novella Genre in the Composerís Approach: The Main Forms of Interaction between..

Regarding the oldest of the works noted ñ Schumannís Novelletten (1838) ñ it turns out that the impulse was not just literary, but also a unique game of words ñ in 1837/1838, Schumann was entranced by the performance of English singer Clara Novello in Leipzig, as well as liking the fact that she had the same name as his future wife (though, at the time, still his fiancé) Clara Wieck. In a letter to Wieck, Schumann explained why he had given the cycle such a title: ìbecause your name is Clara, but Wiecketten would not sound goodî (quoted from Edler 2002: 133).

The connection of Novelletten to literature reflects the fact that, in his Second novelette, Schumann, in his own words, related to the story of Suleika in Johann Wolfgang von Goetheís poetry collection West-ˆstlicher Divan (The West-Eastern Divan). Additionally, in the periodical Neue Zeitung f¸r Musik, discussing the close relationship between literature and music, Schumann notes that he has used the text from William Shakespeareís Macbeth ñ the witches scene in intermezzo section of the Third novelette (B-Minor) (Edler 2009: 78). Altogether the composer has classified these compositions as ìthe greatest interrelated stories of adventuresî (Edler 2009: 77).

How are the characteristics of a novella expressed in the music itself? When answering this question, one can note three aspects:

— A tense development, which is reflected by such factors like the selection of a fast (or fairly fast) main tempo in all eight novelettes. — Varied rondo-like expression with a tonally variable refrain (or micro-refrain).

The rondo-like form (a form principle particularly close to Schumann) in this context creates associations with objects-symbols; in turn the abrupt tonal changes in layout of the refrain suggest parallels with a dynamic and previously unexpected, and, in this sense, a truly novella-like development. As an example, there is a refrain of the First novelette, which is created in a double ternary (thusly in a rondo-like) form. In the layout of this refrain sounds the main theme in F major, D flat and finally A major ñ and, moving along these major third steps, gains a unique colour.

Table 1. Robert Schumann, Novelette op. 28 No. 1: Refrain structure. A

Section of the form a b a1 b1 a2 Measures 1 ñ 4 5 ñ 8 9 ñ 12 13 ñ 16 17 ñ 20 Most significant tonalities F major ~ D flat major ~ A major

The tonal travelling of this theme undoubtedly can be associated with a literary character that is shown in an atmosphere of dynamic events, and, additionally, the selected tonalities in this case are very symbolic, as they foreshadow the tonal plan of entire novelette.

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Table 2. Robert Schumann, Novelette op. 28 No. 1: Overall structure.

Section of the form AB A1 C A2 D A3 Measure 1 ñ 20 21 ñ 48 49 ñ 60 61 ñ 81 82 ñ 85 86 ñ 113 114 ñ 137 Most significant F /A FF D flat D flat A F tonalities major major major major major major major

— Many novellas are not bound by the traditional ternary form or even the rondo-like structure in its purest form, but can be characterised as freely interpreted multi-part forms. Respectively, those include a large number of new themes, each of which are endowed with a separate character, tempo and tonality ñ that also underlines a retreat from the classical standard forms, development dynamism, creating an impression of an ever newer and newer character appearance and, after that, involvement in events. Particularly rich, in this sense, is the last, Eighth novelette, which contains a total of leastways eight independent themes. Even though there are themes which fulfil the function of local refrain or reprise, still, there is not a unifying refrain or reprise for the entire work ñ in that way the work is dominated by new events, frequent changes, rather than form symmetry.

At the same time, many traits that we would consider to be traditionally involved with the literary model of novelette do not appear. Even though, Schumannís Novelletten are dynamic, energetic, one almost never hears dramatic moods ñ the only exception is the thrillingly turbulent, florestanistic primary theme of the last Eighth novelette. Also, one never sees images that could be associated with the mysteriously fateful sphere that is frequently encountered in the novella genre. Almost all novelettes are interwoven with dance rhythms (the Fourth is even designated as Ballm‰ssig. Sehr munter9), which gives music a particular enthusiasm. That novelette is truly ruled by a spirit of youthful happiness and hope ñ there is nothing from dramaticism which can be felt in some other Schumann works (firstly in the piano cycle composed the same year ñ Kreisleriana), but particularly ñ in further life of the composer, which itself is similar to the tragic conclusion of romantic novella.

It must be immediately added that the abandonment of dramaticism in Schumannís Novel- letten is not in contradiction with the essence of genre. Even though dramatic branch of the genre has truly been numerically the most significant among the literary novellas, still, alongside it other novella types have existed ñ lyrically impressionistic, psychological, even anecdotal, etc.; they often have their own mutual interaction.

It is possible that the genre trends that Schumann offered influenced the future fate of musical novella/novelette: truly dramatic works are more rarely found among examples of this genre than among literary novellas/novelettes. Still, often the title of novella/novelette is given to compositions of a lyrical nature. It is interesting that a similar approach was confirmed by two particularly diverse representatives of national schools and styles like Nikolai Medtner and Francis Poulenc. They both created three novella cycles for piano (3 Novellas Op. 17, 1908 ñ 1909, by Medtner; Trois novelettes, 1927 ñ 1928, 1958, by

70 Novella Genre in the Composerís Approach: The Main Forms of Interaction between..

Poulenc) where the first novella is treated as a lyrical foreword, and only in the second and third novellas appear a novella-like tension ñ though not achieving a truly dramatic collision. Clearly, in this case, the attitude towards music as the most lyrical of art forms has also influenced the view on the novella genre.

Another line of development is the dramatic treatment of novella, at the same time bringing epic elements ñ foreword by narrator into it, at times also afterword and commentary, which interrupts the sharply tense events. In that way, novella becomes closer to ballad. Interesting examples here are two works by Latvian composers ñ the Novelette for piano by AlfrÁds KalniÚ (from Five Pieces, 1938) and Novella brevis by J‚nis Ivanovs for wind orchestra (1982).

It is interesting to compare AlfrÁds KalniÚí Novelette with the same composerís Ballad (1905) for piano ñ there can be clearly observed both similarities, as well as specifics of both genres.

Firstly, the form schemes of both works call to each other. An almost mirror symmetry can be viewed in both (more in the Ballad, less in the Novelette):

a b c d c1 a1 ñ Novelette (Andantino)(a tempo)(Poco pi˘ (Presto)(Moderato)(Tempo I mosso) e con grandezza)

a b c d c1 b1 a1 (Andantino)(Andante)(Quasi (Vivace)(Quasi (Andante (Larga- Ballad Allegretto) Allegretto) maestoso, mente) con grandezza)

There are also similarities in the development of the compositions. The Novelette begins with an epically precursory introduction theme in unison (a) ñ in its own way a prologue. That is changed by a sharply turbulent, romantic dream theme (b), then a section (c) that, although is derived from the material in ëaí, is still thematically independent, and begins in the calm tone of a message, though gradually becomes full of dynamics and changes into an active action (d). In this regard, the relationship curve calls to the composerís piano Ballad, which also an epically precursory expression in the introduction (a) firstly is changed to a movingly romantic first subject (b), then a brightly playful second subject (c) and finally ñ a dramatically sharp, warlike episode. After that, in a mirror like return, the sections become shorter ñ those attest to the dynamics of development.

Both the Ballad as well as the Novelette concludes with the ëaí material in a changed form, though the character of the changes is different, and that allows one to differentiate between the specifics of both genres. In the Balladís conclusion, a1 (Largamente), an epic foretelling character, in the tone of a narrator, can be heard slowly dissipating (ppp). In contrast, in the a1 section of the Novelette, it is not simply the afterword-rounding up of the narrator: it becomes a grandiose peak of development until now in the fff dynamic, Tempo I e con grandezza, in that way it reflects one of the features of literary novella ñ a trend to form conclusion as culmination10.

71 Baiba Jaunslaviete

Ivanovsí Novella brevis was composed in the second to last year of the composerís life. In certain ways it confirms, over the course of writing, the previously noted novella-like essence and a sonata-like relation. The composition begins with a heavy-hearted weighty introduction, similar to the message of a narrator, following by a turbulent first subject (Allegro) and a calmer, brighter second subject (Andante) with an impressionistically refined parallel triads. So far, a calling to many of the expositions of Ivanovsí symphonies can be felt. The only difference with the symphonies is that, this time, the second subject is not followed by the development, but a subdued introductory theme or the return of narratorís monologue (from number 10 in the score), which the composition also concludes with. In that way, it is created in a unique form inspired by novellaís laconicism ñ namely, it is the sonataís exposition without the development and recapitulation, but framed with an individual prologue and epilogue.

Conclusions Becoming familiar with the historical evolution of musical novella and novella-like development leads to a number of conclusions.

From varied features of literary novellas an intercepted strained dynamic activity can be heard in the music of composers in the past: unpredictability, swift changes ñ these features are shared in both compositions which create associations with dramatic, even a tragic novella-like essence in the frames of other genres (examples by Beethoven and Schubert are analysed), as well as the optimistically bright Schumann Novelletten.

Novella genre, particularly in the music of the 20th/21st century, is very freely grasped. In many compositions the novella-like content or development is indicated not by the most characteristic traits of this genre, but by the simply traits that can be also encountered in novella ñ for example, the story-like expression (in many lyric novellas ñ in the works of Medtner, Poulenc, Liede), and secretive terrifying visions (Ligeia by PÁtersons).

In that way, overall, one must conclude that there is no foundation in looking for any strict regularity in the musical expression of the novella genre that all composers have adhered to. The examples of this genre (much like in literature) are very varied, and their interactions with other genres can be encountered even more often than the novella-like essence in a pure form. Still, in any case, the novella-like essence ñ either displayed in title of the work, or simply fixed via the research process ñ one must consider the process of music analysis, as this will help to understand the vital edges in both the creative personality of the composer himself, as well as in the content of the work ñ in its influences, text and subtext.

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References Edler, A. 2002. Robert Schumann und seine Zeit. 2. Auflage, Laaber: Laaber Verlag. 371 S. Edler, A. 2009. Robert Schumann. M¸nchen: Beck. 128 S. Heyse, P. und H. Kurz (Hrsg.) [1871]. Einleitung. In: Deutscher Novellenschatz. Bd. 1. M¸nchen: Oldenbourg. S. V ñ XXII. KursÓte, J. 2002. Dzejas v‚rdnÓca. RÓga: Zin‚tne, 487 lpp. Northcote, S. 1942. The Ballad in Music. London, New York, Toronto: Oxford University Press. 123 pp. Po novele skaÚ‚s. Di‚na Ketlere un Radio kora grupa Rudens kamerm˚zikas festiv‚l‚. http://www.satori.lv/notikums/241 [24.01.2013.]. SmilktiÚa, B. 1999. Novele. Stili, virzieni, personÓbas latvieu novelÁ (lÓdz 1945. gadam). RÓga: Zin‚tne. 269 lpp. Theodor Storm: Eine zur¸ckgezogene Vorrede aus dem Jahre. 1881. In: Herbert Kr‰mer. Theorie der Novelle. Stuttgart: P. Reclam jun. S. 49ñ50. Виеру, Н. 1974. Драматургия баллад Шопена. О музыке: Проблемы анализа. Москва: Советский композитор. C. 219–245. Виноградов, В. 1936. Стиль «Пиковой дамы». Временник Пушкинской комиссии. Кн. 2. Москва-Ленинград: Академия Наук СССР. C. 74–147. http://feb-web.ru/feb/pushkin/ serial/v36/v36-074-.htm [10.01.2013.]. Мазель, Л. 1960. Некоторые черты композиции в свободных формах Шопена. Фридерик Шопен: Статьи и исследования советских музыковедов. Составление и общая редакция Эдельман, Г. Москва: Музгиз. C. 182–231. Реформатский, А. 1922. Опыт анализа новеллистической композиции. Вып. 1. Москва: ОПОЯЗ. 120 c. Холопова, В. 1999. Формы музыкальных произведений. Санкт-Петербург: Лань. 490 c.

1 Further in his research, Reformatsky also investigates varied three-element novella types (Реформатский 1922: 8). 2 At the foundation of theory: Decameron (~1350), by Giovanni Boccaccio, is the novella about the poor nobleman whose only treasure is a tamed falcon. Due to various misunderstanding, the nobleman, with a heavy heart, is forced to kill the falcon, cook and offer it as lunch to the lady, he is hopelessly in love with, who is visiting. However, there is a happy ending, as the touched lady offers him her heart. In that way, the falcon theme becomes the leitmotif of the entire work. 3 The novella-like development in fiction also appears in writings which are not defined as novellas. For example, Aleksandr Pushkin has designated his Queen of Spades not as a novella, but as a story (1833). However, literary researchers (Виноградов 1936: 89) justifiably observe characteristics of the novella. And truthfully: this work has both fateful object-symbol (three playing cards, which become the idée fixe, in the opera by Pyotr Tchaikovsky, 1890, they are endowed with a significant leitmotif), as well as a tense development, rich with changes, as well as a dramatic, unexpected but at the same time an internally anticipated resolution-culmination at the very end ñ in that way characteristic features particular to the novella.

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4 This is not particularly felt in the first movement of Pathetique Sonata ñ it is dominated by a unity created by turbulent mood. 5 This can be considered a vital sign of the ballad genre, which can be encountered in many musical ballads ñ for example, Carl Loewe (Der Mutter Geist, Lied der Kˆnigin Elisabeth, Thomas der Reimer and others), in Schubertís vocal ballads (Der Kˆnig in Thule), all four of Frederic Chopinís piano ballads (in the beginning of the composition), the Ballad for piano by AlfrÁds KalniÚ, J‚zeps VÓtolsí choir ballad D˚kÚu sils (The Haunted Thicket) and other works. 6 Six middle quadruplets display the dialogue between characters of the ballad ñ the father, son and Alder King. 7 A version of Ligeia for clarinet and symphony orchestra was also developed (2011). 8 A. Poe novella in sound. Di‚na Ketlere and the Latvian Radio Chamber Singers at the Autumn Chamber Music Festival. Satori: Internet magazine. http://www.satori.lv/notikums/241 [24.01.2013.] 9 In the spirit of a ball. Very lively. 10 The b1 section becomes this type of culmination in the Ballad.

74 ART TEMPUS. 1/2013 ISSN 2255-9396

Denominational Features of the Beginning of Latvian Professional Sacred Music

J˚lija Jon‚ne J. VÓtols Latvian Academy of Music Kr. Barona Street 1, RÓga, LV-1050, Latvia [email protected]

Abstract The paper gives an insight into the situation of Latvian professional sacred music sources, which in the case of denominationally fragmented Latvia are particularly topical. The author focuses on the role of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in the early formation of Latvian sacred music. The features of religious denominational multiplicity in their turn are considered within the context of the genre of the first sacred music compositions alongside with the choice of the text and the repertoire of sacred music concerts of the first five Latvian Nationwide Song Festivals.

Key words: Beginnings of Latvian Sacred Music, Sacred Genres, Sacred Compositions, Religious Denominational Tradition in Music, Sacred Music Concerts.

Sacred music in Latvia exists for nearly 140 years. The beginning of its formation dates back to the last three decades of the 19th century. However, the multiform representation of denominational genres is observed only 100 years later ñ in the late 20th century. How to explain such a late entry of sacred genres into the field of professional music?

It is common knowledge that history is made by personalities. Consequently, secular composers and their pious counterparts create the history of sacred music. Therefore it is important to know the model of relationship in order to understand the principles of forming sacred music (Figure 1).

Usually composers of sacred music come from the biggest and most active religious confes- sions, reflecting the relevant denominational affiliation in their sacred music creations. Presumably, first sacred compositions were written to enrich the worship, but later ñ to be performed in concert halls outside the church as well. So, the aspect of both oneís deep personal religiousness and close belonging to one or another religious denomination is a major impetus to start composing sacred music in general. In such a way sacred music com- posers can preach not only in their congregations, but also to a much bigger audience. The exploration of this indirect preaching ñ outside church and worship ñ displays the true and objective panorama of professional sacred music genres, thus in the right time enabling entry and identification of the relevant religious denomination into the worldly music culture.

75 J˚lija Jon‚ne

y Composers write sacred Composers write sacred music according to the Sacred music composers music that is performed traditions of their get inspired in the church in the congregational congregational church of their relevant religious church which has thus promoting the denomination. inspired the particular recognition of his author. religion in concert halls and music culture at all. y

Figure 1. Principles of sacred music inspiration and influence (Drawing by J. Jon‚ne).

In such confessionally homogeneous countries as Italy, Poland, Spain and Lithuania where one particular confession, namely, the Roman Catholic Church predominates, analysis of this situation is not necessary, all facts and religious influences being quite obvious and speaking for themselves. Research into sacred music becomes a matter of interest just in the case of confessionally unhomogeneous countries. Among several sacred music genres of different denominations one of them could become more prevalent or even fashionable, in such a way influencing the development of sacred music history in the future. And the situation of sacred music evolution in Latvia is just the case.

Therefore, to mark the main tendencies of development of Latvian sacred music history, the question of prevalence of a particular religious denomination is the most topical and determinative. According to data, presented by the State Statistical Bureau (http://data.csb. gov.lv/) for 2011 there are 21 registered religious denominations in Latvia, seven of them being regarded as leading ones, with the number of congregations exceeding 50, three of them numerically being in excess (Table 1).

Table 1. Confessional prevalence in 2011 (J. Jon‚ne) No. Religious denominations Registered congregations 1. Evangelical Lutheran 294 2. Roman Catholic 250 3. Russian Orthodox 122 4. Baptist Church 94 5. Old Believers 69 6. Pentecostal Church 52 7. Seventh-day Adventists 51

Indeed, in course of the last 500 years Baltic countries have witnessed conflicting interests of three prevalent denominations in Europe ñ Roman Catholic, Russian Orthodox and

76 Denominational Features of the Beginning of Latvian Professional Sacred Music

Protestant (or Evangelical Lutheran) Church. The three above-mentioned denominations were the first to spread in the territory of Latvia since the 9th century from the East and the West almost simultaneously, initially in a peaceful way, later, unfortunately, with violence. Due to the enforced Christianization, deep in their hearts Latvian people preserved not only long-standing lack of faith, but also marked internal dislike towards this imposed religion. Especially it refers to the Christianization practice of the Roman Catholic Church with its liturgy held in Latin that people did not understand alongside with foreign traditions and ceremonies. Therefore, in the 16th century reformed religion by Martin Luther gained a lot of support and easily spread in the territory of Latvia. This can be explained by the fact that every chronologically more recent denomination, compared to the earlier ones, proves to be more rational, secular and willing to reconcile with liberal ideas, which are concealed in the form of religious freedom, science and personalization.

Significantly, almost all musicians who lived and worked at the end of the19th and the beginning of the 20th century (among them composers, conductors, organists, teachers and workshop leaders) belonged to the Evangelical Lutheran Church. Activities of this particular Christian denomination contributed to the spread of its belief and availability to common people, translating the Bible and liturgy, involving the common chorale singing, organizing seminars and schools and so on. Owing to the above, most of New Latvians, musicians and other first public figures in the field of Latvian politics and culture came from Lutheran environment (Table 2).

Table 2. The Young Latvians and first Latvian composers ñ Evangelical Lutherans (J. Jon‚ne) The First Public Figures of Latvian The First Latvian Composers, Culture, the Young Latvians who had studied abroad Auseklis ¬dolfs ¬bele K‚rlis Baumanis EmÓls D‚rziÚ J‚nis BÁtiÚ Andrejs Jurj‚ns J‚nis Cimze Juris Jurj‚ns D‚vids Cimze P‚vuls Jurj‚ns J‚nis SÁrm˚kslis AlfrÁds KalniÚ Oskars –epskis Emilis Melngailis Ernests VÓgners Harijs Ore IndriÌis ZÓle ¬dams Ore J‚zeps VÓtols a.o.

Among them one could mention J‚nis Cimze, who, thanks to the Lutheran congregations and pastors, got educated in Germany alongside with his students ñ BaumaÚu K‚rlis, J‚nis SÁrm˚kslis, Oskars –epskis ñ and other public figures, among them such teachers, conductors and organists as Auseklis, J‚nis BÁtiÚ, VÓgneru Ernests and IndriÌis ZÓle. They all were Lutherans. It should be noted that those Latvians who got educated abroad later also belonged to the Evangelical Lutheran Church.

77 J˚lija Jon‚ne

As to the deepest or more formal religiosity of every individual composer it is not going to be discussed here because what is really important is the fact of affiliation itself. Therefore, I believe, that the early formation of Latvian sacred music progressed, owing to the direct or indirect blessing of the Evangelical Lutheran Church.

The confessional affiliation of socially active artists also explains the appearance of the first traditional sacred music genres. Furthermore, they appeared practically at the same time as the first Latvian professional secular choir music pieces.

In the 70ís of the 19th century BaumaÚu K‚rlis had composed his first choral songs ñ both secular and sacred. M˚su TÁvs (in Latin ñ Pater Noster or Our Father) was performed by him in 1880 during the Second Song Festival. One year later in 1881 the first Latvian sacred cantata Belshazzarís Feast for mixed choir and orchestra was composed by Jurj‚nu Andrejs.

Free and creative approach to Bible stories and Christian symbols is observed in the use of textual preferences of the first Latvian sacred compositions. Canonical verses are practically absent, being substituted by sacred miniature and sacred cantata as the leading genres of music of that period.

This kind of preference is determined by religious affiliation of composers. The musical language of the first sacred compositions followed the traditions of European sacred music pieces of the 19th ñ 20th centuries, which Latvian composers had mastered during their studies, tours abroad, analysing different music scores and concert performance.

So, by the 20th century, the development of Latvian sacred music was marked by such means of expression and tendencies, which influenced the development of this particular field in the future. So, for instance, as to the textual preference of sacred compositions three tendencies come to the foreground. The first tendency proves to be original music with sacred folk verses:

— K‚rlis Baumanis Mortuos plango cycle for mixed choir ñ 3rd song To Die Young, to Die Old (Mirti jaunam, mirti vecam; 1874), — Andrejs Jurj‚ns To Die Young, to Die Old (Mirt jaunam, mirt vecam) for mixed choir (1877).

This thematic tendency reflects the succession of Latvian professional music, providing a gradual transition from folk songs to original compositions, inheriting elements of folklore. Compositions pertaining to the tendency above are based not only on folk texts but also on folk music intonations and a simple form of verse. However, in a relatively short time this tendency came to an end.

The second tendency is marked by using texts from Scripture (Table 3). First composers mostly chose popular texts from prayers and hymns, as well as psalm verses for their music pieces. This is the way Pater Noster (in Latvian: M˚su TÁvs) and the hymn Glory to God in the highest (in Latvian: Gods Dievam augstÓb‚, Latin: Gloria in excelsis

78 Denominational Features of the Beginning of Latvian Professional Sacred Music

Deo) were often put in the music scores of various Latvian composers who also liked to combine textual fragments taken from the Bible. This tendency is being widely used nowadays too.

