Understanding the European Space Policy

Home , National Space Institute, Pleiades (satellite), Romanian Space Agency, Swiss Space Office

The Reference Book

Prepared in the frame of the C-SPACE project Funded by the European Commission – FP7

ABOUT C-SPACE PROJECT AND THE ESP REFERENCE BOOK C-Space (Conditions for Space European public. Policy and related action plan consolidation in Europe) was funded The Reference Book poses three by the European Commission important questions: within the 7th Framework Program (FP7), running from Why is Europe interested in the space March 2010 until September 2011. domain?

C-Space supports the vision of a What is the role of the EU in the comprehensive European Space space domain? Policy (ESP). By means of a multi- level policy study, the project aims How space is being used in Europe? to further enhance the development and implementation of the The approach is academically rigo- ESP.It aims to define a comprehen- rous but presented in an accessible sive approach towards establishing form that still reflects the com- new milestones for space in plexities of space as a subject. It Europe. In order to do so, the highlights critical points and cur- study adopts a dual approach: (1) rent trends across several areas of an analysis of the drivers for space activity.The Reference Book change within key space sectors in is also designed to offer guidelines Europe, and (2) a comprehensive to future policymaking, and ends space policy vision. with a chapter dedicated to challenges and opportunities as a con- Based on a detailed analysis of cur- tribution to the on-going debate rent trends in the European space over the direction and shape of sector, the study presents a num- European space policy. ber of "high level" concepts to be further developed within the con- The opinions expressed in this tinuing process of European inte- document are the only responsibi- gration, with the objective of fos- lity of the authors and of C-SPACE tering a more extensive identity consortium. for space in Europe. More information about C-SPACE A key output was the creation of a project can be found on the web- Reference Book to be used in sup- site: www.c-space-eu.org port of the decision making process within the EU and as a means of spreading awareness and knowledge among a wider

This project is funded by the European Commission 5

ABOUT THE CONSORTIUM The Foundation for Strategic Research (Fondation pour la recherche stratégique, FRS) is a think tank based in Paris and is the coordinator of C-SPACE project. The FRS is one of the most prominent independent research centres in the field of security and research.FRS researchers involved in C-SPACE project: Xavier Pasco, Gerard Brachet, Lucia Marta and Florence Gaillard-Sborowsky, with the support of Bianca Szalai, intern at the FRS in the summer 2011.

Centre national de la recherche Scientifique (CNRS) is a government funded research organization under the administrative authority of the France’s Ministry of research. CNRS researcher involved: Isabelle Sourbès-Verger

The Romanian Space Agency is an independent public institution, a legal entity fully self-financed.The main mission of ROSA is to promote, coordinate and develop aeronautical, space and security research and application programs and projects in Romania and Europe. ROSA researchers involved: Pisu Marius-Ioan and Anca Racheru.

The Swedish Defence Research Agency (FOI) is a government agency established to conduct research and development mainly for the Swedish armed forces and civil defence and security authorities. FOI researchers involved: Mike Winnerstig, Sandra Lindström, Christer Andersson and Maria Oredsson.

The Istituto Affari Internationali (IAI) based in Rome is a non- profit organization whose main objective is to promote the understanding of international politics through studies, research, meetings and publications. IAI researchers involved: Jean-Pierre Darnis, Anna Clementina Veclani, Michele Nones.

The Royal Aeronautical Society (RAeS) based in London is the learned society for the Aerospace and Aviation community. Through its various boards and committees, it can draw upon considerable experience and expertise in aviation and space matters. RAeS researcher involved: Prof. Keith Hayward

This project is funded by the European Commission 7

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1.WHY IS EUROPE INTERESTED IN THE SPACE 11 DOMAIN?

1.1. POLITICAL AND STRATEGIC ASPECTS 12 1.1.1. EU in the international context 1.1.2. R&D as an identity driver for the European Union 1.1.3. Security and independence 1.2. ECONOMIC ASPECTS 19 1.2.1. Industrial performance 1.2.2. Market potential 1.2.3. Wider socio-economic impact 1.3. SOCIETAL ASPECTS 23 1.3.1. How space contributes to the information and knowledge society 1.3.2. Societal needs and space answers 1.3.3. How is space influencing culture

2. WHAT IS THE ROLE OF THE EU IN THE SPACE 29 DOMAIN?

2.1. EXISTING STRENGTHS AT THE ROOT OF 31 THE EUROPEAN SPACE POLICY 2.1.1. ESA programmes 2.1.2. European space programmes 2.2 ELEMENTS CONTRIBUTING TO THE 34 EUROPEAN SPACE “ENGINE” 2.2.1. Member states’ programmes 2.2.2. Cooperation programs

3. HOW SPACE IS BEING USED IN EUROPE? 39

3.1. HOW IS EUROPE TAKING ADVANTAGE FROM SPACE? 40 3.1.1. Space services and end-users 3.1.2. Other applications: science, exploration, security and defence 3.2. PLAYERS AND THEIR ORGANIZATION 50 3.2.1. European institutions 3.2.2. Industry

This project is funded by the European Commission 9 3.2.3. National space agencies 3.3. ENSURING SUFFICIENT RESOURCES FOR A SOUND EUROPEAN SPACE POLICY 63 3.3.1. The EC budget 3.3.2. ESA budget 3.3.3. National budgets - national support for European space

4.CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES 73

4.1. THEMATIC CHALLENGES 4.1.1. European challenges 74 4.1.2. International challenges 4.2. CROSS-CUTTING CHALLENGES 4.2.1. Governance and funding 83 4.2.2. ESA-EC perspective 4.2.3. EU-MS perspective 4.2.4. Civil-military perspective 4.2.5. Public-private perspective 4.2.6. Improving the sharing of data and results 4.2.7. Ensuring a sustainable funding

5.APPENDIX 96

Societal needs and space EC R&D projects Reference documents Endnotes Acronyms

This project is funded by the European Commission 10 Why is Europe interested in the space domain? Why is Europe interested in the space domain?

In recent years there has been an exploited as a tool of diplomacy increasing European focus on the and foreign policy.Space research space domain. Space systems and development, besides under- have proved to be a reliable tool pinning European space capabili- for supporting various European ties, also contributes to the policies, among others those development of a European related to security, environment, “identity”. Finally, as space makes climate, health, sustainable devel- a massive contribution to opment, information technology European security and interde- and international affairs. The pendence, there are powerful growing European interest in reasons to develop autonomous space activities is highlighted in capabilities across the range of relation to three main aspects: space technologies. political and strategic; economi- cal; and societal aspects. EU in the international context Space has a POLITICAL AND Space is a powerful tool of diplo- strong STRATEGIC ASPECTS macy and foreign policy.The finan- political cial, technological, scientific and dimension Space has a strong political industrial capacities required to that helps dimension that helps enhance pursue space activities enhance Europe’s position as a global autonomously are potentially so Europe’s actor in several fora. Space also overwhelming that countries, or position as a contributes significantly to organizations, able to demonstrate global actor European competitiveness and these capacities gain a clear political in several technological development; this advantage in bargaining on the fora. not only has a considerable eco- international stage. Conducting nomic impact, but is also an autonomous space activities essential characteristic of an implies an ability to pursue policies, advanced, cutting-edge society. partnerships, and cooperation pro- Space provides Europe with addi- grammes that have considerable tional political weight that can be political benefits. During interna- exploited at national, European tional negotiations, an independent and international levels, and on space capability is an asset in more than one stage. defence of European interests.

The following sections will detail As a space actor, the EU has an the role of space for the EU in increasing presence on the interna- the international context, tional stage.This is demonstrated by demonstrating how space can be a number of key initiatives:

This project is funded by the European Commission 12 Why is Europe interested in the space domain?

! The EU Draft Code of posed a Draft Code of Conduct Conduct for outer space activ- for Outer Space Activities ities. Concern about the harm (Council Conclusions, 17 caused by intentional or acciden- December 2008). tal events to orbiting space objects has increased in recent The EU Draft CoC affects the years. whole international community, and represents a comprehensive This was underlined by two approach that avoids focusing on events which caused damage to the politically sensitive arena of space infrastructures and left an space weapons, involving the sen- impressive amount of orbiting sitive issue of legally binding debris the Chinese anti-satellite treaties. By seeking consensual missile test in January 2007, and agreement, this initiative has a the collision between Iridium 33 good chance of success, unlike satellite (US) and Cosmos 2251 other international initiatives in satellite (Russia) in February this domain, such as the Russian- 2009. More recently (June 2011) Chinese treaty proposal to ban a piece of space debris narrowly space weapons. In 2010, the EU missed the International Space began informal consultations Station (ISS) by a mere 250 m, with the international communi- putting at risk the lives of the 6 ty to promote the Code and to astronauts on board, years of sci- build a consensus. The EU entific experiments and some intends to sponsor an interna- very expensive infrastructure.An tional conference (likely at the international legal framework end of 2011) to invite countries governing the use of space to sign up to the Code. already exists, but some stan- dards for good behaviour are still If the EU succeeds in persuading absent. the main space countries - US, Russia, China, Japan, Canada, and The European Union – acting for the emerging ones like India, the first time as a lead player in Brazil, and South Korea - the space governance – has pro- international community would have a potentially effective international regime to ensure a safe space environment.

Space debris Credit: ESA

This project is funded by the European Commission 13 Why is Europe interested in the space domain?

! The EU, as a space actor, is also on “science, information society involved in international partner- and space”. Among other things, ships as a concrete implementa- the Action Plan “allows a joint tion of the ESP and as a tool of analysis of the potential of space its external policy. The EU and science and applications for the African Union have adopted better management of natural strategic proposals integrat- resources, navigation and safety ing the use space technologies of transport, for coordinating as a tool to support sustainable humanitarian aid operations and development as a contribution to for promoting sustainable devel- the Millennium Development opment – areas of vital impor- Goals targets. As a result, the tance to Africa”1. African Union, the African, Caribbean and Pacific Group of ! Eleven European countries con- States (ACP) plus five Economic tribute to the International Regional Communities in Africa Space Station development and have requested the extension of exploitation, either on a national GMES services to African and basis or through ESA.This includes ACP countries (Maputo providing a large number of well Declaration, October 2006). prepared and trained astronauts Work began formally to imple- who have worked on the ISS, and ment this agreement under the a major contribution the ISS Portuguese Presidency (second structure and support systems. semester 2007), with the adop- The lat-ter includes the tion of an Action Plan (2008- Automated Transfer Vehicle 2010). This was followed by a (ATV) cargo ferry (the first of second Action Plan 2011-2013. which, the Jules Verne, was One of the partnerships envis- launched in 2008); and the scien- aged in the Action plan focuses tific module Columbus, a techno-

The European Columbus module was docked to the International Space Station in February 2008. Credit: NASA

This project is funded by the European Commission 14 Why is Europe interested in the space domain? logically advanced laboratory tainable management of natural used to conduct scientific exper- resources, infrastructure and iments on the ISS (more than 500 transport, water, energy, rural experiments a year in the field of development, territorial planning, material sciences, medicine, biol- agriculture and food security. This ogy). also includes governance, human rights, democracy and support for ! ESA and some European coun- economic and institutional tries participate in the interna- reforms, human development, tional effort providing free space social cohesion and employment, data on request from a country conflict prevention and fragile affected by natural or man-made states.The instruments used com- disasters. Through the prise financial aid, development International Charter mech- programmes, political dialogue and anisms, ESA and national space cooperation, training and research. agencies, free images are given to The EU has bilateral relations with authorized users, allowing quick, Brazil, China, India, Iraq, Norway, effective and coordinated Russia, South Africa, Ukraine and responses. This was demonstrat- the US in energy issues, whilst try- ed by European responses to the ing to create a competitive and earthquake in Haiti and the sustainable internal energy market. tsunami and nuclear crisis in The EU also aims to address a Japan. number of challenges such as pollution, security and energy safety, Space contributes also to several diversification of sources reduction policies and agreements under- of dependency on fuels imports. In pinning the EU’s role in interna- all of these areas, GMES is intend- tional relations. This is demon- ed to be a key contributor to strated by several important implementing development poli- examples: cies and to increase cooperation in these critical policy domains. The EU development policy seeks to eradicate global poverty The EU also has a leading role on through the promotion of sustain- combating the negative effects of cli- able development, enshrined in the mate change at global level. Several Millennium Development Goals European programs, including the (MDG). The EU intervenes in dif- flagship EU program GMES and sev- ferent areas and on various issues eral other ESA scientific programs, including trade and regional inte- will help research in this field over gration, environment and the sus- both the short and longer term.

This project is funded by the European Commission 15 Why is Europe interested in the space domain?

R&D as an identity driver for creation of pan-European teams, the European Union bringing together different per- EU’s space activities originated in spectives and ideas to the benefit the desire on the part of the EU of a common European Space to develop space systems in sup- Policy. port of specific European policies, such as transport and envi- Stakeholders share the common ronment, as well as to sustaini vision of the EU as a developed, the European technological and cutting-edge organization, gener- industrial base (ETIB). For this ating economic growth and soci- reason, the Directorate General etal well-being through innova- Space R&D : (DG) Enterprise is responsible tion, scientific and technological a sort of for the funding and leadership of progress. EU support for space “identity the space R&D work program. R&D is a powerful vehicle to driver” One of the objectives of the develop a common European facilitating Seventh Framework Program’s vision and identity. the creation (FP7) space program is to sup- of pan- port the European Space Policy. This reflects the long established European In the FP6 (2002-2006), a rela- belief of the European teams tively low share of the budget Commission that Europe will bringing (about 1075 million Euros) was emerge as a leading world player dedicated to «Aeronautics and sustained by a common vision together Space». embracing researchers, industri- different alists, governments and societies perspectives In 2007, for the first time, space across Europe. Such a vision ans ideas to was allocated its own budget of requires that research and policy the benefit of 1.4 billion Euros, of which 85% move together hand-in-hand. As a common was for GMES services, and the Europe seeks to assert itself on European remaining 15% for activities in the world stage and play its part Space Policy central space areas (space explo- in defining the future of the plan- ration and science, space tech- et, this must be supported by nologies and space transporta- participation in key global scien- tion). The FP7 call for proposals tific challenges such as climate generated Europe-wide collabo- change, biodiversity and the pro- rative response from academia, tection of natural resources.This think tanks, industries, SMEs, end- must be backed by cutting edge users and stockholders. In this research, as much as by diploma- sense, Space R&D (as other R&D cy. At the same time, research themes) has become a sort of aims at the achievement of inde- “identity driver”, facilitating the pendence in critical technologies

This project is funded by the European Commission 16 Why is Europe interested in the space domain? and the creation of innovative before, during and after a crisis. applications. For example, the International Space Station (ISS) The European Security and the European automated Strategy (ESS) adopted in 2003, transfer vehicles (ATVs) are used set out the principles for to develop the microgravity European Union’s (EU) external research including radiation pro- actions.These include: prevention tection, virology and crew psy- (act before crisis comprehensive chology. approach (no purely military threat or action), and multilater- European ATV The Johannes Kepler mission was alism (partnerships and coopera- the second flight of the European tion are the key to success). ATV. The space freighter re-sup- Example plying and servicing the ISS was attached four months to the ISS. Before a crisis: Providing information The mission exceeded all the mis- about the overall political, environ- sion objectives and thoughts are mental, social and economic situation, namely information in situations now directed at the next ATV linked to humanitarian and rescue flight early next year. tasks, early warning, or support to the EU and third countries in combating terrorism. E.g. locating a terrorist training camp in Uganda/Somalia in the preplanning phase E.g. intelligence support during the planning phase of a CSDP operation Crédit :CNES/ESA/ill./DUCROS David 2011 (civil or military) During a crisis: Support to deployed Security and independence forces with terrain mapping, cartogra- Following the launch of the phy and information about the geographical environment (border sur- European Security and Defence veillance, types of deployment, local Policy (ESDP) in 1999, Europe is resources, population, meteorological involved as an integrated entity in forecasting, oceanography, etc.) and conflict prevention and crisis information about the capabilities of the hostile forces. In the case of management. Space was soon ‘threat detection’ space technologies identified to play a key role for such as positioning, navigation, obser- the security of the European citi- vation, communications and intelli- zens. Space-based assets can con- gence are used to communicate with personnel on the ground, especially in tribute to CDSP (Common the absence of infrastructure and clas- Security and Defence Policy, as it sical communication services. is called in the Lisbon Treaty) After a crisis: Damage assessment. operations in various ways Support to reconstruction policies. E.g. Haiti

This project is funded by the European Commission 17 Why is Europe interested in the space domain?

The contribution of space to system. with applications aimed security and independence is at contributing to humanitarian assured through the EU’s flag- search and rescue services and ships programmes, the various critical transport regulations. satellite-based sensors for intelli- This programme will guarantee gence, space situational aware- Europe’s strategic independence ness and early warning systems. in the field of navigation, which has relevant applications for both The Global Monitoring for civilian and military activities. Environment and Security (GMES) EU flagship programme, Satellite based sensors for image that uses satellites originally to intelligence (IMINT) and signal monitor environmental risks, has intelligence (SIGINT) can pro- also been attributed a security vide the basis for creating a com- operational function. GMES serves, therefore, mon operation picture. While and for the prevention and response such cooperation would be wel- technological to crisis related to natural and come at the European level, independence technological risks in Europe, these kinds of assets remain are crucial humanitarian aid and coopera- today purely national. Space tion, conflict prevention including Situational Awareness (SSA) is a ESA, EC and monitoring of compliance with concept that strengthens the EDA are treaties and surveillance of bor- security of space infrastructure concerned to ders. by monitoring all satellites in meet the orbit and the increasing number challenges Galileo2, the second European of space debris. As civil and mili- posed flagship programme, is a dual use tary applications are increasingly by technology radio navigation and positioning relying on space infrastructure, dependence SSA program to detect space hazards Credit: ESA - P.Carrill

This project is funded by the European Commission 18 Why is Europe interested in the space domain?

