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Mars at the North Pole Houston, We've Got Water!

Mars at the North Pole Houston, We've Got Water!

at the JANUARY / FEBRUARY 2002 $4.95 to the stars North Pole

Houston, We’ve Got Water!

Hey, Are We THE MAGAZINE OF THE ?

Space Food to Go!

Mars on

May/June 2002 ⅷ $4.95 Are we alone?

Our mission is to explore, understand and explain the origin, nature, prevalence and distribution of life in the universe... and we can’t do it alone!

SETI Institute - 2035 Landings Drive - Mountain View, CA 94043 - phone (650) 961-6633 - fax (650) 961-7099 - www.seti.org A SELECT FEW HAVE BEEN ABOA RD... NOW IT S YOUR TURN!

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NARRATED BY TOM CRUISE DIRECTED AND FILMED IN SPACE BY THE AST RO N AU TS OF THE INTERNATIONAL SPACE STA TION IMAX CORPORATION AND CORPORATION PRESENT IN COOPERATION WITH THE NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION “SPACE STATION” NARRATED DIRECTOR OF PHOTOGRAPHY MUSIC ASSOCIATE CONSULTING PRODUCED AND BY TOM CRUISE AND TRAINING JAMES NEIHOUSE BY MICKY ERBE AND MARIBETH SOLOMON PRODUCER JUDY CARROLL PRODUCER GRAEME FERGUSON DIRECTED BY TONI MYERS © 2001 IMAX CORPORATION. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. IMAX® IS A REGISTERED TRADEMARK OF IMAX CORPORATION. W W W.IMAX.CO M DAILY DEPARTURES! GET YOUR TICKET TO SPACE! JANUARY / FEBRUARY 2002 $4.95 to the stars

THE MAGAZINE OF THE NATIONAL SPACE SOCIETY

Volume 14, Number 3 May/June 2002

MODULES

4 Launch Pad

6 Mission Control Space Beat What’s Up? Unconventional Space

42 NSS Board Candidate Statements

53 Space Community

56 Lifting Off

ON THE COVER: An HMP scientist in Hamilton-Sunstrand’s concept space- suit for advanced planetary exploration testing out new information technologies in support of field geology on EVA. Such EVA research for future will continue on the HMP with support provided in part by the National Space Society. Photo: NASA HMP 2001/

AD ASTRA, which means “to the stars” in Latin, is the motto of the National Space Society, an international membership group dedicated to furthering the exploration and development of space. Our bimonthly magazine AD ASTRA is only one of many NSS activities aimed at creating a spacefaring civilization. For more information on NSS call 1-202-543-1900 or visit www.nss.org/ PAYLOAD

12 MARS ON EARTH 30 TWO DRY FOR LIFE: Preparing for Mars in a unique THE AND MARS public/private—and international—setting. Too hostile for Earth microbes, BY PASCAL LEE, SETI INSTITUTE the Atacama is a good simulation of Mars. BY CHRISTOPHER P. M CKAY, NASA 18 EARTH ON MARS 34 HITCHHIKING ON A METEORITE: Bringing a slice of Earth with IS THERE MARS LIFE ON EARTH? us as we explore—and settle—Mars. Q: Are we Martians? BY KEITH COWING, SPACEREF INTERACTIVE BY KEITH COWING, SPACEREF INTERACTIVE

22 “HOUSTON, WE’VE GOT WATER!” 37 : CHICKEN ALA KING ANYONE? A report from the Food traveling into deep space has Lunar and to provide excellent nutrition, be safe, Conference in Houston, Texas. easy to digest, and appealing to the crew. BY PAT DASCH BY LAKSHMI SANDHANA

26 ON MARS: 40 SOLAR SAILS UNDER PRESSURE AND IN HOT WATER The Next Best Way to Get There? Looking for life in extreme environments. BY DIANA WHITMAN BY MICHAEL MEYER, NASA HEADQUARTERS NASA, Pat Rawlings MODULESa

MARS ON The theme of this issue of Ad Astra is “Mars on Earth” — how we can use our planet to get ready to explore Mars. Even though a human to Mars has not been formally EARTH started, people all over the world are preparing for the day when humans will live and work on Mars. Many locations on Earth have characteristics that make them similar to Mars—such locations are referred to as “Mars analogs.” It is in these locations where a wide variety of research projects are underway. There is one substance whose abundance on Mars is crucial if life ever took hold Keith Cowing on this world. Water. The abundance of water will also be a key driver in how humans Guest Editor explore Mars. In “Houston, we’ve got water!” former NSS Executive Director Pat Dasch provides an overview of a recent scientific meeting where the initial results from the Mars Odyssey spacecraft were presented. The preliminary news is promising: it would seem that Mars has a lot of water— and it is everywhere and within easy reach. Despite having a large amount of water, Mars is still an incredibly dry place at the surface. One of the Mars analogs being studied for its potential to help us understand the challenges life might face is the ultra- dry Atacama Desert in America. In “Two dry for life: The Atacama Desert & Mars,” NASA’s Christopher McKay provides an overview of current research as it relates to the search for . One of the planned steps in the current robotic is to return samples to Earth for analysis. This will be a complex and costly mission to undertake. Luckily, nature is way ahead of us and has been throwing rocks from Mars to Earth since the of the solar system. In “Hitchhiking on a Meteorite: Is there Mars Life on Earth?,” I look at how rocks are thrown between worlds—and what the prospects are for life to have made the trip as well. Getting to Mars may be hard, but unraveling the planet’s history will be an equally arduous task. Life, if it is present, may be located in rather hard to reach locations. As such, new technologies need to be devel- oped to conduct this search. In “Astrobiology on Mars: under pressure and in hot water,” NASA’s Michael Meyers provides an introduction to the challenges and possible solutions. Sending humans to Mars in such fashion that they can make the best of the in a safe and productive way is going to require that we do a lot of homework first on Earth. It is one thing to test a piece of hardware or a procedure in the comfort of a lab. It is quite another thing to do this in a hostile, expeditionary environment—one which also resembles the harsh conditions on Mars. In “Mars on Earth: The NASA Haughton-Mars Project,” the SETI Institute’s Pascal Lee looks at the wide range of Mars ana- log research being performed at Haughton Crater located on Canada’s remote . Many Mars mission scenarios include life support systems composed of a mixture of chemical and bio- logical components. In “Earth on Mars: Greenhouses on the Red Planet,” I examine what it would take to build a greenhouse on Mars—and how we might decide some day to make the entire planet habitable through . On to Mars!

Keith Cowing http://www.nss.orhttp://www.nss.ordg /

4 may june 2002 Ad Astra to the stars launch pad

This issue details the exciting work NASA and SETI 600 Pennsylvania Ave., S.E. MARS VIA EARTH? Suite 201 are doing at the literal roof of the world in training , DC 20003 (202) 543-1900 WHY NOT! and planning for future expeditions to the Red Planet. The exciting story of this research gives us all hope that when the time comes and our national http://www.nss.org/ leaders re-commit themselves to exploration at the center of our , the Alison Schutt preliminary stages will have been put in place. NSS strongly supports sending humans beyond Administrative Officer Kirby Ikin Earth’s orbit; it’s a tenet of our roadmap to space. But clearly much work remains to be Vivian Silver done to learn about the radiation, spacecraft designs, propulsion and power, and operational Chairman of the Membership Coordinator Board of Directors issues facing those intrepid explorers of, we hope, the not-too-distant future. Sherry Wilson Direct Marketing / Will it be risky? Certainly. Will it be cheap? No, not likely. But the risks posed by that first voyage can be Chapter Relations Manager significantly reduced by the kinds of research now underway at Devon Island.