Table 3. Compositions with texts from Scripture (J. Jon‚ne) Year Composer Title Translation Performers Text source 1877 Andrejs Jurj‚ns Gods Dievam Glory to God Menís choir Luke 2: 14 augstÓb‚ in the Highest 1880 K‚rlis Baumanis M˚su TÁvs Our Father in Mixed choir Matthew 6: Heaven/Lordís and/or orch. 9-13 Prayer 1887 Oskars –epskis D‚vida dziesma The 103rd Song Mixed choir Psalm 103 Nr. 103 of David 1887 Oskars –epskis D‚vida dziesma The 149th Song Mixed choir Psalm 149 Nr. 149 of David 1887 J‚nis Kade GavilÁjiet Make a Menís choir Psalm 100 Joyful Noise 1887 Oskars –epskis Gods Glory Mixed choir Luke 2: 14 1888 Oskars –epskis Motete/Cik How Lovely Mixed choir Psalm 84 mÓlÓgas tavas is Your m‚jas Dwelling Place 1889 Andrejs Jurj‚ns M˚su TÁvs Our Father in 8-part mixed Matthew 6: debesÓs Heaven/Lordís choir 9-14 Prayer 1889 Oskars –epskis Ozianna Hosanna 2 mixed Js. 6: 3, choirs Mt. 21: 9 1890 ¬dams Ore M˚su TÁvs Our Father/ Mixed choir Matthew 6: Lordís Prayer 9-14 1890 Ernests ¤dris M˚su TÁvs Our Father/ Mixed choir Matthew 6: (?) Lordís Prayer 9-14

The third tendency starts with music compositions, the texts of which are taken from Latvian, Russian and German poetry. This tendency is the last one (Table 4). However, it highlights remarkable achievements of sacred art in general ñ not only in music, but also in literature because poetry is a very important impulse for creating vocal and choral music. As to the contents, the above thematic tendency keeps aloof from features of one particular religion, focusing on the theme of Christianity as a generalized notion.

79 J˚lija Jon‚ne

Table 4. Latvian sacred compositions with texts of popular prayers and hymns (J. Jon‚ne)

Year Composer Title Translation Author Performers of the text 1874 K‚rlis Baumanis Brang‚ svÁt‚ At Significant Varadoiu Menís choir brÓdÓ Holy Moment Zanders 1886 J‚zeps VÓtols L˚gana The Prayer Mikhail Mixed choir Lermontov 1891 J‚zeps VÓtols SvÁts brÓdis The Holy Andrejs Mixed choir Moment Pumpurs 1894 J‚zeps VÓtols Neliec, Kungs, Do not Push Geroks, Mixed choir jel krist man Me, the Lord, translator ñ Ôau˛u rok‚s to Fall Into the Juris Neikens Peopleís Hands 1896 J‚zeps VÓtols Dieva l˚gums Prayer to God Augusts Mixed choir Ka˛oks 1899 J‚zeps VÓtols G‚jÁja dziesma The Pilgrimís J.W. Goethe, Mixed choir naktÓ Song at Night transl. Juris Alun‚ns 1900 ¬dams Ore Tur, kur Dieva Where the K‚rlis Mixed choir tronis laist‚s Throne of Liecinieks God is Shining

All three above-mentioned tendencies of text preferences were combined in the song cycle for mixed choir Mortuos plango (Lamenting the dead) by BaumaÚu K‚rlis to commemorate Kronvaldu Atis:

1. Kungs Dievs Cebaot (Lord, God of Hosts; text ñ Psalm 89: 8ñ15), 2. Galva ar trim ÌÁpiem (The Head With Three Spears; text ñ Andrejs Pumpurs), 3. Mirti jaunam, mirti vecam (To Die Young, to Die Old; text ñ Latvian folk song), 4. Salda dusa tam! (Good Sleep to Him; text ñ K‚rlis Baumanis).

More broadly and, possibly, more objectively the confessional situation in Latvia unfolds in the repertoire of the First Nationwide Latvian Song Festival. As we know, it was drawn by the most progressive part of Latvian society ñ conductors, teachers, composers and musicians. However, the most significant criterion for preparing such a concert programme is the audience. By the latter I mean not only listeners, but also singers ñ their interests and wishes but in this case their religious affiliation as well. Therefore, I suppose that the repertoire of sacred music concerts within the frame of the Nationwide Latvian Song Festival shows the confessional situation in Latvia more objectively, thus either confirming or disproving former observations. Hence, I propose to get more familiar with the repertoire of the relevant sacred music concerts in detail.

80 Denominational Features of the Beginning of Latvian Professional Sacred Music

During the period from the first to the fifth Nationwide Latvian Song Festival the sacred music concert was organized as an independent musical event. Later, from the sixth to the ninth Nationwide Latvian Song Festival, religious choir songs were performed before the very first concert, the number of sacred music compositions gradually diminishing. Under Soviet regime religious music pieces during Song Festivals were absolutely forbidden. By the way, this fact confirms the fact that sacred music depends not only on the history of religion and its territorial extension, but also on the social system and political situation.

Compositions, which were included in the repertoire of sacred music concert programs of the first five Nationwide Latvian Song Festivals, can be divided into three groups, depending on their functional, original and artistic value.

The first group of sacred compositions is made up of church music opuses, which were, evidently, sung during the Evangelical Lutheran Church ceremony. However, these music pieces quite quickly were written-off from the repertoire and soon forgotten. I assume that composers of these opuses ñ organists and priests of different congregations ñ were little-known in those days. Therefore, the names of concert program authors of the above group were written either with nothing more than initials or even without them at all. These compositions had the block chord texture and were performed in mo- nophonic or four-part chorale style. The artistic value of the on-coming compositions growing, the choice of former music pieces was gradually diminishing till finally it came to an end. So, for instance, in sacred music concert program of the First Nationwide Latvian Song Festival one comes across 7 such opuses, in the Second ñ 5, in the 3rd and 4th ñ 3 and 4, but in the 5th ñ only 1 (choral Ak, galva asiÚain‚ ñ Oh Bloody Head by J.S. Bach; Table 5).

Table 5. Examples of church music opuses, performed during the Nationwide Latvian Song Festival concerts of sacred music1

Composer Title Translation Number of Song Festival Martin Dievs Kungs ir m˚su stipr‚ Ein Feste Burg/ A Mighty 1 Luther pils Fortress Is Our God ?. Palmer Celies un topí apgaismota Arise And Be Enlightened 1 B. Klein Dievs Kungs, Dievs Kungs Lord God, Lord God 1 B. Klein Kas staig‚ Visaugst‚ Sarga Who Walks the Way of 2 ceÔus Supreme Guardian ?. Gebler Teic, mana dvÁselí Praise, My Soul 1 ?. Gebler Es teiku to Kungu I Will Praise My Lord 2 F.G. Clauer Himna Hymn 3 J. S. Bach Ak galva asiÚain‚ Oh, Bloody Head 5

81 J˚lija Jon‚ne

This tendency can be explained by the professional and artistic growth of choirs, owing to which the above-mentioned sacred music compositions became less topical both in their technical performance and musicality, not being able to arouse interest of the audience. Besides, till the Fifth Nationwide Latvian Song Festival the range of Latvian professional choir music pieces was supplemented with numerous original sacred opuses that make up the second group ñ compositions to be performed in church and concerts (Table 6).

Table 6. Original music by Latvian composers, performed during the Nationwide Latvian Song Festivals (J. Jon‚ne)

Composer Title Translation Number of Song Festival K‚rlis Baumanis M˚su TÁvs debesÓs Our Father in Heaven 2 Andrejs Jurj‚ns GarÓg‚ kant‚te Sacred Cantata 3 (1. un 3. daÔa) (part 1 and 3) Gods Dievam augstÓb‚ Glory to God in the 4 Highest M˚su TÁvs debesÓs Our Father in Heaven 5 J‚nis Kade GavilÁjiet (100. D. dz.) Make a Joyful Noise 3 (the 100 Song of David) Alleluj‚ Halleluiah 5 Oskars –epskis Motete Motet 3 M˚su TÁvs Our Father 3 Ozianna Osianna 4 Emilis Melngailis 42. dziesma The 42nd Song 5

Such compositions were often written for the premiere during the Nationwide Latvian Song Festival. With relation to confessional affiliation, this group of compositions confirms the above assertions, concerning the traditions of the Evangelical Lutheran Church. However, the most active performing of these music pieces makes us see the above opuses higher ñ in a kind of ecumenical level.

The third group comprises world masterpieces of sacred music, which conductors and the conjoint choir of the Nationwide Latvian Song Festival have tried to learn and perform. This is the very group of compositions, which provides for a significant denominational independence and diversity (Table 7).

These masterpieces of sacred music which incorporate traditions of Roman Catholic, Evangelical Lutheran and Russian Orthodox Churches were topical not only in the long- ago days of the first five Song Festivals, but also nowadays. Owing to their artistic value, these pearls of music extend denominational boundaries, speaking through music about universal spirituality.

82 Denominational Features of the Beginning of Latvian Professional Sacred Music

Table 7. Sacred music opuses by foreign composers (J. Jon‚ne) Composer Title Number of Song Festival Ludwig van Beethoven T‚ debess izteic (Die Ehre Gottes 1 aus der Natur/Die Himmel r¸hmen) Nakts slava/ The Glory of Night 3 Felix Mendelssohn- Choir from oratory Paulus 2 Bartholdi Ties‚, ak Dievs/ Defend Me, oh Lord 3 G.F. Handel Choir Halleluiah from oratory Messiah 4 W.A. Mozart Dies irae from Requiem d moll 2 J. Haydn Choir from oratory Die Schˆpfung/ 2 The Creation of the World D. Bortniansky SvÁts ir m˚su Dievs/Kolí Slaven Bog/ 3, 4 Holy is the God2

Conclusions The development of sacred music in Latvia took a distinct and solitary path. Initially functional and patriotically generalized nature of the formation in a long run exceeds the boundaries of the denominational framework towards the universal tendencies of sacred music in Europe and in the whole world. Thus, this insight into the early days of Latvian sacred music reveals the first major impetus for its further development in the early and late 20th century. And it is important, that it was just the Evangelical Lutheran Church, which gave that impetus both directly and indirectly, enabling a free choice of sacred texts.

Under Soviet regime sacred music genres in Latvia developed only in the music, created by Latvian composers in exile. The revival of religions in the late 20th century also reanimated those genres of sacred music, which had been developed one hundred years earlier, experiencing particular flourishing of canonical genres, defined by the Roman Catholic and Russian Orthodox Churches. But this is a period which calls for another research from quite different perspectives and angles.

References BÁrzkalns, V. 1965. Latvieu dziesmu svÁtku vÁsture 1864 ñ 1940. RÓga: Gr‚matu draugs. P. 559. Centr‚l‚s statistikas p‚rvaldes datu b‚zes. http://data.csb.gov.lv/ [01.02.2013.].

1 The data about concertsí repertoire (only compositions, authors and performance year) of Nationwide Latvian Song Festival are adapted from V. BÁrzkalnsí monography (BÁrzkalns 1965: 11ñ252). 2 De-facto Anthem of the Russian Empire in 1796 ñ 1801/1816 (Paul anthem, together with Catherine anthem Grom pobedy, razdavaysya!)

83 ART TEMPUS. 1/2013 ISSN 2255-9396

Latvian Folksong Arrangements for Piano Four Hands

Nora L˚se University College of Economics and Culture Lomonosova Street 1/5, RÓga, LV-1019, Latvia [email protected]

Abstract Folk melodies have served as the source for many instrumental music works by Latvian composers. This genre, a valid form of program music, borders between the definitions of folk and art music. The paper contains aspects regarding an insight into the Latvian collection of folksong arrangements for piano four hands ensemble. The aim of the study is to reveal some aspects of Latvian folksong arrangements for piano four hands for young pianists. The materials and methods section uses referring the analysis of musico- logical literature and a brief analysis of printed Latvian lullabies arrangements. The folksong arrangements are piano miniatures with attempt at a musical narrative, which itself is based on the Latvian folk quatrains named dainas. This genre is one of the means that reflect cultural differences. Young pianists have a clearer understanding of the mood of folksongs, their main musical idea and the musical form based on folk poetry. The daina represents a form of oral literature and it is specifically Latvian in its structure, sentiments and worldview. The symbolism of folksongs reflects what is seen as vital to Latvian spiritual growth. The folksong arrangements were the means by which composers achieved nationalistic musical style which was at the same time intensely individual. Three folksongs of Latvian origin ìAij‚, ˛˚˛˚î, ìAij‚, AncÓt, aij‚î, ìVelc, pelÓteî are based on lyrics which belong to the category of lullabies. Musical parameters of lullabies are characterized by slow tempo, metre 2/4, narrow diapason with falling, ascending or repeating intonations mostly in a tetrachord ñ pentachord framework and a syllabic melody. In a lullaby, the structure becomes the limiting element to which the harmonic, rhythmic and timbre materials are adjusted. Four Latvian composers ñ AlfrÁds KalniÚ, Romualds Kalsons, Georgs PelÁcis and ArvÓds fiilinskis have dealt with lullabies. Didactically oriented most popular lullabies ìAij‚, ˛˚˛˚î, ìAij‚, AncÓt, aij‚î, ìVelc, pelÓteî are characterized by simple solutions and interplay between the folk tune in Primo and harmonic accompa- niment in Secondo. Latvian composers have composed more than 90 folksong arrangements for piano four hands. Nowadays these arrangements are mostly available in old printed editions. Few issues of Latvian musicology involve the aesthetic discussion of folksong arrangements for piano four hands; this field needs future investigations.

Key words: Piano Four Hands, Folksong Arrangements.

84 Latvian Folksong Arrangements for Piano Four Hands

Introduction European composers have found vivid inspiration from folksongs and by setting folk tunes as art music. Folk melodies have served as the source for many instrumental music works by Latvian composers. This genre, a valid form of program music, borders between the definitions of folk and art music.

Folksong arrangements for piano are miniatures with an attempt at a musical narrative, which itself is based on the Latvian folk quatrains named dainas (Bula 2013). Such arrange- ments have a descriptive title according to the first line of folk poetry and reveal much about the specifics of traditional culture and national identity. Ethno-psychologist I. Apine writes that Latvian language, as one of the oldest of the Indo-European languages, is a valuable part of European cultural heritage. The ethnic originality of people is preserved in the phenomena of traditional culture, and the integral elements of Latviansí self-identifi- cation are manifested by traditional heritage ñ dainas, LÓgo celebration, national traditional costumes, Song festivals (Apine 2001: 56).

Latvian folksong studies, which tend to focus on the origins of melodies and the status of folksong arrangements, have shown that choral traditions as well as the processes of the creation of a national choral repertoire are historically the most studied field in Latvian musicology. Some studies deal specifically with the folksong arrangements by Latvian composers for piano solo or piano four hands (VÓtoliÚ 1970; KlotiÚ 1973; L˚se 1988; L˚se 2012).

The paper contains aspects regarding an insight into the Latvian collection of folksong arrangements for piano four hands ensemble. Investigation explores a select number of arrangements of Latvian lullabies. A comparison of settings of the lullabies by four Latvian composers ñ AlfrÁds KalniÚ (1879 ñ 1951), Romualds Kalsons (1936), Georgs PelÁcis (1947), ArvÓds fiilinskis (1905 ñ 1993) examined the breadth of their compositional tech- nique. The aim of the study is to reveal some aspects of Latvian folksong arrangements for piano four hands for young pianists. The materials and methods section uses the referring analysis of musicological literature and a brief analysis of printed Latvian lullabies arrangements for piano four hands.

Piano Four Hands Ensemble Four hands ensemble offers many opportunities for the creative communication between young pianists, helping the specific development of musical as well as human qualities ñ attentiveness, sensitivity, respect, responsibility. It is primarily concerned with the young pianistsí physical, intellectual and emotional growth. Researcher D. J. Elliott suggested that to achieve the values of music, teachers ought to emphasize the interpretive nature of music as performing and improvising, and composing, arranging and conducting should be taught frequently during the course (Elliott 1995).

Piano four hands ensemble is primarily concerned with the active input of pianists. The perception of ensemble music includes mutual relation between similarity and contrast of

85 Nora L˚se aural and notational dexterity. It offers the chance to experience the music both individually and share the experience on the emotional level, and take mutual responsibility on perfor- mance, which depends on oneís personal effort.

Four hands pieces foster creative cooperation. The classic of Latvian pedagogy science J. A. Students proposed that various expressions of cooperation are the basis for acquisition of social skills, and human integration in society and the creation of proper links with the society is realized through cooperation (Students 1998).

Specific activities proposed in four hands are sound-colours balance amongst Piano and Secondo, levels of dynamics and quality of sound, technical fluency and rhythm, musical form and interrelation of the ways in which musical phrases are repeated, transferred, come into opposition or link together.

Four hands ensemble is a component of music education, and piano teachers in Latvian professionally oriented music schools use the existing educational standards for structuring the teaching-learning process. Nowadays it mainly involves a performance of piano solo and piano four hands during the one-to-one tuition, and audition. Playing the folksong arrangements for piano four hands is musically as valuable as playing a solo piece for piano.

The genre of folksong arrangements is one of the means that reflect cultural differences. Music school education must be guided by the universal task of steering the world towards greater mutual understanding, a greater sense of responsibility and greater solidarity, through the acceptance of peopleís spiritual and cultural identity (Delore 1996).

The folksong arrangements strengthen the young pianistsí skills of intelligent listening and understanding of the heard and played material. Young pianists have a clearer under- standing about the mood of folksongs, the main musical idea and the musical form based on folk poetry. Folksong arrangements are the communication with conversation and exchange. Playing arrangements together broadens young pianistsí mind and trains the eye-to-ear coordination.

Historical Context The notion of national identity is expressed through cultural forms such as music and literature. The basic form of Latvian folksong daina is a quatrain. Very few dainas has only one version of quatrain, and this is typical of folksongs in general to have multiple verses. According to folklore scholar V. VÓÌe-Freiberga, dainas are more than a literary tradition. They are the very embodiment of cultural heritage, left by forefathers whom history had denied other more tangible forms of expression. Thus these songs form the very core of Latvian identity, and singing becomes one of the identifying qualities of a Latvian (VÓÌe-Freiberga 1975).

Daina represents a form of oral literature and it is specifically Latvian in its structure, sentiments and worldview. Today the collection of dainas contains more than 1.2 million

86 Latvian Folksong Arrangements for Piano Four Hands texts and 30.000 folk melodies; the symbolism of folksongs reflects what is seen as vital to Latvian spiritual growth ñ nature, love for the homeland and the ethical values of human relations (Bula 2000).

As a term folksong was coined by a German cultural philosopher, theologian and writer J. G. Herder (1744 ñ 1803), who not only collected Latvian quatrains, but also recorded one folk tune while living in Riga from 1765 until 1769 (VÓtoliÚ, Krasinska 1972). From the late XIX century onwards, the concept became a subject within folklore studies, and increasingly crucial for the debates on Latvian identity. Folksongs as a cultural phenomenon are still the subject of ongoing research (Boiko 1987, Beit‚ne 2009).

The collectors of folksongs tended to be composers who considered their collections as a source of new musical ideas for creating serious national art music repertoire. Through the perspective of the XX century, it appears to be the implementation of romantic music language tools in the manner of folksong arrangements for piano four hands. Nowadays such collection of arrangements incorporates more than 90 pieces composed by 13 Latvian composers ñ O. Gr‚vÓtis, J. GraubiÚ, R. Jermaks, Alfr. KalniÚ, R. Kalsons, J. ÕepÓtis, J. Lip‚ns, J. Norvilis, H. Ore, G. PelÁcis, V. Salaks, J. –Ìipsna, A. fiilinskis, and LÓgo svÁtki op. 4 (1889) ñ the first example in the history of Latvian music for piano four hands was created by J‚zeps VÓtols (1863 ñ 1948).

The term arrangement might be applied to any piece of music based on or incorporating pre-existing material. The nature of arrangements during the XIX century was largely determined by two important developments. One was the new interest in instrumental colour for its own sake; the other was the rise of the piano as both concert and domestic instrument. Folksong arrangements were the means by which composers achieved the nationalistic musical style which was at the same time intensely individual (Boyd 2001: 65).

Folksong arrangements were created to be performed by four hands ensemble with different degrees of technical mastery. A large number of such arrangements originated because teachers wanted to broaden the young pianist piano ensemble repertoire. Didactical arrangements for young pianists are characterized by simplicity with the chosen folk tune mostly set for Primo and harmonization for Secondo. Examples of such didactical arrange- ments were created by J. ÕepÓtis (ìSmieklis manî, ìKur tad tu nu bijiî, ìNebrauc tik diktiî), O. Gr‚vÓtis (ìEs meitiÚa k‚ puÌÓteî), J. Lip‚ns (ìBÁdu, manu lielu bÁduî, ìKas kaitÁja nedzÓvotiî), J. Norvilis (ìP˚t, vÁjiÚiî).

The arrangements invite imaginative correlations and carry the poetry quatrainsí message. The most popular folk melodies in the collection of piano four hands arrangements are ìT˚daliÚ, tagadiÚî (4 arrangements), ìP˚t, vÁjiÚiî (3 arrangements), ìTautieami roku devuî, ìSaulÓt tecÁj tecÁdamaî, ìKas tie t‚diî, ìAij‚, ˛˚˛˚î (2 arrangements each). The arrangements are adapted from the quatrains as the genre scenes. Four main types of genre scenes are represented: nature landscape, portrait, lullaby and dance (L˚se 2013). The focus of our analysis is on the lullabies of Latvian origin.

87 Nora L˚se

Analysis of Lullabies Three folksongs of Latvian origin ìAij‚, ˛˚˛˚î, ìAij‚, AncÓt, aij‚î, ìVelc, pelÓteî are based on lyrics which belong to the category of lullabies. According to JÁkabs VÓtoliÚ, lullaby belongs to the oldest layer of Latvian folksongs. The specifics of this genre are directed by the task of lullaby to mollify and lull the child in the unity of words, melody and swinging rhythm (VÓtoliÚ 1971: 81). The poetry images of quatrains are enriched by swinging repeated syllables aij‚, ËuËi, ˛˚˛˚. The most popular image is the mouse carrying the sleep through the house, room or threshold and putting it under the pillow.

Musical parameters of lullabies are characterized by slow tempo, metre 2/4, narrow diapason with falling, ascending or repeating intonations mostly in a tetrachord ñ penta- chord framework, and a syllabic melody. Lullabies are structured in quadratic form (8 bars period), but most of the melodies have only one sentence (4 bars). The extension of folk tune structure is organized clearly by repetitions of the last sentence.