Europe has recently started to the wider socio-economic evaluate national SSA capabili- return from space technology. ties for possible integration Moreover, operational inde- within the European framework. pendence is seen as very impor- Feasibility studies are on-going tant and the two flagship pro- in ESA, EDA (European Defence grammes, Galileo and GMES, Agency) and EC framework. besides providing a technological edge, also aim at giving Europe does not currently pos- Europe freedom in its security sess a system for long-range missions. warning of ballistic missile attacks. Such systems today are ECONOMIC ASPECTS envisioned in the framework of If compared with other industri- NATO in cooperation with the al sectors in Europe, space man- USA. Europe by itself does not ufacturing is not a major force in have a similar programmatic national economies. Indeed, objectives. However, early even within the aerospace demonstrators in space have industry, space represents been developed (French satellite around 10% of total European SPIRALE) to validate R&D ori- output. In 2009 this amounted entations. to 8.8 billion Euros and directly employing of about 313603 peo- Besides, operational and techno- ple. Even more striking is the logical independence are crucial: comparison with a classic sector currently, Europe needs to like automobile industry with 12 import 60% of electronic com- million jobs and an annual ponents for the development of turnover of about 850 million a satellite from the US. Despite Euros in Europe. However,space the fact that US are a strategic has important qualitative impact ally, ESA, EC and EDA are con- on national and European econ- cerned to meet the challenges omy, including technological posed by technology depend- spin-off and generating compre- ence. Thus, reducing European hensive socio-economic benefits dependence on outsiders is a through space operations and major element of the European applications. Space Policy. Enhancing European space competence The space sector, while affected contributes to increasing the to some extent by the cyclical attractiveness of European nature of the telecommunica- space goods and services and tions business, as weathered the

This project is funded by the European Commission 19 Why is Europe interested in the space domain?

recent world economic crisis. Belgium (1,120), dominate This difference can be largely employment in the European explained by the strong role space industry, representing 90% played by domestic institutions in of the total. Unsurprisingly, the the European space market workforce is highly skilled with a (about 50% institutional cus- higher than average level of gra- tomers, compared to private duates (53%).As a whole 77% of costumers) and by the political space industry employees have a and strategic high value attached technical qualification. The space to space. industry also has a higher productivity than aerospace general- Industrial performance ly and markedly so compared to Manufacturing the defence sector, and aero- Over half (59%) of total space typically has one of the European space sales were to highest productivity levels in the institutional customers, with ESA manufacturing sector. responsible for 66% of this revenue. Satellite applications rev- The space sector is research enue grew steadily over the last intensive, with the costs of R&D decade, compared to other mar- shared evenly between industry ket segments. Over the last ten and institutions. In the case of years, European manufacturers satellites and ground systems, the captured 28% of the market for proportion of industry R&D satellites, rising to 50% in 2009. funding is between 40% and 50%. Two thirds of all satellite sales Around 10% of industry uncon- were for telecommunications solidated revenue is R&D, includ- applications. However, this mar- ing some 3.3% of self-funded ket was subject to cyclical varia- R&D.This compares with 5% and tions, reflecting primarily changes 2.6% for the US4. in the demand for GEO telecommunication satellites and associ- European space manufacturing is ated launch services. On the not especially profitable: over the other hand, revenue from the last decade, returns rarely European institutional market exceeded 3%. Sub systems sup- has grown steadily. pliers tend to be more profitable than space primes, typically in the The six largest ESA members, 5-6% region. France (13,020 employees), Germany (5,065), Italy (5,100), Services UK (3,190), Spain (1,970) and Satellite operation is more prof-

This project is funded by the European Commission 20 Why is Europe interested in the space domain?

itable. Overall, the European sion of European military and satellite operator sector security demand. But in general, employs over 4 000 people based on existing commitments, directly with a turnover exceed- revenues from the European ing 3 billion Euros, with some institutional market should grow 1.5 billion Euros traded outside over the 2009-13 period to an of the EU.Value added activity in average of 1.9 billion Euros this sector is over twice that of annually compared to about 700 manufacturing. The primary million Euros per annum over market is in telecommunica- the last decade. tions.The four main world players include several European Wider socio-economic impact based companies, such as Employment Inmarsat, Eutelsat and SES. The space industry has a wider Eutelsat had sales of 1.8 billion impact on the EU economy than Euros in 2009, up by 11% in simply the activity and jobs in comparison to the previous those companies directly part of year, with an average growth of the industry. Both upstream and 5%. downstream space companies source goods and services from Market potential companies outside the space The prospects for Europe in industry thereby generating accessible markets, primarily for activity in the rest of the EU commercial satellites and economy. These industries European institutional require- themselves will in turn source ments are promising, comprising goods and services from suppli- an estimated 41% share of the ers and so on.This has a number satellite sector and 45% of of multiplier effects. launch services. However, European space sales will be The most obvious of these affected either negatively or effects is on employment. For positively by, inter alia, trends in every 10 jobs directly supported the US industry, particularly the by the EU space industry, anoth- extent to which US manufactur- er 20 in total are supported ers become more aggressive in indirectly in the supply chain and the world commercial market from the induced spending of and the effects of new entrants. those directly or indirectly The prospects for European employed by the EU space institutional markets will be industry.This employment multi- affected markedly by any expan- plier is higher than most other

This project is funded by the European Commission 21 Why is Europe interested in the space domain?

industries reflecting the very high tangible and intangible. Tangible productivity of those employed benefits that can be analysed in the space industry. include revenue growth, cost reduction or avoidance, increase Accordingly, direct employment of efficiency and productivity, time in the space industry in 2009 was saving, increased regulatory com- about 33,000, with a further pliance, health and safety. Some 69,000 jobs supported indirectly intangible benefits are an by space activity, producing a improved service or image, total of approximately 102,000. enhanced customer satisfaction, or a higher level of well-being. A Technology transfer: spin-off recent study5 found that a num- and spill-over ber of life sciences related spin- A space spin-off can be defined offs are under-exploited, and that as something that has been there would be huge benefit on a learned or changed during “space European level of having a well- activities”, which is then used or targeted spin-off strategy at the transferred to other contexts start of a space programme creating further economic value. involving wider participation from ESA supports organizations other industrial representatives. interested in transferring space technology into other industries In general, the EU space industry through funding for feasibility has a major impact on Europe’s studies, market analyses and pro- scientific and technological totyping. Support for start-up standing. This includes encour- companies is available through agement for the European sci- business incubators as well as the ence and technology base, and “incentive” (or seed funding) the wider effects of space tech- available from the ESA nology on the wider economy – Technology Transfer Programme “spill-over”. Office (TTPO). In 2009, ESA data showed that space technology R&D investment enhances the had been transferred into productivity performance of the lifestyle (19%) and software solu- firm or sector that undertakes it. tions (19%), closely followed by But not all of the returns to R&D environment (14%) and health spending are ‘private’ – i.e., cap- (10%). tured by the firm or sector that makes the investment. Some of The benefits of spin-offs can be the technological advances and separated into two categories: innovations derived from R&D

This project is funded by the European Commission 22 Why is Europe interested in the space domain?

“spill over” into other firms and throughs in understanding of sectors, boosting their produc- our natural environment also tivity. This may occur through has more immediate impact on knowledge sharing or imita-tion the way we live and prosper on as new techniques and products Earth. are passed onto the next stage of the production process, or as Space and exploration in partic- workers move from one compa- ular sits at the centre of several ny to another. key technological streams, stretching the state-of-the-art in Academic studies suggest that a number of separate but inter- the “spill-over” benefits of space related disciplines. Space tech- R&D can be very large. Using nology is on the cutting edge of data for 25 European economies “knowledge-based economy” plus the US and Canada over a driving future economic com- period of 20 years, Oxford petitiveness and proving the Economics found that R&D tools for resolving other press- investment in the aerospace ing terrestrial problems. sector generally generates a social return of about 70%, that SOCIETAL ASPECTS is for every 100 million Euros invested in R&D leads to an As it is defined in the European increase in GDP of 70 million Commission communication Euros in the long term. These from the 4th of April 2011 data should be viewed as a con- "Towards a space strategy for servative estimate, as they take the European Union that bene- no account of long term effects fits its citizens”, space activities on society as a whole of space and applications respond to research or of the economic plenty societal needs. In this returns from space downstream chapter of the Reference book, applications. three main points will be considered: the two aspects of the The benefits of R&D investment societal needs where space by one sector will spill over into could play a significant role the wider economy in a number (knowledge society and social of ways. In this context, space needs as citizens' well-being) plays a major role in elevating and how space could be consid- the EU’s S&T capabilities. Space erated as a cultural asset. pushes the frontiers of knowledge; making these break-

This project is funded by the European Commission 23 Why is Europe interested in the space domain?

How space contributes to have been implemented: eEurope the information and 2002, eEurope 2005 and eEurope knowledge society 2010. Within the 6th Framework In Europe, a distinction is made program a budget line represent- between Knowledge and ing nearly a fifth of the total R&D Information Societies. The differ- budget was dedicated to ence between these two concepts Information Society Technologies. is based on what they entail from The IST theme identified R&D political and ideological points of activity in four technological areas, view.Information Society gives pri- one of which was dedicated to macy to the content of work, “communications and computing focusing on ICT technologies as infrastructures”, including satellite the central point, while based communications. Knowledge Society emphasizes the social and human dimensions. Building a European Information The European Union defines the Society is considered by the EU to Information Society “as keeping in be part of the broader concept of touch anywhere and anytime”, and the Knowledge Society as a vital is the focus of a common specific step in creating a Europe of knowl- policy. Building a stronger edge. Information Society is a central issue in the European political The knowledge dimension is agenda. In December 1999, in viewed by the European Union as a preparation for the Lisbon cross-cutting axis, which involves Council, the European education, research and innovation Commission launched the eEurope initiative - an information society for all- to bring its benefits to all Europeans. Following this initiative, the Information Society was at the heart of the ambitious targets set by the European Union at the Lisbon European Council 23 and 24 March 2000; at the same time a Directorate General known as the knowledge triangle. (DG) Information Society was It is not as a specific policy in itself, created within the European but rather a fundamental underly- Commission. Since then, three ing principle. In the FP7, and with actions plans relating to building a space included as a separate budg- European Information Society et line, the EU confirmed space as

This project is funded by the European Commission 24 Why is Europe interested in the space domain?

Key EU objectives Space activities related for Knowledge6 Enabling wide access to Telecommunications : Europe’s education Providing access to educational resources and offering e-education resources Remote Sensing: images and derived products can advance other disciplines and contribute to the structuring of professional training in different fields Increasing efficiency of Telecommunications: professional training and By facilitating affordable communications to a majority of European lifelong learning citizens and connecting those that live in less-developed areas without terrestrial cable or wireless links that provide internet access, space offers training and educational opportunities without the need for travel (e.g. e-learning) Bolstering European cooperative arrange- Models of space European cooperation which could be applied to ments and sharing best others domains practices -Spin-offs from the space sector to other sectors -Supporting European science policy through space-related research -Developing knowledge through scientific and technological challenges -Advancing technological innovation -Models of partnerships and cooperation which could be applied to others domains (e.g. Hubble Space Telescope, International Space Station) Remote Sensing: Knowledge of the entire earth and of various interactions of the Earth’s system, allowing observation of large-scale phenomena with a high level of accuracy, monitoring and detection of changes, providing information that can advance other areas of science including physical Promoting the advance- geography, geology, geophysics, meteorology, oceanography, climatol- ment of scientific ogy, global environmental changes, biochemical cycles, natural research, knowledge and resources, fundamental physics, material sciences, biotechnology, etc. innovation, maintaining and studying deep space to provide new knowledge about the leadership in basic Universe research and developing Telecommunications: partnerships to prolifer- Facilitating exchanges among scientists as well as civil society ate knowledge Data Relay Satellite to guarantee continued and real-time communication Testing operations for advanced telecommunication through deep space Science and Exploration: Advancing research concerning the origin of the universe, life on Earth, astronomy, astrophysics, the observation of exoplanets, cosmol- ogy and fundamental physics, solar and heliospheric physics and Solar exploration, gravity and microgravity research, understanding solar-terrestrial relations and their impact on technological systems and human lives It provides also a unique opportunity for synergies among scientific fields Space-related projects contribute to promoting scientific progress and Strengthening the links excellence as well as the development of a European Space Policy among education, busi- Space-based science and research drives new technological develop- ness, research and inno- ments, advanced knowledge and innovation vation Space exploration contribute to make the European trans-disciplinary research more competitive

This project is funded by the European Commission 25 Why is Europe interested in the space domain?

one of the key building-blocks of Societal needs and space the knowledge based society. answers Space telecommunications are an The EC communication "Towards essential tool in the establishment a space strategy for the European and development of long-distance Union that benefits its citizens” telecommunications and the glob- (4th April 2011) identified environ- al information infrastructure pro- ment, health, combating climate viding wide-area coverage, high change, public and civil security, speed data transmission and con- humanitarian and development aid, nectivity. Space is therefore a crit- and transport as societal needs. ical element in a European ICT Moreover, societal needs may be strategy. envisaged more generally and In summary space technologies: could also encompass areas such as ! Facilitate access to information agriculture and maritime activities. for the general public and institutional or governmental bodies. Space contribution to meeting Space ! Facilitate access to information societal needs can be summarized technologies: for Europe with reference to Maslow’s hierar- ! Enable technological develop- chy of human needs, as represen- facilitate ments in other fields. ted in the following figure: access to information Self-Actualization needs (Fulfillment) t F FFu l n enable European tmfi leispace policy ifF r and l activities n)n e as eetiifmne supports land eru symbol fFfn of the tmfi European l lfl Union lnnr identity technological developments Self Esteem needs (Achievement, ) u lnen status, ntemitn reputation) nfl in other fields Space i mFrelated n meifle responses: e ei space n)nactivities e l engage n ln the menfn interest of no the leenutF citizens, n stimulate escientific ln mcareers, meeru symbolize fFo a Fhigh ) Ffn level of lfFf technologies, el i l independence, l ifE m n power etc. flnm tncontribute nf to )a high Ffi developed ef nrnm society l F f(lfEF (triangle of knowledge, n ICT, etc.)

Belongingness needs (Relationship, F nfle iEfm( work group) mfti iSpace mF related n meifleresponses: e n telecommunications F fuutl nfle eas supports etiifmne of f relationship mF nfle i and l of f ) Ffiu lnferldevelopment m e l of mfee synergies tnnl and n)n cross-cutting e n activities etc.

Safety needs (Protection, security) mfn nfl e tmnr Space related responses: Disaster management, Border control, Intelligence, Crisis i mF n meifle e e en mu l u ln fm m flnmfF ln FF l mee etiifmn support, fln FFGeo-intelligence, l n imf eel Data processing, u l 3D fmiF imaging lll for lplanning fl tnl and conducting fi mnfle mfFoperations, mnfl lProliferation e mu u lnnm and nrdisarmament fuiF l treaty le compliance, l )FeDefense tmnr fuutl and civil nfle n security communications etc.

Biological needs Basic e life F lneeds e (Air, mff food, ml(drink) Space i related mF nresponses:Agriculture, meifle e m tFntm Environmental l)mflu ln F Management, l u ln r Hydrology mfFf r n etc.

This project is funded by the European Commission 26 Why is Europe interested in the space domain?

How is space influencing activities are a unique means of culture promoting and developing Space plays an important role in cross-cultural exchanges. various aspects of society and human life; these can be sum- Space as cultural asset marised in relation to three By stimulating the curiosity and main cultural avenues: dreams of writers, painters, movie makers, scientists and Space as cultural heritage philosophers, outer space mobi- Outer space is considered as a lizes the collective imagination. common heritage of humanity. This is particularly true for Moreover, taken in its broadest young people who will lead new sense, space is a powerful lever discovery efforts about the uni- Space : to raise fundamental questions verse. Space is in itself a cultural about the universe, how to asset. a common explore and understand it, and heritage of how this adventure changes humanity human habits by introducing a different representation of the an unique world. This appears as a collec- means of tive heritage comprising cultural promoting references influenced by the and notion of discovery, with per- developing haps unexpected long-term cross-cultural effects on human history and exchanges society.The exploration and use of outer space, and much of the mobilizes the technology, infrastructure and collective outer space media products, are imagination part of this important cultural heritage.

Space as cultural tool By providing global telecommunication services independent of geographical conditions and terrestrial infrastructures, and by linking people through broadcasting thousands of TV chan- nels in different countries, space

This project is funded by the European Commission 27

What is the role of the EU in the space domain? What is the role of the EU in the space domain?

Since mid-1980’s the compe- of classified information, which tences of the European Union added an extra security dimen- have been continuously broaden- sion to the GMES programme. ing. If initially the focus was on R&D competency as detailed in Established in 1998, Galileo was implementation of the Single the second flagship programme, European Act (1st of July 1987), following a request from the and a number of treaties such as Council to establish a European the Maastricht Treaty (1st of radio navigation and positioning November 1993), the Treaty of system. Similarly, the EU started Amsterdam (1st of May 1999) building other space compe- and the Treaty of Nice (1st of tences as a result of a number of “In the areas February 2003), space and space- space-related projects proposed of research, related activities have started by other ministries such as trans- technological receiving increasing attention. port and environment. development and space, the The Treaty of Amsterdam, for The Lisbon Treaty – the Treaty on Union shall instance, emphasised commit- the Functioning of the European have ment by the EU in the area of Union (TFEU) – Art. 4(3), lies at competence environmental protection, thus the heart of the new EU space to carry out highlighting a potential connec- competence. Space is mentioned activities, in tion to space through the servic- explicitly for the first time:“in the particular to es offered by remote sensing areas of research, technological define and satellites. Furthermore, the development and space, the implement Treaty of Amsterdam also sug- Union shall have competence to programmes; gested the establishment of an carry out activities, in particular however, the “area of freedom, security and to define and implement pro- exercise of justice”, in which space systems grammes; however, the exercise that could play an important role by of that competence shall not competence providing early warning and crisis result in Member States being shall not monitoring. In this context, the prevented from exercising result in GMES initiative was launched to theirs.” Furthermore, in article Member monitor environmental risks. 189, a European space policy States being obtained a constitutional basis; prevented The Treaty of Nice facilitated the not only to promote scientific from consolidation of the EU’s and technical progress, but also exercising Common Security and Defence to encourage industrial competi- theirs.” Policy (CSDP), and also served as tiveness and the inclusion of the basis for the ESA-EU agree- space in all EU policies where ment on security and exchange appropriate. Finally, article 189

This project is funded by the European Commission 30 What is the role of the EU in the space domain? opened the door to establishing assets are of special interest to deeper collaboration with ESA, meet simultaneously different subject to negotiating a format and complex needs. acceptable to both organisations. From the early stage of space scientific and technological devel- EXISTING STRENGTHS opments, European national AT THE ROOT OF THE space communities came togeth- EUROPEAN SPACE er in order to shape common POLICY efforts, collaborative programmes and institutions. The space sector represents a Clearly, the complexity of space successful example of substantive science and the need to support European integration and coop- it with significant investments eration. Historically, the develop- represented a strong driver to ment of space technologies dates pool national competencies and back to the mid of the 20th cen- resources. This reality under- tury following two paths: science pinned the space founding and research on the one side, fathers’ vision for Europe. Two defence applications on the physicists, the Italian Edoardo other. While some European Amaldi and the French Pierre countries, such as Germany and Auger, shared the ambition of Italy, originally focused on science fostering scientific cooperation and exploration applications, the among European space faring military dimension of space was a nations, as a contribution to vital stimulus to post 1945 space enhancing peace and stability. developments.This was most evident clearly in the case of rocket Space was synonymous with a technology, originating in the “new frontier”, a domain to be WW2 German V2 rocket pro- explored, a dream able to bring gramme, and subsequent people with peaceful goals American, Soviet, French and together. Sentiments such as British missile programmes, and these are why European space later by the Chinese, the Israelis should not be considered as a and others, that also formed the simple scientific and technologi- basis for launch vehicles. Over cal exercise. It has always been the decades the civil and military strongly linked to a political duality of space technology com- vision. The development of pan- plemented each other: today dual European space institutions in use (civil and military) space the early sixties, (1964), namely

This project is funded by the European Commission 31 What is the role of the EU in the space domain?

the European Launch ing European space countries Development Organisation assign an important part of their (ELDO) and the European Space space budgets to ESA pro- Research Organisation (ESRO), grammes is a clear indication of paved the way for the creation of the level of trust in, and the suc- the European Space Agency cesses of this institution. In many (ESA) just a decade later (1975) - cases, ESA has helped shape a success story in terms of scien- national space agencies and tific and technical cooperation in offices, creating a requirement Europe. for extended coordination and dialogue between governments ESA programmes and the agency. ESA is the key player in Europe for space activities. Since its cre- Furthermore, ESA has acquired ation, the intergovernmental extremely valuable know-how in agency has shaped and developed terms of research and develop- initiatives in every space sector. ment (R&D) programme man- ESA These include satellites develop- agement. A key feature was the ment (ERS-1, ERS-2, Envisat, etc.), adoption of the “juste retour” the key player launchers (the Ariane family and rule, the guiding principle of the in Europe for Vega), human flight and explo- agency’s industrial policy which space ration (International Space distributes work shares to activities Station, Columbus, Marco Polo, national industries in proportion ATV, etc.). to national financial contributions, ensuring the satisfaction of ESA is a successful model in Member States’ (MS) interests. terms of coordination of national space policies, activities, and As far as programmes are con- resources.The fact that the lead- cerned, ESA is the backbone of

SOHO:The Solar & Heliospheric Observatory studied the internal structure of the Sun, the solar wind and the terrestrial magnetosphere. Credit: ESA

This project is funded by the European Commission 32 What is the role of the EU in the space domain?