JANUARY / FEBRUARY 2002 $4.95 Onward to Mars! And let NSS help lead the way. Ad Astra! to the stars Kirby Ikin THE MAGAZINE OF THE NATIONAL SPACE SOCIETY

Publisher National Space Society

Editor-in-Chief Frank Sietzen, Jr. Officers Kirby Ikin, Chairman of the Board of Directors Daniel Brandenstein, President Guest Editor Keith Cowing Hugh Downs, Chairman of the Board of Governors Gordon Woodcock, Executive Vice President Jeffrey Liss, Senior Vice President Greg Rucker, Vice President of Fundraising Senior Contributing Editor Greg Allison, Vice President of Chapters Jay Wittner, Vice President of Membership John Kross Christopher M. Pancratz, Vice President of Public Affairs Joe Redfield, Treasurer Contributing Columnist and Analyst Mark Hopkins, Secretary Joseph Ausmann, CPA, Assistant Treasurer Taylor Dinerman Bob Gounley, Assistant Secretary Ken Schwetje, General Counsel Copy Editor Jonathan Aretakis Directors Laurence Ahearn Murray Marianne Dyson Michael J. Gilbrook Francis X. Govers Photographer Joe Marino Mark Hopkins Dana Johnson Ronnie Lajoie Brian Lundquist Mackenzie Tim McEgan Clifford McMurray Stewart Nozette Robert Pearlman Karen Savage Art Direction and Graphic Design Charles Walker Alan Wasser Wayne White Simon P. Worden Philip Young Leonard D. Righter Andrew S. Ladson

Advisors Production Services C. J. Cherryh David Criswell Jerry Grey Joe Haldeman Eleanor Helin Mercury Publishing Services, Inc. Mark Holthaus Barbara Marx Hubbard Margaret Jordan Florence Nelson Scott Pace Glenn Stanley G. Rosen Stanley Craig Ward Ad Astra (ISSN 1041-102X) is published bimonthly by the National Space Society. Editorial offices are Governors located at 600 Pennsylvania Ave., SE, Suite 201, Washington, DC 20003-4316. No material in this Buzz Mark Albrecht Robert Allnutt Norman R. Augustine Alan Binder Frank magazine may be reproduced without permission. Ben Bova Bruce Boxleitner Gerald P. Carr Sir Arthur C. Clarke Michael DeBakey Karl Doetsch Periodicals postage paid at Washington, DC, and K. Eric Drexler Freeman Dyson Edward R. Finch Aaron Freeman Don Fuqua Newt Gingrich additional entry. Membership inquiries ($38/yr, $25/yr for students under 22 and senior citizens 65 Peter Glaser Shelley A. Harrison Bob Hope Robert Jastrow and older, $12.50 of which is for a subscription to John Johnson Arthur Kantrowitz John S. Lewis John M. Logsdon James Lovell Robert McCall Ad Astra) should be sent to the National Space Marvin Minsky Kenneth Money Jack Olson Frederick I. Ordway III Bill Pogue Society, 600 Pennsylvania Ave., SE, Suite 201, Washington, DC 20003-4316. Postmaster: Send Majel Barrett Neil Ruzic Frederick Seitz John B. Slaughter address changes to Ad Astra, 600 Pennsylvania James A. Van Allen Maria von Braun Glen P. Wilson James B. Wyeth Ave., SE, Suite 201, Washington, DC 20003-4316.

to the stars Ad Astra may june 2002 5 MODULESa

DAY TRIPPIN’ TO SPACE U.S. businessmen and Russian engi- neers have announced plans to take day-trippers to new heights aboard MISSION the first space plane designed exclu- sively for suborbital sightseeing. CONTROL About 100 thrill seekers have already

spacebeat booked seats onboard the Cos- Space Adventures, Ltd. BY JOHN KROSS mopolis-XXI (C-21) suborbital plane, for everyone! said Eric , CEO of Space what’s up Adventures, a Virginia-based compa- many months of grueling preparation programs from Mercury BY ASTRO-USU ny working with Russia’s Suborbital for conventional spaceflights. to the . “All of us at unconventional space Corporation on the project. At Sightseeing flights are slated to start KSC are saddened by the loss of BY CLARK S. LINDSEY $100,000 a pop, the price of a ticket in just two to three years because George,” said KSC Director Roy to ride the snub-nosed rocket plane the craft will use engines already Bridges. “His leadership set the is but a sliver of the hefty $20 million designed for Russian ballistic mis- standard of excellence, and his con- price tag for an eight-day trip to the siles and life-support and safety sys- tribution to human spaceflight con- International Space Station. tems developed for the Soviet Buran tinues to be felt with each succes- Plans call for the C-21, carrying a space shuttle. “All the background sive mission. We are thankful for his pilot and two paying passengers, to material, everything has been done. great legacy.” be piggybacked on top of a carrier It is just a matter of time,” according Page joined NASA in June 1963 airplane to an altitude of 19,000 to Anderson. as a spacecraft test conductor on the meters. Once released, the minivan- Some estimates suggest the Gemini Program, and subsequently sized ship will light solid rocket suborbital space tourist market could became chief spacecraft test con- engines that will propel it to about generate annual revenues of over $1 ductor for Gemini and launch 96 kilometers. After three minutes of billion. “We know the potential mar- operations. He also served as chief , the C-21 will slide ket is huge,” said Anderson. “We lit- of the Spacecraft Operations into the atmosphere and land erally have people waiting to go who Division for Apollo, , and like a conventional plane. During the have already paid us, who have said Apollo- Test Project launch brief sojourn into space, the compa- (they) want to be the first to fly . . . operations. During his tenure as ny promises rubbernecked space after today, we’ll have twice as many Director of KSC Shuttle Operations rookies stunning vistas and the expe- clients.” beginning in 1979, he was the rience of a lifetime. Launch Director for the first three

“A passenger will experience PASSING OF GEORGE PAGE Space Shuttle missions.

weightlessness and enjoy the view CLOSES LONG CHAPTER

of Earth from space,” said Valery George Page, deputy director of the POSTCARDS FROM THE EDGE Novikov, head designer at the (KSC) from More than 30 years after leaving Myasishchev Design Bureau, the 1982 until 1984, died last February at Earth’s gravitational embrace, the firm developing the ship for Space the age of 77. Page’s passing closes plucky probe Pioneer 10 has sent a Adventures. “It will be a grandiose a long chapter in a personal history long-distance postcard from the experience,” he promised. The C-21’s that extended back to the early edge of the solar system. Scientists backers say their suborbital shuttle space program. During the course of at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory’s requires passengers to undergo only his aerospace career, Page was (JPL) Deep Space Network in a few days of training in contrast to involved in all of the U.S. human sent a deep space saluta-

