Collecting Sápmi

Projects • Nordisk Museologi 2015 • 2, s. 114–122

114 Collecting Sápmi

Early modern collecting of Sámi material culture

Jonas M. Nordin & Carl-Gösta Ojala

Abstract: This paper presents the research project Collecting Sápmi. Early modern globalization of Sámi material culture and Sámi cultural heritage today, financed by the Swedish Research Council 2014–18. The aim of the project is to examine early modern collecting of Sámi material culture and early descriptions of Sámi culture, primarily in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. We aim to study early modern networks of scholars and collectors interested in Sámi material culture, to investigate how and why the collecting was conducted, and to follow the movement of Sámi objects between collections and collectors around Europe. Furthermore, the project aims to discuss the importance of early modern collecting and the collected objects in today’s society. Here, critical issues are raised concerning colonial histories and relations in Sápmi, motivations and ideologies of collecting over time, as well as the rights to Sámi cultural heritage and its management today and in the future.

Keywords: Sámi, Sápmi, colonialism, collecting, globalization, identity, cultural heritage, early modern period, cultural rights, repatriation.

Collecting Sápmi. Early modern globalization History at Uppsala University during the years of Sámi material culture and Sámi cultural 2014–18. The project is directed by Jonas M. heritage today is a recently initiated research Nordin at the Swedish History Museum. The project in historical archaeology and material project group consists of Carl-Gösta Ojala, culture studies which aims to survey, examine Uppsala University, Linda Andersson Burnett, and contextualize the collecting of Sámi Linnaeus University in Växjö, Birgitta Fossum, material culture and the describing of the Saemien Sijte – South Sámi Museum in Snåsa, Sámi and Sápmi in Scandinavia and Europe Vesa-Pekka Herva, University of Oulu, and during the seventeenth and early eighteenth Eeva-Kristiina Harlin, Giellagas Institute, centuries. The project is funded by the Swedish University of Oulu. Research Council and is based at the Swedish In this paper, we present a brief outline and History Museum (Historiska museet) and background of the research project and discuss the Department of Archaeology and Ancient some of the central issues that the project seeks Collecting Sápmi

to address. We also point to some important material culture, the agency of things and their 115 issues relating to present-day museum relationships, movements and transformations. collections of early modern Sámi objects and In this context, things are viewed as active the management of Sámi cultural heritage which parts in various networks stretching over need to be discussed more in-depth in the future. time and space. Another important starting point for the project is the recognition that the Scandinavian early modern colonial policies Aim of the project and projects in Sápmi, including the early The aim of the project is to examine how, modern collecting of Sámi material culture when and why the collecting of Sámi objects and construction of images of the Sámi, have took place during the early modern period, had serious consequences for Sámi individuals and to follow how these objects have moved and communities. The systematic destruction between collections and collectors in the Nordic and looting of Sámi objects, especially countries and elsewhere. Furthermore, the aim religious objects, during the early modern is to study the consequences and importance period constituted a grave assault on the Sámi of the early modern collecting of Sámi material people. Confiscation and destruction of Sámi culture in today’s society. The project is based ceremonial drums by state and church officials, on three main, fundamental questions: sorcery trials and destruction of sacred places are just a few examples, which occurred in 1. Why did Europeans collect Sámi objects connection with forced Christianization and during the early modern period? general colonial campaigns. In our view, 2. What role did the Sámi material culture this part of Scandinavian history needs to be have in relation to collections from other investigated more in-depth. It should also be parts of the world? relevant to discussions on contemporary Sámi 3. What is the impact and importance of self-determination in cultural heritage issues, the early modern collecting on notions of including claims for repatriation of Sámi Sámi identity and cultural heritage today? cultural heritage.

In order to further investigate these issues and Early modern collecting and the to examine the early modern colonial gaze on colonial gaze the Sámi, one important starting point is to recognize that the early modern world in many Danish and Swedish colonial expansion in the ways was globalized and that the collecting seventeenth century can be viewed as local of Sámi material culture should be studied versions of the larger contemporary European in relation to the incorporation of other colonial expansion, with obvious similarities indigenous material cultures into a Eurocentric and connections as well as dissimilarities and worldview. The Sámi material culture spread local features (cf. Fur 2006, Nordin 2012). globally through early modern collecting and Several traits were shared between European early modern Sámi objects are today found in colonialism in Africa, America, Asia and the collections around the world. Furthermore, North, such as the exploration and exploitation the project relates to current discussions of precious metals and exotic commodities. in archaeology and other fields of study on During the seventeenth century, European Jonas M. Nordin & Carl-Gösta Ojala