European space scientific and research development. Indeed, European space over the decades, ESA fostered programmes innovative new technologies and Since 2003, the EC has been space science. Key examples are increasingly dealing with space ESA’s extensive studies on the (Green Paper on European Space Sun (Proba_2, Soho), the solar Policy, White Paper on a Space system (i.e. Venus Express, action plan, ESA-EC Framework Rosetta, Mars Express, Cassini- Agreement, European Space Policy, Huygens, etc.), astrophysics etc.).At the same time, the EC has (Plank, INTEGRAL, Hubble, etc.) launched two ambitious “flagship” and fundamental physics (LISA space programmes,in order to fos- Pathfinder). ter the development of space- based services for European citi- EC has More generally, space technology zens: Galileo and GMES. launched two investment has been structured ambitious around providing central services Galileo is the European navigation “flagship” for European citizens, a develop- and positioning programme, a space ment that has been reflected in response to the well-known programmes ESA’s increasing commitment to American GPS. The launch of in order to space-based applications and Galileo responds to the will to foster the services. Significantly, ESA has develop an autonomous and reli- development shown its ability to use its R&D able navigation and positioning sys- of space- management expertise in a new tem, having in mind that the GPS is based services range of services development. controlled by the US Department for European This was first seen in telecom- of Defence. Galileo, directly funded citizens: munications and meteorology by the EU, after major difficulties in Galileo and followed in due course by posi- its development and deployment GMES. tioning and EO. phase, will become partially operational from 2014 based on a con- For these reasons, space techno- stellation of 18 satellites. The logical development has come to remaining 12 satellites should rank high in the EU agenda. The complete the system by 2020. European Commission (EC) has developed a comprehensive GMES aims to establish a approach in order to foster serv- European capacity for EO, by ices dedicated to citizens, empha- pooling European and national sising investments based on a (existing and planned) assets, at user-oriented approach. the service of EU policies and European citizens’ needs. GMES

This project is funded by the European Commission 33 What is the role of the EU in the space domain?

services are being developed based on six main thematic ELEMENTS areas: Land,Atmosphere, Marine, CONTRIBUTING TO Emergency response, Security, THE EUROPEAN and Climate change. As of today, SPACE « ENGINE » GMES entered its Initial Operations phase (2011-2013) Member states’ programmes providing some (pre-operational) Member States retain significant services, while others are still to capabilities for space research be consolidated. GMES has also and develop independently space an important infrastructural ele- technologies and programmes. ment being developed by ESA: This derives from the historical the Sentinel satellites will pro- evolution of space technology vide capabilities to shape a vari- which required public funding ety of services in the different and strong political support. At thematic areas. the same time, space played an important role in the European Galileo and GMES illustrate a key integration process. However, trend: space has become crucial these two themes are conver- in the EU agenda, and the EC is gent as space activity is a highly pushing for technological and integrated sector at the services development with dedi- European level. This duality can cated budgets. be viewed as a balanced model, where there is major investment These two flagships programmes in space at both at the ESA and seem to pave the way for future at the MS levels.This is now com- space programmes funded and plemented by the recent growth managed by the EU, demonstrat- of the EU as a space actor adding ing its growing political and coor- a European political dimension. dination role in the space domain, Nevertheless, in some cases, as established by the Lisbon competition between national Treaty (articles 4.3 and 189). But and European programmes may it must not be forgotten that arise, but in general terms, space in Europe is still largely national programmes deal with shaped by national policies, often research or sovereign technolo- combined in cooperative initia- gies (especially for defence tives. Innovative forms of gover- needs), while ESA and EU pro- nance for these programmes are grammes deal with more ambi- key to their effective develop- tious initiatives directly serving ment and sustainability. European interests.

This project is funded by the European Commission 34 What is the role of the EU in the space domain?

Space technology has always con- Programme”). Germany has tributed to defence capabilities. invested in human flight capabili- This is the case for France, where ties and satellites. Today, both launching, telecommunications countries are investing in a new and observation capabilities were generation of satellites for EO, elements of the national strategic such as COSMO-SkyMed and nuclear deterrent. More recently, TerraSAR-X/TanDEM-X respec- as the post-cold war internation- tively, as well as in satellite com- al scenario widened the scope munications. for national military forces to be deployed abroad, reinforcing the need for a global technological outreach for security and defence, other EU MS have invested in space-based EO and telecommunications capabilities. TanDEM-X Credit: DLR Several trends can be observed in MS space programmes. The Other MS like Sweden or Spain French space programme is have also some national pro- clearly the most comprehensive grammes in place, such Svea in Europe, as it was created as a (Swedish surveillance satellite) part of an autonomous national and SEOSAT-SEOSAR/Paz capability for nuclear dissuasion. (Spanish dual use satellites sys- The other European nuclear tem), while others, as Belgium country, the UK, rapidly aban- and the Netherlands, mostly doned an autonomous approach, vehicle their investments into preferring cooperation with the ESA programmes or intergovern- US. Currently, France still main- mental initiatives. tains a strong national space programme for both defence and Cooperation programs civil requirements.The two other There are several current bilat- biggest ESA contributors, eral or multilateral cooperative Germany and Italy, are also devel- programmes under way oping national military and civil amongst European countries space capabilities. Italy experi- independently of ESA. mented in the 1960s with off The MUltinational Space-based shore launching (the Malindi base Imaging System for in Kenya) and started its own Surveillance, Reconnaissance satellite programme (“San Marco and Observation (MUSIS) can

This project is funded by the European Commission 35 What is the role of the EU in the space domain?

be regarded as the biggest and identify specific targets. intergovernmental programme The Italian COSMO-SkyMed in Europe. Contributing coun- provides the radar component tries are France, Italy, Belgium, (SAR) of the ORFEO architec- Germany, Greece, and Spain. ture, while the French Pleiades MUSIS aims to share data and provides the optical compo- images from the next genera- nent. Similarly, Germany and tion of European military or France agreed to share images dual use satellites for EO, such from SAR Lupe and Helios II as the replacements for the respectively, while Belgium and French Helios II, the Italian Spain have been involved in the CosmoSkyMed and the development of Helios II, each German SAR Lupe. with a 2.5% share. In the field Cooperation will centre on an of satellite communications, interoperable user ground seg- the Access on THeatres and ment (UGS) working to agreed European Nations for Allied rules and quotas. In 2009 forces - French Italian Dual Use MUSIS was transferred to the Satellite (ATHENA-FIDUS) is a European Defence Agency French-Italian cooperative (EDA) as a collaborative proj- project to develop a dual use ect which is open to other broadband satellite to be EDA MS. Indeed, in 2010 launched in 2013. It will be Poland and Sweden expressed used by French, Belgian and an interest in taking part in the Italian armed forces as well as programme. Precursors of such French and Italian civil protec- enlarged programme were the tion services. bilateral agreements between Italy and France and between France and Germany.

The Optical and Radar Federated Earth Observation (ORFEO), launched in 2001 by Italy and France, was the initial answer to the need, which emerged from a series of studies on future user requirements for an optical and radar metric resolution observation system to detect, recognize

This project is funded by the European Commission 36 What is the role of the EU in the space domain?

ATHENA-FIDUS Credit:Thales Alenia Space artist's conception Credit:Thales

This project is funded by the European Commission 37

How space is being used in Europe? How space is being used in Europe?

HOW IS EUROPE ly illustrate the importance of TAKING ADVANTAGE space services in people’s lives. FROM SPACE ? It is usual to divide satellites into The priority areas that could three categories, based on their particularly benefit from the use applications: telecommunications of space in Europe have been (satcom), EO and identified as being climate navigation/positioning. The first change, security, innovation and space-based services available to exploration. The major space the public have their foundation services and related activities in satcom and EO. These two linked to these priorities, as well applications were developed dur- as their end users are presented ing the 1960s and the 1970s in the following sections. respectively, within a public funded framework and often through Space services and international cooperation. end-users Governments and governmental Space applications and related agencies (national or internation- services represent a key benefit al) undertook initiatives aimed at for everyday life in Europe. In the creating new technologies for societal field, they contribute to the benefit of national industries the well-being of citizens both and citizens, while enhancing a directly and indirectly. country’s international profile, its

Satellite communications On the one hand, the general Satellite communications are one of public is now accustomed to the the major commercially viable space- utility of in-car satellite naviga- based services. They provide a wide tion systems for travelling or for range of options including digital video broadcasting (DVB), satellite news col- tracking a stolen vehicle; for EO lection, wideband multimedia applica- providing the daily weather fore- tions, specialized services for home, cast; for satellite communications and global mobile personal communi- for TV broadcasts and the tele- cations by satellite. New areas such as telemedicine and air traffic manage- phone. On the other hand, space ment also benefit from digital satellite services are vital to the security technologies, especially in remote and protection of the citizens areas. At European level, in 2009, thanks to innovative solutions telecommunications were the most profitable satellite applications with such as estimating of seismic ha- 1.940 billion Euros of sales (Lionnet zards or avalanches and other and Perrier, 2010). natural or manmade disasters. The major European players of the These very basic examples clear- satellite communications market are EUTELSAT, Inmarsat and SES.

This project is funded by the European Commission 40 How space is being used in Europe?

ARTEMIS made a world premiere by establishing a laser link with an aircraft (December 2006). Credit: ESA national security, and the national opened to competition, albeit to scientific base. This initial public very different extents and rapidi- investment and control of space- ty. While the satcom market based systems, was the only fea- became quickly profitable and sible way to develop space-based competitive, but with the excep- applications, as the costs of tion of meteorology,the EO mar- researching, developing, launching ket remained limited and less and operating such systems were dynamic, with the exception of beyond the possibilities of the meteorology. private sector. Private investment was also deterred by the high risk of technical failure. By the end of the 1990s, some public- owned companies and intergov- GMES ernmental organizations were The GMES programme has been estab- privatized, as the satcom and EO lished in 1998 as an EU flagship programme providing a wide range of servic- markets were progressively es, such as, forecast, geographic information and emergency management support. Earth Observation Earth Observation satellites can cover and provide information of the planet across time and space. The data gathered can be used for activities such as meteorology, mapping of territories, climate change and environment (i.e. floods monitoring, land use, desertification, vegetation coverage, etc.), strategic planning (i.e. crisis management, search and rescue, damage assessment, etc.), operational activities (i.e. maritime surveillance, border and coastal control, etc.), management of natural resources (water,timber,marine resources, etc.).The first services delivered in the field of Earth Observation (EO) included meteorology and resource monitoring. To date, the European EO market sales have reached 938 million Euros.

This project is funded by the European Commission 41 How space is being used in Europe?

EU R&D Focus Budget Projects

Rapid mapping, geographic reference, SAFER disaster extent, dam- 40M Euros age assessment, early warning

Situation awareness, damage assessment, G-MOSAIC crisis indicators 15M Euros assessment, routes surveillance Credit: ESA

Meteorology Europe has long recognised the importance of having free access to meteorological data, for this purposes the European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites (EUMETSAT) was established in 1986. EUMETSAT aims to deliver weather and climate-related satellite data, images and products. Along with meteorological monitoring, the development of environmental services is another direction covered by EUMETSAT, with particular focus on oceans, atmosphere, land and biosphere, as well as natural disasters.

Earth resources monitoring Europe has been playing an important role in the domain of Earth resources monitoring mainly via two major initiatives SPOT (Satellite Pour l’Observation de la Terre) and the European Remote Sensing (ERS) satellites. SPOT is one of the most successful EO programmes in Europe used for improving the knowledge and management of Earth resources, but also to commercialize EO satellites data and images. ERS satellites included ERS-1 and ERS-2 both used extensively for gathering data about Earth’s land surfaces, oceans, polar caps and also for monitoring natural disasters. Data from these satellites is available free of charge.

This project is funded by the European Commission 42 How space is being used in Europe?

Example EO was used to monitor the marine pollution caused by the wreck of the oil tanker “Prestige” off the coasts of Spain and France in November 2002 Credit :Credit CNES, satellite Envisat

In terms of projects related to gories under which each project global environmental monitoring is carried out is summarized in both ESA and the EC have spon- the following table. sored a large number of initiatives through various funded programmes - the major areas covered include atmosphere, land, and water.The main cate-

Themes Focus Agriculture Crop monitoring, sustainable development Atmosphere European air quality, UV radiation monitoring

Biodiversity Habitats monitoring

ECV/climate change Climate variability monitoring, ice monitoring, CO2

Earthquakes prediction, flooding forecasting, damage assessment, Emergency landslides EO data Data exploitation and integration Land Forest cover, forest cover changes and biomass monitoring Detection of harmful algae blooms and forecasting, pollution Marine detection Maritime surveillance Vessels tracking and borders surveillance REDD Carbon accounting, forest monitoring

Regional networks European networks, EU-Africa networks

Renewable energy Renewable energy sources promotion Sea ice Ice mapping and monitoring

Water Water resource monitoring and forecasting

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Navigation and positioning has it is important to consider that benefited everyday life through key technological space develop- the use of the US GPS signal. ments have been fostered by sci- Originally developed for military entific, exploration or defence use, the availability of this tech- demands. Space has always been nology for civilian use has fos- about the translation of public tered a large family of applica- policy choices, which then facili- tions using geo-localization capa- tated commercial spin-offs for bilities. civilian markets. But while the increasing importance of civil In addition, modern applications markets is a reality, public invest- are increasingly based on a mix ment remains a fundamental of technologies. For example, source of funding for space tech- precise navigation requires mete- nology. In the contemporary orological data, positioning and space business the “end-user” telecommunication capabilities. and the “public policy” approaches must be seen as the two sides Various value-added services of the same coin.The “end-user” have also reached the market approach translates the will to related mainly to the processing develop a specific demand, while and interpretation of satellite “public policy” provides the data and images. Some of the technology and services for very players include: GAF – Germany, specific markets. But the “public SERTIT-France. policy” approach is still needed to shape and develop concepts Galileo, the European satellite positioning and navigation programme was established by the EU and ESA and application to fully meet and in 2002. to encourage “end-user” demand.

Other applications: science, exploration, security and defence

Credit: ESA/J.Huart Space exploration and space Space has thus become more science “demand oriented”, pushing the Space exploration is the most EC to adopt a user-driven emblematic area of space activity approach in its programmes, and by proxy of space technolo- involving final end- users even gy. But space exploration also has during the definition and imple- a powerful scientific role, and the mentation phases. Nevertheless, results provided by space mis-

This project is funded by the European Commission 44 How space is being used in Europe? sions may contribute to the solu- strategic asset that could con- tion of unanswered scientific tribute to European technologi- questions about the Earth or the cal independence while strength- universe. ening a European cultural identity. Space is a unique dimension in Either as a result of robotic or which to expand human know- human intervention, space explo- ledge. Recognizing that single ration is a political, economic or European nations could not inde- scientific objective for both the pendently achieve much success, established and emerging space ESA has catalysed European powers. To date European space cooperation in this sector by exploration programmes have pooling the best scientists and been largely used for scientific resources from MS. For science purposes with limited political and exploration, space techno- concerns. In the future, however, logical developments are driven this could change as Europe by a very specific demand: public needs to align with other space policies aimed at pure research. powers that are linking space While this was especially impor- exploration and ‘high politics’. tant in the early days of space Moreover, challenges related to exploration, the approach is still climate change or internal securi- valid today, as “user” for space ty, in which Europe aims to play a exploration and science is a sig- major role, are increasingly nificant but tiny community, a important elements in future very specific “market”, exclusive- space exploration. ly publicly funded. An example would be research carried out in Europe is at the forefront of microgravity that revealed space-based scientific research, important findings for life and as it supports a large number of physical sciences. projects in potentially break- through areas. Space science is a

Microgravity research in Europe ESA started an ambitious long-term programme in the field of microgravity research: ELIPS (European Programme of Life and Physical Sciences).

Examples of microgravity experiments Natural gas storage Experiments carried out by CEA and the University of Bordeaux based on the Alice instruments on board of the MIR station revealed potential applications to the extraction and storage of natural gas. Plasticity of neural system Microgravity research on the central neural system allowed French scientists to reveal new mechanisms involved in the plasticity of the neural system.

This project is funded by the European Commission 45 How space is being used in Europe?