6 may Ⅲ june 2002 Ad Astra to the stars mission control space beat tion to the spacecraft, which is still from Earth as Pluto, and is headed may have a soft heart, the two bod- hurtling toward the fringes of the toward the constellation Taurus, ies seem to be slowly parting amid a solar system, and heard . . . 22 hours where it will pass the nearest star in less intimate gravitational embrace. later . . . Pioneer’s long-distance the constellation in about two mil- Scientists who analyze the data from reply. “The signal was loud and clear, lion years. The clarity of Pioneer’s the Lunar Laser Ranging Experiment and I’d like to say this contact latest broadcast probably means have determined that, like an worked like a charm,” said Pioneer that signals from spacecraft can be estranged couple, the is dis- 10 Project Manager Larry Lasher of detected for at least another year. tancing itself from Earth while the NASA’s Ames Research Center. “As Earth is changing shape. an eternal optimist, I was confident LUNAR LOVE NUMBERS SAY it would succeed. Pioneer 10 has MOON’S HEART MELTED ODYSSEY UNVEILS VAST been discounted in the past, but The chaste face of Diana, which WATER DEPOSITS somehow it always manages to land nightly watches over spooning Findings from the newest visitor to on its feet.” lovers, may hide a melted heart after the Red Planet, NASA’s Mars Launched 2 March 1972, Pioneer all. Luna Love numbers—measures Odyssey spacecraft, suggest that 10’s original 21-month mission has of how much a planet’s surface and Mars’ dry exterior may hide vast improbably stretched three decades interior move in response to the underground ice deposits. For many and now spans 11.9 billion kilome- gravitational pull of nearby bodies— years scientists have speculated that ters. During its long-distance trek, suggest that the Moon has molten near-surface water existed on Mars. Pioneer 10 became the first space- slush surrounding its core. “Since we Now, initial measurements by a craft to pass through the can’t go inside the Moon, we have to gamma-ray spectrometer and other belt and the first to image Jupiter at use indirect methods to learn its hid- instruments show the presence of close range. In 1983, Pioneer 10 den secrets. In this case we were significant amounts of hydrogen, became the first human-made object able to use the tidal distortion of the which are most likely due to water to leave the solar system when it Moon,” said James Williams, a ice, in the South Polar Region. “The research scientist at JPL. Getting to the heart of the mat- ter and measuring the Moon’s tidal bulges relies on laser pulses aimed like Cupid’s arrow at retroreflectors left on the surface 30 years ago by U.S. and Russian missions. The Pioneer 10. round-trip travel time provides the distance between the two bodies— passed the orbit of Pluto, the most within 2 centimeters—and allows distant planet from the Sun. Not con- scientists to determine Moon’s elas- tent to sit on its laurels, the intrepid ticity, and thus provide clues to space pioneer continued to make material under the surface. The valuable scientific investigations in newly calculated Love numbers sup- the outer regions of the solar system port the idea, first suggested by until its science mission ended in scientists, that a par- March 1997. tially melted zone lies above the The Methuselah of missions is core. now in galactic orbit, twice as far While the Earth’s companion Mars Odyssey. to the stars Ad Astra may Ⅲ june 2002 7 mission control space beat MODULESa signal we have been getting loud CHUNKS OF MARS HERE AND While visitors from Mars drop in of volcanic fissures in the Athabasca and clear is there is a lot of ice on THERE unannounced, NASA is planning a Valles region, just north of the equa- Mars,” said William Boynton of the Five more chunks of the Red Planet return visit in 2003 albeit with some- tor. Scientists hypothesize that the University of Arizona, and chief sci- have been unearthed by terrestrial thing more sophisticated than a lump water may have been pushed up by entist for the ice-measuring instru- meteorite hunters scouring deserts of rock. A pair of $700 million Mars geothermal heat from geysers. ment. from Morocco to . “There Exploration Rovers is slated to land “This is a completely different The water probably accounts for is an unusual number of Antarctic on the Red Planet and they won’t just water release mechanism than pre- just a few percent by mass of the Mars meteorites being reported,” plop down on any plot of red dirt. A viously studied on Mars,” said Devon surface of Mars, but covers a vast observed Ron Baalke of NASA’s Jet landing site steering committee con- Burr, a University of Arizona doctoral area that stretches from the frozen vened by the U.S. space agency has candidate. “What’s different here is southern polar cap northward to polled the science and engineering that this is recent, and the about 60 degrees south latitude. The communities and whittled down the water source is nothing like we have artesian deposits are believed to number of potential landing sites for on Earth,” Burr said. “The water here consist of ice mixed with dirt, dust the pair of rovers from 200 to four. gushed from volcano-tectonic fis- and rock that form the top one meter Among the potential landing sures. While the fissures themselves of the planet’s surface. “The prelimi- NASA zones are Meridiani in the may be older, the latest eruption of nary assessment of the gamma-ray ALH84001, discovered in 1984 in southern highlands, which might water was probably only about 10 spectrometer data indicates the like- Allan Hills ice field, Antarctica. contain hematite material deposited million years ago.” Because the ly presence of hydrogen in the upper Propulsion Laboratory, who keeps by water in a sedimentary process, floodwater was released over per- few feet of the ,” count of Martian meteorites. Just a and the floor of crater, which meable lava, much of it may still per- said Jim Garvin, Lead Scientist of the fraction of one percent of all mete- may have been smoothed by stand- sist in the Plains as shallow at NASA orites come from Mars, so the popu- ing water. Another possible site is ground ice, making it an important Headquarters. lation explosion in Mars rocks is Melas , one of the most dis- target for future Mars exploration. a “These preliminary Odyssey mostly attributable to motivated tinctive features in the Valles observations are the ‘tip of the ice- meteorite scavengers. “People are Marineris canyon system. “The berg’ of the science results that are out there hunting like crazy,” said [landing] ellipse fits nicely inside soon to come, so stay tuned,” added Marilyn Lindstrom, who once served there so there’s no worry about hit- UNIVERSITY OF Garvin. Mars Odyssey is slated to as the meteorite curator at NASA’s ting the [canyon] walls,” said Matt BOULDER, COLORADO map the chemical and elemental Johnson Spaceflight Center Golombek, Mars exploration pro- makeup of the Martian surface and The new meteorites are believed gram landing site scientist at JPL. hunt for water and hot springs that to be visitors from Mars based on The rovers can expect a more rocky could indicate geothermal activity. their telltale iron-manganese and reception at the fourth site, Isidis Another instrument, designed to oxygen isotope compositions. These Planetia, an apparent drainage spot THE measure the planet’s radioactive chemical signs tie the rocks to the at the foot of nearby mountains. environment and the risks it may first discovered Martian meteorites All of the “final four” potential MARS pose for any future , has that contained small bubbles of landing sites have been shaped in SOCIETY This summer, over 1,000 scientists, engi- malfunctioned, but initial measure- Martian atmosphere—the surest some fashion by water early in Mars’ neers, philosophers, explorers, busi- nessmen, politicians and other citizens ments made during Odyssey’s cruise sign that a meteorite is from Mars. In history. However, recent evidence will join together to further the explo- ration and settlement of Mars by both phase suggest that the daily dose of all, the new meteorites bring to 24 from photos taken by Mars Global public and private means. BE THERE! radiation experienced by astronauts the number of fragments of the Red Surveyor points to great floods at Call For Papers... on their way from Earth to Mars Planet that have been found on Earth Mars’ equator in the relatively recent Papers for presentation at the convention are requested would be more than twice the dose after being blasted off the Red past. In the floods, hundreds of cubic dealing with all matters associated with the exploration and endured by astronauts on the Planet by impacts of or kilometers of water, possibly more settlement of Mars. Abstracts of no more than 300 words International Space Station. comets. water than in Lake Erie, poured out should be sent by June 15, 2002 to:

8 may Ⅲ june 2002 2002Ad Astra to the stars mission control what’s up

WHAT’S UP? BY ASTRO USU Name Date Launch Launch Period Incl Apogee Perigee 2001 Vehicle Site (min) (°) (KM) (KM) 2-3 Jan 16 4B-38 Cape Canaveral N o data available Insat 3C Jan 23 1351.60 0.2 35783 32447 MDS-1 Feb 4 H2A Tanegashima 634.80 28.5 35961 485 HESSI Feb 5 Pegasus XL Cape Canaveral 96.60 38.0 608 579 Iridium A Feb 11 Delta II Vandenberg 97.40 86.6 643 628 Iridium B Feb 11 Delta II Vandenberg 97.40 86.6 643 628 Iridium C Feb 11 Delta II Vandenberg 97.40 86.6 642 627 Iridium D Feb 11 Delta II Vandenberg 97.40 86.6 642 627 Iridium E Feb 11 Delta II Vandenberg 97.40 86.6 642 626 Echostar VII Feb 21 IIIB Cape Canaveral 1516.20 5.1 56978 17701 Feb 23 Ariane 42L Kourou 1292.10 0.2 35745 30091 Cosmos 2387 Feb 25 Soyuz U Plesetsk 88.30 67.1 220 158 Feb 28 Ariane 5G Kourou 100.61 98.6 791 785

January 2002 10 January: For the second time in a month, NASA delayed the planned launch ray flares during the spacecraft’s planned two-year mission. The HESSI launch of a servicing mission. Shuttle Columbia and a crew of was delayed about thirty minutes because of communication problems. After an seven astronauts are now slated to blast off 28 February on a mission to outfit aborted attempt, mission managers restarted the countdown, fixed the problem, the flagship telescope with new solar arrays, a critical power switching unit and and executed a successful attempt. an advanced planetary camera. The flight was initially pushed back a week so 11 February: Boeing affirmed that the launch of a Delta II rocket from that engineers could ready a spare for one of four actuators that play a key role Vandenberg Air Force base was a complete success. Five Iridium spacecraft in precisely pointing the telescope at celestial targets. The spare, however, was- were deployed into Earth orbit. These additional joined seven existing n’t delivered to Kennedy Space Center until early February, a fact that prompted in-orbit spares to help enhance the longevity of its global voice and data com- mission managers to slip the launch until the end of February. munications network. The five satellites-Iridium A, Iridium B, Iridium C, Iridium D, 16 January: Lockheed Martin’s Titan 4B-38 launched from Cape Canaveral, and Iridium E-have ascended into their assigned orbits and are fully functional. releasing the US Air Force communications Milstar Flt-5 into geosta- 21 February: The EchoStar broadcast satellite launched successfully tionary orbit. The satellite will be stationed over European longitudes. from Cape Canaveral. The EchoStar, designed by Lockheed Martin Commercial 23 January: launched an Ariane 42L from Kourou, . Space Systems for EchoStar Orbital Corporation, flew aboard an Atlas IIIB rock- The rocket placed the Insat 3C in geostationary trans- et. Five sister EchoStar craft are currently flying 22,300 miles above Earth. fer orbit. Insat 3C is an Indian communications satellite and carries 30 C-band EchoStar will join these craft after advancing into a circular . and 2 S-band transponders. 23 February: An Intelsat telecommunications satellite was launched from an 30 January: The aging Extreme Explorer (EUVE) spacecraft safely re- rocket. Liftoff took place from the French Guiana Space Center. The entered the atmosphere. Unlike the retired Compton Gamma Ray Observatory satellite will provide services such as Internet, telephone, and television for that NASA safely guided from the sky into the ocean in 2000, the EUVE didn’t countries in , , , and . have an onboard steering system. However, NASA scientist were right in their 25 February: The Soyuz-U with Cosmos 2387 military prediction that the satellite would end up broken into small pieces at the bottom satellite launched from the Plesetsk Cosmodrome in northern Russia. This imag- of an ocean. EUVE was launched from Cape Canaveral in 1992. ing mission marks Russia’s first launch this year. 27 February: A cold front delayed the planned launch of Space Shuttle Columbia February 2002 until 1 March. Columbia’s high-risk mission is to revamp the Hubble telescope. 4 February: The Japanese H-2A rocket launched successfully from the The previous launch time was set for February 28 from Cape Canaveral, but Tanegashima Space Center’s Yoshinubu complex. The rocket was carrying the NASA officials say that the likelihood of Columbia launching on 1 March is Mission Demonstration Satellite (MDS-1). The Japanese application’s space around 80 percent. agency NASDA developed the H-2A rocket. The MDS-1 has a space environment 28 February: The Envisat satellite, aboard an rocket, blasted off from experiment that will monitor heavy ions and magnetic fields. the Ariane Space Center in French Guiana, marking a return to flight after last 5 February: The Pegasus XL rocket carrying NASA’s High Energy Solar summer’s failed mission. The Envisat satellite will observe oceans, atmosphere, Spectroscopic Imager (HESSI) solar telescope launched successfully from Cape land, and the Earth’s ice caps. This remote sensing mission seeks to gather infor- Canaveral. HESSI is a Spectrum Astro satellite that comes from the SA-200S mation on how the climate transforms over time and to gather facts on what is design. It has a mass of 304 kg and carries a rotating modulation collimator causing these changes to occur. a transform telescope. Scientists hope to capture hundreds of X-ray and gamma to the stars Ad Astra may Ⅲ june 2002 9 MODULESa