Three Latvian folksongs ìAij‚, ˛˚˛˚î, ìAij‚, AncÓt, aij‚î and ìVelc, pelÓteî belong to the category of lullabies (lolojam‚s dziesmas); the melodies show clarity of structure ñ mostly an 8 bar period with two repeated or contrasting sentences, strictly shaped phrases and logic of musical idea (D‚rziÚ 1952 ñ 1956). One of the most popular Latvian lullabies is ìAij‚, ˛˚˛˚î (Example 1).

Aij‚, ˛˚˛˚, l‚Ëa bÁrni, plakan‚mi k‚jiÚ‚mi! TÁvs aizg‚ja biu k‚pt, m‚te ogu palasÓti. Example 1. Lullaby ìAij‚, ˛˚˛˚î bars 1 ñ 8 (Jurj‚ns 1903: 92).

In a lullaby, the structure becomes the limiting element to which the harmonic, rhythmic, and timbre materials are adjusted. Three Latvian composers ñ AlfrÁds KalniÚ, ArvÓds fiilinskis and Georgs PelÁcis have dealt with the same folk tune ìAij‚, ˛˚˛˚î. Comparison of these three arrangements shows the different choices that the composers have made in their creative work.

During the years preceding the World War I composer AlfrÁds KalniÚ explored Latvian folk tunes and organized the musical material into arrangements for piano four hands for young pianists. His collection of 15 arrangements moved towards greater simplicity and was influenced by the national spirit (KalniÚ 1913). Selected 15 folk melodies became an important resource for creating his new setting, and didactic perspective in particular inspired the musical imagery of arrangements. The next attempt to arrange another 10 Latvian folksongs for piano four hands was made by him later in 1950.

Folk tunes had an influence on KalniÚ very musical language in all of his vocal and instrumental genres. In the concrete folk song arrangement, the original melody of ìAij‚, ˛˚˛˚î (G-dur) is set both in Secondo (bars 1 ñ 8) and Primo (bars 9 ñ 16). Rhythmic

88 Latvian Folksong Arrangements for Piano Four Hands accompaniment function reflects the folk melody with a swinging continuously figured version of harmonic chords. The arrangement ends with a brief postlude (bars 17 ñ 19).

ArvÓds fiilinskis arranged six Latvian folk tunes for piano four hands. These arrangements are didactically oriented for young pianist, as the composer states in the preface of his Piano School (fiilinskis 1935: 2). The arrangement of the folk tune ìAij‚, ˛˚˛˚î (C ñ dur) explores 8 bars period with solo melody in Primo with simple harmonization in Secondo. The piece is expanded by the repetition of the tuneís second phrase (bars 5 ñ 8).

Contemporary composer Georgs PelÁcis complemented the Latvian piano four hands repertoire for young pianists in 2007. His 19 Latvian folk song arrangements followed the traditional direction towards simplicity according to ensemble practice of young pianists (PelÁcis 2007). The arrangement of ìAij‚, ˛˚˛˚î (F ñ dur) is positioned in the Latvian folk song potpourri, based on a collection of the set of three folk songs and one dance. Similarly to KalniÚ, the melody of ìAij‚, ˛˚˛˚î rises from the small octave in Secondo (bars 1 ñ 8) and is expanded by the echo effect of repeating the second sentence of the tune in Primo (bars 9 ñ 12). The next stage rises from Primo (bars 13 ñ 20) and is followed with the same echo vice versa in Secondo (bars 21 ñ 24). The expansion of folk song arrangement is realized by the third and final stage where the changing of timbres in Primo and Secondo imitates spatial contrast (bars 25 ñ 36). G. PelÁcis stated in an interview, that the Potpourri is conceived as a whole cycle, but playing an arrangement taken in isolation experimentally is also possible (PelÁcis 2013). Another popular lullaby in the collection of Latvian folksongs is ìAij‚, AncÓt, aij‚î (Example 2).

Aij‚, AncÓt, aij‚ sald‚ miedziÚ‚. M‚siÚ tevi ˚pos viegl‚m rociÚ‚m! Example 2. Lullaby ìAij‚, AncÓt, aij‚î bars 1 ñ 8 (Jurj‚ns 1903: 82).

ArvÓds fiilinskis arranged the folk tune ìAij‚, AncÓt, aij‚î as a simple 6 bars piece. The melody has only one sentence (bars 3 ñ 6); it is characterized by a narrow diapason in pentachord framework. Composer starts with a short harmonic accompaniment in the introduction in Secondo. The tune is arranged in parallel octaves in Piano according to its didactical task and supported by harmonic figuration in Secondo (fiilinskis 1935: 14).

In the last third of the XX century Latvian piano music was characterized by the early mo- dernist language in the genre of arrangements. As noticed by Arnolds KlotiÚ, interpretation of folklore is connected with changes in the resources of contemporary intonations (KlotiÚ 1973: 41). The genre of four hands arrangements was dramatized by bringing tension and dynamism to the music, and by the interplay of several folk melodies simultaneously.

The piece ìIdee Fixeî composed by Romualds Kalsons illustrates a proposed didactical aspect of bringing two folksongs together (Kalsons 1982: 27ñ29). One of them is a popular Latvian lullaby ìVelc, pelÓteî (Example 3).

89 Nora L˚se

Velc, pelÓte, saldu miegu mazajam bÁrniÚam; Savilkusi, sanesusi, guli pati pagalvÓ! Example 3. Lullaby ìVelc, pelÓteî bars 1 ñ 4 (VÓtoliÚ 1971: 102).

Parameters of the melody are characterized by narrow diapason with drowsy intonations and very clear structure (4 bars). Composer shaped the musical articulation of ìVelc, pelÓteî as stepwise interrupted sixteenths sempre staccattissimo in piano pianissimo dynamic. The arrangement starts with the lullaby intonations of parallel augmented fifths in Secondo (bars 1 ñ 3); the same formula in Secondo is repeated six times in a low register. The second folksong ìP˚t, vÁjiÚiî comes only once, in Primo imitating the effect of an echo.

Conclusions Latvian composers have composed more than 90 folksong arrangements for piano four hands. Didactically oriented most popular lullabies Aij‚, ˛˚˛˚î, ìAij‚, AncÓt, aij‚î, ìVelc, pelÓteî are characterized by simple solutions and interplay between the folk tune in Primo and harmonic accompaniment in Secondo.

Nowadays Latvian folksong arrangements for piano four hands are mostly available in old printed editions. Digital technologies can be put to didactical use. Few issues of Latvian musicology involve the aesthetic discussion of folksong arrangements for piano four hands; this field needs future investigations.

Acknowledgments In preparing this paper, the author particularly wishes to thank Mrs. Ilze LazdiÚa, librarian of the Latvian Academy of Music for her kind and timely assistance as well as to her colleagues for their help to the author in her search for the printed sources on the Latvian folksong arrangements for piano four hands.

References Apine, I. 2001. Ievads etnopsiholoÏij‚. RÓga: Zvaigzne ABC. P. 103. Bula, D. Folk Songs. http://www.latvia.lv/library/folk-songs [25.02.2013.]. Boiko, M. 1987. SutartiÚu pÁdas Latvij‚. Latvieu m˚zika XVIII. RÓga: Liesma. P. 64ñ110. Beit‚ne, A. 2009. VÁlÓn‚s izcelsmes vok‚l‚ daudzbalsÓba latvieu tradicion‚laj‚ m˚zik‚. RÓga: Latvijas Universit‚tes Literat˚ras, folkloras un m‚kslas instit˚ts. P. 446. Boyd, M. 2001. Arrangement. The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. Volume 2. Edited by Stanley Sadie. London: Macmillan Publishers. P. 65ñ71.

90 Latvian Folksong Arrangements for Piano Four Hands

D‚rziÚ, V. Latvju tautas melodiju veidi un ÓpatnÓbas. Latvian Dainas. Vol. 11. http://latviandainas.lib.virginia.edu/tei.latv11.xml?lang=eng&div_id=latv11_nk05 [25.02.2013.]. Delore, J. Learning: The Treasure Within. http://www.unesco.org/delors/delors_e.pdf [25.02.2013.]. Elliott, D. 1995. Music Matters: A New Philosophy of Music Education. NY: Oxford University Press. P. 380. Jurj‚ns, A. 1903. Latvju tautas m˚zikas materi‚li. II. RÓga: RÓgas Latvieu biedrÓbas M˚zikas komisija. P. 96. KlotiÚ, A. 1973. Folkloras interpret‚cija un m˚zikas saturs. Raksti par m˚ziku X. RÓga: Liesma. P. 30ñ57. KalniÚ, Alfr. 1913. Alb˚ms jaunÓbai. Leipzig: Breitkopf & Haertel. P. 67. Kalsons, R. 1982. MozaÓka: 10 skaÚdarbi klavierÁm ËetrrocÓgi. RÓga: Republik‚niskais m‚kslas m‚cÓbu iest‚˛u metodiskais kabinets. P. 63. L˚se, N. 1988. J‚zepa VÓtola klavierm˚zikas interpret‚cija. RÓga: Republik‚niskais m‚kslas m‚cÓbu iest‚˛u metodiskais kabinets. P. 90. L˚se, N. 2012. Etnodidaktika klavierspÁlÁ. Teorija praksei m˚sdienu sabiedrÓbas izglÓtÓb‚: VI starptautisk‚s zin‚tnisk‚s konferences zin‚tnisko rakstu kr‚jums. RÓga: RÓgas Peda- goÏijas un izglÓtÓbas vadÓbas akadÁmija. P. 187ñ192. L˚se, N. 2013. Latvieu tautasdziesmu apdares pianistu konkurs‚. M˚zikas zin‚tne odien: past‚vÓgais un mainÓgais. V Zin‚tnisko rakstu kr‚jums. Daugavpils: Daugavpils Univer- sit‚tes AkadÁmiskais apg‚ds. PelÁcis, G. An interview with Nora L˚se from 21.02.2013. The transcript in the private archive of Nora L˚se. PelÁcis, G. 2007. Mazajiem pianistiem. RÓga: SIA P&Ko. P. 35. Students, J.A. 1998. Visp‚rÓg‚ paidagoÏija. RÓga: RaKa. P. 330. VÓÌe-Freiberga, V. The Latvian Folksongs. http://www.latvia.lv/library/folk-songs [25.02.2013.]. VÓtoliÚ, J. 1970. Tautas dziesma latvieu m˚zik‚. RÓga: Liesma. P. 173. VÓtoliÚ, J. 1971. –˚puÔa dziesmas. BÁrnu dziesmas. BÁru dziesmas. RÓga: Zin‚tne. P. 80ñ84. VÓtoliÚ, J., Krasinska, L. 1972. Latvieu m˚zikas vÁsture. RÓga: Liesma. P. 403. fiilinskis, A. 1935. KlavierspÁles skola. RÓga: Edgars Rode. P. 56.

91 ART TEMPUS. 1/2013 ISSN 2255-9396

Significance of Synthesis of Arts in the Process of Musical Interpretation

Tatjana Minakova Daugavpils University Saules Street 1/3, Daugavpils, LV-5401, Latvia [email protected]

Abstract Performance art as one of the types of the artistic creative activities is closely related to the concept of ìartî. Musicians strive for a complete and comprehensive reproduction of the artistic and image-bearing content of a piece of music. Creative, artistic interpretation of a piece of music becomes the essence of the art of musical performance. Synthesis of arts encourages performerís deeper emotional and aesthetic perception, as well as its realization in a reproductive creative interpretation.

Key words: Interpretation, Art, Musical Image.

Concept of art and types of art. Main functions of art The artistic development of humanity is represented by two opposite processes:

1) from syncretism to the emergence of separate kinds of art (in the ancient times art was syncretic, i.e. indiscrete. With the development of society, dancing, singing, music, theatre, etc. started to emerge as separate kinds of art); 2) from separate art to their synthesis (Борев 1988).

Hegel wrote about the correspondence between the arts, their affinity, similarity, mutual gravitation and confrontation, historical mobility and liveliness: ì... painting in the pure aroma and magic of its shades, in their opposition, penetration and playful harmony is starting to approach music to the same degree as sculpture in its further development of a relief is starting to approach the principles of paintingî (Гегель 1968: 291). Necessity for the existence of various kinds of art is caused by the fact that none of them is able to provide a sufficiently complete overview of the world. Such overview could be provided only by all kinds of art taken together, only by all artistic culture of humanity as a whole. For the development of the culture of a personality it is equally important to know a peculiarity of every kind of art, their interaction as well as their signs and symbolic systems. Synthesis of arts as a concept is derived from Greek synthesis, i.e. combination, composition, organic unity of artistic means and image-bearing elements of various arts, which embody a universal ability of a person to aesthetically comprehend the world (Назайкинский 1972, Лосев 1991, Бочкарев 1997, Jaspers 2003).

92 Significance of Synthesis of Arts in the Process of Musical Interpretation

What is art? There are a lot of definitions (Zeile 1987, Каган 1996, Холопова 2000, Anspaks 2006, Петрушин 2006). Letís name the main approaches to understanding of this phenomenon. Art is:

— A specific type of a spiritual reflection and comprehension of reality; — One of the culture elements which accumulates artistic and aesthetic values; — A form of sensual perception of the world (rational means based on thinking; sensual based on emotions, senses; irrational based on intuition); — One of the means of communication; — A demonstration of creative abilities of a person; — A process of comprehension of artistic values by a person.

Art is the means of humanityís self-expression and the relations between a person and the world as well as a person himself in all the aspects ñ psychological, social, ethical and even everyday are the subjects of art. Art can be classified according to various criteria. The subject of the visual arts is external reality, the non-visual arts deal with the inner world. The non-visual arts in accordance with the type of expression and perception are divided into music, dance and literature. Mixed types are possible as well. Different kinds of arts are characterized by genre differentiation.

The term ìsynthesis of the artsî means interaction, unity of the arts inside the systems, and nowadays it comprises a basic feature of the art culture and acts as a leading modern trend. The topicality of the synthesis of the arts is stipulated by the artistic needs peculiar to a certain epoch.

Such artistic needs are the following:

1) need to preserve and confirm the social experience, to elaborate on its basis the value orientations of a personality; 2) need to comprehend the diversity of the real world and create on this basis an integral model of the world in the sphere of artwork; 3) need to actively influence a personality in order to form its aesthetic taste, ideals, worldview (the synthesis of the arts demonstrates the unlimited possibilities in this aspect); 4) need to reproduce pieces of art, to interpret the ones already created, to transfer a piece of art from one art to another with the purpose of its effective functioning; 5) need to create new, original pieces of art which are based on the creative search for new artistic means (Ванслов 2006).

General laws of the development of synthesis of the arts as an integral system, in which every kind of art possesses their general, individual and peculiar features, and are the prerequisites and bases of the synthesis of the arts. Synthesis as a process can happen within the framework of interspecific, intergeneric, and inter-genre synthesis. On the level of synthesis as a process, under certain conditions one kind of art can use the artistic

93 Tatjana Minakova means of another kind of art. Interaction of arts is based on the principle of ìcomple- mentarityî and relatedness, when a common action of the pieces of art acquires certain power, but a common action through a dialogue with a personality develops the power of action (action of thinking, communication, creativity) thus providing a link between itself and the external world (Медушевский 1976, Бахтин 1986, Терентьева 1990). Thus, the deeper and more comprehensive is a personís desire to comprehend the world, its signs and symbols, the more means he or she attracts, using the possibilities provided by separate kinds of art as well as combining the artistic means of various kinds of art.

In relation to the above mentioned, we can observe possible ways of the interaction of arts. It should be mentioned that this interaction can happen not only through similarity but through opposition either, i.e. reasonability of the arts interaction, their comple- mentarity. V. Vanslov (Ванслов 2006) determines three groups of synthesis, in each group the merger of various kinds of artistic activity happens on the basis of certain kinds of arts:

— synthesis of plastic arts on the basis of architecture, — synthesis of performing arts on the basis of an actorís art, — synthesis of separate pairs of arts connected to literature (literature and music, literature and graphics).

Music as a type of art Music is one of the types of art and a part of the universal culture. A general conceptual content of music as a type of art is ìa positive, harmonious attitude towards a person in the most significant points of his interaction with the world and himselfî (Холопова 2000: 23). Emotions are considered as the main component of the content of musical art. According to B. Teplovís aesthetic and theoretical views ìthe content of music cannot be perceived by the unemotional way. [...]Perception of music goes through emotions, but it does not end with emotions: we perceive the world through themî (Теплов 1974: 10ñ11).

Music contains a complex range of emotions of various kinds. Among these are the ones which are:

— Peculiar to music only, — Adequate to the emotions of other types of art, — Also active in non-art spheres, in practical life.

Music also bears social functions, a communicative one in particular. A possibility for music to act as both a subject and object of communication is related to the fact that various stages of life emotions are selected, pressed, processed and range within one music piece. Emotions from ìlifeî are modified in such a way that they are expressed in an exaggerated, concentrated form, they combine the features which are never combined in a real life, or vice versa, and purposefully do not fully represent the whole complex of this or that emotion (Выготский 1997). And, however emotions in the sphere of art preserve

94 Significance of Synthesis of Arts in the Process of Musical Interpretation connections with real life emotions, they, nevertheless, are isolated into an independent sphere. Comparing real life emotions and art emotions according to their orientation, V. Kholopova (Холопова) notes that if real life emotions result in ìsome physical activity and motionÖ, the art emotion results in a fantasy imageî (Холопова 2000: 114). G. Tsypin (Цыпин) elaborates on this statement considering that art emotions comprise the integrity with the processes of fantasy and imagination, and if the first emotions provide stimuli to operations in an artistic and image-bearing sphere, serve as impulses to them, ìthe artistic fantasy and imagination are in fact a psychological ìmaterialî from which these images are ìcreatedî, and they enhance the emotional component in the integral structure of the relation of an individual to a piece of artî(Цыпин 2003: 272).

Image ñ the basis of musical art It should be mentioned that these conceptual statements are extremely important in relation to music performance due to the fact that musical thinking mainly uses image-bearing categories (Нейгауз 1988, Перельман 1994, Фейнберг 2003, Вицинский 2004). Belinskyís classic formula ìArt is thinking in imagesî finds its comprehensive and complete substan- tiation in music. The image in musical art is always filled with certain emotional content reflecting a sensual reaction of a person to one or another phenomenon of the real life, but music thinking possesses a vividly expressed emotional colouring. ìMusic cannot exist without emotions, therefore, there is no musical thinking without emotions; connected tightly with the world of senses and feelings of a person, musical thinking is emotional in its natureî. Thus, without emotions it is impossible to penetrate into the content of a musical image, and as a result, therefore, no efficient actions in an artistic and image- bearing consciousness are impossible either, since these emotions in particular are a kind of ìtriggerî for these actions, ìsource of raw materialsî for themî (Цыпин 2003: 246).

As a rule, within one piece of music there is a range of emotions whose shades could be extremely various. The difference between the performance by a master musician and a musician with a lower qualification is in the possibilities of the first one in his performance to express a significantly wider range of shades and types of emotional state (Петрушин 1997). Musicianís ability to express a wide variety of emotions and feelings in a music piece depends explicitly on his inner ability to generate these emotions and feelings in his own psychological apparatus. It can be concluded then, that in order to enhance the role of artistic and image-bearing component of music consciousness, a musician should know the nature of the emergence of various emotional states to better incarnate them in his creative work. First of all, it presupposes creating favorable conditions for widening and enrichment of the range of emotions, initiating processes of fantasy and imagination.

Analysis of the literature (Баренбойм 1979, Савшинский 2002, Фейнберг 2003, Ward V. 2004, Williamon 2004, ZariÚ 2005) allowed to emphasize the following:

— The efficiency of creative imagination is determined by the ability to flexibly and initiatively combine and arrange ñ in accordance with a poetic idea ñ the artistic material but it also depends on the experience and culture.

95 Tatjana Minakova

— Correlations and comparisons activate the fantasy processes. Artistic and image-bearing consciousness becomes richer and multidimensional. This directly affects the processes of perception and experiencing of art (including music) pieces. — Knowledge in other spheres of art, general competence and expertise of a performer.

Addressing colourful metaphors, similes, poetic and musical comparisons, literary allegories encourage solving of specific artistic and interpretation tasks. The main mechanism of artistic expression in all types of art is a metaphor (Рикер 1995, Hurt 2001, Perry & Cooper 2001, Цыпин 2001). An allegory, indirect statement or thinking in imaginative form is a metaphoric thinking. Poetry, literature and other types of art start with a metaphoric thinking. The same thing happens with music. The sense of ìorganized sound structuresî is encoded in a metaphoric form. Music thinking is metaphorical since ìonly a developed consciousness which is incorporated into the context of a certain culture and which lives in this context, on its semantic rootsî is able to decode, reveal this senseî (Цыпин 2003: 119).

Associations, poetic analogies and parallels are the ways of the origination and establishing of an artistic image, which were developed by nature itself. Through associations a psychological activity becomes more comprehensive, deeper and colourful. Association processes are directly related to the sphere of emotions of a person, they are catalysts of various emotions and feelings. For many professional musicians and music enthusiasts who possess a well-developed artistic and image-bearing thinking, various types of art ìinteract, penetrateî into each other; there happens a kind of ìdiffusionî of literature, painting, theatre into music and vice versa (Цыпин 2001: 205). Interrelation of music with other types of art acquires a significant role in this context. Music activity is an artistic activity and it possesses multi-aspect links with other types of art in terms of reflecting a surrounding life, ideas, affinity of artistic images, expressive means, etc.

Historically, music as a type of art was formed in the range of other types of artistic activity, including dance, theatre, literature and others, and that is why all interrelations with other types of art are genetic, and the role within the system of art culture is synthe- sizing, which is proved by numerous musical genres, first of all, opera, lyrical song, prog- ramme symphony, musical, etc. (Холопова 2000, Бонфельд 2001). The essence of creative artistic activity lies in a creative reproduction of the reality in art images. Affinity of various types of art, which is stipulated by their origin, identity of social tasks and functions, artistic and image nature, means and laws of creation, is the basis for interaction of arts. While reflecting surrounding reality, a composer, artist or writer thinks in terms of images in his piece of art. Types of art are not separated by an impenetrable border. Visualization, unity of content and form determine the link between them (Абдуллин 2006, Ванслов 2006, Торопова 2008). An artistic image, according to the modern ideas about it, can be in a form of some universal absorbing of colour, sound, gesture, silhouette, etc. That is why painting, poetry, ballet, drama theatre, architecture, decorative and applied arts at times provide a musician special psychological ìovertonesî which help him in the creation of a full-blooded and protean image.