Furthermore, Europe operates Hubble Telescope many scientific satellites and interplanetary probes to the solar system; of these high energy astronomy and the Hubble telescope have revealed impressive results.The later becoming a public outreach tool for the promotion of space exploration and space science as a result of the sheer beauty and impact of the images returned. Credit: ESA In terms of space exploration implications for radio propaga- Europe has participated in a large tion. Furthermore, innovative number of missions such as Mars European research in the field of Express, Venus Express, Rosetta, physics and life sciences is also SOHO or Huygens probe, with carried out on board of the an outlook to other ambitious International Space Station (ISS) future missions like Bepi in the European laboratory or in Colombo, ExoMars and the the Russian module. James Webb Space Telescope. Micro and mini satellites have A number of scientific missions, been gaining importance in in the field of Earth sciences, to recent years in Europe. The which Europe contributed, are British company Surrey Satellite directed at gravity field determi- Technology (now part of nation, atmospheric research, Astrium) launched the first com- sun-earth interaction, the mercial microsat (UoSAT-5). dynamics of ionosphere and Security and defence The benefit of space for security in Europe is derived mainly from the three services imagery, communication and positioning. There are three broad groups of users: intelligence organisations, military forces and civilian crisis managers. While the exploration Ant Nebula, Mz3 of space and the use of space for Credit: NASA, ESA, Hubble Heritage

This project is funded by the European Commission 46 How space is being used in Europe? strictly civilian, non-crisis related ment operations; and second, services has been the responsi- developments in information bility of the multinational technology both introduced European Space Agency (ESA) computers and digital informa- and, where possible, commercial tion into more military systems entities such as SES Astra, space and raised the demand for infor- for security has lacked European mation within both military and coordination and has been devel- civilian crisis management opera- oped nationally. tions and between a theatre of operations, e.g. Congo or Tchad , The major European space and Europe This led to an power in the field of security is increased interest in dedicated France, closely followed by the satellite communications capacity United Kingdom.This is probably on the part of more national due to the fact that France and authorities. A result of this was the UK also are the two western the launch of national communi- European nuclear weapon pow- cation satellites by Italy ers as well as regularly operating (SICRAL), Spain (Xtar-EUR, militarily outside the European Spainsat) and Germany region. To make a nuclear deter- (COMSATBw). European states rent plausible, a nation needs not also follow the US trend in buy- only the nuclear weapons but ing commercially available band- also a system for targeting and width, either to augment their command and control for the nationally owned bandwidth or weapons. France and the UK as a substitute for owning a were therefore early developers national communications satellite of military satellite communica- system. tions in Europe. UK developed its Skynet program with its first In parallel to the development of launch in 1969, and France devel- satellite communication, Europe oped the Syracuse system, first has developed imaging satellites. launched in the early 1980s. The first European imaging satellite was the optical With the end of the Cold War French/Belgian/Swedish SPOT 1 two things happened: first, the launched in 1986. SPOT 1 has focus of military operations been followed by four other moved from the defence of con- SPOT satellites with increasingly tinental Europe against an attack higher performance. Imagery from the Cold War adversaries products from the SPOT series toward out of area crisis manage- are used by both military and

This project is funded by the European Commission 47 How space is being used in Europe?

civilian European users. However, inexpensive, and the images can from an institutional perspective be downloaded in the field, mak- SPOT must be viewed as a gov- ing TopSat a possible resource ernment owned commercial sys- for battlefield commanders and tem. on scene commanders in crisis management operations, rather The first dedicated space-based than a major resource for national intelligence system using national intelligence organisa- satellite imaging in Europe was tions. the French Hélios 1, with its first launch in 1995.This was followed To complement the optical imag- by the Hélios 2, first launched in ing satellites, a number of radar 2004. As more European coun- satellites are being developed by tries are now involved in crisis European countries. Radar satel- management operations some lites use synthetic aperture radar distance from Europe, the use of (SAR) to create an image from satellites for both strategic and the radar signals. This can be tactical intelligence has done day or night and through As more increased.The French Hélios 1 is cloud cover.The images are more European now to some extent an interna- difficult to interpret than optical tional collaboration between images and also are less detailed. countries are France, Spain and Italy, while The current systems are the now involved Hélios 2 is a collaborative exer- German SAR-Lupe and in crisis man- cise involving France, Spain, Italy, TerraSAR-X and the Italian agement Belgium, Germany and Greece. Cosmo-SkyMED. The SAR-Lupe operations system consists of five satellites some dis- The United Kingdom has chosen launched between 2006 and tance from not to take part in the European 2008. TerraSAR-X consists of Europe, the collaboration on satellite sys- two satellites launched 2007 and use of satel- tems for intelligence needs, but 2010. Cosmos-SkyMED consists lites for both instead has developed a dedicat- of four satellites launched ed satellite for tactical use called between 2007 and 2010. With strategic and TopSat.The TopSat demonstrator the exception of SAR-Lupe, all tactical intel- was launched in 2005 and these European military or dual- ligence has designed to produce high resolu- use imaging systems use polar increased tion images (2.5 meters) with a orbits. This gives a worldwide somewhat reduced coverage in coverage with a revisiting time in comparison with traditional the order of days. Earth observation satellites. However, such a satellite is fairly From a European Union and

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CSDP-perspective, although the Torrejon in Spain.The EUSC is an satellites are controlled by vari- important part of the EU crisis ous member states, there is now management operations as it a comprehensive European imag- supports the EU missions with ing satellite capability. The intelligence derived from imagery Swedish ground station in bought on a commercial basis. Kiruna, close to the Arctic Circle, About 15% of the images used is already used for both tracking come from European sources and control of these satellites, and the rest come mainly from and downloading of the images. US sources. The closeness to the North Pole means that the Kiruna station The third space service in exten- can download images from satel- sive use by European nations is lites on many more occasions satellite navigation/positioning. per day than ground stations in The usefulness of satellite naviga- Spain or Italy. For similar reasons tion for military operations was France uses a ground station on demonstrated by the US during the island of Kerguelen in the operation Desert Storm in 1991, southern Indian Ocean. and today almost all military plat- Even though forms use satellite navigation in all of the Kiruna ground station one form or another. Besides the imaging sys- obvious use as a means for navi- tems in gation, it is also used by most Europe are European air forces to guide national and bombs to their targets. Europe the EU as a currently has to rely on the signal union does from the US GPS-system as the not have any European GALILEO system is satellite capa- not yet operational. Moreover, as bility of its the GALILEO is a civilian system, own, the EU there is a debate over to what does have an Credit :Credit ESA extent it could be used for mili- imagery Even though all of the imaging Iris: program for satellite analysis communications for air systems in Europe are national trafic management resource in and the EU as a union does not the form of have any satellite capability of its the European own, the EU does have an Union imagery analysis resource in the Satellite form of the European Union Centre Satellite Centre, EUSC, at Credit :Credit ESA

This project is funded by the European Commission 49 How space is being used in Europe?

tary purposes. Besides the more national cooperation. Space- direct uses of space described related decisions are governed above, there are also a number of by normal legislative procedure, service that can be regarded as which gives the European being enhanced or enabled by Commission the initiative in pro- space systems. One example is posing legislation, but shared weather forecasts that benefit responsibility for authorisation from various weather satellites. between the European Another area is mapping where Parliament and with the Council, space systems are essential for where qualified majority rule is the creation of 3D-maps used in applicable. command and control systems. However, the principle of sub- THE PLAYERS AND sidiarity also applies: the EU can THEIR ORGANIZATION only act if it is in position to do it more efficiently than the The European institutions Member States. This principle Following the Lisbon Treaty, with was reinforced by the Lisbon Since 1st reference to article 4 and article Treaty that envisioned “an early December 189, ESP has become an area of warning procedure” allowing the 2009 when shared competencies among sev- national Parliaments to control the Lisbon eral stakeholders: on one hand the application of subsidiarity. treaty there is the triangle comprising entered into the European Union, the Under the Lisbon Treaty, the EU force, the Member States and the European is now responsible for the for- Space Agency, and on the other mulation and implementation of European hand, within the EU, there is the European Space Policy, legit- Union has a triangle composed of the imised through the Parliament legal compe- European Council, the European and the Council processes. In tence to Parliament and the European theory, from an intergovernmen- address the Commission. tal-nature organized primarily full range of through ESA, European Space space policy Since 1st December 2009 when Policy has become a transnation- related issues the Lisbon treaty entered into al policy supported by a political force, the European Union has a entity composed of 500 million legal competence to address the citizens. Until this point, the EU full range of space policy related only had an indirect competence issues, whether related to human for space, its main programmes space flight, exploration, launch- the responsibility of common ers, application satellites or inter- general competences such as

This project is funded by the European Commission 50 How space is being used in Europe? telecommunications, environ- allow the EU developing dual-use ment, common foreign and secu- programmes as long as the pro- rity policy, transportation, and portion of military developments research. Most notably, Galileo remains at a controlled level as in was funded as part of the com- the case of Galileo and GMES. In mon transportation policy while this hypothesis, they will benefit GMES was defined by R&D goals from some flexibility as far the associated with the development interpretation of EU’s domain of of a common environmental pol- competence is concerned, as icy. However, despite these stated by art. 352. More notably, changes at a European level, the Art. 40 of the EU Treaty and the EU still shares its competence in declaration N°41 of the designing the ESP with the Intergovernmental Conference, Member States.The existence of limit the flexibility in the applica- a more coherent EU competence tion of the EU competences does not prevent Member States under CFSP/CSDP rules, and may from exercising their own space- prevent a dual-use programme related polices (Article 4&3 of from being developed based on the Lisbon Treaty). Indeed, MS Art. 189 (2) the EU may also EU still tend to have a different interpre- intervene in the field of security shares its tation of the Lisbon Treaty; and a and defence related programmes competence juridical debate is continuing to under the CSDP framework. In in designing determine if the EU competence this context, the role of the EU the ESP with is “parallel”,“shared” or “comple- will have almost to be defined on the Member mentary” to national compe- a case by case basis. In the case of States tence. military or dual-use space, Member States may accept that a As a result, Member States retain direct access to the data for the their full competence with oper- EU, even up to the designing of ational, more than purely norma- the tasking or of the data policy tive, capacities (including com- between the Member States. In mon initiatives, R&D, exploration the contrary, the EU may also and use of space, etc.). But in want to be given a coordination addition, the Lisbon Treaty role only, and leave the control of assigned new capabilities to the the system to the national EU in the field of European mili- authorities even if the EU con- tary space programmes. tributes to its financing.

The EU can act in two ways: (1) The main EU institutions and Art.189 provides ample room to agencies active in the ESP and

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their role are described below7. ing the High Level Space Policy Group’s meetings. The European Commission (EC) The Council of the European The European Commission (EC) Union is the executive body of the EU The Council of the EU is the in charge of community policy. intergovernmental institution of The EC represents the common the Union, it represents the European interest and has a cru- member states and is the main cial role in the European law- decision making body. The making process, as it proposes Council of the EU, jointly with legislative acts to the European the European Parliament, is co- Parliament and the Council of legislator at the EU level and Ministers. The Commission approves the EU budget. together with the Member States Moreover, the Council is respon- has agreed a shared vision for sible for developing the research and how the European Common Foreign and Security Research Area might develop by Policy (CFSP) and the Common 2020. Space is one of the major Defence and Security Policy themes in the R&D area. (CSDP).The Council coordinates Moreover, the EC aims to rein- also the cooperation among MS force its role as a key player in in criminal and justice matters. the space arena by contributing to key themes, such as explo- Two formations of the Council ration via international partner- are regularly and particularly ships, security at pan-European involved in space: the level, mobile and broadband Competitiveness Council (princi- communications, and improved pally involved in overseeing space efficiency of air-traffic manage- policy and the development of ment. GMES) and Transport, Telecommunication and Energy Space issues are addressed by Council (mainly involved in mon- several DG or Units established itoring Galileo issues). Moreover, within EC; there is a dedicated the Council is directly responsi- Unit for European space policy ble for the satellite Centre in matters – Unit H1 Space Policy Torrejon (EUSC), and for the and Coordination, which is drafting and negotiation of the established within the DG EU proposal for a Code of Enterprise and Industry, and Conduct on Outer Space which is responsible for organis- Activities.

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lished to discuss specific matters The European Parliament (EP) to these two fields. The European Parliament is the The EP adopted also several res- only European institution directly olutions concerning space (see elected by European citizens. It is list of main institutional docu- organized in political parties and ments in Appendix). has a range of specialized thematic committees and subcom- The European Space Agency mittees. In its legislative function, (ESA) the European Parliament partici- The European Space Agency pates in the co-decision proce- (ESA) is an intergovernmental dure together with the Council. organization of 18 member With regard to the budgetary states, two of which are not in function, the Union's budget is the EU, which seeks to coordi- established by the European nate and develop the space capa- Parliament and the Council on bilities of its members. Romania the basis of a European will be the 19th member state of Commission’s proposal. Since the ESA once the accession agree- adoption of the Lisbon Treaty, the ment is ratified during 2011. “By European Parliament has had coordinating the financial and important new powers regarding intellectual resources of its mem- EU legislation, the EU budget and bers, it can undertake programs international agreements. and activities far beyond the scope of any single European Within the EP, two Committees country. […] Its mission is to deal with space policy: the shape the development of Subcommittee on Security and Europe’s space capability and Defence (SEDE) and the ensure that investment in space Committee on Industry, continues to deliver benefits to Technology and Research (ITRE). the citizens of Europe and the Space-relevant legislation is the world”8. responsibility of the latter Committee, while SEDE deals “ESA's purpose shall be to pro- with the security and defence vide for, and to promote, for aspects of space.The EP also pro- exclusively peaceful purposes, vides the financial resources, cooperation among European which were necessary for the States in space research and continuation of the Galileo pro- technology and their space appli- gramme.Within EP,an Intergroup cations, with a view to their being on Sky and Space has been estab- used for scientific purposes and

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for operational space applica- Agency or the GNSS tions systems: Supervisory Authority), or current or potential end users (like ! By elaborating and implement- FRONTEX, European Maritime ing a long-term European space Safety Agency, Council CSDP policy, by recommending space related bodies, EC DGs) or final- objectives to the Member States, ly contributors to the develop- and by concerting the policies of ment generally of the ESP the Member States with respect (European Space Policy Institute to other national and interna- or European Economic and tional organizations and institu- Social Council). tions; However, the four main actors ! By elaborating and implement- described above form the back- ing activities and programs in the bone of the ESP and the so-called space field; “institutional triangles”. Recent developments (introduction of ! By coordinating the European the flagship programs, the Lisbon Recent space programme and national Treaty, and budget constraints) developments programmes, and by integrating have forced the EU to search a have forced the latter progressively and as new institutional balance among the EU to completely as possible into the the players in order to maximise search a new European space program, in par- efficiency, viability, and long term institutional ticular as regards the develop- financing for programs while balance ment of applications satellites; keeping in mind the general goals of ESP (space at the service for among the ! By elaborating and implement- the EU policies and its citizens, players in ing the industrial policy appropri- industrial and technological order to ate to its program and by recom- development, economic growth maximise mending a coherent industrial and innovation). efficiency, policy to the Member States”9. viability, and The new institutional architec- long term These four institutions and agen- ture is at the core of the current financing for cies are the main players in the debate, and will be further programs ESP process, although there also explored in this reference book a large number of other stake- under the chapter “challenges holders with an interest, influenc- and opportunities”. ing directly or indirectly the ESP. These can be implementing agen- The industry cies (like the European Defence The space value chain extends

This project is funded by the European Commission 54 How space is being used in Europe? from the “upstream” manufactur- the space business, high capital ing sector, though satellite opera- requirements, costly testing facil- tors to further “downstream” ities and low volumes. There is into a range of space applications also a strong pressure to retain and services. Indeed, the value of control over critical component the downstream segment vastly supply to ensure quality and rep- outweighs the value of the manu- utation with customers and facturing element. space insurers. As a result, SMEs represent less than 5% of European Space Industry European space manufacturing Structure employment.The US for example The European space industry is can sustain a greater number of highly concentrated, with a high smaller players supplying a larger degree of vertical integration in number of primes and space sys- the manufacturing supply chain. tems integrators. This, for exam- While some manufacturers are ple, would justify capital invest- expanding their satellite services ment in test facilities and clean business, this tends to be in rooms and generate some niche, specialised areas. Industrial economies of scale denied to SMEs : concentration reflects the wider European companies. key actors for consolidation trends in the Nevertheless, there are the European aerospace industry as European views considering that competitive- well as the “critical mass” increasing significantly the vol- ness requirement of space prime con- ume of European space produc- of a sector tractors and major suppliers tion would, perhaps, support a globally. Four multinational com- larger number of space suppliers. panies (EADS-Astrium, Thales- Alenia Space (TAS), New entrants in the space sector Finmeccanica, and Safran) are have been aided by the applica- responsible for more than 70% of tion of ESA geo-return policies the total European space and by political support for employment. This has helped to “national champions”. However, maintain Europe’s position rela- the former has also helped to tive to its major competitors, trigger a number of mergers and with four companies in the world acquisitions, as larger companies space industry top 10 and 14 in have sought to increase their the top 50. share of European institutional funding. Vertical integration is driven by the highly specialised nature of SMEs have been recognized as

This project is funded by the European Commission 55 How space is being used in Europe?

‘key actors for the competitive- number of notable cases, such as ness of a sector’ and their partic- Surrey Satellites, an academic ipation and fair access is strongly grouping led to the creation of encouraged in the space R&D SSTL as a spin-off company. area via various financial instruments, such as the creation of Although often constrained by start-up satellite-enabled servic- national political interests, aero- es or co-participation in space generally has globalised European research programmes. supply chains and ownership.This Despite the relative size of the is significantly less evident in the SME sector, it is qualitatively space sector. While the major important. The space supplier European firms are multinational chain is effectively an intense in operation, there are varying innovation net work, with strong degrees of intra-firm rationalisa- links to academia and research tion of functions.Trans-continen- agencies. They are a key part of tal ownership of space compa- the knowledge transfer chain and nies is also very much the excep- a substantial contributor to the tion. There is a trade in space high level of competitiveness in goods, but this too is affected by the sector.Their inherent flexibil- political issues, notably by the ity means that they can adjust application of the US quickly to take account of International Trade in emerging technologies and to Armaments Regulation (ITAR) to develop products for new mar- the space sector.This has led to kets. European initiatives designed to reduce dependence on US There are also important links sourced components. between European academia and industry in the aerospace sector However, there are signs that generally. However, these are commercial interests may be especially close and direct in the driving European space compa- space sector. This ranges from nies to invest in the US, or to basic research associated with seek US partners to enable the design and development of access to US government mar- space hardware, as well as kets. TAS is partnering with Ball detailed work on scientific pay- and Boeing to develop the next loads and the interpretation of generation of Iridium satellites. data. In this sense, academia is a Astrium is also reportedly con- major customer of the industry’s sidering a US acquisition. The most advanced products. In a TAS-US joint venture will enable

This project is funded by the European Commission 56 How space is being used in Europe?