In the future, amateur space enthusi- ways to participate in space develop- er and remote sensing satellites. For a AMATEUR SPACERS? asts will place satellites into orbit and ment and exploration. modest investment in a suitable short- BY CLARK S. LINDSEY communicate with them from garage The most impressive examples of wave receiver, an antenna and some ground stations. They will launch high amateur accomplishments in space software, you can convert your PC into altitude rockets and design passenger are the AMSAT satellites. The first a satellite ground station. carrying sub-orbital vehicles. They amateur satellite, OSCAR 1, was Yes, I know. You can download will buy tourist trips to the Space launched in 1961, just four years after satellite images directly off the web. Station. They will direct spacecraft Sputnik 1. Over 30 amateur satellites But it’s just not the same! orbiting other planets and participate have since reached orbit. The AMSAT With your tracking program you in the scientific exploration of our program originated in the Ham radio watch your target satellite, typically a solar system. They will create won- community and includes chapters NOAA polar orbiter, approach your derful works of art and music inspired around the world. location. You listen to your receiver by space exploration. Working in basements and while wondering if you’ve down- Today’s space enthusiasts, in fact, garages, volunteers built most of the loaded the right orbital parameters participate right now in not only these AMSAT orbiters, usually with equip- from NORAD and if the receiver is exciting space activities but in many ment donated for free. Though small properly tuned. others as well. Regardless of age, edu- and cheap, the satellites have made Sure enough, just when the satel- cation, or location, you can find all kinds significant contributions to space tech- lite was predicted to rise above the of great “space stuff” to do. nology. For example, they were the first horizon you hear its signature tick-tock I’m speaking here, in particular, to demonstrate the “piggyback” tech- sound. You rush frantically to start the about hobbies and activities that direct- nique in which a small satellite gets a program that uses the sound card to ly involve, or are inspired by, humanity’s free ride on the launch of a major pay- decode the signal. Soon you see the exploration and development of space. load in place of ballast. They also pio- picture unfolding one pixel line at a So while astronomy is, of course, the neered techniques for digital store-and- time as the satellite swings its camera original space hobby, observing low forward messaging and Doppler loca- back and forth across its ground path. orbiting spacecraft, such as the Space tion techniques for search and rescue. It’s sure a lot more fun than visiting Station, by telescope or the unaided Furthermore, the amateur space- the CNN weather page! Tracking and eye, is a new and exciting variation. crafts demonstrated the serious capa- scanning of satellites brings a wonder- Amateurs led the way to space bilities of small satellites when it was ful feeling of interaction and involve- during the early decades of the 20th generally believed that only large satel- ment with the great space infrastruc- century when government funding was lites could provide significant services. ture around us. nearly non-existent. Organized in rocket Today there are numerous “small-sat” Traditional model rocketry devel- and space societies, they built and projects, especially at universities, that oped in the 1950s with an emphasis launched rockets as well as helped follow the AMSAT low cost model. on teaching young people about rock- develop the theory and techniques of Hams also carry out a number of ets and science. The rockets were space flight. other space activities such as commu- small and used very safe, factory built The huge and expensive govern- nicating with astronauts and cosmo- motors. Today the rockets are still ment space programs of the post war nauts in orbit. A Ham radio station very safe but they have grown into period, though, led to the common recently opened for business on the big adult toys. impression that there was nothing Space Station. High power rocketry enthusiasts about space with which the general You don’t need a Ham license, now build rockets meters in length and public could relate. But beneath the though, to receive spacecraft transmis- launch them to thousands of meters in media radar, amateur space enthusi- sions. For example, a fun hobby is to altitude. In fact, when clubs meet for asts continued to find new and fun download images directly from weath- launchings they need high altitude

10 may Ⅲ june 2002 Ad Astra to the stars mission control unconventional space

Onboard , astro- the summer of 2000 assembling the naut Linda M. Godwin uses habitat and new volunteer teams will the Shuttle Amateur Radio return each summer to develop tech- Experiment (SAREX) to com- municate with Hams and nology and techniques for human students on Earth. exploration of Mars. There are many other such hobbies and activities that involve us with space such as rocket and spacecraft scale modeling, development of hardware and software space simulators, download- NASA, JSC ing spy satellite images of our cities, the waivers from the FAA to avoid interfer- and covers to autographs of astronauts carry selected student drawings and SETI@Home project, and more. ing with passing aircraft! and cosmonauts to space toys to any- paintings of their vision of a flag to rep- Even is on the verge Some advanced rocketry clubs go thing actually flown in space. Even the resent earth. of becoming a reality. Dennis Tito, a the next step and build custom rockets famous Christie’s has held several Music is another creative pursuit space enthusiast since childhood, has to attack amateur high altitude records. space memorabilia auctions. where enthusiasts make their own gained great attention with his $20 mil- The Reaction Research Society built a The ultimate space collectible is a space inspired compositions. There lion quest for a week in space. Other cit- 2-stage vehicle that sent in 1996 a pay- piece of the moon. US law forbids pri- have been space music contests, as izen explorers have paid to ride a cos- load over 50 miles high, the official US vate possession of lunar material col- well, sponsored by groups like the NSS monaut training airplane that flies a par- boundary of space. lected by the Apollo astronauts but inci- and the . abolic path to create periods of weight- While amateurs are not quite with- dental dust found on surplus items is In astronomy, amateurs have long lessness. A US company has taken a in reach of building passenger rockets, permitted. For example, the astronauts made serious contributions. For exam- number of reservations for a vehicle they can contribute to the cause. About were allowed to keep the nametags ple, they are often the first to spot pre- that will provide sub-orbital rides to twenty teams have registered for the X- from their spacesuits. It was only dis- viously unknown comets and asteroids. 100km by the end of this decade. Prize competition to build a reusable covered later that the tags from the In space science, as well, there are For too long the public has viewed sub-orbital crewed vehicle. Several of Moon walkers’ suits were impregnated now opportunities for amateur partici- space as a spectator sport played these groups welcome help from with dust. A nametag from Jim Irwin’s pation. JPL and , entirely by members of a distant and skilled amateurs willing to volunteer Apollo 15 suit was bought at a for example, recently arranged for sev- remote government-industrial complex. their talents and labor. Christie’s auction in 1999 for $310,500! eral students, winners of an essay com- It’s time to get out the word that regu- Just as there are history buffs Collecting space art is growing in petition, to direct the cameras on the lar folk can do space stuff. obsessed with the American Civil War popularity as well. Original works by and analyze the An interest in space can go beyond or the Wild West period, there are those famous artists such as Chesley images. There will be similar projects watching videos of the astronauts on who immerse themselves in space his- and Robert McCall draw pre- to control future rovers on Mars. the shuttle or gazing at sci-fi renderings tory. The great number of personal web mium prices. Astronaut turned artist, Most NASA and ESA projects now of what might be “someday”. You can sites devoted to space history attests to Alan Bean adds a bonus to his paint- include outreach efforts to involve stu- actually do something yourself that is the intense interest it inspires. Some ings - he mixes a bit of moon dust from dents and the general public. One fun and captivating and, moreover, sites are vast encyclopedias of general his nametag into the paint. online NASA project, for example, brings a real sense of participation in space historical information, while oth- Amateur artists also create won- allows public participants to help mark humanity’s great space adventure. a ers concentrate on a single topic such derful space art and many present their and classify craters on Mars. as the lunar landing module. work on the web. Space art contests The Mars Society has established CLARK S. LINDSEY IS THE CREATOR OF