96 Significance of Synthesis of Arts in the Process of Musical Interpretation

The performerís task is to reproduce a sound image by means of his instrument. At the same time, the performance should not become a passive reproduction or mere imitation, but, on the contrary, it should become a creative re-thinking, interpretation in the truest sense of the word. Music, painting, literature taken in their integrity enable the process of formation of creative thinking, sensation, reaction to real life phenomena, and they can help overcome narrowness and fragmentarity of thinking, and emotional poverty of imagination. Understanding the nature of one type of art, a musician-performer acquires an opportunity to compare it with other types of art and thus to reveal their common and peculiar features at the same time enriching a range of artistic emotions, deepening the understanding of possible means for creating a music image in the process of interpretation of a music piece.

Interpretation is a creative process The task of a performer is to recreate, to interpret a sound image by means of his instrument. The supreme aim of every music performer should be not a passive ìreproductionî, not mere imitation but, on the contrary, it should be an independent creative re-thinking, interpretation in the truest sense of the word (Цыпин 2003, Ward 2004, Williamon 2004, Майкапар 2006, Корыхалова 2006). The process of interpretation and issues of creation and development of a performerís music consciousness are related to the ability to under- stand the language of music with all its nuances and subtleties, to understand not just WHAT a composer intended to express but also HOW he has done it. Any interpretative activity is always connected to the process of understanding, which is a very complicated one, and which is revealed in comprehension and generation of sense. The process of understanding possesses an individual, personalized and variative character. Reflection activates these processes helping to realize, comprehend oneís own feelings, impressions, emotions, semantic structures of a note text; analyse, speculate, evaluate a process and results of the performerís own music activity.

The act of understanding is crucial for interpretation since it contains a communicative and dialogue nature of a person, his constant search for sense and need for creative activity. Hermeneutics as a science which deals with a ìhomo intelligitî becomes crucial in studying the interpretative activity and the main task of it is a search for the sense which has been imbedded in the text. In the most-modernism philosophy (Gadamers 1999) interpretation is defined as filling a text with sense. It should be noted that the hermeneutic representation of the term interpretation is very close to the representation accepted in semantics (a branch of linguistics, logics and semiotics) which studies interpretation of signs and sign expressions. However, a musical representation of this term accepted in artistic performance in the last decades of the 20th century is very close in its essence to the hermeneutic represen- tation. Thus, hermeneutics raises an issue about the impossibility of the objective interpre- tive specification which would coincide with the authorís intention (E. Husserl, P. Ricoeur) (Гуссерль 1999, Рикер 1995) about variation of understanding. The proposition that perception of any piece of art is determined by personal and social factors and therefore is inevitably variable has become an axiom in modern aesthetics. Thus, ìpluralityî of interpretation is its essential quality.

97 Tatjana Minakova

Interpretation as a category of music performance is, first of all, related to the issue of reproduction of the content of a piece of art. Implementation of sound sequences in a musical image is a serious creative act, which is an inseparable union of feelings and thoughts, dialectically complex unity and interaction of emotional and rational in which everything that is being emotionally experienced is comprehended, and everything that is being comprehended is emotionally experienced.

A number of musicians-performers speak about the impossibility of objectively precise acoustic implementation of a note text, or text features (Вицинский 2004). This peculiarity, in their opinion, is not a disadvantage of a note script but is a prerequisite for the need, necessity for the interpretive art, and a performer is a creator of music content to almost the same extent as a composer. Learning of the individual authorís style as a precondition of performing a meaningful interpretation is a really creative research activity which is possible only on the basis of detailed reflective analysis of all components of a note text, which provides the quality of creation of an interpretive model (Бонфельд 2001, Поду- ровский 2001). In fact, in music we can analyse everything: separate expressive means (tonality, rhythm, polyphonic or harmonic polyphony, dynamics, timbre, melody, structure, etc.), a style of composer or whole music school, separate types of playing music, musical genres ñ any object of music art which is being researched can be subjected to a reflective analysis. A laborious search for textual and extra textual information, reflective analysis never exists on its own and for itself: it always has to be purposeful, i.e. orientated to achieving a certain aim, to solving a certain task.

A strategic task is the understanding of a note text as a semantic structure which reflects composerís individual style, as the overcoming of a formal, impersonal approach following various instructions in a note text. In accordance with the peculiarities of a musical sense in the categories of sense ñ meaning and sense ñ content, the sense demonstrates two levels:

— Sense ñ an intuitive grasp of the intonation sense, a kind of premonition of it, ìprior to understandingî. The sense of the first level more often appears unconsciously, instinctively as a result of an intuitive comprehension of musical and intonation sense; — Sense ñ appears as a result of deep penetration into the text and reflection over oneís own emotions and experiences.

Such products of culture as musical and literary pieces, paintings, sculptures, architecture monuments, films fall under the concept ìtextî. As hermeneutics state it, any ìcultural textî is open for understanding. We understand the concept ìa note textî as a graphic record of a piece of music. However, examining a ìmusic textî (more local expression ìperformance textî) it should be noted that it is an artistic and acoustic form of music and here we have to speak about an art component as a dynamic constant. A hermeneutic search for artistic meanings of a note text as a sound world, their semantic compounds and differentiations; development of associative thinking, imagination, and fantasy are aimed at the search for mechanisms for comprehension and sense formation and they determine the quality of performerís own interpretative model of a piece of music (Каузова, Николаева 2001).

98 Significance of Synthesis of Arts in the Process of Musical Interpretation

Interpretation is a long process of gradual assimilation of a piece of music and revealing of its content, when in the process of work a performer deepens and clarifies his primary intentions (Durant & Welch 1998, Brophy 2000, ZariÚ 2005, Hallam 2006). The process of realization and development of a music image is related to the adjustment of the imageís brightness, refinement and energy, to possible changes of the image in terms of its emotional colouring and other parameters, i.e. to the possibilities of transformation of the emotional constituent of image. An image ñ bearing reflection combined with an intellectual study activates the potential of creative thinking. The existence of interrelation between emer- gence of an image and its development is necessary to activate the potential of performerís creative thinking, and form environment for cultivation of an image reflection. Synthesis of art meets these requirements.

All signs and sign systems have certain common features; there are certain regularities in their relations towards what they signify, towards links to each other and towards those who perceive them. Art is also a sign system, though a very specific one (Бонфельд 2001, Agejevs 2005, Bank 2005). Every type of art uses its own ways of transmitting an image- bearing, spiritual sense to a receiver. In any types of art there is a primary semantic layer, a perception of which is a necessary condition for comprehending this sense (Swanwick 1997; Lehmann, Sloboda & Woody 2007, Davidson 2009).

Musical art is a type of art whose main material is sounding, i.e. the total of sounds which are perceived by a human ear. Thus, a sound is the smallest element of the substance of music, without which this type of art does not and cannot exist. When speaking about the perception of music as an art, then the features of a sound are felt not as measurable quantities but as aesthetical ones and in this case the perception of pitch, loudness, tempo and timbre of a sound is relative. This is a fundamental principle which ensures a possibility for various interpretations of one and the same music. All reality which in one or another way turns out to be related to the meanings of musical sub-signs can be divided into two essentially different spheres:

— extra-musical sphere where the sources of meanings not related to music soundings are grouped; — intra-musical sphere which is originally related to musical sounds.

One more source of meanings is related to both of these spheres ñ a synaesthetic ability of music to render space-time, gravitation or, on the contrary, lightness, ethereality, etc. A synaesthetic ability of music to render not only acoustic feelings but visual, tactile and many other ones stems from the peculiarities of a musical sound itself. These peculiarities of music are connected with:

— timbre and pitch of a sound, its volume, intensity ñ it is possible to speak about, for example, heaviness, weightiness, solidity or vice versa lightness, ethereality, featheriness of a sound;

99 Tatjana Minakova

— tempo, in which sounding is realized ñ everything heavy is associated with a slow, unhurried movement, with thoroughness, massiveness. If a low register is combined with a quick tempo, staccato, salto, a special comic effect basso buffo can appear; — other types of feelings ñ a sound is ìjuicyî, ìsoftî, ìmildî, ìroundî, ìflatî, ìdeepî, ìshallowî, ìheavyî, ìlightî; — visual perception ñ a melody is played lightly, it sounds brightly; — manifestations of rhythm, first of all in a degree of pulsation ñ calm or hectic which embraces one or another parameters of a musical material; — the concept of space ñ it is presented in music indirectly, as a place of action or characteristic of sound demonstrations (Бонфельд 2001).

Thus, the character of the musical art itself presupposes the development of a performerís associative thinking, without which the creative work of a piece of art and solution of certain artistic and interpretative tasks are impossible. The image-bearing understanding of expressive possibilities of musical speech and the different ways of realization of these possibilities in various contexts can help a performer reveal the content of a piece of art convincingly.

And this, undoubtedly, requires not only musical knowledge but expertise in the sphere of history of art and culture either, as in music perception which is based on the emotional implementation of generalized musical images, or where functions of associative ideas are peculiar. Musical associative ideas significantly enhance emotional response and in this way they lead to a repeated renewed and enriched comprehension of the content of a piece of music. Participating in a complex system of emergence of a comprehensive image- bearing artistic presentation, associative ideas are being enriched and deepened, and they encourage the development of creative thinking. Synthesis of art is a fertile field for emergence of these types of associations.

Conclusions Creative activity in the sphere of art implies an active interaction of all psychological processes: perception, thinking, imagination, etc., and at the same time it relies on them being in an inseparable interrelation and interdependence with them.

Image is a basis of any artistic idea and it determines the essence of a piece of art. Establishment of a music image presupposes the specification of acoustic representations in which every detail, every feature is specified and identified by imagination.

A degree of richness of associations caused by an artistic image depends on the emotional and inner world, and experience of a performer. Knowledge in other spheres of art, general expertise of a performer is of high importance.

100 Significance of Synthesis of Arts in the Process of Musical Interpretation

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102 ART TEMPUS. 1/2013 ISSN 2255-9396

Some Parallels in the Art of AlfrÁds KalniÚ and Vilhelms PurvÓtis

GaÔina Zavadska Daugavpils University Saules Street 1/3, Daugavpils, Latvia, LV-5401 [email protected]

Abstract History of music integrates all kinds of art and operates with such common art categories as harmony, rhythm, genre, form, style, content, contrast, imaginative contrast etc. Being aware of mutual links between such arts as painting and music will develop understanding about associative imaginary links of the language of artistic expression. Comprehension of composerís creative work or an individual composition within the context of spiritual quest of the epoch allows us to broaden our perceptions about general regularities of the development of historical processes and art in one or another historical period. Those developmental periods of art, when the interaction between its different kinds was the most intensive and satiated the whole cultural aspect of the epoch (romanticism, impres- sionism, expressionism), attract the greatest attention. In music literature, the most delicate form of sound patterns is manifested in musical landscapes. Natural phenomena, due to their nature, can be not only seen but also heard, and therefore, the range of their reflection in music is tremendously broad.

The research aim is to research the interaction between music and painting, as example using the creative work of Latvian composer AlfrÁds KalniÚ and Latvian landscapist Vilhelms PurvÓtis.

Key words: Composition, Landscape, Art Nouveau, Parallels of Creative Work.

Introduction At a higher education establishment, the study course History of Music is one of disciplines that integrates all kinds of art and operates with such general art categories as harmony, rhythm, genre, form, style, content, contrast, imaginary contrast etc.

Being aware of mutual links between such arts as painting and music will develop understanding about associative imagery links of the language of artistic expression, enrich and develop thinking, creative imagination, will promote emotional revealing of the artistic image of music, and form the foundation of individual culture.

103 GaÔina Zavadska

The research aim: to research the interaction between music and painting, as example using the creative work of Latvian composer AlfrÁds KalniÚ and Latvian landscapist Vilhelms PurvÓtis.

The research object: the process of developing perceptions about the interaction between painting and music when studying Latvian art of the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century.

To reveal the essence of musical culture of one or another period is impossible without drawing parallels and identifying links with other arts.

It is a well-known fact that the perception of a composition at the emotional level involves personal emotional experience (Назайкинский 1972). However it will not be full, unless both the ability to see and the ability to hear are developed (Петрушин 1997).

Comprehension of composerís creative work or an individual composition within the context of spiritual quest of the epoch allows us to broaden our perceptions about general regularities of the development of historical processes and art in one or another historical period.

Those developmental periods of art, when the interaction between its different kinds was the most intensive and satiated the whole cultural aspect of the epoch (romanticism, impressionism, expressionism), attract the greatest attention.

The most significant progress of music art towards painting was observed at the beginning of the 19th century when the period of Romanticism began. Instrumental music often had features of theatre art, dance, while programmatic compositions ñ those of landscape, fine art, thus exhibiting impact of various kinds of art.

Music became more apparent and visual. In his study ìFine Art and Musicî, V. Vanslov provides an in ñ depth analysis of the impact of the form of fine art on music, as examples using compositions by F. List and S. Rachmaninov (Ванслов 1983). In literature on music, one of the most delicate forms of sound patterns is manifested in musical landscapes. Natural phenomena, due to their nature, can be not only seen but also heard; therefore, the range of their reflection in music is enormously broad.

Points of Intersection in Lives and Creative Work of AlfrÁds KalniÚ (1879 ñ 1951) and Vilhelms PurvÓtis (1872 ñ 1945)

From the aspect of the interaction between painting and music, creative work of Latvian composer AlfrÁds KalniÚ and Latvian landscapist Vilhelms PurvÓtis attract a special attention.

The composer and the landscapist were born approximately at the same time (in the same decade) (Figures 1, 2).

104 Some Parallels in the Art of AlfrÁds KalniÚ and Vilhelms PurvÓtis

Figure 2. Figure 1. Vilhelms PurvÓtis. AlfrÁds KalniÚ 1938 (http://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Att%C4% (http://www.makslasvesture.lv/index.php/Att% 93ls: Kalnins_alfreds_1879ñ1951.jpg). C4%93ls: Purvitis_foto_2.jpg).

AlfrÁds KalniÚ ñ an outstanding Latvian composer, organist, educationalist, music critic and conductor, the founder of Latvian national opera. Vilhelms PurvÓtis ñ a famous Latvian artist of the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century and a founder of art institutions.

Their creativity developed in the same esthetical environment. In 1890, V. PurvÓtis began to study at Petersburg Art Academy, and he came back to Latvia only in 1899. However he continued to participate in the art exhibitions organized in Petersburg and Moscow till 1903. AlfrÁds KalniÚ studied at Petersburg Conservatoire at about the same time ñ from 1897 to 1901.

During Petersburg period, among the friends of AlfrÁds KalniÚ were Latvian painters and sculptors ñ T. ZaÔkalns, G, –Ìilters, B. Dzenis ñ together with whom he often visited art exhibitions and shared experience.

ìÖI have to admit that I got more from looking at some pictures than from listening to some empty piece of music. Levitanís landscapes left especially great impression on me, in front of some of his pictures, for example, ìCloister on the Riversideî, which filled me with such peace, I stood for a long time and always returned to it again,î the composer writes in his autobiography (VÓtoliÚ 1968: 16).

In his autobiography, the composer lingers in his memories about exhibitions of Russian and Finnish artists organized by S. Diaghilev, which have left great impression and inspired him: ìIím always thinking about it, trying to become a Latvian composer who will express specific Latvian character and spirit in his soundsî (VÓtoliÚ 1968: 16).

I. Puj‚te writes that in 1898, the participants of this exhibition became the core of the association ìWorld of Artî, and V. PurvÓtis was among them (Puj‚te 2000).

In his monograph on the composerís creative work, A. KlotiÚ, also mentions that the exhibitions of Latvian painters V. PurvÓtis and J. Valters, held in the Academy of Arts,

105 GaÔina Zavadska were in the centre of attention of A. KalniÚ and his friends. ìThese impressions were essential for developing the specific character of expressing national identity and national character of KalniÚí musicî (KlotiÚ 1979: 55).

During Petersburg period, A. KalniÚ has written his first best known compositions: three lyrical pieces for piano (Nocturne, Lullaby, Autumn), solo songs (the tragic The Bells Sound), Fantasy for organ.

V. PurvÓtisí first landscape compositions and sketches (Thaw in Spring, Winter Landscape, Early Spring, The Last Snow), which excel in lyricism and a calm, balanced manner of painting, can also be attributed to this time (Lemberga 2000).

V. PurvÓtis is fascinated by changing and brilliant autumn landscape: Autumn, Autumn Landscape ñ painted in the end of the 19th century, Autumn Atmosphere ñ painted in 1907 ñ 1908 (Fi- gure 3). This is a confession of painterís lyrical soul, and its main task is to express the range of human feelings and moods which this season evokes. These paintings may be peculiar visual analogies with sound images in A. KalniÚí piano miniature Figure 3. V. PurvÓtis. Autumn Atmosphere ìAutumnî. In the dark tree http://www.makslasvesture.lv/index.php/1890_%E2%80%93_ leafage, swaying in the wind 1915: _Ikonogr%C4%81fija). depicted in V. PurvÓtisí painting ìAutumn Atmosphereî, we can feel stylistic likeness with A. KalniÚí music. The spirit of landscape ñ atmosphere is close for both artists, these are reflections on eternal values ñ beauty, emotional experience of soul, grief, joy, hopes.

In Nocturne, as A. KlotiÚ says, ìthe extremely plastic and delicately speaking structure with its choral intonations addresses us in the recitative which is so close to the Latvian speechî (KlotiÚ 1979: 59). As we know, Nocturne is a song of night, and V. PurvÓtisí magnificent night landscapes Moon ñ Night (1909), The Dusk (1897) and The Evening Sun (1904), painted in mysterious grayish ñ greenish tones, create an impression of poetic mystery and refinement. The dark coloring created by the dusky light, atmosphere, original view of the native nature bring the stylistic techniques of both artists close to art nouveau (Figure 4). In the history of art, art nouveau is sometimes called neo ñ romanticism. The idea about synthesis of art became the leitmotif of art nouveau, and it was manifested in all arts (PurvÓtis 2012). Several researchers of the creative work of V. PurvÓtis and

106 Some Parallels in the Art of AlfrÁds KalniÚ and Vilhelms PurvÓtis

A. KalniÚ ñ A. KlotiÚ, I. Pujate, E. KÔaviÚ ñ mention the presence of art nouveau elements in works of both artists.

Figure 4. V. PurvÓtis. Moon ñ Night (http://www.makslasvesture. lv/index.php/Att%C4%93ls: Purvitis_ Meness_nakts.jpg).

A different atmosphere dominates in A. KalniÚí Ballad g moll (1905): ìHere dark epic narrative intertwines with light, lyrical images and dramatic tensityî (VÓtoliÚ 1968: 90).

The basic theme sounds in the form of a severe ancient chant which evokes associations of images in V. PurvÓtisí pictures A View of Daugava near RÓga (1896), Staburags, Koknese Castle Ruins (1907). Variations of colour, softening of contours, traces of individual brush strokes made PurvÓtisí landscapes free and pictorial, although they simultaneously maintained an obvious or anticipated strict com- positional structure of straight directions and margins (J˚gend- Figure 5. V. PurvÓtis. Koknese Castle Ruins stils 2012). (http://www.google.lv/imgres?q=vilhelms+purv%C4% ABtis+Kokneses+pilsdrupas). In the creative work of A. KalniÚ and V. PurvÓtis, the parallels can be drawn not only in the aspects of time and stylistic devices used, but the events of their lives also tell about surprisingly great similarity of life situations. The schematic analogies between the two artists can be provided as follows (Table 1).

107 GaÔina Zavadska

Table 1. V. PurvÓtis and A. KalniÚ. Their Life and Work Parallels Vilhelms PurvÓtis AlfrÁds KalniÚ Life time 1872 ñ 1945 1879 ñ 1951 Studies Petersburg Art Academy from Petersburg Conservatoire 1890 to 1899. Participated in from 1897 to 1901. exhibitions in Petersburg and Moscow till 1903. ìThe second mother- From 1906 to 1909 lived in From 1903 to 1911 lived in landî ñ Estonia Revele (Tallinn). PÁrnava. Comparison of artistsí Autumn, Autumn Landscape, Autumn (1903) works Autumn Atmosphere (1907 ñ 1908). Moon ñ Night (1909), Nocturne (1903) The Dusk (1897), The Evening Sun (1904). View of Daugava near RÓga Ballad (1911) (1896), Staburags, Koknese Castle Ruins (1907).

Though being aware of the complicated life conditions in their native country, both A. KalniÚ and V. PurvÓtis come back to Latvia after their studies in Petersburg. Both are attracted by the nature of the native country and both have high sense of duty ñ to serve their own people and their own country. At that time ñ beginning of the 20th century ñ among Latvian intelligentsia there were neither any real connoisseurs of art nor art admirers. Due to the complicated conditions and not seeing any possibilities for imple- menting their creative ideas, both A. KalniÚ and V. PurvÓtis left RÓga. In 1903, A. KalniÚ began working in PÁrnava and was an organist, choir conductor and teacher till 1911. During the Revolution of 1905, V. PurvÓtis came into public conflict with nationalistic- minded Latvian intelligentsia and from 1906 to 1909 lived in Revel (Tallinn), where he worked as a teacher of drawing. Estonia became the ìsecond motherlandî for both artists. The theme of the native country, its nature and life of their people is the basic theme of artistsí creative work.

In his paper about V. PurvÓtis, E. KÔaviÚ points out that during all his life the artist has followed his own way ñ a way of modernizing painting. He did not follow any trends or masters, but tried to combine the past traditions with findings of the 20th century (KÔaviÚ 2000). The same is true about the creative quest of A. KalniÚ.

Conclusions The comparison and analogies of masters of Latvian music and Latvian painting ñ A. KalniÚ and V. PurvÓtis ñ broaden the knowledge about the art style of the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century.

108 Some Parallels in the Art of AlfrÁds KalniÚ and Vilhelms PurvÓtis

In the creative work of A. KalniÚ and V. PurvÓtis, the parallels can be drawn not only in the aspects of time and stylistic devices used, but the events of their lives also tell about surprisingly great similarity of life situations.

The analogies between lives, works and stylistic peculiarities of both artists help to create additional perceptions about the core of Latvian art culture of a definite period.