Iridium to bid for US Defence temptation of a US option. Department business. Boeing will be responsible for the ground Overall, the European space segment and Ball will handle industry has achieved an impres- satellite assembly, integration and sive standing in the world indus- testing. While making good busi- try with a high degree of techno- ness sense, the partnership logical quality and accessible approach is likely to reduce the market penetration.This position overall industrial value of a large is, however,vulnerable to increas- satellite production run to the ing global competition and the Europeans. Some 40% of the continuing pervasiveness of polit- manufacturing work will be done ical factors shaping the market. in the US. The competitive position of European firms also been European Space Services affected by the impact of US European launch services are mar- technology transfer regulations. keted and operated by Arianespace, which has captured a large share of Political constraints on inward the accessible world market. EADS- investment in the space sector, Astrium Space Transportation is the especially in the US have at least prime contractor for the Ariane, ensured that the European space with Safran-Snecma leading propul- sector has a more evident sion systems development and pro- European cohesion. In the wider duction. There are some 40 other de fence and aerospace industry European suppliers involved, with a the development of extensive investment in the US, especially by the UK, can act as a divisive force in terms of developing a European defence and technology base. In the space sector, with some limited exceptions – again related to the UK’s determina- tion to retain a freedom to choose launch vehicle options and to rely on US sources for key strategic space services – European space policy is more immediately able to address a European space industrial context without distraction or the

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number (25) highly dependent on comparatively low value meteor- Ariane business (more than 50% of ological services market, the turnover). The Italian company European Earth Observation Avio is prime contractor for the (EO) industry is still relatively smaller Vega launcher. undeveloped compared to the Arianespace now also operates US.This has been due in part to the Russian-built Soyuz rocket. the fragmented nature of the sector. This has hampered com- Arianespace has captured more petitiveness in higher value Earth than one-half of the commercial markets such as Homeland launches and is now the market Security. However, some ratio- leader, able to claim a price pre- nalisation has occurred as mium for reliability and flexibility upstream companies acquire an of provision. However, the interest in EO with increased launcher services industry is opportunities to deliver integrat- heavily affected by political inter- ed services and to exploit ests and non-market factors. economies of scale.

Arianespace The European satellite-operating Developments in EO and some is the market sector has over 11 companies, aspects of the space-based leader some of which are subsidiaries of telecommunications business are space manufacturers such as highly sensitive to the effects of The vast bulk EADS Astrium Services and public policy on data dissemina- of space Telespazio (Finmeccanica). The tion and the perceived value of services are four main world players include space-based platforms. several European based compa- in the nies, such as Inmarsat, Eutelsat National space agencies telecommuni- and SES. The development of National Space Agencies play a cations space services by the manufac- crucial role in the space domain sector turing primes is motivated by an by funding space programmes interest in accessing higher value and coordinating national space The elements of the space market. It activities in the implementation European also reinforces the importance of the ESP.They also take part in the Earth a strong linkage between decision making process of ESA. Observation upstream and downstream National Space Agencies also (EO) industry aspects of the space business. contribute to the EUMETSAT budget and develop national is still The vast bulk of space services space programs, often in cooper- relatively are in the telecommunications ation with other countries on undeveloped sector.With the exception of the the basis of bilateral and multilat- compared to the US

This project is funded by the European Commission 58 How space is being used in Europe? eral agreements. However, not all The mission of the Federal European Member States have Science Policy Office is to pre- set up national space agencies (A pare, execute and evaluate sci- list of countries and their corre- ence policy and its extensions. In sponding space agencies and con- particular, the implementation of tacts is included in Annex). scientific and technical resources in support space is the responsi- Austria bility of the Directorates- In Austria, the national funding General Research & Space and agency for industrial research Coordination & Information. and development is the Austrian Research Promotion Agency Czech Republic (FFG).The Aeronautics and Space In the Czech Republic, the Agency (ALR) is established national body coordinating the within FFG. ALR implements the space activities is the Czech national aerospace policy and Space Office, a non-profit associ- represents Austria on interna- ation created in 2003. tional aerospace committees. The main mission of the Czech Space Office is to support Czech Austria considers the represen- researchers in international tation in the European Space space collaboration, to represent Agency (ESA) and the Airbus Czech Republic in ESA and other Intergovernmental Committee as European / international space strategically important in related institutions. strengthening the international standing of Austrian industry, Denmark business and science. The ALR In Denmark, the body coordinating also encourages Austrian the space activities at national level researchers and supports their is the National Space Institute participation in international and formed in 2007 by merging of the bilateral aerospace partnerships Department of Informatics and and within international net- Mathematical Modelling from the works. Technical University of Denmark with the former Danish National Belgium Space Centre, which was an inde- In Belgium the Federal Science pendent government research Policy Office is responsible for institute until 2007. The recent planning and coordinator of merger has brought together most space activities by developing the of the space related activities in national space policy. Denmark.

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The National Space Institute German budget for civilian space offers education in space, activities was about 925 million research, industrial development Euros in 2009. Germany is the and collaboration and consultan- second contributor to the ESA cy for the public sector. budget and the first contributor to EUMETSAT with about 49 France million Euros (about 20% of the France is the leading European EUMETSAT’s budget). However, nation in space activities. In 2009 Germany also has an extensive it had the largest national civilian national space programme, spending of 1.8 billion Euros of developing important technolo- which 1.1 billion Euros are fund- gies and capabilities, risking over- ed by the French national space lapping with European or multi- agency (CNES). France is the lateral programs. biggest contributor to ESA budg- German Space Agency (DLR) et and the third contributor to participates actively in European EUMETSAT with about 36 mil- R&D research projects. lion Euros (about 15% of EUMETSAT overall budget). Hungary CNES operates with a double Since 1992, the main coordinat- governmental mandate: under ing body of space activities in the Ministry of Research, for civil Hungary has been the Hungarian space activities, and under the Space Office (HSO), which man- Ministry of Defence for military ages, co-ordinates and repre- related activities. sents Hungarian space activities The agency’s strategic planning in international organisations. At focuses on three main objectives: the end of 2005 the Hungarian developing downstream services Space Office was integrated into for users, leading multinational the body of the Ministry of space programs without dupli- Informatics and cating ESA programs and improv- Communications, then into the ing the space industry competi- Ministry of Environment and tiveness. Water, while keeping its name, image and independence in Germany external relations. Germany tries to position itself as the space technological leader Italy in Europe, by taking a leading role The Italian Space Agency (ASI) in both EU and ESA space tech- receives funding from the nology development programs. Ministry of Research and

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Universities, and from the 2008 by an agreement between Ministry of Defence for contribu- the Ministry of Economic Affairs, tions to dual use projects Ministry of Education, Culture (notably CosmoSky-Med pro- and Science, Ministry of gram and Athena-Fidus). In 2009 Transport, Public Works and the Italian budget for civilian Water Management and the space activities was about 700 Netherlands Organization for million Euros, 300 million of Scientific Research (NWO), NSO which were spent on national reporting to the Steering programs. Italy participates Committee of these ministries. actively in ESA projects: in 2009 it The NSO represents the Dutch was the third largest contributor space community within interna- to ESA. Italy is also the fourth tional space organizations like largest contributor to EUMET- ESA, NASA and JAXA and raises SAT with about 29 million Euros awareness on spaceflight science, (12% of EUMETSAT budget). In usage and exploration to teach- addition, the Italian government ers, students and the general funds 60% of the development of public. the future small-launcher VEGA (an ESA program). Norway Italy has also developed impor- The Norwegian Space Centre tant bilateral (especially with (NSC) coordinates space activi- France) and multilateral pro- ties in Norway, and is a govern- grams with other European ment agency under the Ministry countries, contributing to the of Trade and Industry. harmonization and common expression of European space NSC promotes the development, requirements (especially in dual co-ordination and evaluation of use EO and communication pro- national space activities as well as grams). supporting Norwegian interests in ESA. The Netherlands The Netherlands Space Office Romania (NSO) acts as the Dutch agency The Romanian Space Agency for space affairs. The main mis- (ROSA) is responsible for the sion of NSO is to develop and coordination of space activities. implement the Dutch space pro- ROSA is an independent public gramme. institution – a legal entity fully self-financed, organized by NSO has been established in Government Decision no.

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923/1995 and defined by Law no. aerospace field; performing all 500/2002. The main mission of types of tests to check, approve ROSA is to promote, coordinate and certify materials, compo- and develop aeronautical, space nents, equipment items, subsys- and security research and appli- tems and systems that have an cations programs/projects in aerospace application. It also Romania and to represent the provides technical assessment government in relevant interna- and services to official bodies tional cooperation organisations and agencies, as well as to indus- such as relations with ESA and to trial or technological companies. act as the head of delegation for INTA also acts as a technological the United Nations Committee centre for the Ministry of on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Defence. Space. ROSA carries out its own research and development proj- Sweden ects. The Swedish National Space Board (SNSB) is the agency act- ROSA is the contract authority ing as the coordinating body for for aeronautical, space and secu- space activities in Sweden. It is a rity projects within the National central governmental agency Programme ‘Research for under the Ministry of Enterprise, Excellence’ 2006-2008. ROSA is Energy and Communications.The involved in defining the national SNSB is responsible for national space and security strategy and and international activities relat- programme. ROSA organizes on ing to space and remote sensing, a regular basis, workshops, semi- primarily research and develop- nars and annual national confer- ment. ences on space and aeronautics to highlight the progress of the The SNSB’s primary mission is to programme. distribute government grants for space research, technology Spain development and remote sensing In Spain, INTA is the Public activities, to initiate research and Research Organization specializ- development in space and ing in aerospace research and remote sensing areas and to act technology development. Among as the Swedish contact for inter- its main functions are: the acqui- national co-operation. sition, maintenance and continu- ous improvement of technolo- Basic research is financed via the gies that can be applied to the Ministry of Education and

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Research.The SNSB functions as largest contributor to EUMET- a research council for Swedish SAT (about 16%). Its overall research using equipment in national space spending on civil- space or at high altitudes in the ian activities was about 49 million atmosphere. Euros. The UK might possibly expand future British space Switzerland agency area of responsibilities in The Swiss Space Office (SSO) is the military sphere, on the model the national coordinator of space of Italy and France. activities in Switzerland. The SSO implements Swiss space ENSURING SUFFICIENT policy. It acts under the SER RESOURCES FOR A (State Secretariat for Education SOUND EUROPEAN and Research) and the Space SPACE POLICY Affairs division. The SSO con- ducts research in the field of The EC budget Space Sciences, Satellite The EC allocates a budget to Navigation and Communication, research and development proj- Earth Observation, Human ects via specific Framework Spaceflight and Microgravity, Programmes (FP). In the context Launchers, Space Industry / of space activities the 6th and 7th Technology. Framework Programmes are relevant. UK The United Kingdom has recent- The Sixth Framework ly replaced the coordination Programme (FP6, 2002-2006) body on space activities (British allocated a budget of about 1 bil- National Space Centre) with a lion Euros to Aeronautics and National Space Agency (April Space over five years, with space 2010).This decision should have a R&D focusing on design and very positive impact on UK visi- development of GMES applica- bility in multinational space pro- tions; research on services relat- grammes, an increased participa- ed to Galileo; and advanced tion in ESA/EU programmes and research on interfaces between a consequent increase invest- space and ground segments in ment return to UK space compa- Example: SAFER nies. The UK has increased its Services and Applications for participation to ESA budget. In Emergency Response 2009, UK was the fourth largest EC/FP7 project – GMES programme Total Budget:40M Euros; FP7 grant: contributor and the second 27M Euros.

This project is funded by the European Commission 63 How space is being used in Europe?

the field of communications. billion Euros, plus 107 million Under the Seventh Framework Euros since 2011 in the frame of Programme (FP7, 2007-2013) the GMES Programme space was allocated a separate (Regulation 911/2010). The budget line of about 1.4 billion development of observation Euros over 7 years. The main infrastructure is funded by ESA focus was GMES (land, marine, (for the space component for an emergency, atmosphere, and amount or around 1.6 billion security) with a major invest- Euros, plus 103 million Euros for ment in its space components development of services) and by and operational services, the European Environment strengthening space foundations Agency (for the ground segment and services. But there was also and in situ sensors), while an allocation to technology Member States contribute development in the fields of directly also with national satel- space technologies, space explo- lites missions. ration, space transportation, space science, up-stream The following table details the Under the research and data exploitation. allocation of the provisional 9 Seventh million Euros budget for GMES Framework The EC funds GMES through the Regulation related developments Programme R&D FP7, with a budget of 1.2 from 2011 to 2013: (FP7, 2007- Focus Budget 2013) space Project category was allocated GMES emergency management servic- a separate Rapid mapping, reference maps 2.3M Euros budget line es – Mapping of about 1.4 billion Euros GMES emergency management servic- Early warning 0.4M Euros over 7 years. es – Early Warning Systems The main focus was GMES Space data processing, automatic Pan-EU Land Cover monitoring serv- extraction, five high resolution layers: 2.7M Euros ice artificial surfaces, forest areas, agricultural areas, wetlands and water bodies.

Space component service 3.6M Euros

This project is funded by the European Commission 64 How space is being used in Europe?

In respect of Galileo, following The following schema summa- the withdrawal of the private rizes the entities and the amount sector from the PPP initiative of resources made available for due to the high risks linked to the program’s development and the program, the EU decided fully validation phase. to fund this flagship program.

In the current Multi-year Funding Framework (MFF) an amount of about 3.4 billion Euros is allocated to the Galileo programme, covering its development and deployment, plus the operation of EGNOS. This figure, however, represents 10% of its overall cost: in fact, the implementation of Galileo is largely the responsibility of the European Space Agency.

Financing a large space project in the EU The example of Galileo

Source: Court of Auditors, report 7/2009.

This project is funded by the European Commission 65 How space is being used in Europe?

Evaluation of the implementation “large scale projects of interest of the current financing system to the EU tend to be dispropor- has produced some lessons tionately expensive for the small about, among others, managing EU budget” and that the “general large scale programs such as objective is to set up a budgetary GMES and Galileo.The likelihood framework that secures unpre- of cost-overruns, complexity, dictable long term funding […] unclear governance and the mis- minimizing the uncertainties match between long term devel- linked to the periodic renewal of opment and the duration of a the MFF”11. single MFF, forced the EC to demand new financial architec- This reasoning applies also to tures. other non-space related projects (like ITER). However, Galileo Looking ahead, the EC has just program is an exception: fully released the Multi-year Funding owned by the EC, it will be fund- Framework (MFF) 2014-2020 ed within the new MFF (7 billion (29th of June 2011), in which it Euros). Evaluation of details how the European budget ESA budget the imple- will be invested in “Europe’s brains”10, thus increasing the The activities carried out by the mentation of amount allocated to education, European Space Agency can be the current training, research, innovation and funded either by mandatory or financing SME development. by optional contributions from system has the agency’s member govern- produced With reference to the GMES ments. In the case of the manda- some lessons program, the Commission pro- tory programmes, those carried and forced posed to place funding outside out under the General and the the EC to the MFF after 2013, again due to Science Programme budgets, all demand new cost overruns and to the fact Member States contribute on a financial that as of 2014, the GMES proj- scale based on their Gross ect will move from develop- Domestic Product (GDP). The architectures. ment/initial operation to full mandatory programmes include operation. As a result, post 2013 ESA’s basic activities such as funding will have to reflect this studies on future projects, tech- transition, shifting from mainly nology research, shared technical research-based funding to opera- investments, information systems tional financing. and training programmes.

The Commission recognizes that With regard to optional pro-

This project is funded by the European Commission 66 How space is being used in Europe? grammes, each nation selects the programmes it perceives most The ESA budget plan is agreed by likely to produce contracts for its all member states during the ESA national industry from ESA, conference. The budget plan is deciding freely on their level of decided for several years ahead, involvement. Optional pro- usually for 3–4 years. While this grammes include Earth observa- plan can be later amended, it pro- tion, telecommunications, satel- vides the main guideline for ESA lite navigation and space trans- for future work. The last major portation. The International conference took place in 2008 Space Station and microgravity and set the budget for the years research are also financed by up to 2012. However, in January optional contributions. 2011, ESA’s budget was reviewed leading to an increase over the In addition to member govern- 2010 figure. The total budget of ments’ contributions, ESA also ESA was almost 4 billion Euros receives payments from the for 2011, nearly 7 per cent high- European Commission for pro- er than planned in 2010. grams such as Galileo and GMES managed by ESA but sponsored, As far as financing of individual in whole or in part, by the com- space programmes is concerned, mission. ESA applies a geographical distri-

The following figure details each national contribution for 2011 ESA budget Source: ESA

This project is funded by the European Commission 67 How space is being used in Europe?

bution or fair return principle.This The agency’s budget priorities means that a country’s contribu- for 2011 remain the applications tion is paid back in the form of programs, which are believed to contracts for work to be done have near-term commercial domestically. This principle has value, and science. Earth obser- helped to sustain interest in space vation accounts for 21 per cent on the part of the smaller of ESA’s total budget in 2011, up European countries and to attract from 19 per cent in 2010.This is large investments by European mainly due to the fact that GMES space faring nations. and other satellite missions enter France and Germany are the their high capital spending phas- largest contributors, and have both es. Navigation, which is mainly increased their funding to ESA in Galileo, is ESA’s second-largest 2011 over 2010. Several countries, funding area, accounting for 16.7 including Spain, have also increased per cent of the total budget their ESA payments, despite the planned for 2011. Launch vehi- current financial crisis. cles have moved down to the

The following chart presents the 2011 ESA budget distribution among the different activities Source: ESA

This project is funded by the European Commission 68 How space is being used in Europe? third position in 2011 and are will need to be strengthened in expected to account for 15.3 per the future. In particular funding cent of the budget. Various will be required for the High launches are expected to take Thrust Engine and Cryogenic place in 2011 from Europe’s Upper Stage Technologies, and Kourou spaceport, in French the Intermediate eXperimental Guiana, such as Vega, the Italian Vehicle (IXV), which will repre- small-satellite rocket. sent a major step in the master- For 2011, considerable investing of re-entry technologies by ment is also made in the area of Europe. Moreover, the extension science, ESA’s fourth-largest of the operations of the ISS until spending area, accounting for 2020 and beyond will require the 11.6 per cent of the budget. development of new capabilities, including a versatile tug for pay- In comparison with other space load transfer with return capabil- powers the ESA budget is still ity and a new Crew Space relatively small. In 2011, NASA Transportation System. funding for space is nearly five times than ESA, despite a recent National budgets - national The largest support for European space cut in space spending by the US share of government. The largest share of European European space funding comes from Despite the severe economic sit- national budgets, a large propor- space funding uation facing several European tion of which is related to nation- comes from countries, the outlook for future al or multilateral military or national ESA funding is still positive. security related space activities. budgets, a European institutional needs and large the desire to maintain European Although European space activity proportion of competitiveness in the commer- is dominated by a small number which is relat- cial market will require contin- of large players, led by France, ed to national ued investment in various key Germany, Italy and the UK, or multilateral areas such as Launch vehicles, almost all of the EU members military or where the preparation of the have a space budget. France Next Generation Launcher remains the largest single nation- security relat- (NGL) will be instrumental in al player with the world’s fourth ed space maintaining guaranteed future largest national space spend activities. access to space for Europe. (1.92 billion Euros). Germany (1.17 billion Euros), Italy (0.68 bil- Technology development is lion Euros) and the UK (0.34 bil- another area where ESA budget lion Euros) were sixth, seventh

This project is funded by the European Commission 69 How space is being used in Europe?

and ninth respectively12. space plan also confirms a general commitment to maintain GDP allocations perhaps give a Germany’s space industry, but no more accurate picture of com- details were given for enhanced parative spending on space. The spending to deliver its objectives. United States devoted the 2011 budget for national efforts biggest share of its GDP to pub- is not rising as much as lic space expenditure at 0.31% Germany’s contributions to the (30.5 billion Euros).The Russian 18-nation European Space Federation was second with Agency (ESA), but is nonetheless 0.20%, whereas China was third rising. German commitments to with 0.122%. France was fourth EUMETSAT’s new generation of at 0.1%. Most European coun- satellites (713.8 million Euros), tries ranged between 0.05% and has also been used to advance 0.01%. Significantly, quite a few German national industrial inter- small European countries like ests. Belgium (0.05%) and Luxembourg (0.03%) did relative- Italy has also a 10-year strategic Support from ly well.As another relative meas- plan, which also defines space as national ure the institutional shows that a strategic national sector, and governments the US spent approximately 105 defined as an important contrib- remains Euros per capita on space, with utor to economic development. critical in France second with around 29 Thus,ASI's own 10-year, 7 billion developing Euros and Luxembourg third at Euros development plan looks European 24 Euros per head. Most set to survive the current budget European states spent around 14 debate largely intact. Earlier, space assets Euros per capita.Again, the good Italian government support has performance of smaller underpinned the development of European states was noteworthy. the Vega small launch vehicle.