Collecting a bit of space history has are helping to raise the visibility of this a prototype Mars base on Devon Island HOBBYSPACE.COM, A WEB SITE DEVOTED also become a popular, and potentially marvelous pursuit, especially with in the Canadian Arctic where the envi- TO SPACE RELATED HOBBIES AND lucrative, hobby. Space collectibles young people. For example, the ESA ronment is about as close to Mars as ACTIVITIES. HE CAN BE CONTACTED AT range from mission patches to stamps Envisat remote sensing satellite will can be found on earth. Volunteers spent [email protected] to the stars Ad Astra may Ⅲ june 2002 11 MARS ON EARTH: THE NASA HAUGHTON-MARS PROJECT Preparing for Mars in a unique public/private—and international—setting. BY PASCAL LEE, SETI INSTITUTE

thousand miles or so from the Earth’s North SETTING THE STAGE APole lies our planet’s largest uninhabited island, It is hard to tell when Devon Island became an Devon Island. To the Inuit of in this part of island, but the rocks that form the landmass today the Canadian high Arctic, the island is known as are mostly ancient seabed material ranging from 570 Taallujutit Qikiktagna or Jaw Bone Island. Devon to 35 millions years in age. The sediments (mostly Island is home to one of the highest-latitude impact carbonates) are resting on an even older crystalline structures known on Earth, Haughton Crater. At 20 basement 2.5 billion years old. Taking this into kilometers in diameter the crater formed 23 million account, the Haughton impact was a recent event. years ago, at the beginning of the Miocene, when an During the Miocene, the region’s climate was much asteroid or a comet collided with our planet. warmer than it is today. Boreal forests of conifers and Every summer since 1997, I have journeyed to birch trees covered the land. Giant rabbits and small Devon Island with colleagues and students from ancestral rhinos roamed. Local streams and lakes many horizons to study the natural wonders of teemed with fish. Earth—and Mars, by comparison. We also test out All of this changed in an instant. new technologies and strategies that will help us The object that struck Devon Island was perhaps explore Mars and other reaches of space in the future, 1 kilometer (0.6 mile) in diameter. Coming in at cos- with both robots and humans. Our research project mic speeds, the impactor delivered a pulse of energy is called the NASA Haughton-Mars Project or HMP. equivalent to 100 million kilotons of TNT. In so Little imagination is required to believe oneself doing, it produced a blinding flash of light followed on Mars when exploring Devon Island. Many fea- by a monumental air blast that flattened the sur- tures and sites there are strikingly reminiscent of the roundings, obliterating almost all life several hun- Marco Lee (left) and Martian landscape, from barren rocky blockfields to dred kilometers around. As the dust cleared, a smol- Pascal Lee rappelling intricate valley networks, from precipitous winding dering hole filled with a vast pool of chunky molten down a cliff face in canyons to recent gully systems on their slopes. We carbonates appeared. Haughton Crater was . simulated spacesuits come here to understand whether this resemblance is (made by Mars Society merely a coincidence or whether there are common IN SEARCH OF MARS ANALOGS volunteers) for a TV underlying causes. Did some of the processes that To be sure, no place on Earth is truly like Mars. documentary sequence. shaped Devon Island also operate on Mars? Antarctica is the coldest and driest continent on our

12 may Ⅲ june 2002 Ad Astra to the stars planet and remains in many ways of unique value to The HMP is managed by the SETI Institute, my Mars analog studies. But no positively identified home institution and the largest private space impact structure is known to exist there. Alaska, research organization in the world. Co-investigators Arizona, Hawaii, Utah, Iceland, the Atacama Desert, and other participants from a wide variety of govern- the Altiplano, the Negev, the Sahara, the Gobi, and ment agencies in the U.S., Canada, and other coun- the Tibetan Plateau, to name but a few classic sites, tries, universities and research institutions, private all present Mars analog aspects. However none of industrial partners, corporations, space interest these locations possess the full gamut of Martian groups (including the NSS) and exploration societies characteristics. contribute each year to the project’s field activities. Background image: NASA HMP 2001/Kelly Snook Each summer, tens of researchers, students, sup- THE NASA HAUGHTON-MARS PROJECT port staff and visiting media join in on field activities. Early research efforts at Haughton focused on studies At any given time only 30 people or so are admitted of the crater itself with investigations into a possible at the field site. A core team of ten individuals Mars analog angle remaining unexplored. I spends the entire summer on Devon Island while approached Chris McKay at NASA Ames Research other co-Investigators and visitors rotate in and out Center to do just that. With his visionary support, I for shorter stays. obtained in 1997 a grant from the National Research Substantial logistical support is also provided by Council to visit Haughton Crater. As a result, a four- the Marine Corps who view the person team traveled to Devon Island in August of HMP in part as a valuable training opportunity. that year. Comprising this initial field party were Since 1999, Marine C-130 crews have supported James W. Rice, Jr. (at that time based at NASA Ames, the NASA HMP with the successful transportation now at Arizona State University), John W. Schutt and delivery of tens of tons of mission critical cargo (chief field guide for the U.S. Antarctic Search for including all manner of expeditionary gear, research Meteorites program), Aaron Zent (NASA Ames), and equipment, exploration vehicles, and field supplies. myself. The site proved interesting beyond our wildest This is done via the airborne delivery of parachute- dreams. Not just one, but also several features were equipped cargo pallets. These “paradrops” on found that might serve as potential Mars analogs. Devon are among the highest latitude drops ever This initial reconnaissance trip led to what is performed by the Marines and are often done under today the NASA Haughton-Mars Project, an inter- extreme conditions. Twin Otter cargo airplanes national interdisciplinary field research project com- chartered from local flight operators are also used to prising both a science and an exploration program. fly cargo and personnel from the hamlet of Resolute The HMP science program focuses on learning more Bay (on Cornwallis Island) to the HMP Base Camp about Mars and the Earth, impact cratering on plan- and back. ets, and life in extreme environments. Astrobiology might be the best term summing up the focus of our science studies at Haughton. The HMP exploration program, built around the science program, seeks to develop new technologies, strategies, and experience with human factors that will help plan the future exploration of Mars (and other planets too) by both robots and humans. The HMP, now in its sixth year and with five consecutive field seasons in the Arctic, continues its research activities on Devon Island. The project draws its core funding from NASA but is actually a collaborative government-private joint venture with substantial support (almost half) contributed from non-NASA sources. It should be added that NASA- funded research on the HMP is not specific to NASA HMP 2000/Mark Webb preparing a . While the General view of the NASA HMP Base Camp, with "Tent City" in the foreground and science program has a strong Mars flavor, the explo- "Downtown" in the middle ground. The prominent rock feature beyond Downtown ration program is generic in its applicability to plan- is known as "The Fortress". In the distance (upper right in photo), on Haynes Ridge, etary and space exploration. is the Mars Society's Flashline Mars Arctic Research Station. to the stars Ad Astra may Ⅲ june 2002 13 mal activity at Haughton Crater helps us assess the biological potential of similar sites on Mars as well as on other planets. Impact-induced hot springs would have been places where liquid water and warmth would have coexisted, if only for short periods. As such, they are places where life, perhaps imported from elsewhere, might have gained a foothold and thrived. Haughton Crater also once contained a lake—or, to be more precise—a network of water bodies whose shapes evolved over the course of time. These bodies of water formed very shortly after the crater’s formation and may have lasted only a few million years. Although the lake waters are long gone, sediments were laid down that are beautifully preserved. These NASA HMP 2000/Mark Webb paleolakebeds represent the only sedimentary record Airborne synthetic aperture radar image of Haughton Crater. of the Miocene preserved on our planet in the Arctic. As such, they provide us with a unique view of what GROUND ICE:AN ENABLER OF HUMAN EXPLORATION conditions in the Arctic were like 23 million years ago. The ground-ice on Devon Island and indeed across the high Arctic represents an important repository of USING HAUGHTON CRATER TO freshwater and, as suggested by known examples REVEAL ANCIENT MARTIAN CLIMATE from Siberia, might even trap a biological record cov- Taken in a broad context, the overall amount of ero- ering several million years. Recent neutron spec- sion we find at Haughton Crater might be telling us trometry data from the Mars Odyssey spacecraft pro- something important about Mars. In spite of vide startling possible evidence that ground-ice is Haughton’s young age compared with that of many abundantly present at shallow depth in the Martian similar-size craters on Mars, it is far less well pre- subsurface (within the top few meters), particularly served than its Martian counterparts, most of which at high latitudes. While the findings of the orbiter’s are probably between 2.5 and 3.8 billion years old. science team remain preliminary, it appears that At the very least, the cumulative effect of erosion on ground-ice might also be found at shallow depth at Mars in the past 2.5 billion years appears to have low latitudes in specific areas. If confirmed, this been less than that experienced by Haughton in the could have important implications both for the Arctic over the past 23 million years. search for life on Mars and for planning future Thus, average erosion rates have probably been human endeavors on the planet. Our studies of over 100 times slower on Mars than in the Arctic on ground-ice on Devon could help plan for these excit- Earth. This would lead one to expect that if Mars was ing activities. ever wet and warm at any point over the past 2.5 bil- lion years at least, it was probably not so for very ANCIENT HOT SPRINGS AND LAKES long. Otherwise, more erosion would be in evidence In addition to subsurface ice deposits, Haughton on Mars. Crater also offers remnant signatures of ancient hydrothermal activity—evidence for which was only WATER AND ICE ON MARS recently uncovered by our HMP team. These hot Many features outside of Haughton Crater itself are spring features were powered by the tremendous also contributing to solving, and sometimes deepen- amount of heat dumped into the surrounding rocks ing, the mysteries that Mars presents to us. at the time of impact. While the impact-induced Networks of channels found on Devon Island hydrothermal activity has long ceased, the hydrother- bear similarities to the so-called Martian small valley mal sites are preserved in almost pristine condition, networks. On Mars, most of these features date back having been spared substantial weathering due to the to the end of the “Heavy Bombardment” (a period of increasingly frigid climate that has prevailed in the high impact rates early in the history of the solar sys- Arctic since the Miocene. tem). Some of these features are also found on more Understanding the nature, evolution, location, recent Martian terrains such as the flanks of relative- and preserved record of impact-induced hydrother- ly young volcanoes.