References AlfrÁds KalniÚ. http://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Att%C4%93ls: Kalnins_alfreds_1879ñ 1951.jpg [28.07.2012.]. J˚gendstils. http://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C5%ABgendstils [27.07.2012.]. KlotiÚ, A. 1979. AlfrÁds KalniÚ. Komponista dzÓve un darbs. RÓga: Liesma. KÔaviÚ, E. 2000. Vilhelma PurvÓa ainava eiropeisko tradÓciju kontekst‚. Vilhelms PurvÓtis 1872. ñ 1945. RÓga: Neputns. P. 174ñ188. Lemberga, D. 2000. Vilhelms PurvÓtis ñ dzÓve un m‚ksla. Vilhelms PurvÓtis 1872. ñ 1945. RÓga: Neputns. P. 9ñ56. Puj‚te, I. 2000. Vilhelms PurvÓtis un j˚gendstils. Vilhelms PurvÓtis 1872. ñ 1945. RÓga: Neputns. P. 162ñ170. PurvÓtis V. http://www.makslasvesture.lv/index.php/Vilhelms_Purv%C4%ABtis [26.07.2012.]. V. PurvÓtis. Fotoportrets. 1938. http://www.makslasvesture.lv/index.php/Att%C4%93ls: Purvitis_foto_2.jpg [27.07.2012.]. PurvÓtis V. Koknese Castle Ruins. http://www.google.lv/imgres?q=vilhelms+purv%C4% ABtis+Kokneses+pilsdrupas [27.07.2012.]. PurvÓtis V. Moon ñ Night. http://www.makslasvesture.lv/index.php/Att%C4%93ls: Purvitis_Meness_nakts.jpg [29.07.2012.]. PurvÓtis V. Autumn Atmosphere. http://www.makslasvesture.lv/index.php/1890_%E2% 80%93_1915: _Ikonogr%C4%81fija [29.07.2012.]. VÓtoliÚ, J. 1968. AlfrÁds KalniÚ. RÓga: Liesma. Ванслов, В. 1983. Изобразительное искусство и музыка. Ленинград: Художник РСФСР. Назайкинский, Е. 1972. О психологии музыкального восприятия. Москва: Музыка. Петрушин, В. 1997. Музыкальная психология. Москва: ВЛАДОС.

109 ART TEMPUS. 1/2013 ISSN 2255-9396

CHOREOGRAPHY

Artistic and Pedagogical Work of Anna Stedelaube in the Ballet of Liep‚ja (1923 ñ 1933)

Gunta B‚liÚa Latvian Academy of Culture Ludza Street 24, RÓga, LV-1003, Latvia [email protected]

Abstract The pedagogy of dance, which is a sub-branch of the science of arts pedagogy, is developing rapidly in Latvia. Thus, it is really important to gather information about the historical heritage of the arts of dancing, which serves as the basis for the research on dancing. On the basis of publications in newspapers and magazines, and the monograph ìThe Ballet of Liep‚jaî (1956) by Elza SiliÚa that was not published, the article on artistic and pedagogical work of Anna Stedelaube in the Ballet of Liep‚ja (1923 ñ 1933) provides the research and analysis of choreographic and pedagogical contribution of Anna Stedelaube in the history of Latvian ballet.

Key words: Anna Stedelaube, Artistic and Pedagogical Work, the Ballet of Liep‚ja (1923ñ 1933).

In the age of globalisation, research and gathering information on the cultural achievements of each nation has become a topicality. Currently, when dance pedagogy is developing rapidly as a sub-branch of art pedagogy in Latvia, it is really important to raise awareness on historic heritage of the arts of dance, which is the basis for the studies conducted in the area of dance. The total view on the arts of dance and the pedagogy of dance consists of various directions of research work: fundamental scientific studies; analytical articles on the critique of theatre which document the topicalities of ballet; theoretical articles and notes of choreographers; explications of performances; information collected from the experience of skilled dance pedagogues and its analysis.

So far, there have been only some scientific studies on artistic and pedagogical values of the Latvian National Ballet and the national school of ballet in the context of cultural historical processes. The achievements of the National Ballet were analysed for the first time in the publication of Georgs –t‚ls ìThe Latvian Balletî (Latvieu balets) (–t‚ls 1943). The most significant study conducted during the post-war period is the composition

110 Artistic and Pedagogical Work of Anna Stedelaube in the Ballet of Liep‚ja (1923 ñ 1933)

ìLatvian Soviet Balletî (Latvieu padomju balets) by JeÔena Voskresenska (Voskresenska 1978). What concerns the latest sources of information, they are the fundamental study ìThe Latvian Balletî (Latvieu ballets) by Ija Bite (Bite 2002), ìThe Encyclopaedia of the Latvian Balletî (Latvijas baleta enciklopÁdija) by Gunta B‚liÚa and Ija Bite (B‚liÚa, Bite 2006).

Nevertheless collection and preservation of information about the historic heritage of dance and culture cannot be obtained only from the point of view of the National Ballet and Riga Choreography Secondary School. A great contribution in the development of the Latvian art of dancing and pedagogy of dance after the war, in the period of time from 20ís to 30ís of the 20th century, has been made by private ballet studios in Latvia, as well as by the work of regional theatres (in Daugavpils and Liep‚ja); the research on their work has only started. Rapid development of research in the higher educational estab- lishments of Latvia has created a positive situation for the development of theoretical background of the arts of dancing and the pedagogy of dancing, which was based on the unity of artistic and pedagogical work, as well as collecting information about their values.

The traditions of theatre developed in Latvia already in the 18th century. Since 1784 singers and actors of the Duke of Kurland, Peter Biron, were regular guests to Liep‚ja. The troupe of the Duke also showed the performances of opera and musical comedies in Liep‚ja. In such way they introduced the residents of the city with the performances of musical genre. In the 70ís of the 19th century there was an economic upswing in Liep‚ja, which fostered the development of Latvian social life, as well as the interest of Latvians in the arts of theatre. This fact has been widely reflected in the works of the scientists of the art of theatre (K. KundziÚ, V. Hausmanis, Z. AkmentiÚ and V. Freimane).

On 11th March 1907, the Liep‚ja Latvian Theatre (Liep‚jas Latvieu te‚tris) was officially opened with the performance ìUncle Vanyaî (TÁvocis VaÚa) by Anton Chekhov (Антон Чехов).

The fact of founding a professional theatre outside Riga was a great event in the theatre life of Latvia. It had a small troupe, but there were involved the most talented amateurs from Liep‚ja; they performed together with professional actors who were invited from Riga. Among them, there were Tija Banga (1882 ñ 1957) and EmÓlija GriÌÓte (1873 ñ 1959). They were the first who staged and performed dances in the performances of Liep‚ja Theatre. The first elements of choreographic art in Liep‚ja Theatre appeared when dances were included in performances, and later ñ in operas and musical comedies. In most cases, dances were staged by the actors or producers; nevertheless there was a need for professional specialists who can teach dancing.

Development of professional ballet started in Liep‚ja at the turn of the 19th and the 20th century. The first professional choreographer, who started pedagogical work in Liep‚ja, was a former dancer of Riga City (German) Theatre, AdelÓna GriÚicka. She gave private dancing classes in her small private ballet studio. In case of necessity, administration of the theatre asked the actors to master the basis of stage dancing exactly under the guidance

111 Gunta B‚liÚa of A. GriÚicka. In 1918 she was invited to work as the consultant of stage movements for the performance of the play ìThe Sunken Bellî (Nogrimuais zvans) by Gerhart Hauptmann (1862 ñ 1946). Unfortunately, Liep‚ja Theatre has not preserved the reviews of the choreographic work made by A. GriÚicka; due to this reason, it is not possible to make assessment of the choreographic work of the dancer at the Theatre of Liep‚ja.

EmÓlija Haselbauma (1894 ñ 1970) was also mentioned in the reviews on dance perfor- mances staged in Liep‚ja published by Latvian media. She was invited as the consultant of stage movements at Liep‚ja Theatre in 1920; before that, she had worked at the National Theatre in Riga. With the reference to the research on the theatre scientist, Biruta GudriÌe (1928 ñ 2006) (Niedra, GudriÌe 1999, 403) it can be concluded that during mastering the skills in rhythmic, according to Émile Jacques-Dalcroze (1865 ñ 1950)1, E. Haselbauma demonstrated excellent orientation in the stage movements, as well as in the creation of dances and their staging. At the Theatre of Liep‚ja, E. Haselbauma took part in ìThe Vaideloteî by Aspazija, where she played the role of JautrÓte. In the 30ís she established and managed her studio of plastics, which operated in The Latvian Theatre of Ventspils.

The performers of the first ballet guest performances at The Theatre of Liep‚ja were the dancers of the National Opera, V. Komis‚rs, Kl‚ra Gentele (1894 ñ 1958), Lidija Ivanova (1902 ñ ?) and Aleksandrs Klinkl‚vs (1899 ñ 1982). Ballet evenings were also organised in the premises of the Association of Fostering Arts in Liep‚ja. According to the study on Liep‚ja Ballet conducted by E. SiliÚa, we can conclude that in the middle of the 20ís and 30ís, the evenings of plastic dance, during which the emphasis was put on the popularity of A. Duncanís dancing style, were very popular in Riga and Liep‚ja. ìThe arts of plastic dancing were introduced to people in Liep‚ja by the Estonian dancers Elmerice Parts (1888 ñ 1974) and Ella Ilbak (1895 ñ 1997). Both artists were the representatives of Aisedora Duncanís dancing school. In their choreographic presentations, they deviated from the norms of classical ballet. They presented the dance of free expression which was created without strictly established system and method. The main emphasis was put on emotional experiences. Dunkanists were dancing with bare feet and they wore light tunics and veil type clothesî (SiliÚa 1956: 4).

The guest performances in Liep‚ja were also presented by the soloist from The Marija Theatre in St. Petersburg, Marija Sherera-Bekefi (Мойра Шерер-Бекефи, 1895 ñ ?), who offered to organise a common ballet evening together with the dancers of the Latvia National Opera, Mel‚nija Lence (1898 ñ 1995) and A. Kozlovskis, as well as the prime ballet dancer of The Maria Theatre, Olga Preobrazenska (Ольга Преображенская, 1871 ñ 1962). The aforementioned shows that the spectators were also interested in classical dancing. The dancers from the Moscow Grand Theatre, Marija Reizena (Мария Рейзен, 1892 ñ 1969), L. fiukovs (Жуков) and other dancers also visited Liep‚ja. This ensured possibility for the spectators in Liep‚ja to see various dance performances with different styles of dancing and different actors, which provided a great possibility to get introduced with the academic ballet, plastic dancing, and Eastern Oriental dances.

112 Artistic and Pedagogical Work of Anna Stedelaube in the Ballet of Liep‚ja (1923 ñ 1933)

In 1924 appreciation of the spectators was gained by guest performances of the Latvian National Opera. Fragments from the ballet ìPaquitaî by Ludwig Minkus (1826 ñ 1917), ìThe Nutcrackerî by P. Tchaikovsky (Чайковский), ìThe Vain Precautionî by P. L. Hertel, as well as one act ballet ìArlequinadeî by Robert Schumann (1810 ñ 1856) and ìSilvijaî by L. Delibé were danced in Liep‚ja by Ei˛enija SveÌe, M. Lence, Nat‚lija Cveiberga (1909 ñ ?), “ina –estakova (1910 ñ ?), Erna OiÚa (1898 ñ ?), K. Gentele, Ei˛ens œeËevskis (1902 ñ 1969) and A. Kozlovskis (Kurzemes V‚rds 1924). The program contained 14 diverse ballet numbers; the most interesting of them seemed to be the performances: ìThe Invitation to Danceî by K. M. Weber, which was staged by A. Kozlovskis, and original choreography for a miniature ballet ìThe Fern Blossom on a Midsummer Nightî (Papardes zieds J‚Úu naktÓ) with the music by J‚nis VÓtoliÚ. ìM. Lence and E. œeËevskis demon- strated outstanding understanding of dance and experience, which is linked with a good technique; they can also enchant and delightî (Anonymous 1924: 4). The reviews published permit to assume that dance performances by the artists of the National Opera ballet were highly professional from both technical and emotional aspect. Taking into conside- ration the fact that the ballet of the Latvian National Opera was established in 1922, the repertoire of guest performances in 1924 in Liep‚ja, it allows us to draw the conclusion that the professional level of soloists of the ballet was growing rapidly at that time.

In 1921, when the world known singer, Fjodor Shalapin (Федор Шаляпин, 1873 ñ 1938) visited Liep‚ja, it was reported by media that residents of Liep‚ja regret that they do not have their own opera theatre where the outstanding singer could perform an opera perfor- mance (Anonymous, 1921). By ensuring a stable involvement of finances, The Dramatic Association of Liep‚ja had established a special Opera Commission which called their first meeting on the 1 August 1922. Already on 22 September the Theatre of Opera opened their curtain for the first performance ñ the opera ìFaustî by Charles Gounod (1818 ñ 1893). Owing thanks to the opera violin player ArvÓds P‚rups (1890 ñ 1946), who had just returned from Saratova, the artistic ensemble of the opera was gathered. Doctor Ernests Ekteins (1872 ñ 1941), took care of administrative and economic issues, so there was a new theatre established in Latvia ñ the Opera of Liep‚ja, which shared the stage and rehearsal premises with the New Theatre of Liep‚ja. According to the memories of the orchestra viola player, Voldem‚rs Sauleskalns (1905 ñ 1973), it can be concluded that the preparation of the opera was made in an intensive mode (Sauleskalns 1948). Nevertheless despite the difficulties, the opening of the Opera in Liep‚ja with the presen- tation of the opera ìFaustî by Charles Gounod was successful. The main roles were played by Mariss VÁtra (1901 ñ 1965) as Faust, Nat‚lija ¤lande (1889 ñ 1964) as Grietina and Alberts Verners (1894 ñ 1942) as Mephistopheles. During the first six seasons, the Opera of Liep‚ja prepared 32 opera performances (AkmentiÚ 2008) including such perfor- mances as ìAidaî by G. Verdi, ìThe Prince Igorî by A. Borodin (Бородин), ìThe Magic Riflemanî by K. M. Weber, ìMartaî by F. Flotow. A great appreciation was expressed to the performances ìThe Daemonî by A. Rubinteins (Рубинштейн), ìLakméî by L. Delibes and ìToscaî by G. Puccini. The team was managed by the conductor A. P‚rups, director J‚nis «Ìis; the scenographies for the performances were made by Art˚rs Baumanis (1892 ñ 1975); a small ballet ensemble was managed by A. Stedelaube, who staged dances

113 Gunta B‚liÚa for opera performances, participated in their execution and educated new dancers. Success of the first performances was mainly determined by the enthusiasm of the creative team because the preparation of these performances was made under difficult conditions, which is also confirmed by the statements made by Roberts Kroders (1892 ñ 1956) and J. VÓtoliÚ, that the conditions, in which the Opera of Liep‚ja was founded and in which it operated, always demanded from the artists and public workers great sacrifice and true love for work (Kroders, VÓtoliÚ 1930). Opera as a genre of a musical performance became very popular and took an important place in the cultural life of cities. Despite the fact that the Opera and Drama Theatres which shared common premises were competitors, they coope- rated at that time. For example, the Drama Theatre often employed not only the orchestra of the Opera in their performances, but also separate singers and dancers who performed in both theatres. Due to this reason, it was proposed to join both theatres into one team.

The analysis of newspaper articles and achieves materials show that in the 20ís of the 20th century, there were all pre-conditions for establishing a ballet troupe in Liep‚ja. It was fostered by the activities of professional conductors in Liep‚ja, high professional level of opera performances, interest of the society in ballet performances and guest performances in Liep‚ja as well as financial support of the city for opera performances.

In the 20ís of the 20th century there was a raising necessity for the work of a professional ballet master in the Opera of Liep‚ja. Rapid development of the opera repertoire required professional supplements in dances, thus the administration of the opera was forced to make a decision about the involvement of a ballet master.

Anna Stedelaube (1887 ñ 1966) mastered the arts of dancing at the ballet studio of The Riga City Theatre and acquired additional professional training in Moscow under the guidance of M. Mordkins (Мордкин) (B‚liÚa, Bite 2006 274ñ275). In 1922 she became the ballet soloist and choreographer at the newly established Opera of Liep‚ja; she also worked as the Head of Plastics and Ballet Class at the Liep‚ja National Conservatorium. Initially, the troupe of ballet had nice dancers who did not have any specific knowledge in the technique of dancing; they were: E. Luters, E. KalniÚ, fi. Strautnieks, O. K‚rkliÚa, E. Hentele, A. –Áfele, M. –efale, T. MuciÚa and L. Grape (SiliÚa 1956). These were the first enthusiast of ballet at the Opera of Liep‚ja, who worked without any remuneration.

The training of professional skills in ballet had just started, and performance of the dancers was relatively weak at the opening of the Opera. E. SiliÚa believes that also in the further opera performances, i.e., in ìThe Traviataî of G. Verdi and ìEvgeny Oneginî of P. Tchai- kovsky, the dancing performance of A. Stedelaube was relatively limited (SiliÚa 1956). Nevertheless the efforts and persistence of the dancers resulted in a visible way which further was positively reflected in the reviews of critiques. ìIn the second act of the opera ìLakméî of L. Deliba, the great Hindu ballet divertissement was performed purely in the respective costumes. Oriental dances staged by the ballet master were praised with great applauseî (Sanders 1923: 3). According to the review of the minister, composer and author of philosophic essays, Visvaldis Sanders (1885 ñ 1979), it can be concluded that staged dances had the character of pantomime, and they were used only as a supplement

114 Artistic and Pedagogical Work of Anna Stedelaube in the Ballet of Liep‚ja (1923 ñ 1933) to opera performances. The newspaper ìWord of Kurlandî (Kurzemes V‚rds) published positive review about the choreography of the opera ìFlying Dutchmanî by Richard Wagner (1813 ñ 1883); the opera was evaluated as an original performance which corres- ponds to the values and interests of the local public: ìThe song of light haired girls who were spinners, rapid dance of the same girls with the orchestra and knocking with feet in wooden shoes, it all was something fresh, original, and really national even for our working people who were fishermen and seamenî (Anonymous 1924: 3). According to the depicted information, it can be concluded that the dancers were still the singers of the choir, but their skills of dancing have tremendously improved.

In the season of 1923/24 the troupe consisted of 14 dancers who still worked for free (SiliÚa 1956). In later years, A. Stedelaube developed choreography for the opera ìAidaî by G. Verdi and the opera ìLa Dame de Piqueî by P. Tchaikovsky (Чайкoвский), which received a positive feedback from critiques. ìDances of black people and Egyptians staged by A. Stedelaube repeatedly demonstrate her good taste which is rich of creativeness. In her solo performance, she demonstrated the full vision of Egyptian dance, as usual by dancing slightly and graciously. The dances of small black boys, which were performed by lying on their bellies, spinning around and in a half-seated position were grotesqueî (Sanders 1924: 6). It can be concluded from the references that choreographic creativity of A. Stedelaube was sufficiently multi-lateral from both points of view: dancing and the sense of style. It can be found out from the review that the opera performances were involving children who participated in them. It means that young ballet dancers also started learning the basis of dancing at the studio of A. Stedelaube.

In 1924 the choreographer offered the first ballet evening for the evaluation of spectators; the program of this evening included fragments from the ballet ìCoppeliaî by L. Delibes and ìArlekinadaî by R. Drigo. This time, the critique was not so favourable. The chore- ographic score of the ballet ìCoppeliaî was too complicated for both soloist and other dancers: ìThe program of the ballet was not greatly appreciated by the public due to the reason that the technical capabilities of the dancers were not at a sufficiently high level for performing such complicated steps of dancingî (SiliÚa 1956: 9). In order to perform the fragments from the ballet ìCoppeliaî, the dancers had to master the classical techniques of ballet (turns, jumps and duet dance) at sufficiently high professional level. But the newly established ballet troupe was not successful with it, since the lessons of classical dancing were organized only twice a week. It can be assumed that the dancers mastered only the basic position due to unsystematic training. As it is emphasized by E. SiliÚa, the lack of sufficient knowledge of the elements of ballet was the cause for the low level of the first ballet performances (SiliÚa 1956).

The administration of the Opera of Liep‚ja admitted that it is necessary to create a ballet studio which provides training for further ballet dancers. Nevertheless the financial support for the development of the studio was not granted. In the season of 1925/26, A. Stedelaube opened an opera ballet studio in her apartment where the further ballet artists, choir singers and other persons, who were interested in the arts of dancing at the Opera of

115 Gunta B‚liÚa

Liep‚ja, started to master the basis of the arts of ballet. Ballet classes in the studio were also attended by “ina Dombrovska (1908 ñ 2000) who was the further soloist and pedagogue of the ballet of Liep‚ja. In her memories, she emphasizes that A. Stedelaube was her first teacher of classical dancing, who helped her master the basis of the arts of ballet. ìLessons took place in her apartment which was equipped with poles at the walls; but from all other aspects it was a very narrow placeî (Zvejnieks 1990). As it was noted by “. Dombrovska, the conditions were not appropriate for the requirements of ballet training. The ballet studio of those times was missing the room of mastering classical dance with high ceiling, mirrors and bars. Nevertheless the narrow environment and inconveniences did not hinder mastering the basis of the ballet. Sometime later, the administration of the Opera of Liep‚ja appointed the premises of the theatre that could be used for the ballet classes. In the result of this, the dancers of the opera started to master the basis and technique of ballet more regularly. When celebrating the 15th anniversary of her professional work on 28 April 1927, A. Stedelaube independently staged her first one-act ballet ìThe Fairy Dollî (LeÔÔu pasaka) with the music written by J. Bayer. As it was emphasized by V. Sanders in a critical review published by the newspaper ìThe Word of Kurlandî (Kurzemes V‚rds), the public was waiting for the premier of the ballet impatiently and the spectatorsí hall of the theatre was completely full. Meanwhile, he permitted to understand that the troupe of the ballet is still at the beginning of its development (Sanders 1927). Overall performance of the dancers was still unsatisfactory due to the reason that at that time the ballet was operating under very difficult circumstances and several well trained dancers left the troupe due to small salaries. First part of the program included the ballet ìFairy Dollî (LeÔÔu pasaka) by J. Bayer with the participation of the whole ensemble. As concerns the pantomimic dances, the critique noted the Russian Dance which included complicated jumps and turns of a technical character. He also emphasized emotional performance of the dance. Although, the critique notes that there was a great contribution made from both artistic and pedagogical points of view, but it can be still felt that the ballet ensemble is still at the beginning of its artistic development. The performers did not have sufficient technique of dancing and lightness: ìThere is not enough hammered flexibility which can be obtained in the same way as it is done with soft steel; there is not enough adjusted mimics; there is no real dancing ardour depicted. [...] From the professional point of view, the new troupe of the Ballet of Liepaja had a lot of deficiencies, nevertheless they had already mastered a lot: basic skills of dancing which was already a value for continuing to further create and develop the skills masteredî (Sanders 1927: 5). In the second act of the ballet ìWaltz of the Flowersî by P. Tchaikovsky (Чайковский) according to the choreography, the author of dances A. Stedelaube tried to include in the movements the musical score of the author (the choreographer used music of the ballet ìThe Nutcrackerî by P. Tchaikovsky). Decorations of the ballet (flowers), as well as light, white and stylized costumes, which were adjusted to the name of performance and made the plastic, dreamful mild scene of dance even brighter. ìHungarian Rhapsodyî by