France has reinforced its In the UK, its modest space budg- national commitment to space by et of about 339 million Euros per including support for launch year, of which some 85 per cent vehicles and satellites in its 2011 goes to ESA has been enhanced national economy recovery pack- by a further investment in a new age. The 500 million Euros pro- International Space Innovation gramme is in the form of a bond Centre, to be co-located in issue. Harwell with a newly created ESA centre. The centre, with a The recent German national development budget of 45.3 mil-

This project is funded by the European Commission 70 How space is being used in Europe? lion Euros will be co-financed by local and regional government organizations.The UK Ministry of Defence is also buying dedicated military satellites communications capacity from Paradigm through a private finance initiative. Support from national governments remains critical in developing European space assets. While funding from ESA, EU and other European institutional funding has grown in significance, without the continued support of national governments, the future of European space would be highly problematic. So far space budgets are weathering the effects of the recent financial crisis, but there is increasing pressure to cut public funding. Even if this does not lead immediately to reduce commitments to space, it may increase demands for national return on national investment in international programmes and reduce political support for ambitious new space initiatives.

On the other hand, financial stringency may increase interest in collaborative ventures especially in security-related space programmes, although these are more likely to be government-to- government initiatives than European institutional activity.

This project is funded by the European Commission 71

Challenges and opportunities How space is being used in Europe?

The recognition and full utilisa- the launcher sector in Europe. tion of space in Europe depends Moreover, considerable funding largely on succeeding to identify will be needed for the replace- Cooperation, a number of potential challenges ment of the current generation funding and and opportunities. Cooperation, of launchers by the 2020s, if interoper- funding and interoperability are Europe is to maintain its ability ability can some of the major themes that to launch independently all sizes both bring can both bring valuable benefits, of satellites and to maintain its valuable but also pose serious threats to competitiveness in the global benefits, but the development of the sector market. and success of the various space also pose programmes. The following sec- ESTIB Structural Aspects serious tions look at identifying the most A stronger, more integrated threats to significant thematic and cross- European-wide consensus, or the cutting challenges and propose, vision about the direction of development wherever possible, potential future space investments, would of the sector solutions. be an important step forward in maintaining the competitiveness THEMATIC of the ESTIB. The specific and CHALLENGES often unique characteristics of the space economy also shape European Challenges the structure and performance Few space market entrance of the ESTIB. In particular, these options for Europe underpin the “critical mass” The European institutional space requirement of space prime con- market is smaller than Europe’s tractors and major suppliers as major competitors. If the well as creating barriers to entry European budget is 1, then China that encourage vertical integrat- is 1.3, India 2.1, Russia 8.8 and the ed industrial enterprises. While US 9.7.This alone is not sufficient the EC should be rightly con- to sustain the current level of the cerned to prevent the abuse of European space industry. Most of market position by dominant the global market is closed to primes and systems integrators, outside competitors and is the simple fact of vertical inte- unlikely to change in the near gration is not of itself evidence of future. such abuse. The overriding concern for public agencies is to Launchers ensure that the ESTIB is not Currently, there are not enough handicapped in the face of exter- institutional launches to sustain nal competition by an over-rigor-

This project is funded by the European Commission 74 How space is being used in Europe? The ous application of competition ITAR-free systems would enable Commission rules.The Commission should be free access to world markets and should be encouraged to accept that space offer Europe a competitive tech- encouraged is a special case, with characteris- nological edge. to accept tics that distinguish it from other that space is sectors where open markets are Data access and timelines a special generally beneficial. Policy should need improvements case, with reflect the realities of the space In a number of operational sce- characteris- economy, where international narios the rapid set-up of the competition is largely deter- systems and generally the ‘fresh- tics that mined by non-commercial fac- ness’ of information are critical distinguish it tors. Similarly, policies designed success factors. End-users have from other to encourage SME participation noted that real-time imagery is sectors where in the space sector,while perhaps often not available to support open markets desirable for wider socio-politi- operations in fast moving crises. are generally cal reasons – may have limited It is vital that access to data is beneficial. value in improving the competi- done in a fast and easy manner, tiveness of the European space and systems are set up in an effi- industry. Increasing significantly cient and timely manner, in par- the volume of European space ticular in the case of disasters or production could support a larg- military joint operations. er number of space suppliers by improving the business case for Satellites communications investment in the space sector. shortfalls Fully secure satellite communica- Europe is not technologically tion links and interoperable com- independent munication systems are not yet a Currently, an average of 60% of reality. The integration of com- European satellite electronics Example components are imported from the US, as these are not manufac- Situation: tured in Europe due to the lack In the Haiti disaster, field missions of Relex or ECHO had to utilize satcom of ‘commensurate institutional provided by an NGO (Telecom Sans support’, or the lack of volume Frontieres) in order to send videos of production to justify investment the situation to Brussels. in specialised facilities.This situa- Solution: tion leaves Europe vulnerable to A European programme in satellite external controls, such as ITAR. communication area (ESA, EU or joint This has been achieved to a programme) should be created or degree, but further developing commercial services or national assets should be used.

This project is funded by the European Commission 75 How space is being used in Europe?

munications and intelligence sys- awareness of the potential tems would bring considerable offered by integrated EO servic- value to the crisis management es; but this could undermine the missions. Lack of bandwidth business model for existing EO slows communication. Bandwidth providers and EO satellite own- is increasingly expensive and it is ers. difficult to obtain a satisfactory capacity. International challenges Space competence has a strong The EU cannot yet fully rely symbolic value on the interna- on in-house assets for global tional scene. Since the beginning satellite communications. of the space conquest, the presence in outer space has been The vast bulk of space-based seen as a proof of technological services are in the telecommuni- excellence, of economic per- cations sector. Profitability is rel- formance and high level of atively high, in part due to the knowledge. As a whole, to be a limited nature of competition in member of the Space club is still a number of the space-based considered as a tool of power telecommunications markets. and influence coming in different However, there is often direct patterns according to the histor- competition from terrestrial ical context and the distinctive service providers. It is essential features of each national policy. that space-based platforms be The main usual drivers of any treated equally in the develop- space policy are defined accord- ment of public policy towards ing to national interest priorities, the provision of telecommunica- affirmation of sovereignty and tions services. Developments in search for leadership. Although EO and the space-based services Europe suffers from an uncom- business are also highly sensitive pleted political construction to the effects of public policy on leading to find other motivation data dissemination and the per- to develop its own space policy, ceived value of space-based plat- the European space competence forms. EU policy choices in this is recognized worldwide. In fact area will have a major impact on the European ability is undeni- the emerging EO business.There able in the field of science and is a sharp dilemma here: Free exploration as well as applica- access to data would encourage tions like telecommunication or new enterprises and help to Earth observation. In the same pump prime wider market vein, new programs like Galileo

This project is funded by the European Commission 76 How space is being used in Europe? and GMES contribute to draw eign proactive partner. However, the picture of an ambitious play- Europe is mastering an impres- er concerned with the innovative sive position.This largest cooper- and dual approach of global ation is a good index of the issues. dynamism of the European space This largest policy abroad. To some extent it cooperation Europe’s place in the interna- is also the success of a unique is a good tional arena policy based since its origins on index of the The preeminent position of internal strong cooperative prin- dynamism of Europe, both on the internation- ciples. the al market and in the cooperation European domain, also shows that the So, at first sight, the specific con- European model is largely suc- straints of the European space space policy cessful even if it is specific. policy have driven to a satisfacto- abroad ry cost versus profit ratio. In 2011, with about 60% of the commercial launches market This situation is the result of a won by Arianespace and more long term tradition enhanced by than 40% of the commercial a common willingness as space market hold by European described in the European space firms, the European space indus- policy and managed by the High try gives concrete expression to Level Space Group since 2007. the reliability and quality of The international space policy of European space technologies. Europe has been identified to This position is all the more respond to global challenges noticeable since the level of according to the main principles national and regional investment driving the European ambition in is long far from the US one. that field.To sum up these priorities, one could list the develop- In parallel, the total of coopera- ment of applications to meet the tive agreements with foreign needs of European citizens, to partners signed by European ensure regional and global securi- Member States and ESA confirms ty including natural risks, to pre- this global recognition of the serve the industrial and techno- European skills (see map). This logical base fostering innovation number needs probably to be and to contribute to the knowl- minored taking into account edge based society project as some possible duplication of well as securing independent agreements led by different access to new and critical assets. Member States with some for- Based on these global items quite

This project is funded by the European Commission 77 How space is being used in Europe?

At a time open, cooperation may be set on Possible evolutions of the when the the basis of mutual benefit in cooperation framework in the balance respect of political, programmat- next future between ic and budgetary considerations. traditional De facto, unlike the other mem- At a time when the balance bers of the space club, the lack of between traditional and emerg- and a direct link from national politi- ing space nations is evolving, the emerging cal interest and space policy future European position has to space allows broader opportunities be seriously considered. It is dif- nations is and openness. ficult to establish a ranking of the evolving, the different space powers, excepted future Nevertheless, compared to the for the outstanding United European other space powers, these States, but one has to notice that position has unique characteristics of big changes are taking place and to be European space entail some that Europe has to adapt in order seriously weaknesses, too. The deficiency to keep its place. of a common military space poli- considered cy refers to the limits of the To be brief, since the 90’s, the common Security and Defense United States are the only space Policy. Moreover, the absence of super power due to their very European autonomy in human high annual budget, the command spaceflight has more to see with of a large scale of high technolo- the disconnection to any form of gy systems and the complete national identity. A part of their integration of space tools as a symbolic aspects, the political crucial element of national secu- inadequacies of European space rity. All these elements con- strategy have serious budgetary tribute to reinforce the gap consequences compared to the between the US and the others other space faring nations’ global and so to confirm their preemi- incomes. This point is especially nence as the First space nation. sensitive as it concerns public Even the recent decision made investment in the space industry by President Obama to cancel for the research as well as the the Constellation Program has development issues. been adopted with the concern to restart the technological innovation and an ambitious spirit of new conquests. Combined with the continuation of the support of a huge space industry mastering the last high technologies and

This project is funded by the European Commission 78 How space is being used in Europe? Space budgets around the world in 2011 ¥ )36 2' *!0!. 3/59( +/2%! #().! 2533)! BETWEEN AND y BETWEEN AND y BETWEEN AND y ).$)! )2!. 3PACE BUDGET AS A FRACTION OF '.0 )32!%, 6ERY HIGH (IGH -EDIUM BUDGETS %52/0% 4OTAL OF ALL NATIONAL (UMAN $EVELOPMENT )NDEX "2!:), BILLIONS OF DOLLARS AND LESS 3PACE BUDGETS 5.)4%$ 34!4%3

This project is funded by the European Commission 79 How space is being used in Europe?

holding the control of technolog- be seen as an opportunity for the ical transfers, the US spacesector European space industry as long keeps out of reach of its com- as a mutual benefit may be iden- petitors. In this context, Europe tified. If not, the overture made has to develop its own niche and by Russia to new countries such priorities to keep the position of as India or in longer term South a plain partner in the coopera- Korea or Brazil to jointly develop tion with the US and to maintain new programs could lead to the the independence on its techno- reinforcement of potential chal- logical basis to satisfy its own lengers in the international mar- needs and to be recognized as a ket. supplier in the international market. Among the space nations, China is supposed to strongly improve Considering Russia, the situation its capabilities in the coming is evolving significantly from the years. Geopolitical as well as last ten years. From now on, the internal incentives are evoked by strategic value of space is fully many experts to give the image recognized.The political level has of a very ambitious space policy. made it clear that modernization This ambition may be overesti- is the aim of the current and mated due to an extrapolation of next years as the only way to the impressive growth of the build a new economy relying on Chinese economy without taking the knowledge society as other into consideration the real con- developed countries did it. In this currence in terms of public respect, satellites of telecommu- investment of the space sector nication, Earth observation, and with other high technological navigation have to play a direct value domains such as biotech- role by compensating the lack of nology or nanotechnology. ground infrastructure but also an However, there is no doubt that indirect one by improving high space systems give a strong sup- technology research as well as port to a better global and more facilitating the development of balanced management of its huge information technology process- territory and that space compe- es. The industrial backwardness tence symbolically contribute to of some part of the Russian the image of modernity. For all industry is a strong incentive to these reasons, it is essential to cooperation with foreign part- consider space cooperation issue ners in order to fill the current as a possible way to enlarge gap in application domains. It may European influence on a new

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This project is funded by the European Commission 81 How space is being used in Europe?

Commission Vice-President Gunter VERHEUGEN (right) and Mr Jean-Jacques DOR- DAIN, Director General of ESA present the European Union flag which was flown aboard the International Space Station during the Delta Soyuz mission, in April 2004. The flag is signed by the astronauts. Credit:The Union Council of the European demanding huge market even if ment of agreements with Brazil national interests may slow down or South Korea, as well as with technological developments on Arabic countries.This schema of critical aspects. To go with relation between a senior and Chinese needs is both sensitive junior partner may be seen as and essential. opening a new step in the space cooperation of Europe perfectly Even if the United States, Russia fitted to its key foreign policy and China focus main attention, principles: multilateralism, they do not represent the unique engagement with emerging pow- opportunities of partnership. For ers and support of social and instance, Japan and India repre- economic development. sent successful examples of long term partnership with Europe. It This rapid overview of the coop- is not the aim of this reference eration issues demonstrates that book to give a comprehensive Europe has the potential to description of different kinds of remain a key player in the devel- cooperation with all the poten- opment of global partnership. tial partners. Some new opportu- However, its future efficiency is nities in the global framework of dependent on the improvement a confirmed space country and a of the European space gover- growing one include the develop- nance i.e. the coordination

This project is funded by the European Commission 82 How space is being used in Europe? between the Member states three-pillar structure. The Treaty national policies, the European also clearly recognized a Space Agency project manage- European competence in the Once the ment and the European Union space domain. overall political implication.According to direction of the analysis made by the partners The respective roles of the EU policy is of Europe, the current model of institutions (Commission, decided, the inter-agencies cooperative agree- Council, Parliament) have been policy ments is seen as quite satisfacto- both clarified and reinforced in would then ry. Nevertheless, this agency level the space domain in civilian and, have to be is far from sufficient in regard to to a lesser extent, military areas. global negotiations in an interna- The EU, which has political and structured tional forum, be it the juridical legitimacy, must define and International Union of the orientation of a European supported Telecommunications (ITU) for Space Policy. It has the means by budget- the attribution of rare resources –through the Space Council in ary alloca- like frequencies and location on cooperation with ESA, which in tions. geostationary orbit, the UN return has been recognised has Conference for Disarmament having the technical competence about the “code of conduct” and to oversee the development of the debris issues or the climate space programs.The Council and negotiations and the possible the Parliament may reinforce this verification process.At this point, position in time through a multi- it is the responsibility of the year engagement for European European Union to promote a space policy that could take the coherent and united position. form of a European Space programme adopted. Once the over- CROSS-CUTTING all direction of policy is decided, CHALLENGES the policy would then have to be structured and supported by Governance and funding budgetary allocations. The Until the Lisbon Treaty, the EU resources available would institutional setting was divided depend on the structure of the into three pillars with respective Multi-year Funding Framework domains of competence. Space (2007/2013 and 2014/2020) and was no exception. In order to on national subscriptions to the foster cooperation and coordina- ESA programmes (the next tion among the different EU insti- Council of Ministers being tutions, the Lisbon treaty abol- planned for the end of 2012). In ished (at least on the paper) the this respect, the EU finds it very

This project is funded by the European Commission 83 How space is being used in Europe?

difficult, if not impossible to the European space industry engage in commitments beyond would act as prime contractor. the MFF horizon. Combined with Direct management by the EU the lack of coordination regard- could then be employed only in ing the budget scheduling, this the case of strategic programmes will make it very difficult to cre- with specific ownership respon- ate and sustain a genuine ESP, sibilities. especially where large, complex and expensive programmes or ESA-EC perspective long term international coopera- The new relationship between tion is involved. This aspect the EU and ESA as the “execu- remains one of the weakest tive” arm of European space pol- aspects of the ESP.This has been icy has created a new dynamic. noted in the latest official docu- The transition to the new ments related to MFF 2014/2020, regime, while increasing the sec- stating that the EU budget is not tor’s political salience, has left a organized to manage large long- number of unresolved issues term programmes such as ITER between ESA and EU practices or GMES. that are creating difficulties for the European space industry. The financing of space pro- Some of the legal challenges grammes will remain a combina- related to the ESA-EU cooperation of EU and intergovernmen- tion were revealed by the two tal contributions, whatever the flagship programmes Galileo and respective evolution of the insti- GMES, namely the mismatch of tutions in this area. In turn, this the EC funding instruments and will heavily influence the evolu- the space programme cycle tion of the institutional balance organised under the ESA frame- affecting the EU space pro- work. Particularly, the concept of gramme. In initial programmatic juste retour at the heart of ESA phases, the EU, and more partic- industry policy is at odds with ularly the Commission should the uncompromising rules of act in general as the owner of open competition enshrined in the EU space programmes. EU legislation. Responsibilities and rights attached to this ownership could For this reason, the EU-ESA then be delegated to a relevant Framework Agreement clearly organization (which could take provides in its Article 5.3 that different forms - public, private, «any financial contribution made existing or new entities); while by one Party in accordance with

This project is funded by the European Commission 84 How space is being used in Europe? a specific arrangement shall be defining the substance of an EU governed by the financial provi- space competence will require a sions applicable to that Party. stronger political investment Under no circumstances shall the both from the EU institutions European community be bound and from the MS. to apply the rule of ‘geographical distribution’ contained in the Indeed, EU-MS relation is of par- Several ESA Convention». ticular importance from the alternative space governance perspective. arrange- Several alternative arrangements The GMES program, for example, can be envisioned for future ESA- is made up of European ments can EU relationship models. The “Sentinels” and national space be nature of such arrangements is at capabilities. The Governance and envisioned the heart of the European debate data policy of GMES, or for that for future between the EU, ESA and the MS. matter, of a future SSA program, ESA-EU At the heart of them all the role is still under debate. The out- relationship and the position of ESA in the come will reflect the necessity of models. European institutional landscape, keeping certain information flow with heavy political, legal, finan- under national control, set cial, and industrial consequences against the desire to develop a associated with the choice. common European data policy for space. EU-MS perspective The Lisbon Treaty enlarges the In addition, in the field of securi- perimeter of the EU compe- ty and crisis management, several The nature tences in the field of space. political differences and diverging of such However, this situation can cre- interests can be noted between arrange- ate some tensions as not all MS EU Member States. Some of ments is at wish seeing the EU involved in all them, the more “Europeanists”, the heart space related areas. For example, traditionally represented by of the the space launcher sector is typ- France, strongly support the EU European ically an intergovernmental pro- developing its own capability to gramme strictly linked to nation- act alone.Whereas others, more debate al political, industrial and strate- inclined to maintaining a strong between gic issues that have been man- transatlantic link, represented by the EU, ESA aged historically by a small group the United Kingdom and and the MS of countries.While a purely legal Member States from central and interpretation of the Lisbon Eastern Europe, tend to empha- Treaty establishes the perimeter size a NATO dimension. A third of EU competences in space, vision has been put forward by

This project is funded by the European Commission 85 How space is being used in Europe?