14 may Ⅲ june 2002 Ad Astra to the stars The surface of Devon Island has been carved by ganisms themselves have died, the biofilms they pro- a multitude of small valley networks that bear an duced can remain intact. This could serve as the basis uncanny resemblance, including in their bizarreness, for one of the ways we might search for past life on to the many small valley networks on Mars. Mars. Through high-resolution remote sensing, Curiously, when you consider the classical explana- instruments could search for the telltale signatures of tions for Martian small valley networks, the Devon resistant biological compounds, which putative Island networks formed neither by rainfall, ground- microorganisms might have evolved to survive in the water or ground-ice release, or mud flow. Rather, planet’s harsh UV-drenched near-surface environ- they were formed by the melting of vast ice covers ment. that once occupied the land above the material exposed at the surface today. While not settling the mystery of past climates on Mars, our work on Devon Island is offering new interpretations for many of the planet’s so-called “flu- vial” landforms. Our research suggests that surface ice deposits on Mars may have played a much greater role throughout Martian history than has been sus- pected in the past. There are many other features on Devon Island with eerily similar counterparts on Mars, including vast canyons and small gullies. In the end, it is per- haps not any single parallel that should impress, but the convergence of so many in a single small area of our planet. Without loosing sight of the fact that no single Mars analog on Earth can be considered ideal (it depends a lot on what one wants to study), Devon

Island has come to be described by many as, and NASA JPL/MSSS granted with much exaggeration, “Mars on Earth.” Gully system on Devon Island [above] similar in morphology, scale, and context

LIFE AT THE EDGE (they form preferentially along the cold, north-facing walls of valleys) to some of Devon Island is also astonishing by virtue of the the recent gully systems reported on Mars [below]. The gullies on Devon result resilience of the life that can be found there. Life in from the repeated melting year after year of seasonal snow or secular surface ice polar deserts usually persists at the edge of what is deposits that accumulate and linger in the nooks and crannies of rocky bluffs possible. Liquid water is rare—as are essential nutri- along the top part of canyon walls. Might the not have formed by ents. Our studies of microbial life at Haughton groundwater seepage or ground-ice melting (prevailing hypotheses), but by a Crater, led by HMP chief biologist Charles Cockell mechanism similar to that observed on Devon instead. of the British Antarctic Survey, are revealing stories of survival and adaptation with potential implications for our search for life on Mars and elsewhere. For example, in spite of the high ultraviolet (UV) radiation environment prevailing during the summer with its 24 hours of unrelenting sunlight, microor- ganisms are able to avoid radiation damage by remaining shielded. Many do so by simply coloniz- ing sheltered areas underneath rocks or in soils. Other organisms, such as algal mats living at the bot- tom of open shallow ponds and puddles, have evolved natural sunscreens. Just as humans don a spacesuit so as to survive in an otherwise lethal environment, these microbial colonies coat themselves with a gelatinous pigment- rich UV-screening compound that is secreted to

form a protective biofilm. Long after the microor- NASA JPL/MSSS to the stars Ad Astra may Ⅲ june 2002 15 not only Mars and the Earth, but also about how actual humans will explore Mars and other planetary destinations in the future. In addition to presenting us with a polar desert setting, Devon Island is also rugged, vast (20 times the area of the Antarctic Dry Valleys), diverse in ter- rain types, unpopulated, radio-quiet, tree and power line-free (important for aircraft operations), remote, isolated, and still poorly mapped. All of our activities on the island have to be carried out with attention to potential life or death consequences. Small mistakes can become big problems quickly. The isolation and remoteness of the site render medical help difficult to access. This will also be the case, to a greater degree even, for humans on Mars.

NASA HMP 2000/Mark Webb While quite a bit of thinking has already gone into the question of how to get humans to Mars and An ejecta block resting near where it landed during the impact event that formed back, much less thought and virtually no dedicated Haughton Crater. Over time, the fractures within the rock induced by the impact field studies have addressed what Mars travelers will have become a habitat for microbial colonization. do once they get there. IMPACT EVENTS:THEY’RE NOT ALWAYS BAD NEWS How will humans live and work on Mars during The HMP team has also found that the inside of surface excursions that could last for weeks, Haughton Crater’s battered rocks can serve as a host months—perhaps longer? What instruments, tools, location for colonization by cyanobacteria. The exis- and robotic devices would they need to accomplish tence of so-called “endolithic” microbial communi- their tasks? How often will EVAs be performed and ties (microbes living inside rocks) is not new. Such how far away from base camp should they go? What colonies were first identified more than 20 years ago sort(s) of surface vehicles should they drive? How by Imre Friedmann in sandstone rocks found in much time will be set aside to analyze data and sam- Antarctica’s Dry Valleys. Until now, these endolithic ples compared with the time required collecting colonies had only been found in more porous and them? How will the Mars crews on the surface translucent sedimentary rocks—not in crystalline (and/or in orbit) communicate with each other and rocks, which are typically very compact and opaque. with Earth? What information should they have At Haughton Crater, however, crystalline rocks have available to them during EVAs? been so heavily fractured and rendered porous by the Lessons can be drawn from the Apollo missions, impact that they are now home to thriving colonies but only in a limited way. Humans on the Moon had of cyanobacteria. very little total surface time. EVAs were few and were The usual tone of any description of large impact scripted in detail. Little deviation was possible. Also, events and their effect upon life is “bad news.” This being located only 1.5 light-seconds away, Mission may not always be the case. Large catastrophic Control had almost instantaneous situational aware- impact events certainly threatened highly evolved ness and followed and supported the explorers essen- and narrowly adapted species such as dinosaurs and tially “live.” mammals—organisms that relied upon complex and On Mars, the situation will be very different. vulnerable food chains below them. Curiously, how- Extended sojourns are envisaged while the time bar- ever, large impacts could also have offered microbial rier associated with the much greater Earth-Mars dis- life shelter and warmth when they needed it the tance (4 to 20 light-minutes each way) will preclude most, that is, on early Earth and possibly early Mars. any true live interaction with Earth. Mars explorers They can also create habitable zones—albeit tran- will be to a large extent on their own. Mission sient ones—in otherwise hostile (cold) locations. Control becomes something fuzzier, “Mission Support,” with lesser ability to control things direct- MARS ON EARTH:BEING THERE ly because of the delayed situational awareness, but During our first season on Devon Island in August with a role still likely to be critically important to 1997, it became clear that the Haughton Crater site enable mission success. offered a unique opportunity to learn more about On Devon Island we are faced with an opportu-

16 may Ⅲ june 2002 Ad Astra to the stars nity to investigate how field exploration is done, how it can be optimized for field safety and science yield, what effects specific constraints associated with Mars exploration might have (limited EVA time, need to remain within walk back distance to survival shelter and supplies at all times, etc.), and how new tech- nologies and strategies can help enhance exploration.