116 Artistic and Pedagogical Work of Anna Stedelaube in the Ballet of Liep‚ja (1923 ñ 1933)

Liszt Ferenc (1811 ñ 1886) was a complete opposite of ìThe Waltz of the Flowersî. The performance of ìHungarian Rhapsodyî already depicted temperament, and it was possible to detect a certain technique of dancing in it. The review of V. Sanders states, that the ballet master enchanted the ensemble with her temperament (Sanders 1927). According to the review, it can be concluded that the ballet master has been also the principal soloist of the ballet evening. At the end, the critique emphasizes that the artistic and technical basis, which are mastered in a correct way, are the value of ballet troupe; at the same time he indicates that the dancers have to learn a lot and work hard. It permits us to think that the ballet training conducted by A. Stedelaube has been correct and has already given the first results. It is interesting to note that one of the legends of Latvian ballet, the ballet dancer Anna Priede (1920 ñ 2007), made her first steps of a dancer in the Ballet of Liep‚ja under the guidance of A. Stedelaube. She performed the Cupid in the ballet ìLa Dame de Piqueî of P. Tchaikovsky (Чайкoвский). Apart from that, she participated in the dance of the group of children in the ballet ìThe Fairy Dollî (LeÔÔu pasaka) (SiliÚa 1956). Frequent guest performances of various artists encouraged A. Stedelaube to create ballet performances with larger forms. 1928 was particularly important for the life of the Ballet of Liep‚ja. Then there was staged the first Latvian original ballet by A. Stedelaube ìThe Legend of the Seaî (J˚ras teika) with the music of KonstantÓns Veinbergs2. Critiques noted that the ballet had a vivid content of fantasy and there were such fairy creatures acting as the daughters of water, spirits of the wood and swans. There was also the Neptune who came out of the depth of the sea with eight mermaids. The newspaper ìThe Word of Kurlandî (Kurzemes V‚rds) (Sanders 1928) particularly emphasizes the contribution of the composer K. Veinbergs. The review pointed out the capabilities of the new composer in orchestration also by pointing out the fact that he had used symphonisation techniques of Nikolajs Rimska-Korsakovs (Николай Римский-Корсаков, 1844 ñ 1908) and A. Glazu- novs (Глазунов). It permits to believe that the musical score has had a high value, and the composer had developed waltz dancing forms in a symphonic way. It was noted by the critiques that ìthe first waltz ñ the dance of the daughters of water was particularly well instrumented; to a certain extent, the same can be said about the second waltz and the dance of the spirits of the woodî (Sanders 1928: 3). Reviewer gave a very positive feedback for the performance of the ballet soloists and the small ballet troupe. According to the statement made by him, it can be concluded that A. Stedelaube paid a great importance to the professional training of the new dancers in the arts of ballet. Year 1928 turned out to be critical for the Opera of Liep‚ja. The Foundation of Culture did not grant the benefit to it anymore and the opera was about to be closed. Due to this reason, a lot of participants of the ballet troupe were forced to leave the theatre; nevertheless despite various difficulties the troupe of the Opera of Liep‚ja continued their artistic work. Work performed by A. Stedelaube became more vivid in the performances of operas and music comedies. While making research and analysis of the archive materials, it can be concluded that during her artistic and pedagogical work A. Stedelaube staged a lot of dances for operas and musical comedies: ìCarmenî by Alexandre-César-Léopold Bizet (1838 ñ 1875),

117 Gunta B‚liÚa

ìDaemonî by A. Rubinshtein (Рубинштейн), ìLakméî by L. Delibes, ìEvgeny Oneginî and ìLa Dame de Piqueî by P. Tchaikovsky (Чайкoвский), ìAidaî by G. Verdi (Verdi), ìThe Gypsy Baronî by J. Strauss, ìBajaderaî by Emmerich or Imre Kalman (1882 ñ 1953), etc. The artistic work in various performances permits to draw conclusions about A. Stedelaubeís professionalism and knowledge of style, while creating choreographies for the performances of opera and musical comedies. J‚nis Turss (1876 ñ 1945) wrote for the newspaper ìThe Word of Kurlandî (Kurzemes V‚rds) about the musical comedy ìBajaderaî performed at the opening of the theatre season of 1931: ìBallet is delighting under the direction of Anna Stedelaube-Fricone, especially the American Foxtrot performed in the third actî (Turss 1931: 3).

In the beginning of the thirties, a lot of ambiguous reviews, concerning the work of A. Stedelaube at the ballet of the Opera of Liep‚ja, appeared in the media. Due to the fact that the ballet classes did not happen regularly and dancers received small salaries, the ballet troupe did not have a constant number of dancers, and it started employing the dancers without a solid knowledge of the technique of dancing; the following advertisement published by the newspaper ìThe Word of Kurlandî (Kurzemes V‚rds) in 1928 serves as an evidence for it: ìThe ballet troupe of Liep‚ja needs dancersî (Anonymous 1928: 3).

Starting with 1932, there were two independent ballet troupes performing in Liep‚ja: the ballet troupe of the Opera of Liep‚ja and the ballet troupe of the New Theatre of Liep‚ja. In 1931, artistic and pedagogical work in Liep‚ja was started by A. Kozlovskis; in the spring of 1932 he already presented his ballet evening with the participation of 30 students from the ballet studio (SiliÚa 1956). It is possible that the competition between the theatres determined the choice made by A. Stedelaube to leave the ballet of Liep‚ja; in 1933, she finished her artistic and pedagogical work in the ballet of Liep‚ja, and this concluded an important stage in the history of the ballet of Liep‚ja. According to the newspaper ìThe News from Smilteneî (Smiltenes ZiÚas) (Anonymous 1937) it can be established that A. Stedelaube continued her artistic work in the theatre of Northern Latvia (in Valmiera) as choreographer, by staging the dances in the performances of the Drama Theatre.

Conclusions When making the research on the artistic and pedagogical work of A. Stedelaube at the Opera of Liep‚ja, it can be concluded that she had established the first ballet troupe and a ballet studio in Liep‚ja, as well as that she fostered peopleís interest in ballet as a profes- sional genre of arts. After obtaining education in Russia, she based on the traditions and methodology of classical ballet school of Russia in her pedagogical work, when she was teaching classic dancing to her students. As a choreographer, A. Stedelaube developed choreographies of various styles and genres for the performances of the Drama Theatre, as well as for musical comedies and operas. One of the greatest artistic values of A. Stede- laube was her contribution to the area of choreography when she staged a full-length ballet ìThe Legend of the Seaî (J˚ras teika) with the music of K. Veinbergs. This perfor- mance is the first Latvian original ballet which emphasizes the lasting contribution of A. Stedelaube in the history of Latvian ballet.

118 Artistic and Pedagogical Work of Anna Stedelaube in the Ballet of Liep‚ja (1923 ñ 1933)

References AkmentiÚ, Z. 2008. Liep‚jas te‚tra lÓkloËi. Manuscript. Anonymous. 1921. Culture. Kurzemes V‚rds. 200: 3. Anonymous. 1923. Culture. Kurzemes V‚rds. 241: 4. Anonymous. 1924. Culture. Kurzemes V‚rds. 1: 4. Anonymous. 1928. Culture. Kurzemes V‚rds. 274: 3. Anonymous. 1938. Culture. Smiltenes ZiÚas. 24: 3. B‚liÚa, G., Bite, I. 2006. Latvieu baleta enciklopÁdija. RÓga: PÁtergailis. Bite, I. 2002. Latvijas balets. RÓga: PÁtergailis. Kroders, R., VÓtoliÚ, JÁk. 1930. Latvju skaÚra˛u portrejas. RÓga: published by J. VÓtoliÚ. Niedra, M. 1999. Te‚tris un kino biogr‚fij‚s. Vol. 1. RÓga: Preses Nams. S.T. 1928. Baleta izr‚des Liep‚jas opera. Kurzemes V‚rds. 46: 6. Sanders, V. 1923. Arts. Kurzemes V‚rds. 241: 3. Sanders, V. 1924. Arts. Aida at the Opera of Liep‚ja. Kurzemes V‚rds. 209: 6. Sanders, V. 1924. Culture. Kurzemes V‚rds. 1: 6. Sanders, V. 1924. Culture. Kurzemes V‚rds. 2: 6. Sanders, V. 1927. The Gypsy Baron. Premiere. Kurzemes V‚rds. 259: 6. Sanders, V. 1927. Benefis of the Opera of Liep‚ja. Kurzemes V‚rds. 96: 5. Sanders, V. 1928. Culture. Kurzemes V‚rds. 46: 3. SiliÚa, E. 1924. The Opera of Liep‚ja. Aida. Kurzemes V‚rds. 209: 6. SiliÚa, E. 1956. The ballet of Liep‚ja. Typewritten. Turss, J. 1931. Opening of the Opera of Liep‚ja with BajadÁra. Kurzemes V‚rds. 231: 3. Zvejnieks, G. 1990. Dej‚ aizvadÓt‚ dzÓve. Latvju M˚zika. 19.

1 In 1904 the theoretician of movements, E. Jacques-Dalcroze, in cooperation with scenograph Adolphe Appia (1861 ñ 1928) created the Institude of Plastic Gymnastics. The aim of this creative cooperation was to ensure the harmony of all means of expression on stage. 2 Organ player and composer at Liep‚ja St. Anna Trinity Church worked for the drama in Liep‚ja from 1926 to 1934.

119 ART TEMPUS. 1/2013 ISSN 2255-9396

Artistic Proclamation in Classical Ballet

RegÓna Kaupu˛a J. VÓtols Latvian Academy of Music Krij‚Úa Barona Street 1, RÓga, LV-1050, Latvia [email protected]

Abstract Classical Ballet, the synthetic genre of theatrical arts, is a form of art where artistic proclamation is formed through the interaction of music, classical dance, choreography, regie, and the set design as presented by each participant of a performance.

During the course of studies, students of the Choreography School learn and polish their skills of conveying artistic proclamation of Classical Ballet dancer by participating in ballet performances at the Latvian National Opera, as well as by taking part in projects that exceed the basic program requirements, as well as by participating in guest-perfor- mances, concerts, and competitions.

However, besides the practical training in conveying artistic proclamation, which is included in the content of the study guide, Riga Choreography School does not offer theoretical education on artistic proclamation, its essence, structure, as well as various forms, required to understand the artistic proclamation.

The paper analyses artistic proclamation in the work of art, the objective and subjective interaction between the time, environment, and individuality, where the revelation of contents and form creates a unique code which fascinates and attracts.

Key words: Ballet, Artistic Proclamation, Art.

Introduction The objective of the paper is to analyse the artistic proclamation in Classical Ballet as the work of art, its essence in the process of formation, operation and influence.

Materials and methods: philosophical recognitions on art, a work of art and its proclama- tion; theoretical recognitions on the structure of proclamation; narrative interviews.

Results: artistic proclamation in the work of art is formed as a result of the interaction between the objective and subjective factors. Individually expressed performance becomes the artistic proclamation if the subjective energetic code is present and works in balance with the objectively obtained knowledge, practice, reflection, and experience, thus creating professional quality of the performance.

120 Artistic Proclamation in Classical Ballet

Conclusions: successful understanding of the artistic proclamation in Classical Ballet is formed, if the process of education offers an opportunity to obtain theoretical knowledge about the artistic proclamation skills, to reflect upon and employ the experience gathered while creating individual artistic proclamation in a performance.

I In order to call the proclamation ìartisticî, it must comply with the quality criteria, which places a particular object of craftsmanship into the category of arts quality. Art, ìthe form of collective awareness which figuratively reflects the objective realityî, is a branch of creative activity, which is characterized by the exploratory aesthetic attitude towards the creatively imaginative presentation of reality (LVV 1987). Five forms of art that exist in time and space ñ literature, music, dance, visual arts, and theatre ñ are divided according to their specific means of expression. Features of the means of expression determine whether they are static (visual arts, literature) or dynamic (music, dance, theatre) forms of art. Another way of grouping depends on the activity of a masterpiece, differentiating the actions of the author (writer, composer, painter) and the performer (instrumentalist, singer, dancer, actor) as primary or secondary types of art (Bebre 2009). Last but not least, there is also a conditioned division of art forms into academic art and pop-art, depending on specifics of the contents (Scruton 1998). There are no unified and unambiguous opinions and definitions of the contents, essence, and criteria of the art. For most part, art is defined as a work which is created as the result of personally individual process of expressing feelings, forms and contents, and which is formed in harmony with the inner calling, as well as talents given by God, way of thinking, love, sincerity, passion, inspiration, emotion, imagination, intelligence, hope, enthusiasm, understanding of beauty, enjoyment and relaxation. Art is being discussed in relation to the various forms of human behaviour, when creating such material or intellectual objects, which have value in relation to mental capacity (psyche or mind), senses and emotions. Therefore, art is born when a human being expresses himself or herself. When researching the essence of the concept of art, Eduards KÔaviÚ refers to Benedetto Croce and Roger Collingwood, emphasizing the view on the functions of art, based on the personality-oriented idealism, when the essence of art work exists in the mind of the author and works as a tool for stimulating senses and mental capacities of the human, awakening the sense of beauty, exchanging and arousing unintentional or hidden emotions and ideas (KÔaviÚ 1994). William Morris was emphasizing the social character of art and pointing out that the aim of art is to make manís work happy and his rest fruitful, assuring that such aim of art is a crucial component in coordinating the process of energy, when in the mood of idleness memory amuses, whereas, in the mood of energy ñ hope cheers (Morris 1973).

121 RegÓna Kaupu˛a

Social character of the art phenomenon is a man-made activity based on the communi- cation, requesting participation, which is particularly clearly revealed through the communication about the views of society and the situations of the era. As a uniting and educating substance, art is formed by a personality and is utilized in the society, thus serving its social purpose.

In hermeneutics, art is described as the phenomenon having its own form, corporeality or usability, content and nature, pointing to the inherent characteristics that people have encoded in it. According to Martin Heideger and his research on the essence of objects, each object carries its characteristics, thus a work of art also possesses qualities and characteristics that distinguish it from the object and allow us to make an impression, to draw conclusions and make an assessment, when looking at art (Heidegger 1998).

Hans ñ Georg Gadamer bases his philosophical explanation of the concept of art into the Ancient Greek culture, ì... when art was understood as ìpoietike epistemeî ñ the skills of creation knowledge, pointing out that the history tells us what has happened, while the poetry tells us what could happenî (Gadamer 2002: 128).

According to H. G. Gadamer, uniqueness is revealed in the work of art, taking into consi- deration the beauty, in the possibility to stop and linger at the individually manifested. This indicates that the individuality, the personal opinion may provide the vision of truth at the process of creating the work of art.

Communication of the work of art is revealed in the impression it creates. Gadamer says that ìimportant essence of the work of art is the impression it has, providing the effect of appearance, the ìusageî of which is not a real usage, which is peculiarly true when lingering contemplatively at the appearancesî (Gadamer 2002: 128).

The main purpose of creating the work of art is action and effect. Being an individually compel- ling phenomenon, art happens according to the effect of boomerang, when the impression and the satisfaction reach:

— the direct target ñ recipient (spectator, listener, reader), — the reflexive target ñ the creator of the work of art ñ the author, thus providing satisfaction and creating incentives for a new creative work (Figure 1).

According to Gadamer, in the creative procla- mation of the work of art as the process of opera- Figure 1. The boomerang principle of the operation and effects of the work of art tion and effects, giving and receiving are closely (R. Kaupu˛a). linked to the actions of perception, understanding,

122 Artistic Proclamation in Classical Ballet return, satisfaction and memory, where three essential prerequisites of Play, Symbol and Festival take place.

Gadamer describes Play as the challenge to initiate communication, involving the readiness to perceive a specific work of art. Symbol is a sign in the work of art, which, carrying along the secretiveness of hidden importance, calls for an inquiry, provides with an insight and satisfaction to its reputation, and the Festival is perceived as a situation which prevents cross-insulation, providing new insights, becoming open and ready for delivery, perception and reception (Gadamer 2002).

As explained above, the criteria for a work of art consist of the presence of artistic creativity, intelligence, intellect, imagination, individuality, strangeness, uniqueness, and philosophical attitude.

II In the dictionary of Latvian literary language the concept to proclaim and a proclamation denotes an action ñ to report, to tell, to express any contents or to be a source of information.

Figuratively, the concept to proclaim (in active sense) is interpreted as a sign for something anticipated or probable (LVV 1996).

The activity of proclamation is aimed towards obtaining new information and new clues, complementing the existing knowledge, providing new experience and skills (Vigodskis 2002).

Proclamation as a message and understood information consists of delivery as well as reception. Based on the common understanding, proclamation as the communicative clarity incorporates into the concept of a work of art (Gadamer 2002).

Eugene Nazaykinsky characterizes the common understanding as the desire of soul as included in the concept of ìtunable perception.î The researcher of music indicates the importance of musical and overall cultural understanding required for each of the listeners to participate in the process of reception, in order to be able to understand what has been heard (Nazaykinsky 1980).

Proclamation as a complete and memorable activity addresses the contents and form, using the codes of communication based on the previously acquired experience, reflection, knowledge, set of skills, as well as psychologically emotional experience.

Delivery and perception of the proclamation as individually personal activities, regardless of the number of those delivering and those perceiving, has reached a goal, if the delivered proclamation has left an impact on the mind and memory of the recipient. If expressed convincingly and truthfully, the personal touch, characteristic of the proclamation of the work of art, leaves an artistic impact and urges the spectator, listener, or reader to contemplate.

123 RegÓna Kaupu˛a

Philosophical explanation of the proclamation has been addressed by S. Kierkegaard. Philosopher Velga VÁvere, when analysing the reflections of Kierkegaard, points out three complementary and, at the same time, competing expressions characteristic to the time of the proclamation:

— time of narration, — time of retelling, — lifetime of the persons that the proclamation tells about (VÁvere 2008).

The time-frame of the proclamation, as emphasized by V. VÁvere, possessing three mutually complementary and, at the same time, competing expressions of time work as objective as well as subjective factors of the proclamation. The time of narration as the objective factor of artistic proclamation intrudes into the subjectivity, creating the time of retelling as seen by the director or producer, whereas, lifetime of the person that the proclamation tells about is the interaction between the objective and subjective factors and is linked to the individuality of a performer, life-experience, including education, professionalism as well as the social aspect allowing the creation of new forms to reveal the contents.

Ballet director Aleksandrs Lembergs declares that the same proclamation of content, if expressed subjectively, including different means of expression, produces different works of art that are perceived differently. Lembergs writes: ìThe permanence of content and style of certain classical ballet performances creates a different impression, depending on the proclaimerís personality as well as the so-far accumulated personal life experience. The character may be created differently, but no matter how excellent would the skills of the actor be, the nature remains enclosed as the core of the person. The character is created through the lens of artistís human nature, through him or her as a humanî (Lembergs 1985).

The idea enclosed in the essence of the work of art forms the core and is expressed proclaiming individually. The artistic proclamation is created if the content and form enclosed is revealed in objective and subjective convergence and leaves an impression (Figure 2).

Figure 2. The factors forming the proclamation of the work of art (R. Kaupu˛a).

124 Artistic Proclamation in Classical Ballet

It can be concluded that three expressions of time work when the objective factors of content and form of proclamation (time, environment, manner) work in coloration with the subjective factors ñ natural individuality of the one proclaiming, his/her lifetime, accumulated life experience and knowledge, as a result, creating an unrepeatable work of art that influences the recipient ñ spectator, listener, reader.

The cognitive function of art combines the subjective quest, interpretation and memory. The newly obtained knowledge from the process of thinking and synthesis of feelings is included in the context of already existing knowledge. Presence of the phenomenon of interpretation, characteristic to the dynamic art forms in its essence, helps the artist to repeatedly embody ageless artistic values into the performance of music, theatre show, or Classical Ballet (L˚se 2003).

The content and form of the proclamation as artistic integrity, along with the means of expression, is shaped by the simultaneously included dimensions of spirituality, performance and memory.

The concept of content is to be understood as a framework, which contains the essence and meaning of proclamation. The content of the work of art and proclamation are understood as the unity of content and form (LVV 1987).

Speaking about the formation of proclamation, its elements and form in literature, Skaidra PutniÚa points out two closely related and explicit components ñ the narrative and the speech of character.

In Classical Ballet the characters reveal themselves through the language of choreography, acting in the visual surroundings as set by musical integrity. In Classical Ballet, just like in music, the idea of literary story as the element of proclamation is oriented towards the emotional experience of the characters in order to portray various moods and atmosphere of the era at various stages of a story. In literary sense the proclamation of ballet may rely on the schema of emotionally contrasting images or conflict situations, similar to the substance of programmatic music.

The concept of form can be described as an external shape, manner, aspect, or template in relation to the work of art; it can be explained as the expression or revelation of the content (LVV 1987).

In proclamation of the work of art, the content and the form can address the recipient in mutually equal interaction, completing each other, competing with each other, or mutually excluding each other, if the content and the form are unified in revealing the meaning of proclamation.

In the revelation of artworkís content, the form is working as a tool for expressing artistic proclamation; it is a changing variable, which influences the perception of artworkís content by changing the communicative space of the work of art as well as according to the features of art form, genre, and means of expression.

125 RegÓna Kaupu˛a

In perceiving the work of art, Claire Merleau ñ Ponty stresses the importance of procla- mationís communicative space. By fulfilling the functions of communicative space, a museum, a theatre, and a concert hall together with the proclamation itself and its content form a virtual space which influences both the delivery as well as the perception, says Merleau ñ Ponty.

He distinguishes 4 diverse forms of proclaiming the work of art:

1. Díobjets ñ object-oriented ñ the proclamation is directed towards the object. The pro- clamation of this form encompasses certain aesthetics, cultural heritage, object itself as well as the spectator/viewer meeting the object. In painting the portrait is emphasized. Choreography of the Classical Ballet is emphasized as cultural heritage, or it is oriented towards the emphasis of the prima ballerina (ballet ìLa Bayadèreî by choreographer Marius Petipa, ballet ìChopinianaî by choreographer Michel Fokine). 2. De savoir ñ inquiry-oriented ñ the proclamation is directed towards the inquiry and understanding. The proclamation of De savoire form is a sum of knowledge that is meant to provide an insight by means of all communicative techniques ñ dance, video dance, set, lights. It is a scientific message from the past which has educational purpose. Information of this proclamation establishes communication between the spectator and the object. 3. De point de vue ñ opinion-oriented, personal ñ the proclamation which empha- sizes an opinion, a point of view. In the proclamation of De point de vue the object is the spectator/viewer, who is brought into the communicative space. The spectator is offered an individual point of view, formed through the personal attitude. In a literary work or drama performance it can be the narrator. In a ballet performance it can be an impressive set design, music, or choreographic handwriting. ìOthelloî as choreographed by Alla Sigalova could be such example. It is also the technique of meditation, reaching the spectator through the visual and audio means of expression. 4. De la repture ñ a form, which serves as the propaganda for another idea. Proclamation becomes the ìspeakerî for another idea. This form is designed to intrude with the constructed knowledge, strong series of acts that excite the spectator/viewer ñ disturb, excite, bombard, force the viewpoint. It is a battle between stereotypes and new ideas. It is an intensification and transformation of a living collective memory (Merleau ñ Ponty 2005).