116 courts and wealthy families collected Japanese Magnus (1490–1557) in his description of Sápmi lacquer objects, African bronzes, salt water in the Historia de gentibus septentrionalibus pearls, wampum beads, Inuit kayaks, as well as (History of the Northern Peoples) in 1555, or Sámi ceremonial drums (South Sámi Gievrie, by Christopher Marlowe (d. 1593) in Doctor North Sámi Goavddis). Faustus first published in 1604 (Andersson Precious stones and metals along with Burnett 2010, Balzamo 2015). The escalating weapons played a particular role in this globalization, especially through the growing collecting, but also personal dress and clothes contacts between America and Europe and were extensively sought after. So were people. the drastically increased inflow of overseas Indigenous peoples, such as American Indians, goods, also affected the interest in the Sámi and Inuit, West Africans and Sámi, were “collected”, Sápmi. The Sámi and Sápmi were increasingly translocated and displayed at European courts, being equated with America and its indigenous enslaved or caught in indenture or servitude. peoples (Löw 1956:13). On a material level this Depictions and models of “exotic” people were was also expressed through the collecting and made and displayed. There was a connection displaying of things. between the Eurocentric collecting of “exotic” These frequently cited parallels between the commodities and the collecting of people, Sámi and various non-European indigenous which has not been thoroughly acknowledged peoples, as well as European minorities such in earlier research and which needs to be as the Scots or Picts, led to a growing interest studied more. of the kings and queens of Sweden to examine Early modern European collectors’ the issue of Sámi origins (Fur 2006, Andersson significance in the translocation of Sámi Burnett 2010). Early modern Sápmi was material culture was extensive. In several turned into an imaginative geography in museums in the Nordic countries, as well as Edward Said’s sense: an exoticized constructed in the United Kingdom, France, Germany and space used as mirror of the conceited centre other European countries, there are collections (Said 1985:101f.). This imaginative space was of Sámi ceremonial drums and sacred objects not entirely fixed but flexible, movable and such as sieidi-stones along with other Sámi changeable. The question of Sámi origins had objects, frequently as parts of the oldest since the Renaissance been of importance collections (see Edbom 2005). to the Swedish and Danish crowns, their Already in the late medieval period Sámi officials and scientists, and theories of Sámi people, and reindeer, were part of chains of roots and ethnogenesis were constructed during commodity exchange between the Scandinavian the seventeenth century (and continued to be kingdoms and the European continent. From constructed later through history, see further the second half of the sixteenth century Ojala 2009:115ff.). The common European there is evidence of domestic Scandinavian interest in defining, and controlling, the origins of displays of Sámi people, for instance during “the Other” was also expressed in the production the coronation of Erik XIV in 1561, where of numerous books on the origins of American reindeer as well as Sámi girls were displayed indigenous peoples (Kupperman 1995). (for more examples, see Berg 1954). During the Håkan Rydving has pointed out the Renaissance, Sámi people were surrounded by importance of the Thirty Years’ War (1618–48) great curiosity, expressed for example by Olaus for the Swedish imperial view of the Sámi. Collecting Sápmi