FROM ROBOTS ALONE TO ROBOTS WITH HUMANS. Over the years, a number of exploration research activities have taken place under the auspices of the HMP. A regular partner in these efforts has been the Robotics Institute of Carnegie Mellon University (CMU). In 1998 and 1999 the HMP worked with Omead Amidi and his team on the performance of autonomous and teleoperated helicopters in support NASA HMP 2001/Pascal Lee of field research activities. In 1999 we also worked Carnegie Mellon University's autonomous sun-following Hyperion rover during with Dimi Apostolopoulos and his group on field field testing on Devon Island in Summer 2001. studies to define the requirements of future robotic roving assistants for human explorers. Most recently, way time delays of up to 20 minutes were introduced in 2001, CMU researchers led by David Wettergreen to simulate the time barrier that would exist between and Red Whittaker conducted the highly successful the Earth and Mars during an actual Mars missions. field trials of the sun-synchronous (sun-tracking) The experiment was a success and led to a higher “Hyperion” rover at Haughton Crater. fidelity simulation in 2000. Among the key lessons These efforts in robotics development have an learned was that unless comprehensive automated immediate application for the design of more capa- procedures are in place, the need to convey adequate ble autonomous systems that will soon find their way situational awareness to Mission Support back on on new robotic spacecraft bound for Mars or other Earth will place a heavy time burden on any crew on destinations in space. But as robots improve in Mars. While this was suspected going in, the HMP sophistication, their ability to interface with humans simulation allowed actual and quantitative opera- in complex ways is also making strides. A tight part- tional experience to be gained. nership between humans and robots may in the end Related to this research are studies performed by emerge as the most powerful exploration system we Bill Clancey, director of the Human-Centered can develop, one that would see not robots exploring Computing research group at NASA ARC. Clancey’s Mars in place of humans or vice versa, but one in research has focused on the specific interactions and which humans and robots explore in tandem. information exchanges between humans engaged in In 1999, a communications network set up on exploration (with one another in the field and with the HMP by Rick Alena from NASA Ames Research their peers back at Mission Support), their tools Center and Stephen Braham from Simon Fraser (computers, robotic assistants, rovers, rock ham- University allowed initial field tests of wireless high- mers), and their living space (habitats, tents, furni- bandwidth communication systems in support of ture). The information collected, akin to data gath- robotic and human exploration. Once established, ered by ethnographers, is analyzed by Bill and his the network was used to support embryonic interac- team and then fed into computer simulation models tions with the Exploration Planning and Operations designed to eventually help plan and optimize future Center (ExPOC), a newly-created mission control human exploration missions. center at NASA designed to serve as a simulation testbed for future advanced GETTING AROUND human space exploration missions. Perhaps one of the most far-reaching findings emerg- For a period of two weeks that summer, field ing from our HMP exploration studies is the confir- activities reports and science findings were down- mation of the key role that ATVs (all-terrain vehicles linked daily while future science requests, trou- or “quads”) could play as personal mobility systems bleshooting tips, weather forecasts, and news were in support of the surface exploration of Mars (or the uplinked in exchange. In all these exchanges, one- continued on page 51 to the stars Ad Astra may Ⅲ june 2002 17 EARTH ON MARS: GREENHOUSES ON THE RED PLANET Bringing a slice of Earth with us as we explore—and settle—Mars. BY KEITH COWING, SPACEREF INTERACTIVE

hen humans made the transition from the do not produce anything needed for human nutri- Wnomadic life of the hunter-gather to become tion other than clean water. Nor do they recycle all inhabitants of communities, they did so by means of wastes. Much is still thrown overboard. cultivating plants and domesticating animals. Soon, In space, the more material you discard, the more agriculture was born. Armed with the ability to stay you have to bring with you. The longer the trip, the in one place—humans now had the time and luxury more Herculean the logistics requirements to accumulate things—with knowledge being the become—to say nothing of the size of the rockets foremost. At some point “civilization” emerged as a required. Human missions to Mars will most cer- result. tainly have two main design characteristics: some We now look forward to the prospect of leaving sort of fuel generation on Mars—often referred to as our world to visit others. As we do, we’ll have to take “In Situ Resource Utilization” (ISRU)—and a closed a step that our ancestors did not face: we’ll have to life support system that includes plants and microor- bring am artificial biosphere—a life support sys- ganisms (bioregenerative). The most likely way to tem—with us—one that we can sustain—and can grow plants on Mars? A greenhouse. sustain us in exchange. Some proposed life support Greenhouses isolate plants from adverse condi- systems rely heavily upon biological components; tions outside while providing optimal growing con- others depend mostly on physical and chemical ditions inside. Given the harsh conditions outside on processes. Most use both.

OFF WORLD GREENHOUSES Looking back at concepts first visualized half a cen- tury ago, and iterated and refined ever since, virtual- ly every Mars exploration scenario includes a - house of some sort. A glance back at Willy Ley’s The Exploration of Mars illustrated by Chesley Bonestell (1956) and Sir Arthur C. Clarke’s The Exploration of Space illustrated by R.A. (1951) feature paint- ings of domes on Mars with plants inside. Reprinted Courtesy of Sir Arthur C. Clarke. To date, spacecraft life support systems have been wholly physico-chemical in nature i.e. machines This painting originally appeared in "The Exploration scrub the air, clean the water, and deal with waste of Space" (1951) by Sir Arthur C. Clarke. Captioned in without the intervention of biological processes that this book as "The Martian Base", the painting was do this within Earth’s biosphere. These systems also done by Leslie Carr after a drawing by R.A. Smith.

18 may Ⅲ june 2002 Ad Astra to the stars the surface of Mars, this will be quite a challenge. People are already working on the problems.

DESIGN SPECS FOR A MARTIAN GREENHOUSE Building a functional greenhouse on Mars should be possible. However, significant attention will need to be paid to the rather extreme—even hostile condi- tions that exist in comparison to what greenhouse designers face on Earth. Mars’ orbit is more elliptical than Earth’s. As such, the intensity of sunlight it gets ranges from NASA 52% down to 37% of the irradiance you’d get just if NASA artist's concept from the mid-1980s of a Mars you were just outside Earth’s atmosphere (before the base equipped with greenhouses. atmosphere dampens it). Given that Mars normally has clear skies (except for the occasional dust storm) ditional ventilation systems would not work. On the the net amount of light available to plants on Mars surface of Mars, systems familiar to greenhouse oper- may well be better—and more reliable—than avail- ators on Earth can be readily employed albeit within able in the most optimal agricultural regions on a closed loop. Earth. A close approximation of Mars light levels is a While lighting may be OK, gravity of no con- greenhouse on Earth whose outside is in need of a cern, and raw materials more or less abundant, there good cleaning. are other environmental factors that must be dealt Earth and Mars have nearly identical axial incli- with: radiation, gravity, temperature, and atmospher- nations with respect to the sun (23.5 Vs 25 degrees) ic pressure. and days of almost identical length (24.0 Vs 24.7 Radiation: this could be a significant problem. hours) such that plants used to seasonal and daily Mars has a very thin atmosphere that blocks very lit- light cycles will have little problem adapting to Mars. tle of what radiation reaches the surface. Secondly, it Chemistry: with regard to the raw ingredients does not have the massive magnetic field that serves plants and other forms of life require, Mars has to protect Earth from a constant onslaught of solar shown itself to be amply supplied. The evidence gets and galactic radiation. Recent results from the better with every passing month and every new dis- MARIE instrument on the Mars Odyssey spacecraft covery from spacecraft orbiting Mars. While it is (now in orbit around Mars) show that cosmic-radia- thin, Mars does have an atmosphere—one that can tion levels on Mars’ are higher than had been pre- be mined for . Its subsurface is appar- dicted before the spacecraft’s arrival. ently endowed with substantial amounts of frozen Mars is also bathed with high levels of ultraviolet water—and perhaps carbon dioxide as well. While light. Martian greenhouses will need to be able to fil- Martian dirt (in this case the term “regolith” is much ter this out much more effectively than they do on more appropriate) is likely devoid of many sub- Earth. As for high energy cosmic rays and particles stances found on Earth, it should be of use in pro- ejected during solar flares, additional shielding— viding the basis for a growing substrate for plants. including emergency shielding will need to be pro- While nitrogen is not overly abundant, recycling it vided. It is uncertain with today’s technology from human waste and other byproducts (with some whether a true greenhouse could be built on the sur- augmentation from onboard supplies) should be face of Mars (or would be practical even if it could be sufficient. built) that could withstand a constant onslaught of Gravity: Mars’ gravitational field is 0.38 of that radiation and yet let light in for plants. This might on Earth. Experiments aboard spacecraft show that lead to he building of growth chambers under a radi- plants can grow (after a fashion) in microgravity and ation shield comprised of regolith with light provid- can reproduce. As such, it is unlikely that Mars grav- ed from collectors located on the surface. NASA- ity will be a huge problem. Moreover, with a reason- sponsored research has shown that low power LEDs ably substantial gravity field (as compared to Earth) (light emitting diodes) could find applicability as a certain operational aspects of greenhouse operations low power option for illuminating Martian crops. can be performed. In microgravity, density-driven Temperature: Mars gets cold. Temperatures can phenomena do not exist. Heated (lighter) air will not range from -20°C down to -75°C or colder. It can rise and cooler (heavier) air will not sink. As such tra- also get warm. It is possible that close to the equator, to the stars Ad Astra may Ⅲ june 2002 19 temperatures could get as high as 20°C during the vide everyone with fresh salads twice per week. day. Since there is not much air on Mars, a conduc- However, there is another benefit to this greenhouse. tive loss of heat from a greenhouse structure to the People are regularly found sleeping in hammocks surrounding air would be low. However, the green- strung between rows of racks growing lettuce. A house would radiate heat to the sky at much the same choice of music selections is available to visitors on rate as does the Martian surface. As such heaters will CD and tape. A similar, but much smaller growth be needed to supplement any infrared radiation chamber is also in operation at South Pole station received from the sun. This will require a substantial and is due for upgrading in the next year or so as a amount of power. new station structure is built. People are prone to Soft vs. hard construction: There are two schools hang out in this greenhouse as well. of thought with regard to how a Martian greenhouse The first greenhouses to fly in space have been could be built on the surface. With weight always a rather modest in size and have been used to under- precious resource during a space mission, inflatable stand some of the basic factors affecting plant growth structures have long been touted as an obvious solu- in the microgravity of space. While horticulture in tion. Think of them as large cylindrical spacesuits space is still in its infancy, cosmonauts aboard space that entire crews live within. Recent research with station often reported that the tending of exper- large inflatable modules—the so-called “Transhab” imental plants was a task they looked forward to as a concept at NASA Johnson Space Center show con- means of relaxation. siderable promise. This concept is just fine for habi- When asked in an interview to describe life’s lit- tats. However, greenhouses have one critical require- tle pleasures during his 326-day mission aboard Mir, ment: letting light in. While materials do exist that cosmonaut Yuri Romanenko replied “the green can provide inflatable habitat on the surface (or in sprout of a plant grown in space.” While Mars is cer- space), no such material exists yet that has both the tain to be a spectacular place to experience, there will structure and optical properties required. Add in the certainly be a need for a connection to one’s home need to moderate heat loss and block harmful radia- world—especially when expeditions could last for tion, and the engineering challenge gets greater. several years. Indeed, once the human presence on The other approach is the use traditional “rigid” Mars makes the pivotal transition from being materials. By removing a substantial amount of the nomadic visitors to permanent settlers, this will structural support from the transparent material, become all that much more critical. more emphasis can be put into creating materials that can let in light, keep out radiation, and keep heat loss to an acceptable level. One way to reduce some of the structural support required is to use a mixture of rigid and inflatable technologies. In addi- tion, research at NASA Kennedy Space Center has shown that it might be possible to grow plants in a greenhouse at reduced atmospheric pressure. This would reduce the workload of the materials used to construct the greenhouse. NASA EVEN A LITTLE GREEN GOES A LONG WAY There is also another factor to consider in the design One of the Collaborative Ukrainian Experiment (CUE) and operation of a greenhouse on Mars: the human primary plant growth experiments conducted factor. One of the earliest uses of greenhouses on onboard STS-87 in 1997. The CUE is a collection of 10 Earth was for purely psychological reasons. In addi- plant space biology experiments that involved evalu- tion to the refreshing novelty of eating summer foods ating the effects of microgravity on the pollination in the depths of winter, having sunlight—and warm and fertilization of Brassica rapa seedlings. air—touching your skin can be very therapeutic. At McMurdo Base in Antarctica, crews “overwin- PRACTICING MARTIAN HORTICULTURE ON EARTH ter “ and are left without fresh food supplies for 6 In an attempt to examine some of the operational months at a time. A greenhouse (actually light- aspects of operating a greenhouse on Mars, an exper- equipped growth chamber) is in operation at the imental greenhouse is slated for installation on base, which, at its peak productivity, is able to pro- Devon Island in 2002. Devon Island is a remote