In Classical Ballet it is an innovative approach of solving traditional opinion. An excellent example is the alternative versions of classical repertoire by choreographer Mats Ek ñ Tchaikovskyís ìSwan Lakeî, ìSleeping Beautyî, and Adanís ìGiselleî.

It can be concluded that in artistic proclamation the diversity of means for expressing the content is set by the subjective view of an individual and chosen means of expression.

126 Artistic Proclamation in Classical Ballet

Apart from the subjective factor in expressing the content and form of the work of art, there are also objective means of expression that serve as tools for expressing an individual sense of time, rhythm, space, flexibility and harmony, as well as to reveal the content, form, and meaning of the work of art:

— in literature ñ verbal means expressed in a written word, rhythm, harmony; — in visual art ñ the visual means visualized in lines, colours, space, rhythm, harmony; — in music ñ auditory means expressed in sound, rhythm, intonation, melody, harmony; — in Classical Ballet ñ audio-visual means expressed in movement, rhythm, flexibility, dance, space, and harmony, combining the synthetic genre of art which is a collective formation; — in theatre ñ verbal, visual and audio means unite in order to create the synthetic genre of art which is a collective formation.

In Classical Ballet as in the collective, synthetic formation, the objective factor and the artistic proclamation ñ composed music, choreography, content, regie, and set design are interacting with the subjective factor ñ performance of the participating artists (i.e. musi- cians, conductors, dancers, stage crew, etc.). Interaction of the objective and the subjective creates a unique performance, when the lasting impact of the proclamation may be reached both with each separate component of the work of art as well as with the totality of all components (Figure 3).

Figure 3. The objectively subjective interaction between the activity and impact of the proclamation in Classical Ballet (R. Kaupu˛a).

In Classical Ballet in order to proclaim the content, there function the following means of expression, creating the objective entirety of form:

— dance as a particular language of Classical Ballet, where moves, gestures, postures, jumps, leaps, turns, and combinations of movements are performed following the specific Classical Ballet methodical rules for movement, achieving a stately posture, strong core, strong and flexible legs and feet, lightness, as well as a unity of music and movement;

127 RegÓna Kaupu˛a

— conditions of ballet genre in music and dance, by creating performances in several acts, one-act, numbers ñ dances, pas díaction, pas de quatre, pas de deux, variations, and dances in groups; — choreographic handwriting; — visual design of stage ñ design that includes light, costumes, and the choice of set design.

In proclaiming the message in Classical Ballet, variable and subjective entirety of form is referred to the performerís:

— individuality; — knowledge, skills, abilities; — reflection and understanding; — accumulated experience, when forming the criteria of quality.

Qualitative condition Proclamation along with its content and form can be included in the category of art if it has been expressed with individuality, follows the qualitative criteria of professionalism for the specific form of art, thus allowing proclamation of the work of art to be artistic.

Artistic performance determines the degree of quality of the art workís artistic procla- mation. In various explanations of the notion of artist, the common ground is implied creativity; whereas a qualitative criterion is the conclusion that artist is an authority among the professionals in his/her field.

The qualitative criterion, that sets the frame for the status of art and artist, is formed by:

— professionalism, including education: — creativity, individual expression polished by the fulfilment of the set of rules, based on the entirety of knowledge, reflective thinking, abilities and experience.

In Classical Ballet the status or frame of a professional artist is set by the ability to dance the repertoire of Classical Ballet on a professional ballet stage. Thus, it can be concluded that: the more knowledgeable the performer and the spectator is, the more fulfilling becomes the proclamation and the more complete is the understanding of proclamation by the recipient (Figure 4).

128 Artistic Proclamation in Classical Ballet

Figure 4. The connection of elements affecting the formation of artistic proclamation (R. Kaupu˛a).

Results 1. Art as a result of expressing personal feelings serves the social purpose and is directed towards understanding happiness and purpose of life for each particular subject. 2. The essence of the work of art and the proclamation embedded into it is a common sense, and the main goal of creating it is activity, impact, and impression. 3. The field for common and shared understanding between the artistic proclamation of the performer and the recipient is formed if the knowledge, reflection, and accumulated experience are equally important for the creator of the work of art and the recipient. 4. Proclamation is a complete and memorable activity which addresses the recipient with its content and form, using communicative codes based on the earlier accumulated experience, reflection, knowledge, abilities, psychologically emotional experience, as well as the social aspect. 5. When the objective factors ñ time, space, manner of content and form of the structure of proclamation are combined with the subjective factors ñ individuality of the one proclaiming, lifespan, accumulated life experience and knowledge, a unique work of art is created, having an impact on the recipient ñ the spectator/viewer, listener or reader.

129 RegÓna Kaupu˛a

6. The content and form included in the proclamation is expressed, taking into consi- deration the qualitative criteria of professionalism for each form of art. It is done with an individual expression, creating artistic proclamation as a cornerstone of the work, allowing it to be included in the category of art.

Conclusions Successful understanding of the artistic proclamation is created, if the process of education offers:

— theoretical knowledge on the artistic proclamation, its essence, structure, as well as possibilities of its formation and expression; — possibility to obtain skills to reflect and exploit the experience gathered, forming a very personal and individual artistic proclamation in the performance.

References Claire, Merleau ñ Ponty, Jean ñ Jacques, Ezrati. 2005. Líexposition, theorie et pratique. Paris. Pp. 27ñ34. DaiÔrades psiholoÏija Latvij‚. 2008. Sast. Bebre, R. RÓga: Valters un Rapa. P. 304. Gadamers, H.-G. 2002. Skaist‚ aktualit‚te: M‚ksla k‚ spÁle, simbols un svÁtki. [Die Aktualitat des Schonen: Kunst als Spiel, Symbol und Fest]. RÓga: Zvaigzne ABC. P. 128. Heidegers, M. 1998. MalkasceÔi. RÓga: Intelekts. KÔaviÚ, E. 1994. Maz‚ m‚kslas enciklopÁdija. Simbolisms. RÓga: Latvijas enciklopÁdija. Latvieu valodas v‚rdnÓca. 1987. RÓga: Avots. Latvieu liter‚r‚s valodas v‚rdnÓca. 1996, 8, 406. www.tezaurs.lv [10.01.2013.]. Lembergs, A. 1985. Lemberga atmiÚas ñ audioieraksti. RÓga: Priv‚ta kolekcija. L˚se, N. 2011. AtskaÚot‚jpieredzes loma skaÚdarba interpret‚cij‚. DU zin‚tniskie raksti II. M˚zikas zin‚tne odien: past‚vÓgais un mainÓgais. Daugavpils: DU AkadÁmiskais apg‚ds ìSauleî. Pp. 242ñ252. PedagoÏijas terminu skaidrojo‚ v‚rdnÓca. 2000. Sast. BeÔickis, I., Bl˚ma, D., KoÌe, T., Markus, D., SkujiÚa, V., –alme, A. RÓga: Zvaigzne ABC. P. 248. PutniÚa, S. 2007. Metodiskais materi‚ls teorÁtiskaj‚m nodarbÓb‚m latvieu valod‚ un literat˚r‚. JÁkabpils. VÁvere, V. 2008. Komunik‚cijas temporarit‚te: naratÓvais laiks un dzÓves laiks. Eksistence un komunik‚cija. SÁrena Kirkegora filozofija. RÓga: FSI. Pp. 36ñ60. Vigotskis, œ. 2002. Dom‚ana un runa. RÓga: EVE. P. 392. Scruton, R. 1998. An Intelligent Personís Guide to Modern Culture. London: Penquin. P. 152. Морис,У. 1973. Искусство и жизнь. Москва. Издательство “Искусство”. Назайкинский, Е. 1980. Музыкальное восприятие как проблема музыкознания. Воспри- ятие музыки. Москва: Музыка.

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The Early Days of Modern Dance in Latvia

Valda Vidzemniece J. VÓtols Latvian Academy of Music K. Barona Street 1, RÓga, LV-1050, Latvia [email protected]

Abstract The research study is devoted to modern dance activities in Latvia in the beginning of the 20th century (from the beginning of the century till the 30ís), seeking ways how new ideas from the first publications in written press lead to the first guest artistsí performances in Latvia. It gives an insight into the activities of Latvian dancers, educators and choreographers who, following by European art tendencies, started to seek new ways in the art of dance.

Key words: Dance, History, Modern Dance, Latvia, Beginning of the 20th Century.

Introduction There are still many unexplored pages in Latvian dance history. This research is part of a wider study of modern dance activities in Latvia of the first half of the 20th century. Its goal is finding evidence that the modern dance existed in Latvia since the beginning of the 20th century. Many rhythm-plastic and plastic dance schools and studios, which flourished in the 20ís ñ 30ís of the 20th century, indicate the presence of modern dance in Latvian culture.

The beginnings of modern dance can be traced back to the last decade of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. From the view of the context of cultural heritage, it is quite possible that modern dance activities did appear in Latvia in the beginning of the century. Latvia has always been at the crossroads between West Europe and Russia that is why a significant influence of German and Russian culture can be perceived in various art genres and cultural events; this influence has been also considerable and significant in the development of professional dance art.

Today modern dance is understood as a stable historically developed perfroming dance genre with its own precisely set criteria of dance techniques. On the other hand, it does not mean that the dance techniques are subject strict codification and unchanging. Artistic principles and the means of artistic expression used by choreographers can vary because any creative process is subjective and reflects the individual concept. In the beginning of the 20th century modern dance pioniers were still looking for new ways of expression and tried to formulate the basic principles of the new dance genre that is the reason why the term modern dance was not yet used as a comprehensive designation of the new dance genre.

131 Valda Vidzemniece

Terminology In the early 20ís of the 20th century the new dance genre that had just emerged did not yet have a uniform designation: the term modern is used in the meaning of modern. A diversity of designations can be found: plastic dance, free dance, barefoot dancing, rhythm-plastic dance, expressive dance, expressionistic dance, artistic dance. The term Ausdruckstanz emerged in Germany with the appearance of expressionism in art and literature, while terms absolut dance (absoluter Tanz), new artistic dance (neuer k¸nstlericher Tanz), free dance (freier Tanz) were still actively used. The problem of terminology was discussed at the 2nd Congress of German Dancers (Der zweite deutsche T‰nzerkongrefl 1928) in Essen. In the United States the term modern dance started to be used in about 1930, largely due to the theoretical research and publications of John Martin. He used the term in his publication in 19291 (Robinson 1998: 5). During the first decades of the 20th century more common terms used by dance professionals and critics in Latvia were plastic dance and rhythm ñ plastic dance. Plastic dance evening was the name given by Latvian press to the performances of artists or dance schools looking for new ways of expression and artistic approaches to the art of dance. The term plastic dance was based on the understanding of Isadora Duncanís style of dance as performance inspired by music and based on free, natural and plastic movements which depicts the widest range of human spiritual experiences. The essence of rhythm ñ plastic dance is the transformation of musical images into the images of movement pro- viding precise interpretation of mood, rhythmic structure and form of music. The training method of representatives of this style is based on the rhythmic method of Emile Jaques- Dalcroze. In the 30ís, when a significant number of Latvian dance professionals and enthusiasts got acquainted with the creative ideas and principles of Mary Wigman and Rudolf von Laban ñ representatives of German expressionistic dance ñ a new term was sought. A new designation appears in Latvian newspapers ñ the art-dance although there is no consensus concerning the term among Latvian dance critics. It is interesting to note that in 1924 Elza SiliÚa, Latvian dance critic, used the term of modern dance in her article Modern‚s dejas stils (Style of Modern Dance) and discussed the stylistic diversity of the new dance: ìUndoubtedly, the great art movement known under the name of new, plastic dance not only expands but also deepens. It provides ample opportunities for original strivings of dancers. Looking at this still nascent art form, a variety of artistic dance formations is unveiled in front of our eyes [...]. This is a search of primal spontaneous nature of dance ñ will a force that makes the body express itself in plastic imagesî (SiliÚa 1924: 236). Elza SiliÚa has perceived the substance of modern dance and is able to discern the similarities that unite all the diverse styles and forms of modern dance: ìOur present sense of the form and plastic value has gone through major changes compared to previous decades. It can be seen in painting and sculpture, which speak of a new understanding of space and form. The striving for expressive language and search of basic (elementary) forms ñ these trends find their development in the modern dance as well. It strives for liberation of the

132 The Early Days of Modern Dance in Latvia dance from narrative contents, overwhelming dominance of musical rhythms, searching for the internal dynamics and rhythmics of body, expressive, primeval, if we may say so, a naked movement vocabulary. [...] Modern dance style strives to achieve the unity of body and spirit in the creative poetic formation (SiliÚa 1924: 236).

As during the first decades of the 20th century the term modern dance had not yet taken its root in Latvia, then in fact, plastic and rhythm-plastic dance schools that worked parti- cularly intensively in the 20ís and 30ís can be viewed as pioneers of new modern dance traditions in Latvia. During this period there were approximately 40 dance schools active in Latvia, representing this genre as well as a variety of other dance genres and styles. The most popular of these schools were Beatrise VÓgnereís Physical and Aesthetic Education School, Anna Amaneís Music and Rhythmic School, Anna Kereís Dance School, Felicita Ertnereís Rhythmic Classes at Dailes Theatre. Individual performers seek their own way in the art of dance with solo-dance programmes.

The first publications on the modern dance in Latvian press and the first guest perfomances In the 20ís and 30ís of the 20th century modern dance already showed certain activity in Latvian choreographic art, however, a justified question arises: how and when did modern dance appear in Latvia? When did the information about the new ideas and developments in the art of dance emerge in the public space? When did the first representatives of the new dance start visiting Latvia? The search for answers to these questions revealed that in 1908 an article titled Dance was published by L˚cija Ozols where the author discussed new trends in the art of choreography: provided an insight into the principles of art followed by Isadora Duncan, quoted an excerpt from the artistís vision of a future dancer, mentioned the most popular dancers of the new style ñ Ruth Saint Denis, Maude Allan, Irene Zanden, Viola Vilani, writing with particular enthusiasm about the first performance of Grete sisters, Elsa and Berta Wiesenthal in Vienna (Ozola 1908: 7).

Starting with 1910 representatives of the modern dance became already quite regular visitors in Latvia; Rita Saketo performed in Riga already in that year and the following year, and at least 4 of the magazines published in Latvian focused their attention on the artistís guest performances and published reviews of her concerts. The interest was high, concerts were accompanied by the crowding of carriages, a crowd of fashionable ladies in cloakrooms, sold-out tickets and crowded halls (Aa. 1910: 3). However, part of the audience was disappointed, which shows that the public in Riga was not yet ready to accept any artistic offer unconditionally and without any criticism; it was the conclusion of Nikolajs Alun‚ns, a music critic, stating that every innovation is far from perfection (Alun‚ns 1911: 5).

In subsequent years Riga was visited by Clotilde von Derp (1912), Gertrud Leistikow (1912), Saint Míahesa (1912, 1913), the sisters Elsa and Berta Wiesenthal (1913), Borghilde Gotti (1913), Maggie Gripenberg (1913) and other dancers. The exotic dancer Sent Míahesa was born in Riga, her real name was Elsa von Carlsberg and she came from a Baltic German family. When Elsa started her studies of Egyptology in Germany, she tried to

133 Valda Vidzemniece transform and transpose her interest and understanding of ancient Egypt to the art of dance and she began to create dances full of exotics and mysticism, which Latvian critics named the ancient Egyptian dance. Sent Míahesa quite often performed in Riga, a review by Arturs BÁrziÚ can be read about her performance on January 25, 1912. Despite the comparatively high ticket prices, concert halls were sold out on both nights (in RÓga Latvian Society House and German Society of Craftsmen Hall). The reviewer concludes: ìDance attracts the audience in Riga. All dancers, who have visited Riga, cannot complain about the lack of success ñ tickets were always sold out. [...] However, there is another word for explaining the excitement of the audience: modern. This word always has some magical power ñ everybody wants to see something extraordinary in dancer, some maybe even something risquÈî (BÁrziÚ 1912: 3).

The visit of Emile Jaques-Dalcroze (1865 ñ 1950) to Latvia in 1912 won considerable acclaim. The first enthusiasts and interested parties appeared who wanted to learn Dalkrozeís method of rhythmic education and implement it in Latvian schools. Thus, in 1912 Anna Amane, Latvian musician and teacher, went to Hellerau in Germany where she received a diploma of Dalkrozeís school after the three years of studies.

The first performers of modern dance in Latvia At the beginning of World War I many inhabitants of Latvia sought refuge in Russia; however, the cultural and artistic life did not stop even during severe years of the war. Dance enthusiasts who had found their way to Russian cities, had an opportunity to become acquainted with local cultural activities, start education or improve their skills under the tutelage of outstanding Russian dancers. For example, Voldem‚rs Komis‚rs, the first choreographer of the Latvian National Opera, gained his first impressions of the ballet in Moscow, where he stayed as a refugee, and immediately started his training with Michail Mordkin, a celebrated soloist of the Bolshoi Theatre. This studio was attended by other Latvian dancers Elza SiliÚa, Beatrise VÓgnere, MÓla CÓrule who later became the promoters of modern dance. Several visits of Isadora Duncan to Russia (1904, 1908 and 1914) inspired the emergence of new dance studios and schools, there appeared individual performers who followed her artistic principles. Ellena Telsí studio, at that time known as Rabenekís studio2, was one of them, Elza SiliÚa and MÓla CÓrule started learning free dance principles at this studio (SiliÚa 1930: 95, Tivums 1985: 3).

Elza SiliÚa (1895 ñ 1988) graduated from Moscow Vilga Institute in 1918, she also studied at Shanyavska Peoples University and attended Rabenekís plastic dance studio alongside her studies at the University. Later she worked as a teacher at dance studios in Moscow and established her own studio in Kazan (Russia), where she taught both groups of children and adults. After her return to Latvia in 1921 Elza SiliÚa prepared her own programme of plastic dance which was shown to the audience on November 28, 1922 in the Hall of the Society of Craftsmen (Tivums 1985: 3). For some time the young artist still performed at different events, however, soon she decided to focus on the dance theory, and her first article about Estonian modern dance performer Elmerice Part was published in 1921.

134 The Early Days of Modern Dance in Latvia

Elza SiliÚa was the first Latvian professional dance critic, an author of several books, monographs, numerous press publications, she was Latvian correspondent for International Dance Archives (Archives Internationales de la Danse) (B‚liÚa, Bite 2006: 264). In the articles published in the 20ís and 30ís of the 20th century she demonstrated an excellent understanding of issues concerning modern dance theory and the philosophy of the new dance. In later years Elza SiliÚaís interest focused on classical ballet and traditional Latvian folk art, which constitute the larger portion of her theoretical and historical research studies.

Latvian dancer MÓla CÓrule (Mila Cirul, 1901 ñ 1977), who like Elza SiliÚa started her dancing career in Russia, is listed as one of the first representatives of French modern dance (Robinson 1998: 140ñ143). MÓla CÓrule was born in Riga, at the age of 14 she left her parental home to start an independent life, she worked in a publishing house in Riga and gradually became aware of her desire to engage in the world of art. Soon MÓla CÓrule went to Moscow, where she worked, studied painting and in the evenings attended dance studios. In Moscow she for the first time saw a performance of Isadora Duncan; the performance moved her deeply and stimulated her to pursue her training with increased diligence at the Rabenekís studio. Already half a year later MÓla CÓrule became an assistant to her teacher and in 1918 after the revolution in Russia she left Moscow together with her teacher and a few other students and went to West Europe (Vebess 1938: 2).

For some time the young artist toured Germany, Austria and France together with the troupe of Ellen Tels (Ellen Rabenek adopted this name for guest performances), then she started her own solo career, for a brief period of time managed a dance studio in Vienna. The meeting with Mary Wigman in 1926 proved to be fateful and it made her reconsider her artistic principles and means of expression, to give up unnecessary ostentatiousness, subsequently the logical path to follow lead her to the school of Rudolf Laban. MÓla CÓrule for several years worked in Germany, then Austria, she was a soloist of the ballet at Hanover, Berlin and Vienna Opera for several years until 1932 when she settled down in Paris, where she opened her own dance studio and often performed solo programmes or performed together with her students as well as in duet with her sister Elia.

As a unique, unusual personality MÓla CÓrule does not resemble any other artist of her time in her creative work, she has absorbed and accumulated everything that she had learned from countless teachers at many dance schools and she has processed it through the prism of her own personality. She speaks about her artistic principles in an interview with Fernand Divoire, French dance critic, in 1935: ìDance is a confession of human beingís facing life, revealing endless shimmerings of soul. Body has to be educated, and is made to work as a tool until it attains perfection (in the same way as an instrument created by Stradivarius). When it has achieved its greatest efficiency, soul begins to vibrate. Each dancer requires an appropriate technique, as there is no dance school capable of developing dance in all its manifestations: spiritual, emotional and intellectual. It is only the time of leaving school when one really begins to work effectively. Each dancer must find his own technique, the precise expression of himself, and if he is not afraid of making sacrifices, he will succeedî (Robinson 1998: 142).

135 Valda Vidzemniece

MÓla CÓrule paid frequent visits to Latvia (1930, 1932, 1934, 1935) and her art brought pleasure not only to the inhabitants of Riga but likewise to many other Latvian cities and towns. Latvian National Opera was always sold-out, and press reviewers and colleagues discussed her performances favourably with great interest. Volfgangs D‚rziÚ wrote the following in an article in 1931: ìCÓruleís art is highly complex. It does not allow just watching, does not yield to fleeting delight, it makes us think more intensively and pro- foundly, and reconsider. The artist fascinates with her masculine grace, expression of gestures, vigour, temperament revealed by her personality. CÓrule has lots of primeval passion, strength of the earth, which is perhaps discouraging at times, yet becomes increas- ingly more exciting and engaging. The artist has reached full spiritual clarity, the clarity of her style and artistic form deserves admiration. At the beginning her unorthodox art caused amazement that later turned into profound raptureî (D‚rziÚ 1931: 78ñ79).

Some dance critics as, for example, Jackeline Robinson credited MÓla CÓrule with a distinct Russian character, saying that she has never lost her Russian roots and therefore she has been so full of romance and mysticism. I do not think that 3 ñ 4 years spent in Moscow have left such a strong and indelible impression on the artistís personality, I would more likely agree with another dance historian ñ Karl Toepfer, who gives a significant description of the artistís personality and her power of art: ìCirul did not embody the unconscious force, as Wigman did; rather, she dramatized, through movement, a struggle within herself between consciousness and the unconscious. [...] But the synthesis of two forms in Cirul produced an identity that was neither German nor French nor Russian but always alluringly foreign, the restless movements of an exquisite body seeking something more or other than that yielded by the space it occupiedî (Toepfer 1997: 181ñ182).