From the entry of the Swedes in the war in 1630 by the Swedish Chancellor Magnus Gabriel De 117 the Catholic League accused the Swedish army la Gardie (Löw 1956, Rydving 2006). of being ungodly in using Lappish sorcerers The results were published under the title conducting witchcraft (Rydving 2006). The Lapponia in Latin in 1673. The book quickly catholic propaganda portrayed the Swedish became widely spread and was translated into troops as a blend of Sámi sorcerers, Scottish English 1674, German 1675, French 1678, barbarians and Livonian mercenaries. The Dutch 1682, but into Swedish only as late Thirty Years’ War is often regarded as the as 1956 (Schefferus 1673/1956). Lapponia first modern war. It had global repercussions, contributed to an increase in the already hitherto unseen demographic consequences; considerable international interest in the Sámi it entailed the birth of modern diplomacy and and their material culture. In contrast to the the birth of modern propaganda. The Swedish Swedes or Danes, Schefferus expected that the crown was evidently disturbed by the anti- Sámi, which he in many respects described as Swedish propaganda during and after the war. deviating against a normative Europeanness, Several official commissions were ordered to had come from somewhere else (Schefferus study the Sámi and their land and to intensify 1673/1956:41, cf. also Ojala 2009:115ff.). The their religious conversion. The polymath and Sámi were believed to be newcomers to portal figure of Sweden’s academic life during this part of Europe, a notion providing the the seventeenth century, Olaus Rudbeck (1630– Swedish crown with the possibility to claim all 1702), also paid much interest to Sápmi as well land and all natural resources of Swedish and as the North in more general terms, nourishing Finnish Lapland. It also enforced the Swedish the idea of the Swedes as the hyperboreans, the claim of sovereignty over all inhabitants of descendants of Atlantis, living in the far North Sápmi. (Eriksson 2002, Herva & Nordin 2015). Schefferus himself never ventured to northern Sweden or to Sápmi. Many of the Sámi he met were students at Uppsala University (Rydving Johannes Schefferus’ Lapponia and 2010). Also, he would probably have met Sámi its materiality at markets in the towns, such as the annual The first researcher to conduct more thorough market of Distingen in Uppsala (Löw 1956:16). research on the Sámi and Sápmi was the professor Furthermore, the Sámi population was much in political science at Uppsala University, more widely spread in central Sweden during Johannes Schefferus (1621–79). Schefferus was the early modern period than generally one of several well-educated foreign scholars to acknowledged (cf. Berg 1954, Svanberg 1999). be recruited to the expanding state of Sweden Schefferus used Sámi students of theology during the mid-seventeenth century. He worked at Uppsala University as informants for his in several fields of research, such as law, rhetoric, work, along with commissioned accounts from history, archaeology and ethnography. Partly missionaries and clergymen in the parishes as a result of the anti-Swedish propaganda in Sápmi (Löw 1956, Rydving 2010). The in connection with the Thirty Years’ War, informants provided him with information Schefferus was commissioned to conduct a on topography, climate, economy, traditions, thorough examination of the history and religion, material culture, and much more. current situation of Sápmi and its inhabitants Johannes Schefferus built a museum adjacent Jonas M. Nordin & Carl-Gösta Ojala

118 to his house in central Uppsala. Here he displayed archaeological finds, coins, minerals, and Sámi artefacts and he recurrently refers to his collection and museum in his work. The small quadrangular building, which is still standing by St. Erik’s Square close to the Cathedral in Uppsala, can be considered as one of the oldest museums in Sweden. The museum became a central node in the academic networks of Schefferus and his Fig. 1. The emblematic motif of the Sámi equipage, work with Lapponia. Schefferus was also an the Sámi with reindeer and ackja(wooden sleigh). able artist and made several drawings for Engraving from Johannes Schefferus’ Lapponia, first Lapponia, with woodcutters in Frankfurt published in 1673 (Schefferus 1673/1956:299). finalizing the illustrations. The depictions of material objects were made from his own In 1679, Johannes Schefferus died and collection of Sámi material culture, including part of his Sámi collection was transferred to drums, an ackja (a wooden sleigh) and other Stockholm and the newly founded College of objects. His own inventory is not complete and Antiquities (Antikvitetskollegium). But as late includes only finds of minerals from Sápmi, as in 1960 a sieidi-stone was still displayed in which were kept in his museum (Löw 1956, the garden of Schefferus’ museum in Uppsala. Snickare 2014). These illustrations became of It was later brought into the museum and is paramount importance for the general notions now stored there as a remnant of his vast but of Sáminess. For instance, the emblematic now dispersed collection (cf. Manker 1960, motif of the Sámi equipage, the Sámi with Snickare 2014). In the oldest inventory of reindeer and ackja, was already widely spread the College of Antiquities from 1693, Sámi through the works of Olaus Magnus, but with objects had a prominent position along with Lapponia it was turned into a symbol, such as war booty from the Thirty Years’ War and the naked Indian on the Armadillo (Mignolo prehistoric artefacts. At least seven ceremonial 1995, Mathisen 2014, see fig. 1). drums, two sieidis and one ackja were part of Other examples of early modern collectors of the earliest collection (Arne 1931). Other parts Sámi objects in Sweden include Olaus Rudbeck, of Schefferus’ collection were spread further the Swedish King Carl XI and aristocrats such afield, for instance to the collection of Hans as the Wrangel and Brahe families at Skokloster Sloane in England, which came to lay the castle by Lake Mälaren. Mårten Snickare has foundation of the British Museum. also noted a less well-known collector of Sámi The illustrations from Lapponia spread objects, Mårten Törnhielm, who supposedly through copying into paintings, tapestry had a museum building erected at his estate on and furniture. In the Skokloster castle, there Ekerö in central Sweden. Mårten Törnhielm is a cabinet made in Germany in the late held the position as bailiff at Drottningholm seventeenth century which is decorated with castle under the dowager queen Hedwig ivory laminae with motifs from Lapponia. Eleonora, a well-known collector of the time In a very tactile mode, Sápmi mingled with (Snickare 2014, cf. also Skogh 2013). West Africa and central Europe through the Collecting Sápmi