Germany and the Scandinavian a user in its own right.The Union countries, which prefer to see could be seen as a “national Europe retain a more civilian ori- user” in competition with the entation to space activities.These member states when it comes to different political views play an the use of scarce space assets. important role in the use of Navigating this system, and creat- GALILEO existing space applications and ing the institutional structures and GMES will influence the development of that allow Europe to reap the remain new ones. The evolution of benefits of space for all levels specific GMES and Galileo, both dual-use without unnecessary duplication institutional programmes has reflected this of capabilities, and thus costs, challenges diversity of approaches, with while guaranteeing the national for Europe ambiguous results. integrity under an accepted set in a of rules for prioritizing between civil–military Civil-military perspective various users needs and perspective. The biggest challenge for demands, are challenges that will European use of space for secu- need careful consideration. rity and safety is arguably the “complexity” problem – policy GALILEO and GMES remain spe- makers being overwhelmed by cific institutional challenges for the sheer difficulty of large scale, Europe in a civil–military per- long term programmes. spective. These are both desig- Advanced, high performance nated “flagship programs” and space systems are complicated civilian in nature, but for many and expensive. There is a drive practical purposes, have military These are towards “dual use system”, i.e. implications. The challenge both common systems for military regarding GALILEO is quite and civilian users. Moreover, no straight forward. Since the use of designated European nation will the long run satellite navigation systems like “flagship be able financially to develop GALILEO do not require an end programs” independently all of the space user to interact with the space and civilian capabilities it wants and needs. segment, the challenge boils in nature, Some form of bi- or multilateral down to who will be given the but for many cooperation, especially for small- power to decrypt the most accu- practical er countries that want access to rate GALILEO signals. purposes, space services, is usually essen- have tial. In the case of GMES the chal- military lenge is more complicated. GMES A third layer of complexity is is supposed to supply value implications added by the European Union as added services to users in the

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EU by using data from various ter support for CSDP opera- sensors, including space-based tions. equipment. However, the users The role of will not necessarily access the Public-private perspective public sensors themselves, or even see Public initiatives have always authorities the data supplied from specific played a key role in the history of in launching, platforms. In order to integrate European space. Developing consolidat- GMES into a European architec- space technology requires sub- ing and ture for security, there are con- stantial investment, while show- maintaining sequently two challenges to ing concrete economic returns is address: invariably a difficult and problem- a variety of atic exercise. Furthermore, the technologi- ! Under what circumstance can a nature of such returns can be cal “security user” gain access to a direct or indirect. The develop- capabilities specific sensor in the GMES sys- ment of meteorology and is tem? telecommunications shows that the commercial value became fundamental ! What GMES services for secu- apparent only after a period of rity purposes can be developed public subsidies that resulted in a using the same structure as mature and readily exploitable other GMES services? service. In the case of navigation, it is very difficult to estimate A challenge of a more practical direct returns, therefore making nature, but nevertheless a chal- it impossible for private compa- lenge, is how to support the nies to develop a proper business EUSC with images? As long as the plan with the certainty that their EUSC is forced to buy all of its investments will be repaid. required images on a commercial basis, there is no linkage between The US GPS example clearly indi- European space assets and the cates that an infrastructure, first use of space for CSDP missions. developed with public money for That also means that any invest- defence needs, and then made ment in R&D for space technolo- available for free to the civil gy, or EU support of the downstream market can lead to European space industry involved the emergence of high value in the development and manufac- services.This approach fostered a ture of imaging satellites, will not wide range of activities and ben- directly result in more or better efits, from hardware develop- data for EUSC use, and will not ment to services provision.These directly be translated into a bet- ventures could not have be

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The policy launched as conventional “capital To date this has been mainly requirement risk” operations. In general, this applied to satcom systems (both is to find the approach is largely adopted in for defence and civil needs), a right balance the US, where the government sector where private companies and the Department of Defence have gained extensive expertise between in particular, subsidize space and a market where profits are generic through defence activities. likely. It allows for a variety of developments forms of cooperation between in technologi- The role of public authorities in commercial entities and public cal launching, consolidating and authorities to fund, develop, man- programmes maintaining a variety of techno- age, renew and maintain space and specific logical capabilities is fundamental assets. developments in exploiting space for commer- in applica- cial and social benefit. Different For instance, the German tion pro- models of funding for space tech- TerraSAR-X mission is carried nologies have been tried in out by the German Federal grammes. Europe, but they proved unsuc- Ministry of Education, the cessful and were abandoned in German space agency (DLR) and favor of the public funding model. Astrium GmbH.The total cost of There is room for alternative manufacturing and launching the models, but not in the research satellite, as well as operation and and technology demonstration running the ground segment, has phases of large and complex pro- been shared among all the grammes. Private companies and actors. In addition, a wholly- commercial funding models are, owned subsidiary of Astrium, however, increasingly involved in Infoterra, was purposely created space through contracting, pro- to commercialize EO data and viding approaches offering better services. value for money to end users, particularly in the public sector. One of the options for reducing public investment while maximiz- The public-private partnership ing existing and future space (PPP), a model of funding that infrastructure, could be the use become more common in of “hosted payloads” or “piggy- Europe (UK, Germany, Italy) back payloads” which would shares the costs of developing a allow governments to exploit system, transferring the risk of commercial satellites to accom- expensive and highly technologi- modate, for instance, their own cal infrastructure to private con- sensors, UHF- and Ka-band pay- tractors – usually a consortium. loads.At the same time, this may

This project is funded by the European Commission 88 How space is being used in Europe? also represent an additional ness in the space sector.This is a source of profit for satellite long-term issue, requiring invest- operators. ment with little prospect of an early return. It is often best Technology Policy directed at generic concepts, There is a technology-led argu- which should be readily available ment for maintaining European for a wide range of applications. competitiveness that would also These factors, combined with the underpin wider European eco- very high cost of bringing novel nomic and strategic capabilities. application to the market, deter In particular, there is a need for private investment. Hence the technology risk mitigation in continued importance of institu- advance of major projects. This tional funding. In a recent com- requires earlier and increased munication, the EC has recog- investment in technology acquisi- nised this reality, as well as iden- tion, supported by technology tifying generic technologies such demonstration. Yet, without as advanced materials and nan- major programmes, there is less otechnology and the importance incentive to invest and a limited of research to anticipate “break- focus for effort. through” technologies.

The policy requirement is to find Most important, there is a need the right balance between gener- for a clear “Space Champion” in ic developments in technological the Commission, which would programmes and specific devel- develop and oversee a Space opments in application pro- industrial “policy”, reflecting grammes. European space com- commercial requirements and petitiveness requires a strong the creation of an integrated collective approach to R&T plan- technology demonstration pro- ning and investment. Enhancing gramme, filling the gaps in gener- European space competence ic technologies and programmes would not only increase the that in the US is often covered by attractiveness of European space DoD programmes. goods and services, it would also increase the wider socio-eco- Improving the sharing of nomic returns from space tech- data and results nology. Both Galileo and GMES have specifically defined data policy Technological capability is the frameworks. For Galileo, different foundation stone of competitive- level of services will be provided

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with various user categories. As cies of Member States and other such data policy issues are set- organisations contributing to tled by the nature of the pro- data and information to GMES. gramme (broadcasting a signal) This is necessary to promote the and by the defined public/com- use and sharing of Earth observa- mercial services. The only unde- tion data and information in cided data policy related issue accordance with the principles of for Galileo is the question of SEIS, INSPIRE and GEOSS. Full ‘civilian and military’ use In the and open access to data should case of GMES, the EU regulation also take into account existing no. 911/2010, of the European commercial data provision and Parliament and the Council on should promote stronger Earth the European Earth monitoring observation markets in Europe, programme (GMES) and its initial in particular in downstream operations (2011 to 2013) set sectors to increase growth and out the relevant data policy prin- employment ciples. Data policy and governance go ! ‘GMES data should maintain hand in hand, and clear gover- coherence with Member States’ nance principles should set the spatial reference data and sup- basis for an effective ‘data policy’. port the development of the In Europe, a key policy issue will infrastructure for spatial infor- be the extent to which the EU mation in the Union set by the follows the US model of making ‘Directive 2007/2/EC of the data freely available. Data servic- European Parliament and of the es provided by space systems Council of the 14 March 2007 often have a partial public good establishing an Infrastructure for aspect, in that the use of the data Spatial Information in the by one customer does not pre- European Community (INSPIRE). clude its use by another. Access GMES should also complete the to the highest quality of data can Shared Environmental however be restricted.Whatever Information System (SEIS) and the future decisions, this debate Union activities in the field of generates questions about the emergency response.’ extent of the free access to data, as this will have to be compatible ! ‘GMES information should fully with viable economic perspec- and openly accessible without tives for future operators. prejudice to relevant security restrictions or to the data poli-

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Ensuring a sustainable fund- In a perspective exercise, it is ing possible to imagine two situa- As already mentioned, the relations along a line of possibilities: tively short experience of the European Commission and ESA ! one extreme consist in achiev- in the field of European large- ing a completely self-sustainable It is possible scale programs has provided sector, funded with commercial already some lessons learned. revenues; to imagine One of them, concerns the diffi- two culty in financing flagship pro- ! at the other extreme, a com- situations : grams with the current funding pletely public-funded sector. funding with system, meaning with important commercial EC budgets allocated every 7 In the first case, it is possible to revenues or years and in part externalized to imagine that space activities a completely ESA. would be purely financed by public-fund- commercial revenues, which ed sector This issue has been clearly con- should be enough to maintain firmed by the EC in its proposi- operations and also to fund tion for the Multi-year Funding future replacement of satellites Framework (MFF 2014-2020), that have achieved their end of where the EC asks for the defini- life (normally after about 10 tion of a new funding architec- years), in order to guarantee the ture. In the mean while, the EC continuity of the services. proposes that for the next 7 years GMES remains out of the This hypothesis could be realistic EU budget and merely suggests if we consider some mature sec- an amount of resources (over tors, like telecommunications, 800 million Euros) to be allocat- which have already proved their ed on a volunteer basis by high level of commercialization Member states. Galileo, instead, and even new potentialities. remains within the EU budget, Nevertheless, other sectors, like despite the overrun costs and EO and navigation, still need to delays that were already regis- prove the existence of a strong tered. commercial market. EO has already started to develop com- The sustainable and long term mercial applications (as Astrium financing of large-scale programs services, or E-Geos are doing), is therefore a key challenge. but for the meanwhile industries and operators are still far away from a self-sustainable situation.

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With regard to GMES, while MS grammes that can continue to be would continue to commercial- funded completely by the public ize images obtained with their sector. In this hypothesis, a fur- space national assets, the EC ther step consists in defining the wishes to adopt a free-data composition of such public fund- approach in the implementation ing: would it be made of purely of GMES future data policy. The EU resources, part of which EC should therefore wander would be externalised to ESA? how to ensure the replacement Would ESA, as an external of Sentinels, if they do not pro- organization, participate to the duce any commercial income. funding, thanks to national space Concerning Navigation and agencies contributions, in Positioning, the existence of GPS exchange of a certain degree of as a free service undermines the geographic distribution of work? possibilities of mass commercial- Would European programs take ization of next Galileo services, the form of optional programs or despite the improved perform- would the participation of all ESA ances. Finally, the launcher sector MS be required? Which implica- is a precise example of the pecu- tions on the industrial policy and liar features of the space domain, on the capacity to attract invest- since it cannot survive with only ments? commercial funding. In a very competitive landscape, the com- Obviously, this second option is mercial sector would not ensure linked strictly to the future insti- Ariane’s survive, which is subject- tutional architecture in Europe ed to international pressure. In and in particular to the future fact, a quick look to other com- relationship between ESA and petitors would immediately the EU. show that the policy adopted in the US (according to which all In the middle of these two institutional launches are per- extreme solutions, a hybrid formed with American launch- approach can be adopted: part of ers) and the Asiatic low produc- future space programs could tion costs do not allow the EU to continue to be funded by the be competitive at the interna- public sector (still need to define tional level, thus undermining how EU and ESA would con- self-sustainability. tribute), and a part funded by commercial revenues. Here At the other extreme, it is possi- again, this will depend on the sec- ble to imagine space pro- tor we are considering (tele-

This project is funded by the European Commission 92 How space is being used in Europe? coms, EO, etc.).To this regard, the about the duration and structure use of different forms of Public- of the MFF. Private Partnerships or Private- Financing Initiatives still need to prove its validity (in operational, industrial, and economic terms) but seem to be for the time being an interesting solution at national level, at least for telecoms. Lessons learned from the case of the PPP failure in the Galileo programme can provide, indeed, a basis for future thinking in the EU.

In any case, the entry into force of the Lisbon Treaty obliges the EU to develop a European Space Program, which can be implemented truly only if the EU allocates for it a dedicated amount of resources in a programmatic way. Whatever the new form of financing (with of without ESA or the private sector), it cannot exclude a direct participation of the EU, likely under the form of a specific budget line in the next MFF. Only in this way the EU will be considered a credible space actor and will be able to put in place the ambitions that are stated in its Treaties.

Under this hypothesis, the EU should think about the industrial policy to be adopted in order to keep a good balance between free competition and need to attract MS resources, and also

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Public Public/private Private

Need to find new PPP / PFI The EU does not imple- financial mechanism / (lessons learned from national ment a real ESP. EU Part of the EU financ- experiences and Galileo) Private actors will not ing externalized to Some sectors could be self- finance all sectors. ESA? sustainable

PPP/ PFI ESA continues to fund Need to keep just (lessons learned from national some programs. ESA retour principle/ experiences and Galileo) Private actors will not Optional programs? Some sectors could be self- finance all sectors. sustainable.

ESA continues to fund Which distribution of funding? some programs. Which distribution of / which industrial policy? The EU does not imple- EU/ESA funding? Which indus- Some sectors could be self- ment a real ESP trial policy? sustainable. Private actors will not finance all sectors.

PUBLIC PUBLIC FUNDING (EU/ESA ?) COMMERCIAL FUNDING & PRIVATE

EU ESA PPP/PFI EO ? Telecom NAV ?

EU/ESA LAUNCHERS ?

This project is funded by the European Commission 94 Appendix Appendix

SOCIETAL NEEDS AND SPACE The following table presents societal needs to which space activities could offer responses to, by the intermediary of Earth observation, telecommunications and navigation and localization satellites.