In the programmes performed in Latvia, along with her most famous productions: Salome dance, Eve, Niobe, Barbaric dance, Russian motives, CÓrule dances also in choreographic compositions on themes of Latvian folk songs. Latvian dance critics also acknowledge her undeniable choreographerís talent, wealth of ideas, clarity of structure and form, compositionally perfect productions (D‚rziÚ 1938: 8).

Another Latvian dancer Aija Bertr‚ne-Dunkane (Bertrand-Duncan, 1891 ñ 1978), whose real name was Meta Ivanova, went to Paris in 1911 and became a student at Raymond Duncanís Academy and already the following year she began to participate in shows produced by Duncan, she also performed solo dance programs (GravÓtis le Latvien 1924: 3). In her artistic work she was closer to Isadora Duncanís dance style and artistic principles. Aija Bertrand-Duncan has repeatedly performed in Latvia within the frame of Raymond Duncan performances or with her own independently produced programs.

Dance schools and studios in Latvia in the 20ís and 30ís The 20ís witnessed the beginning of very active guest performances of modern dance representatives that continued through the 30ís, that allowed Latvian audience and dance professionals getting familiar with representatives of a wide range of styles and trends, educating and inspiring Latvian dance enthusiasts. The list of guest artists include masters

136 The Early Days of Modern Dance in Latvia of German expressionistic dance Rudolf von Laban (1928) and Mary Wigman (1926), Labanís student Sam Hior (1927), Swedish dancer Astrid Malmborg (1930), Alexander Sacharoff (Сахаров), Clotilde von Derp-Sacharoff (1932), Aisedora Duncanís students (1930), the performer of exotic dance Saint Míahes (1923, 1924), Raymond Duncan with his theatre (1924, 1926), Estonian dancers Elmerice Parts (1921) and Ella Illbak (almost every year 1921 ñ 1933) and other artists. Many Latvian artists went to study in West Europe, mostly to Germany and France.

It seems logical, that in the 20ís a fertile ground had already developed for the modern dance activities in Latvia, new dance schools and studios appeared one after another promoting the formation of plastic and rhythm-plastic dance.

Beatrise VÓgnereís dance school, which existed from 1923 till 1944, is one of the most active Latvian new plastic dance representatives. Beatrise VÓgnere (1903 ñ 1990) has covered a long way of development in her creative work and teaching activities ñ from rhythmic gymnastics to the free dance. She has also searched for a new, expressive dance, which is already close to German expressionistic dance. She comes from a remarkable family of Latvian musicians. Her father Ernest VÓgners is the first Latvian musician who went to Moscow to study at the Moscow Conservatory.

Beatrise VÓgnere was born in Moscow. She attended the private ballet school of the Bolshoi Theatre ballet artist Michail Mordkin. In 1918 she received a diploma from the institute of music led by her father and continued her studies at the Moscow State Institute of Physical Education and the Moscow Institute of Rhythmic Education, where courses were based on the method of Émile Jacques-Dalcroze, supplemented by comprehensive move- ment arts classes ñ from classical dance to Isadora Duncanís free dance principles (Mednis 1991: 5).

Beatrise VÓgnere moved to Riga in the summer of 1922 and immediately started working at the Phonology Institute, giving rhythm-plastic lessons. Soon she was invited to work as a choreographer at the Latvian National Theatre. The first success of pedagogical activity encouraged her to establish her own school. In 1923 Beatrise VÓgnereís Physical and Aesthetic Education School was established with the approval of The Ministry of Education.

The first public concert of Beatrise VÓgnereís students was named ìMelo-rhythmo-plastic Eveningî. It took place on February 6, 1923 at the National Theatre. The evening was opened by the speech of its founder where she explained that her teaching was based on methods of Ernest VÓgners, …mile Jacques-Dalcroze and Isadora Duncan. At that time the school had already about 50 students of different age. Mission of the school was to nurture their studentsí musical sense of rhythm, as well as to beautify the body movements, make them music-abiding, enabling the latter to mimic or to illustrate certain musical phrases or musical ideas (Kr[a]ms 1923: 5).

An integral part of the initial concerts is a demonstration of rhythmic and auditory development exercises, especially for groups of young children, plastic performances,

137 Valda Vidzemniece which also included improvisational aspects, causing her productions to eventually gain more precise form and way of expression, towards the art of dance.

In 1924 Beatrise VÓgnere took classes from Rudolf von Laban. The critic Roberts Kroders wrote: ìB. VÓgnereís school is based on recognized methods. [..] But she is still looking for new ways. And during the search she found the dance school of the great dance enthusiast R. Laban. She learned to unleash studentsí emotional impulses and to give up bodily automatism training. B. VÓgnereís students have a sense of freedom, rhythm and there is sensitivity in their natureî (Kroders 1924: 3).

Over time VÓgnere improved her knowledge and skills by learning from Gret Palucca, Mary Wigman, Max Terpis, Dorothee G¸nther and Jutta Klamt, bringing the latest dance trends and insights into her pedagogical practice and creativity. Gradually Beatrise VÓgnereís longer and more detailed productions were staged at plastic dance evenings, which is a qualitative achievement in the schoolís activity.

It can be seen from timetables of Beatrise VÓgnereís school for the 1927/1928 academic year (Beatrises VÓgner skolas stundu pl‚ns uz 1927./1928. m‚c. gadu) that rhythm and auditory development, plastic dance, body work, methodology, improvisation and dance technique were taught at the time. It can be noticed that methodology was intended for the future dance and rhythmic teachers. With time the curriculum would be complemented by classical dance training, folk dances, including Latvian folk dance, Spanish dancing and acrobatics. In the 30ís dancers were admitted to Choreographicum classe, which meant comprehensive training in various dance techniques, including art-dance (Kunsttanz), and participation in the school dance ensemble which travelled and performed all over Latvia (Beatrises VÓgner skol‚ [sludin‚jums] 1935). Undoubtedly, it is the most artistically powerful group of students, and productions were designed for this particular group, seeking more modern forms and ways of artistic expression. Content of some productions is focused more on the common human and eternal theme of German expressionistic dance in general than the depiction of Isadora Duncanís stylized spiritual experiences.

In 1930 Beatrise VÓgnere was recognized to have achieved undeniable progress in her creative work, her choreography was characterised as versatile and contemporary with a strong emphasis on subjectivity (D‚rziÚ 1930: 4). During her school activity period Beatrise VÓgnere educated a significant number of talented dancers. In 1939 a number of students staged self-composed dances at the Latvian National Opera, some scenic routines and artistic readiness were presented by Marta Alberinga, Austra Priede, Lidija Kocere, who had received additional training from Kurt Jooss and Sigurd Leederís school in England, and other dancers as well (SiliÚa 1939: 22).

There was also an international success ñ in 1934 Beatrise VÓgnereís dance school partici- pated at the International Dance Competition in Vienna and won 6/7th place shared with Gert Ramert dance group from Switzerland among 17 dance groups. In the summer of 1937 VÓgnereís school students won brilliant success at the World Student Games in Paris, students Lidija OzoliÚa, Lilija VÓtola, Taisija TuËa and MalvÓne Lence were awarded

138 The Early Days of Modern Dance in Latvia gold medals in the group competition, while all the three first places were won in the individual dance and gymnastics competition (VÓgnere 1937: 15).

Beatrise VÓgnereís dance school continued its work until 1944, when it held its last concert at the Riga Opera House (BÁrziÚ 1942: 4). Beatrise VÓgnere has covered the same way of development that has been experienced by Europen modern dance: trying out, giving shape and accumulating of all novelties and applying them to the resources and her school needs.

Anna Amane (1888 ñ 1967) is one of the most passionate and committed representatives of Dalkrozeís rhythmic method in Latvia in the 1st half of the 20th century. After graduation from the Imperial School of Music she took an interest in pedagogy and rhythmic method that she had recently got familiar with, therefore in 1912 she went to study at Dalkrozeís school in Hellerau. Anna Amane intuitively understood that education in music and the promotion of rhythmic method was her true calling. In 1914 she established her own studio in Riga, however, the war broke out and she was forced to move to St. Petersburg, Russia, and later to Finland, where she continued to work in her profession. After her return to Riga Anna Amane worked in the newly established Latvian Conservatory as a piano and rhythmic class teacher for 2 years, then in 1922 she established the School of Music and Rhythmics (1922 ñ 1944) with the approval of Latvian Ministry of Education, and already during the first year of studies there were about 100 students (Amane 1933a, 1933b).

Anna Amane has tirelessly explained the principles and the main objectives of Dalkrozeís rhythmic education in lectures, speeches during concerts of her school and published articles that also determined the goals of her school: ìThe aim of rhythmics is to bring up an individual by harmonious developing of body and spirit. It is achieved through original exercises, making student simultaneously: perceive sound impressions, turn them into impulses of the will, which should form certain bodily movements that correspond to the given musical rhythms, which, in its turn, influences the development of the feel of rhythm through muscular activity. In short, the purpose of these exercises is to develop and discipline the will and functions of the nervous system, identifying and establishing direct and close links between body and spiritî (Amane 1934: 24).

Individual perception of music as well as its independent interpretation rather than flagrant imitation in images of movement were allowed and even required ñ less in elementary exercises but increasingly to a larger extent later. Such exercises could reveal a single, unique improvisational manner where students demonstrate their personal understanding of a piece of music and show their acting abilities. However, improvised, spontaneously generated depiction can be consciously and thoughtfully developed, expanded, coordinated in a single performance, involving several performers ñ a group. It results in a specific performance, depicting the content, mood and feeling of a piece of music. But if it is a performance developed in a form and structure then it is already a dance. Anna Amane being a passionate advocate of Dalcrozeís method like its creator, did not cease to repeat that rhythmics was not a dance, that her aim was not to educate dancers and to force her

139 Valda Vidzemniece way into the field of choreography, however, it still did happen as it was quite naturally, because rhythmics have turned out to be a good method for training dancers. She gives the following explanation: ìThe name of Rhythmics is quite familiar to us, it has been often mentioned in different contexts; still it seems to have been more often chanted than understood. The rank-and-file citizen thinks about the dance at the mention of rhythmics; if anyone believes to have gained a better understanding of the nature of things, he recognises that rhythmics is not a dance lesson, but a practice of neat, enchanting move- ments in general, which over time can also give some agility in danceî (Amane 1934: 24).

Every year the school organized concerts in one of the major halls in Riga: the Latvian National Theatre, the Latvian National Opera, the Latvian Conservatory, and events were always well attended. Traditionally, the first part of the concert was dedicated to a showcase of rhythmic tasks, while the second part presented dancing and choreographic stagings. All reviewers and critics naturally called it dancing. Could it be otherwise if large-scale pieces ñ choreographed fairy tales and dramas in dance were staged?

The following lessons can be found in the school curriculum: rhythmics, development of hearing, music theory, the piano, harmony lesson, body-techniques, improvisation, art- dance course; classes for different age groups: the kindergarten group (from 3 years age), children, youth and adults (Amane 1938: 13). While Anna Amane consistently insists that she does not educate dancers at her school, however, it can be noticed that the cur- riculum includes art-dance classes, and the school has educated interesting and gifted dancers: ìIt could be observed in some of the older pupils that they had developed an outstanding control over their bodies in a purely physical manner as well, demonstrating great agility and sophisticated techniques that already pertain to the area of dance. Second part of the programme included dance as choreographed performancesî (LesiÚ 1938: 12).

Anna Amane also invited guest teachers to her school ñ specialists of Dalcrozeís rhythmic gymnastics as well as dance teachers and choreographers. In 1927 Labanís former student Sam Hior (Wolf Friedl‰nder) arrived to Riga at the invitation of Amane and started to work at her school. Later he worked as a movement consultant at the Riga Workersí Theatre (SiliÚa 1932), started his own dance group and still participated in the Latvian dance life in the 40ís and early 50ís.

Elza SiliÚa writes: ìHis dance-acting is based on the principles of Labanís school, namely: the dynamic use of space in a mass movement to achieve a decorative scenic landscape. [...] Hior groups masses in a strictly disciplined legitimacy of rhythm, and he is really successful at it, even though the movement technique itself is generally still quite primitive and neglectedî (SiliÚa 1932: 486).

Following Labanís teaching Sam Hior declared his artistic and methodological principles, which he explained in the articles in press. It is thought that the use of muscle relaxation is an important skill in the modern culture of body (to contrast the muscle tension and relaxation) as well as the natural rhythm of human body, correct breathing and the per- ception of space: ìThe above allows extrapolating the formula of movement: rhythm ñ

140 The Early Days of Modern Dance in Latvia dynamics ñ space. The middle part of the formula is dynamics which should be understood as an activity rate of the muscle power (tension > relaxation)î (Hior 1930: 21ñ22).

According to some dance critic, Sam Hior is the one who represents the most progressive direction in the Latvian plastic dance art: ìIgnoring the idyllic sentiment of the Duncanic plastics, Hior is almost the only one among us who seeks new paths in the art of danceî (Re 1930: 3)3.

Sam Hior has had many concerts throughout Latvia, presenting his performances of movement choirs, touring together with other artists or solo dance programmes. An impor- tant part of his activity is his work as a choreographer and movement consultant in various Latvian theatres. It should be noted that many representatives of Latvian contemporary dance have worked in drama theatres and have created interesting contemporary movement scores. Activities of the Daile Theatre are of particular importance as due to the reformist ideas of Eduards SmiÔÏis, the founder of the theatre, outstanding Latvian director; particular attention was paid to movements and the actorís bodily plastics. Felicita Ertnere (1891 ñ 1975) became choreography director of the Daile Theatre. She had studied in P. Leshaftís Institute of Physical Education in St. Petersburg, Sofia Auerís studio of rhythmic gymnastics and plastics in Paris (B‚liÚa, Bite 2006: 77ñ78). At the theatre Felicita Ertnere gave classes based upon Emile Jaques-Dalcrozeís rhythmic method and Francois Delsarteís system of analyzing body gesture and movement in relation to emotional and spiritual states.

There can also be mentioned other dance schools and studios that worked in Latvia during the 20ís ñ 30ís of the 20th century, which alongside with other dance styles offered courses in rhythmics, plastics, rythm-plastics dance and art dance: dance school of Anna Kere, the school of Ãertr˚de Doman˛e-LÓcis, Erna JÁrcumaís studio, Alma K˚miÚaís studio, Veras Kaminaís school and others. Anna Kereís dance school is one of the most popular among the above schools. Studentsí evenings are called plastic dance evenings, and the programme includes dances in Duncanic style as well as the exotic dance, and rhythmic exercise demonstrations for groups of younger children. It should be noted that school managers tried to organize their shows in the major theatres and concert halls, and they were always well attended, thus it can be concluded that the interest of Latvian public in the art of dance in general and its modern manifestations during the given period has been quite high.

Conclusions Modern dance development process in Latvia can be divided into several stages during the first decades of the 20th century.

The first publications providing information on the latest trends and currents in the art of choreography appeared in Latvian press in 1908. They described shows and concerts of individual dancers, introducing their artistic principles and methods of work to the readership, as well as the new dance philosophy and aesthetics, thus raising the interest and awareness of the new genre of dance ñ modern dance in all its forms.

141 Valda Vidzemniece

In the second decade of the 20th century the first modern dance performers began visiting Latvia, representing various dance styles, already well known in West Europe ñ free- dance, plastic dance, exotic dance, etc., thus generating interest in the Latvian audience. The interest in new styles of dance was high, it was proved by the well-attended concerts; and this activity was maintained until World War I.

The first Latvian dancers began their training in plastic dance schools both in Russia and West Europe, learning Isadora Duncanís dance style, rhythm-plastic dance and Dalcrozeís rhythmic method; it also continued in the second decade of the 20th century.

In the 20ís and 30ís modern dance activities played a prominent role in Latvian cultural events. Many dance schools and studios were founded in Riga, which alongside with other dance styles taught the way of modern dance: plastic dance, art dance and rhythmic gymnastics by Dalcroze (using the term which at the time was used in Latvia). Examination of schoolsí activities allows concluding that dance activities in Latvia are characterized by the same dance styles, new theories and methods that are common to the modern dance ways in Europe, however, the personality of each choreographer and teacher gives it uniqueness and a nature of its own. These schools have followed the path of development experienced by European modern dance, trying out, giving shape and accumulating of all the novelties and applying them to the resources and needs of these schools. It can be definitely concluded that their on-going active creative work, through experimentation and search for new means and forms of expression in the art of dance, has furthered the understanding of modern dance in the Latvian cultural environment, and the modern dance has found its due place among other forms of art.

References Aa. [Asars, H.] 1910. Ritas Saketto deju vakars. Jaun‚ Dienas Lapa. 8. novembris: 3. Alun‚ns, N. 1911. Ritas Saketo viesoan‚s un viÚas deju poÁzija. Latvija. 9. febru‚ris: 5. Amane, A. 1933a. Mans ceÔ. Zeltene. 4: 6ñ7. Amane, A. 1933b. Mans ceÔ. Zeltene 5: 6ñ9. Amane, A. 1934. Ritmika. M˚zikas Apskats. 11. janv‚ris: 24. Amane, A. 1938. Sludin‚jums. BrÓv‚ Zeme 5. septembris: 13. B‚liÚa, G., Bite, I. 2006. Latvijas baleta enciklopÁdija. RÓga: PÁtergailis. P. 264, 77ñ78. Beatrises VÓgner skol‚ [sludin‚jums]. 1935. RÓts. 15. septembris: 5. Beatrises VÓgner skolas stundu pl‚ns uz 1927/1928 m‚c. gadu. Glab‚jas Latvijas Valsts vÁstures arhÓv‚. 1632. fonds, 7. apraksts, 32. lieta. BÁrziÚ, A. 1912. Zentas Míahesas deju vakars. Latvija. 25. janv‚ris: 3. BÁrziÚ, J. 1942. Beatrises VÓgneres skolas deju vakars RÓgas Oper‚. TÁvija. 13. maijs: 4. D‚rziÚ, V. 1930. Beatrises VÓgneres plastisk‚s dejas. Latvis. 19. marts: 4. D‚rziÚ, V. 1931. Veci un jauni ceÔi dejas m‚ksl‚. Daile 2: 78ñ79. D‚rziÚ, V. 1938. MÓlas CÓrules deju vakars. RÓts. 11. oktobris: 8. Gr‚vÓt le Latvien [Gr‚vÓtis A.]1924. Aija Dunkane (ParÓzÁ). Jaun‚ Balss 21: 3.

142 The Early Days of Modern Dance in Latvia

Hiors, S. 1930 Modern‚ ÌermeÚa kult˚ra. Sign‚ls 9 ñ 1: 21ñ22. Huxley, Michel, & Witts, Noel ed. 2002. John Martin. The Twentieth-Century Perfomance Reader. Great Britain: Routledge Tailor & Francis Group. P. 301ñ302. Kr[a]ms, A. 1923. Beatrises VÓgneres un viÚas audzÁkÚu melo-ritmo-plastikas vakars. BrÓv‚ Zeme. 8. febru‚ris: 5. Kroders, R. 1924. Beatrises VÓgneres un viÚas audzÁkÚu ritmisk‚s plastikas vakars Nacion‚laj‚ oper‚. Latvijas VÁstnesis. 24. marts: 3. LesiÚ, K. 1938. Annas Amanes skolas audzÁkÚu rÓts. BrÓv‚ Zeme. 3. febru‚ris: 12. Mednis, T. 1991. Beatrise VÓgnere. TÁvzemes AvÓze. 22. febru‚ris: 5. Ozola, L. 1908. Deja. Teatrs 5: 7. Re 1930. Sama Hiora deju vakars. Soci‚ldemokr‚ts. 5. novembris: 3. Robinson, J. 1998. Modern Dance in France 1920 ñ 1970. An Adventure. Netherlands: Harwood Academy Publishers. P. 140ñ143. SiliÚa, E. 1924. Modern‚s dejas stils. Ritums 3: 236ñ239 SiliÚa, E. 1930. MÓlas CÓrules deju vakari 17. un 24. novembrÓ. IzglÓtÓbas Ministrijas MÁneraksts 12: 95. SiliÚa, E. 1932. Sams Hiors un viÚa deju kora vakars. IzglÓtÓbas Ministrijas MÁneraksts 5: 486. SiliÚa, E. 1939. Beatrises VÓgneres skolas vakars. Jaun‚k‚s ZiÚas. 29. aprÓlis: 22. Tivums, «. 1985. Mana otr‚ dzÓve ñ deja. Dzimtenes Balss. 30. novembris: 3 Toepfer, Karl. 1997. Empire of Ecstasy: Nudity and Movement in German Body Culture. 1910 ñ 1935. Berkeley: University of California Press. P. 181ñ182. Vebess. 1938. Dejot‚ja no ParÓzes un Majorkas sunÓtis RÓg‚. RÓts. 10. oktobris: 2. VÓgnere, B. 1937. Sludin‚jums. Jaun‚k‚s ZiÚas. 11. septembris: 15 Суриц, Е. 1988. Пластический и ритмопластический танец: его жизнь и судьба в Pоссии. Советский балет 6: 47–49.

1 John Martin (Martin) was one of the most influential dance critics of the 20th century, a critic working for the newspaper The New York Times (1927 ñ 1962). In his articles he has discussed the issues of modern dance aesthetics and the new dance philosophy. Martin can be considered to be the first dance theorist who has discussed the modern art as a serious and independent genre of art perceiving similarities in the manifestations of modern art in America and Europe (Huxley, Witts 2002: 301ñ302). 2 The popular dancer and teacher Ellena Tels is also known under the name of Елена Бартэль, Элли Рабeнек, Елена Книппер, her studio in Moscow worked already since 1909 (Суриц, 1988: 47ñ49). 3 The actual name of the critic could not be identified; the review has been signed by the laconic Re.

143 Requirements for the Research Manuscripts to be Published in the Journal ìArt Tempusî

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References References in the text should be indicated by the authorís surname, year of publication (Matule 2009) and if concrete page (Matule 2009: 12). References are presented at the end of the article in the alphabetical order: first sources in Latin letters, followed by sources in Russian (Cyrillic) letters.

Samples: — books Scruton, R. 2000. Modern Culture. London: Continuum. — articles published in scientific journals Bryzgel, A. 2008. Truth and Trompe Líoeil: Miervaldis Polisí Paintings in the Context of Late ñ Soviet Latvia. M‚kslas VÁsture un Teorija. 11: 34 ñ 46. — conference materials and collections of articles Fjodorovs, F. 2012. Insects in the Space of Culture. In: KaË‚ne, I., ed. Comparative Studies. Nature and Culture. Vol. IV (1). Daugavpils University: Academic Press ìSauleî. P. 9 ñ 18. — Internet addresses VÁj, V. 2011. Vietas faktors. http://www.studija.lv/?parent=799 [20.05.2013.].

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