combination of ebony, ivory and the motif of 2. The second work package seeks to analyze and 119 the reindeer equipage. A vast majority of the understand the scientific networks of Johannes ivory brought to Europe in the seventeenth Schefferus and his informants at Uppsala century came from the Gold Coast and the University in the second half of the seventeenth Bight of Benin. An almost identical cabinet century. Schefferus’ above mentioned museum comes from the Maunu settlement near is at the core of the work package. Lapponia and Karesuando in northernmost Sweden, and has its connections with the museum in Uppsala are since 1878 been part of the collections of the central, but other works by Schefferus will also Norrbotten County Museum. In the workshops be analyzed. The Sámi informants of Schefferus of Germany and the Netherlands, the designers in Uppsala are also of central importance in indefatigably sought for motifs suitable for this study. As part of the work package, we will the production of arts and furniture for the publish a translated and commented edition markets of the global world: American Indians, of one of Schefferus’ dissertations (Dissertatio Chinese, Africans, and from mid-seventeenth philosophica ... deductions colonarium, from century – Sámi – enforcing the notions of an 1667), dealing with the reasons for and causes of early modern imaginative geography of the colonialism. The translation from Latin will be world and its peoples. conducted by Ph.D. Anna Fredriksson, Uppsala University Library, with financial support by the Royal Academy of Letters and Antiquities Collecting Sápmi: An outline of the (Kungl. Vitterhetsakademien). project The project Collecting Sápmi is built around 3. In the third work package, we will attempt five interrelated empirical work packages, to follow the movement of early modern Sámi which will be briefly described below. objects, from their areas of origin, and between collections and collectors around Europe. Who 1. The first work package aims to survey did the collecting, where, when and how? What Sámi material culture from the early modern objects were collected? What happened with period (i.e. until the end of the eighteenth the objects? Why were collectors interested in century) in museum and private collections in Sámi material culture? What did people do with Scandinavia and Europe. This work package is the objects, and what did the objects do with based on previously conducted surveys, such people? Furthermore, the role of the objects in as Ernst Manker’s pivotal work on the Sámi the construction of early modern notions of ceremonial drums (1938, 1950, cf. also Kroik Sáminess will be discussed. This work package 2007, Christoffersson 2010), and more recent will be based on the survey of existing (or surveys initiated by Sámi museums, such as documented) early modern Sámi objects in Samiskt kulturarv i samlingar (Edbom 2005) Nordic and other European collections (the and Recalling Ancestral Voices (Harlin 2008), first work package), but will focus on a number expanding and complementing the results from of case studies where it is possible to trace the these earlier surveys. Here, one important goal movement of the objects. is to make new information on collections of early modern Sámi cultural heritage available 4. The fourth work package investigates notions to Sámi museums and Sámi communities. of the Sámi and Sámi culture in the British Isles Jonas M. Nordin & Carl-Gösta Ojala

120 during the early modern period, and will focus on the concurrent construction of Sáminess to that of Scottishness and other groups of people of the Atlantic world. What was the role of the Sámi in early modern literature of the British Isles and how was it related to the ongoing colonial expansion of the British and other European powers?