Areas of social needs Space-based related responses and services • Land productive capacity assessment • Forest resources inventory • irrigation planning support • Thematic maps of croplands, inventories • Vegetation monitoring • Estimation of acreages • Stand density monitoring • Weather damage assessment Agriculture and forestry • Biomass estimation • monitoring of underground water extraction • drought monitoring and assessment • hail or frost damage location and assessment • crops conditions reports • danger analysis based on the vegetation conditions • fire detection and monitoring • fire severity analysis • reforestation success analysis • Digital terrain models • land use and cover maps, changes detection and analysis • spill detections and monitoring • flood surveillance and monitoring • wind and solar plant location assessment • Burnt area mapping • Detection and monitoring of earthquakes, volcanoes, floods • terrain displacement monitoring • Land and land processes, such as soil moisture, land surface temperature, fire monitoring, etc • Weather forecasting • Climate change monitoring Environmental management • Composition of the atmosphere • Sea levels monitoring • Sea surface temperature monitoring • Natural land use information • Habitat surveys • Water bodies/wet areas mapping • Water bodies pollution • watershed planning and water quality • Desert aerosol large-scale mapping • Pollutant concentration maps • Monitoring of water temperature and algae eutrophization • Measurements of coastline variations • Quarries and landfills variation monitoring • Ship detection and tracking • Oil spills monitoring Maritime activities support • Maritime surveillance • Erosion • Coral reef mapping

This project is funded by the European Commission 96 Appendix

Areas of social needs Space-based related responses and services

• Oil, gas and minerals exploration • Oil seeps data • Slick mapping • Geological interpretation • Pipeline and infrastructure planning and monitoring Energy and infrastructure • Seismic quality studies • Land cover and land use • Classification data for telecom network efficiency • Mining support • Hydrocarbon basin studies

• Change detection • Flood risk management and monitoring • Assets mapping • Damage assessment Civil Security • Crisis management tools • Reconstruction planning • Risk management system • Disaster and post-disaster databases

• Spatial planning services at local, regional, national and international levels Urban Planning • Infrastructure planning • Route planning • Powerline management

• Help with navigation of land vehicles • Traffic Information • Helpline for vehicles and passengers • Driving Assistance • Help for vigilance • Conduct automated • Location of stolen vehicles • Vehicle Tracking sensitive • Transport and monitoring of hazardous materials • Positioning of agricultural machinery • Monitoring of leased vehicles • Management of freight and parcel (trucks, barges, combined transport, etc.). • Support for public transport and motorway operators Control means Transport Information for users Preventive Security Detection of incidents Emergency Calls Management of emergency vehicles • Support for rail road Control / Safety Command Absolute positioning of vehicles locomotives, wagons and containers fleet management Information users Assistance to the track inspection • Air transport Assistance to navigation Traffic Monitoring

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Areas of social needs Space-based related responses and services

• Tele-training • Early warning systems in epidemiology Health • Epidemiological monitoring • Tele-expertise and support

• Damage assessment • Crisis management tools • Reconstruction planning Humanitarian Aid • Disaster and post-disaster databases • Land cartography • Infrastructure cartography • Localization and navigation transport of aid and equipment

• All telecommunications services • Broadband interactive links and HDTV broadcasting services Telecommunications • Digital broadcast and transmission • Mobile communications

This project is funded by the European Commission 98 Appendix EC R&D PROJECTS The following table presents the EC funded R&D projects under research area « space » Project Focus Theme AQUAMAR Marine water quality monitoring Marine Detection of harmful algae blooms, early warning, ASIMUTH Marine HAB forecasting Habitats monitoring, biodiversity monitoring, auto- BIO_SOS Biodiversity matic land cover maps, change detection

BOSS4GMES GMES service sustainability

Quantification and understanding of CO2 surface ECV/Climate CARBONES fluxes change

Ecological models, evolution of algae blooms, early CoBiOS Marine warning

Mapping of the European environmental landscape, CORINE Land land cover, biotopes (habitats), soil maps, acid rain, Land Cover natural resources, policy decision instruments Land (Snow, ice, CryoLand Snow and land ice monitoring glaciers)

DG JRC activities Crop forecasting, food security Land

Decision support models for border surveillance, Maritime surveil- DOLPHIN traffic safety, environmental protection, fisheries lance control, search and rescue

Detection, mapping, monitoring and forecasting of DORIS Emergency ground deformations, landslides, land subsidence Regional net- DORIS_Net European network works Create an EU-Africa Marine Earth Observation Regional net- EAMNet Network works (Marine) Early flood alert system, river flooding, real-time EFAS Land flood warnings EFFIS European forest fire information system Land Renewable energy sources validation and promo- Renewable ener- ENDORSE tion, assessment of surface air temperature and gy solar radiation EUFODOS Forest damage assessment, forest mapping Land (Forestry)

European climate, climate variability and change ECV/Climate EURO4M monitoring change

EVOSS Volcanic hazards monitoring Emergency

FIELD-AC Coastal-zone oceanographic prediction Marine

FreshMon Water quality monitoring Water Regional net- GARNET-E Emergency training provision for Africa works (Emergency)

This project is funded by the European Commission 99 Appendix

Project Focus Theme European air quality, European atmospheric compo- GEMS Atmosphere sition, UV radiation for Europe Land monitoring services, the agriculture state and trends, the farming pressure on water and soil GEOLAND 2 resources, the contribution of agricultural land use Land changes to sustainability in terms of impacts on biodiversity and landscapes, soil erosion maps. Real-time geo-referenced in-situ multimedia assess- GEOPICTURES Emergency ments, rapid mapping Water scarcity assessment, forecasting, reporting GLOWASIS Water on drought, climate change Situation awareness, damage assessment, crisis indi- G-MOSAIC Security cators assessment, routes surveillance GRAAL European network Regions networks Land monitoring, thematic maps, land use, land HELM Land cover, sustainable development

ISAC Agricultural change monitoring Agriculture

LandSAF Land surface variables, Land Preparatory action, platform to provide direct linkER access to GMES emergency management service Emergency products European air quality, global atmospheric composition, monitoring of greenhouse gases, global fire MACC emissions, monitoring of aerosols, climate forcing, Atmosphere monitoring and forecasting of UV radiation, monitoring and forecasting of ozone. Monitoring Arctic land and sea ice, mapping, fore- MAIRES Sea Ice casting, understanding climate change MALAREO Malaria monitoring, vector detection and control Malaria

MEDEO EO data exploitation and integration EO data Agricultural monitoring,, crops monitoring, climate MOCCCASIN Agriculture effect on crop ECV/Climate MONARCH-A High latitude and Arctic region monitoring change MS.MONINA Habitats monitoring, service implementation Biodiversity Hydrodynamic forecasts for all regional seas, remote sensing observations and forecasts for sea- ice, ship routing services (currents, ice), offshore operations or search & rescue operations, fish MyOcean stock management, management of living marine Marine resources, water quality monitoring and pollution control, coastal and marine monitoring, weather, seasonal forecasting & climate, global warming detection, sea ice extent Water resource management, water resource mon- MyWater Water itoring, forecasting Maritime surveil- NEREIDS Maritime surveillance, data sharing, integration lance

OPERR European river discharge model Marine

This project is funded by the European Commission 100 Appendix Project Focus Theme PanGeo Geo-referenced data layers for cities Land (Geology)

PASODOBLE Regional and local air quality monitoring Atmosphere PRE-EARTH- Earthquakes prediction Emergency QUAKES

PREVIEW Atmospheric, geophysical and man-made disasters Emergency

European air quality, European atmospheric compo- PROMOTE Atmosphere sition, UV radiation for Europe Forest cover, forest cover changes and biomass ReCover monitoring, deforestation and forest degradation REDD* estimation Forest cover and land use monitoring, deforestation and forest degradation estimation, carbon stock REDDAF REDD accounting, forest over maps, forest cover change maps, degradation maps, biomass maps Forest monitoring, early detection of logging, identi- REDD-FLAME fy deforestation, sustainable development, carbon REDD accounting, forest resources management Monitoring forest changes, carbon accounting, REDDINESS REDD deforestation and degradation. RESPOND Rapid mapping, humanitarian aid Emergency

RISK-EOS Floods and fires Land Rapid mapping, geographic reference, disaster SAFER Emergency extent, damage assessment, early warning Regional net- SAGE-EO Framework for African GMES. works Habitats monitoring, service SeaU implementationPollution monitoring, oil spill detec- Marine tion, damage assessment SEMEP Earthquakes prediction Emergency Ice forecasting, sea-ice and iceberg mapping, animal SIDARUS Marine tracking, sea ice thickness detection Detection and tracking of small vessels, maritime Maritime surveil- SIMTISYS borders monitoring, maritime routing and traffic, lance pollution management Water resource management, sustainable agricul- SIRIUS Water ture, river-basin management Assessing and monitoring subsidence hazards in SubCoast Emergency coastal lowland areas around Europe Landslides, Ground motion hazard, flood manage- TERRAFIRMA Land/Emergency ment High-resolution mapping of urban areas with more Urban Atlas than 100000 inhabitants, pan-European comparable Land land use and land cover data Water resource monitoring, water accounting via WatPLAN water use and evaporation rainfall, land use, soil Water moisture and biomass production Assessment and monitoring of forest resources, ZAPAS biomass maps, biomass change, land cover maps Forestry carbon accounting model

This project is funded by the European Commission 101 Appendix REFERENCE DOCUMENTS Document title URL SPACE COUNCIL

1st Space Council,“Orientations from the first http://register.consilium.europa.eu/pdf/en/04 Space Council on the preparation of the Euro- /st15/st15000.en04.pdf pean Space Programme” 25 November 2004 2nd Space Council “Orientations from the sec- http://register.consilium.europa.eu/pdf/en/05 ond Space Council”, 7 June 2005 /st09/st09440.en05.pdf 3rd Space Council,“Orientations from the third http://register.consilium.europa.eu/pdf/en/05 Space Council on Global Monitoring for Environ- /st14/st14499-re01.en05.pdf ment and Security (GMES)” 28 November 2005 4th Space Council “Resolution on the European http://register.consilium.europa.eu/pdf/en/07 Space Policy”, 22 May 2007 /st10/st10037.en07.pdf 5th Space Council Resolution,“Taking forward http://register.consilium.europa.eu/pdf/en/08 the European Space Policy” joint resolution, /st13/st13569.en08.pdf September 2008 6th Space Council Resolution “The Contribution of space to innovation and competitiveness in http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/policies/spac the context of the European Economic Recovery e/files/policy/6th_space_council_en.pdf Plan, and further”, 15 June 2009 7th Space Council Resolution,“Global chal- http://register.consilium.europa.eu/pdf/en/10 lenges: taking full benefit of European space sys- /st16/st16864.en10.pdf tems”, 25 November 2010

EUROPEAN COMMISSION Baveno Manifesto: statement from space agen- NA online cies at Baveno, May 1998. Galileo - Involving Europe in a new generation of satellite navigation services, Communication NA online from the Commission, 10 February 1999. Global Monitoring for Environment and Security; NA online European Commission, SAG/99/3, 12 July 1999. Joint Task Force Report, 5 September 2001. NA online http://eur- ex.europa.eu/smartapi/cgi/sga_doc?smar- European Commission Green Paper on a Euro- tapi!celexplus!prod!DocNum- pean Space Policy, January 2003 ber&lg=en&type_doc=COMfinal&an_doc=2 003&nu_doc=17 http://www.gmes.info/pages- The security dimension of GMES, Position Pa-per principales/library/reference- of the GMES Working Group on security, 29 documents/?no_cache=1&cHash=60dbdb26 September 2003. f0427f32d1a098a98b319d52 European Commission White Paper: Space,A http://eur- new European frontier for an expanding Union – lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/site/en/com/2003 an action plan for implementing the European /com2003_0673en01.pdf Space Policy, November 2003 http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/policies/spac European Community and European Space e/files/policy/euro-pean_communityandeu- Agency: Framework agreement, November 2003 ropeanagencyframeworkagreement_en.pdf Report of the panel of experts on space and http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/policies/spac security, March 2005 e/files/article_2262.pdf European Space Policy, Communication from the http://eur- Commission to the Council and the Euro-pean lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?ur Parliament, 26 April 2007. i=COM:2007:0212:FIN:en:PDF

This project is funded by the European Commission 102 Appendix Document title URL European Space Policy, impact assessment,April http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/policies/spac 2007 e/documents/esp_en.htm European Space Policy Progress Report and http://eur- Elements for a European Strategy for Interna- lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?ur tional Relations in Space, September 2008 i=COM:2008:0561:FIN:en:PDF http://www.gmes.info/pages- Global monitoring for environment and security: principales/library/reference- we care for a safer planet, communication by the documents/?no_cache=1&cHash=8caf820e4 Commission, 12 November 2008. 1ff3d7e8827392098d6dcd0 http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/policies/spac The ambitions of Europe in Space, José Manuel e/files/policy/the_ambitions_of_europe_in_s Durão Barroso, 15th October 2009 pace_en.pdf http://www.europarl.europa.eu/meet- EC/ESA Joint Secretariat Paper Space and docs/2009_2014/documents/sede/dv/sede1 Security, February 2010 70310ecesaspaceandsecurity_/sede170310e cesaspaceandsecurity_en.pdf http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/policies/spac Towards a space strategy for the European e/files/policy/comm_pdf_com_2011_0152_f Union that benefits its citizens, 4th April 2011 _communication_en.pdf EC Financial Framework 2014 - 2020, 4th July http://ec.europa.eu/budget/biblio/docu- 2011 ments/fin_fwk1420/fin_fwk1420_en.cfm

COUNCIL OF THE EUROPEAN UNION European Security Strategy: a secure Europe in a http://www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cm better world, 2003. sUpload/78367.pdf ESDP and Space, 11616/3/04 Council of the http://register.consilium.europa.eu/pdf/en/04 European Union, November 2004. /st11/st11616-re03.en04.pdf Council regulation (EC) N. 1321/2004 of 12 July http://eur- 2004 on the establishment of structures for the lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?ur management of the European satellite radio-navi- i=OJ:L:2004:246:0001:0009:EN:PDF gation programs. Council joint action 2004/552/CFSP 12 July 2004 http://eur- on aspects of the operation of the EU radio-nav- lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?ur igation system affecting the security of the EU. i=OJ:L:2004:246:0030:0031:EN:PDF

European Space Policy: ESDP and space, Council http://register.consilium.europa.eu/pdf/en/04 of the European Union, 16 November 2004 /st11/st11616-re03.en04.pdf Draft initial road map for achieving the steps specified in the European Space Policy: "ESDP http://register.consilium.europa.eu/pdf/en/05 and Space", Council of the European Union, 30 /st09/st09505.en05.pdf May 2005. Generic space system needs for military opera- http://www.europarl.europa.eu/meet- tions, Council of the European Union, 7 Febru- docs/2004_2009/documents/dv/st6920_/st6 ary 2006 (6920/06), EU military committee 920_en.pdf Generic space system needs for civilian Crisis http://www.europarl.europa.eu/meet- management operations, Council of the Euro- docs/2004_2009/documents/dv/st10970_/st pean Union, 27 June 2006 (10970/06) EU com- 10970_en.pdf mittee for civilian crisis management.

Council conclusions and draft code of conduct http://register.consilium.europa.eu/pdf/en/08 for outer space activities, 17/12/2008 /st17/st17175.en08.pdf

This project is funded by the European Commission 103 Appendix

Document title URL EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT Proposition for the Resolution of 25 April 1979 on the Community's participation in space re- NA online search, OJ C 127 of 21.5.1979, p. 42. Resolution of 17 September 1981 on Europe's NA online space policy, OJ C 260 of 12.10.1981, p. 102.

Resolution of 17 June 1987 on Europe's space NA online policy, OJ C 190 of 20.07.1987, p. 78.

Resolution of 22 October 1991 Europe's space NA online policy, OJ C 305 of 25.11.1991, p. 26. Resolution of 6 May 1994 on The Community NA online and Space, OJ C 205 of 25.7.1994, p. 467 http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDo European Parliament Resolution of 10 July 2008 c.do?type=TA&reference=P6-TA-2008- on Space and Security (2008/2030(INI)) 0365&language=EN The European Parliament resolution of 20 No- http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDo vember 2008 on the European space policy How c.do?type=TA&reference=P6-TA-2008- to bring space down to Earth 0564&language=EN

ESA

http://eur- Framework Agreement between the European lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?ur Community and the ESA, 2004 i=OJ:L:2004:261:0064:0068:EN:PDF ftp://ftp.estec.esa.nl/pub2/sgsd/Annexed%20 European space and human security working Reports/Security%20Related%20Document group report, ESA, October 2006 s/ESHS%20Report,%20Complete%20- %20Final,%20091006.pd

EUROPEAN ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COMMITTEE

The opinion published by the European Eco- nomic and Social Committee, proposal of a regu- http://eur- lation of the European Parliament and of the lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?ur Council on the European earth observation pro- i=OJ:C:2010:339:0014:01:EN:HTML grammes (GMES) and its initial operations (2011-2013), 20 January 2010

ESPI

Space Policies, Issues and Trends in 2010/2011, http://www.espi.or.at/images/stories/doku- European Space Policy Institute, 10th June 2011 mente/studies/ESPI_Report_35.pdf

This project is funded by the European Commission 104 Appendix ENDNOTES

1 Action plan available at http://www.africa-eu-partnership.org/partnerships/science- information-society-and-space.

2 Galileo is actually only part of the Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) flagship programme that also includes the European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service (EGNOS), nevertheless Galileo is referred to as a flagship programme in itself throughout the Reference Book.

3 ASD report 2009.This may be an underestimate.A UK national study suggests UK space employment may be twice as large as indicted in the ASD report.

4 ESA, European Space Industry Survey 2003-7, 21070/07/NL/HE, July 2009.

5 “Economic benefits brought by ESA spin-offs” - Study conducted by Bianca Szalai, International Space University (Strasbourg), to be published in the International Astronautical Congress Proceedings in 2011 in South Africa.

6 This table is largely inspired by the work made by ESPI report n°30, Enabling Europe’s Key Foreign Policy Objectives via Space, February 2011 and report n°35, Space Policies, Issues and Trends in 2010/2011, June 2011.

7 For a list of the official documents concerning space please refer to the Appendix of this Reference Book.

8 ESA website.

9 Excerpt from Article II, Purpose, Convention of establishment of a European Space Agency, SP-1271(E), 2003.

10 Remark made by Jose Manuel Durão Barroso, President of the European Commission, 29.06.2011, in the Foreword of the Multiannual Financial Framework 2014-2020 document available online at: http://ec.europa.eu/budget/library/biblio/documents/fin_fwk1420/MFF_COM-2011-500_Part_I_en.pdf

11 Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions – A budget for Europe 2020 – SEC(2011) 867 final and SEC (2011) 868 final. Page 21, 2011.

12 Information taken from the OECD report:The Space Economy at a Glance 2011, published in July 2011 in Paris.

This project is funded by the European Commission 105 Appendix ACRONYMS

ATHENA-FIDUS Access on THeatres and European Nations for Allied forces ATV Automated Transfer Vehicle CoC Code of Conduct CSDP Common Security and Defence Policy DG Directorate General DVB Digital Video Broadcasting EC European Commission ECHO European Commission Humanitarian Office ECV Essential Climate Variable EDA European Defence Agency EGNOS European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service ELDO European Launch Development Organisation ENP European Neighbourhood Policy EO Earth Observation ERS European Remote Sensing ESA European Space Agency ESDP European Security and Defence Policy ESP European Space Policy ESRO European Space Research Organisation ESS European Security Strategy ESTIB European Space Technology and Industrial Base EU European Union EUMETSAT European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites EUSC European Union Satellite Centre GDP Gross Domestic Product GEOSS Global Earth Observation System of Systems GMES Global Monitoring for Environment and Security GNSS Global Navigation Satellite System GPS Global Positioning System IMINT Image Intelligence INSPIRE Infrastructure for Spatial Information in the European Community ISS International Space Station IT Information Technology ITAR International Trade in Armaments Regulation IXV Intermediate eXperimental Vehicle

This project is funded by the European Commission 106 Appendix

MDG Millennium Development Goals MFF Multiyear fundingFramework MS Member States MUSIS MUltinational Space-based Imaging System NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organisation NGL Next Generation Launcher NGO Non-governmental Organisation ORFEO Optical and Radar Federated Earth Observation PPP Public-Private Partnership R&D Research and Development REDD Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation RELEX External Relations SAR Synthetic Aperture Radar SATCOM Satellite Communications SEIS Shared Environmental Information System SIGNIT Signal Intelligence SME Small Medium-sized Enterprise SPOT Satellite Pour l’Observation de la Terre SSA Space Situational Awareness UGS User Ground Segment UN United Nations

This project is funded by the European Commission 107

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