5. The aim of the fifth and final work package is to study the importance of the early modern collecting and the early modern Sámi objects today. In this part of the project, we aim to follow these objects, as well as early modern depictions and descriptions of Sámi material culture, in debates on cultural heritage and history today. One central issue deals with the debates on Sámi self-determination concerning cultural heritage issues, including demands for repatriation of Sámi cultural heritage (in this case, more specifically concerning the early modern objects, such as the Sámi drums; see further Vem äger kulturarvet… 2002, Harlin 2008, Mulk 2009). We will also discuss the globalization of Sámi cultural heritage today, and the importance of the international indigenous peoples’ movement in these debates. Fig. 2. A collected early modern reindeer: the head of the stuffed reindeer, which is part of the equipage with an ackja, a wooden figure with Sámi clothing Conclusion and a Sámi ceremonial drum at Livrustkammaren (The Royal Armoury) in Stockholm. The equipage The Sámi objects were, and are, part of various was a gift to the Swedish King Carl XI from the networks connecting different times and Governor of Västerbotten Gustaf Douglas in the 1690s. Livrustkammaren, inv. no 27:201. Photo places. The early modern colonial networks courtesy of Livrustkammaren, Stockholm. consisted of many different actors or actants – people as individuals and social groups, but also objects, buildings and institutions. Törnhielm’s collection, Carl XIs model of a Some examples in focus in this project include Sámi with reindeer and ackja (which is kept Schefferus’ museum in Uppsala, the social at the Royal Armoury in Stockholm, see fig. environment of Sámi students in Uppsala 2), the Tradescant Collection in Oxford, and in the seventeenth century, the clergymen Linnaeus’ Sámi drum. The Sámi travelling to destroying Sámi sacred places and drums, the different European countries, such as the boy Sámi accused of sorcery for using their drums, Petrus who was brought to Prague by Johan Collecting Sápmi

Ferdinand Körningh (see Körningh 1956), or Literature 121 the Sámi families taking care of the Swedish Andersson Burnett, Linda 2010. “Abode of Satan: the King’s reindeer, were also important actors in appeal of the magical and superstitious North in the colonial networks of collecting, describing eighteenth-century Britain.” Northern Studies 41, and defining the Sámi and Sámi material 67–77. culture in the early modern period. Arne, Ture J 1931. “Antikvitetskollegiets och The early modern Scandinavian colonialism Antikvitetsarkivets samlingar.” Fornvännen 1931, and the collecting and constructing of Sámi 49–93. cultural heritage have often been de-coupled Balzamo, Elena 2015. Den osynlige ärkebiskopen. from the Western discourse on “the Other”, for Essäer om Olaus Magnus. Stockholm: Atlantis. instance the American or African (cf. Naum & Berg, Gösta 1954. “Lappland och Europa. Några Nordin 2013). In this project we aim to point anteckningar om renar som furstegåvor.” In Dag out how western intellectuals’ perceptions of Strömbäck (ed.). Scandinavica et Fenno-Ugrica: the Sámi, from Olaus Magnus and Marlowe to Studier tillägnade Björn Collinder den 22 juli 1954. Schefferus and Linnaeus, could be compared Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell, 221–244. with contemporary perceptions of Africans and Christoffersson, Rolf 2010. Med tre röster och tusende American Indians and how these Eurocentric bilder. Om den samiska trumman. Uppsala: views show obvious ideological kinship, with Uppsala universitet. common material consequences. Edbom, Gunilla 2005. Samiskt kulturarv i samlingar. In this paper, we have presented a brief Rapport från ett projekt om återföringsfrågor outline of the recently initiated research project gällande samiska föremål. Jokkmokk: Ájtte, Collecting Sápmi. We have also discussed Svenskt Fjäll- och Samemuseum. some aspects of the historical background to Eriksson, Gunnar 2002. Rudbeck 1630–1702. Liv, the project, focusing on some early modern lärdom, dröm i barockens Sverige. Stockholm: scholars and collectors, especially Johannes Atlantis. Schefferus. This short paper of course only Fur, Gunlög 2006. Colonialism in the Margins. Cultural gives a fragmented and simplified overview Encounters in New Sweden and Lapland. Leiden: of the research project, which includes several Brill. researchers from different disciplines and with Harlin, Eeva-Kristiina 2008. Recalling Ancestral different approaches to the general theme of Voices – Repatriation of Sámi Cultural Heritage. the project. The project group and the advisory Projektets Interreg IIIA Slutrapport. Inari: Siida group, which is connected to the project, include Sámi Museum. scholars from universities as well as museums, Herva, Vesa-Pekka & Jonas Nordin 2015. “Unearthing including Sámi museums, in Sweden, Norway Atlantis and performing the past. Ancient things, and Finland. For us, the collaboration between alternative histories and the present past in the museums and universities is a very important Baroque world.” Journal of Social Archaeology aspect of the project, which we believe can 15:1, 116–135. enrich the study of the histories of early Kroik, Åsa Virdi 2007. Hellre mista sitt huvud än modern colonial collecting of Sámi material lämna sin trumma. Hönö: Boska. culture and its importance and consequences Kupperman, Karen Ordahl (ed.) 1995. America in today. European Consciousness, 1493–1750. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press. Jonas M. Nordin & Carl-Gösta Ojala

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