20 may Ⅲ june 2002 Ad Astra to the stars location in the Nunavut province of Canada barely a use of living systems (plants and microorganisms) to thousand miles from Earth’s north pole. The green- hasten the terraformation of Mars and the sustain- house is being donated by SpaceRef Interactive as ability of the ecosystem that is being created. Since part of the ongoing NASA-SETI Institute Haughton even the hardiest forms of life on Earth would prob- Mars Research project [see “Mars on Earth: The ably have a hard time living on Mars’ surface, the NASA Haughton-Mars Research Project”]. Named requirement for some genetic manipulation and for noted author (and NSS governor) Sir Arthur C. selective breeding is almost certain. Since Mars offers Clarke, the “Arthur Clarke Mars Greenhouse” is a unique set of physical environmental factors, some designed to serve over the next few years as a testbed of which cannot be duplicated on Earth (gravity) it is for a variety of technologies needed to develop a likely that the organisms developed for use in ter- greenhouse capability on Mars. raforming would be develop on Mars—inside The design of our 12 by 24 foot ( 4 x 8 meter) Martian greenhouses. greenhouse is that of a traditional “off the shelf” structure with some special modifications required for the harsh environment of Devon Island (building on permafrost, anchoring against strong winds, pro- longed cold and its effect upon materials, power availability, etc.) Our efforts in the 2002 field season will be focused on installing the greenhouse and characterizing its performance. Scientific research is planned to start in earnest in 2003. Keith Cowing

Perhaps one day Earth life will grow on Mars with- out the need for greenhouses.

LOOKING BACK—AND LOOKING AHEAD In his novels Prelude to Space and The Sands of Mars (written in the 1950’s) Sir Arthur C. Clarke spoke of plants on other worlds—including SpaceRef plants that had adapted to the vacuum on the Moon The Arthur Clarke Mars Greenhouse undergoing test and to the near vacuum on Mars. Always the vision- assembly at NASA Ames Research Center during the ary pragmatist, he imagined plants that don’t even Second Astrobiology Science Conference in April 2002. need a greenhouse! Indeed, he recently suggested, with a touch of his wry ironic humor, that he might MAKING THE RED PLANET GREEN have actually spied a few plants growing on the in the Of course there is a next step beyond greenhouses southern polar regions of Mars in some provocative and closed environments that many envision for pictures sent back from the Mars Global Surveyor. Mars. A big step. This involves the creation of a self- The geologists insist that these are not plants but sustaining ecosystem—for the entire planet. The non-biological phenomena. most common term for this is “terraforming” which Alas, the Mars we expect to visit probably doesn’t is often used to suggest the creation of ‘another have plants growing on the surface now. Perhaps, in Earth’. Another, more appropriate term is “ecosyn- a distant, warmer past it did. Perhaps it will once thesis” or the creation of an ecosystem. Since Mars is again in the future—with a little help. Perhaps we’ll not Earth, any introduction of life from Earth, how- see Sir Arthur’s Martian plants after all. a ever successful, is likely to result in an ecosystem that is uniquely Martian. Haughton Mars Project: http://www.marsonearth.org Various concepts for terraforming have been pro- Arthur Clarke Mars Greenhouse: http://research.spaceref.com posed over the years. Some are slow and would take thousands of years. Others are more radical and Keith Cowing is a space biologist and is editor of might provide some level of results in much less time. Spaceref.com and Astrobiology.com. Regardless of the time frame, all concepts include the

to the stars Ad Astra may Ⅲ june 2002 21 Artist’s concept of the Mars Odyssey spacecraft currently

NASA, JPL in orbit around Mars.

22 may Ⅲ june 2002 Ad Astra to the stars “Houston, we’ve got water!”

A report from the Lunar and Planetary Science Conference in Houston, Texas.

BY PAT DASCH

hen you mention the Johnson Space Center in which they were found), during the long journey Win Houston, TX, most people will tell you it to Houston from McMurdo Sound. is the home base of the astronaut corps. This is Since 1972, the only new rock samples from where astronauts live and where they undertake outer space have been newly discovered meteorites, training for complex missions such as service calls but the construction of the Lunar Receiving on the Hubble Space Telescope, and assembly of Laboratory in the 1960s established JSC as a center the International Space Station. Johnson Space of excellence in the curation and study of rocks Center (JSC) is where they rehearse over and over from space. It also led to establishment of the Lunar again in the enormous neutral buoyancy tank that and Planetary Science Conference in Houston 33 simulates the microgravity environment of space. years ago. JSC is the home of Mission Control both for This meeting provided a venue for scientists to space shuttle missions and the International Space debate the merits of various analysis techniques and Station. But JSC is also home to the Lunar to compare results as numerous researchers around Receiving Laboratory, the ultra clean laboratory the world obtained Apollo samples. Over the years constructed specially to provide an uncontaminated many scientists, both renowned experts, and gradu- home for the Moon rocks collected by Apollo astro- ate students at the beginning of their careers, have nauts. This is also where meteorites collected in presented the results of research that have unraveled Antarctica during the annual Antarctic Search for the mysteries of the geological history of Earth’s Meteorites (ANSMET) expeditions are consigned, satellite, the Moon, developed an understanding of (stored in containers of dry ice in order to maintain the youthful surface of Venus, and plumbed the these rocks from outer space in the frigid conditions mysteries of the gas giants. The first public presen-

to the stars Ad Astra may Ⅲ june 2002 23 spacecraft speaks to our hopes for the future and of the fundamental human desire to explore the unknown despite great danger and the risk of failure. The purpose of the Mars Odyssey mission is to make global observations of Mars to improve our understanding of the planet’s climate and geologic history. This includes a search for water and evi- dence for life-sustaining environments. Scientific instruments will map the amount and distribution of chemical elements that make up the Martian sur- face and will look for hydrogen (as a primary indi- cator for the presence of water) in the shallow sub- surface. Additionally, Mars Odyssey will investigate the radiation environment to assess the risks for future human explorers. Beyond these key scientif- ic investigations Mars Odyssey will provide an orbiting communications relay satellite for future U.S. and international Mars lander missions including the scheduled for launch in 2003. The spacecraft arrived at Mars on 24 October 2001, a little over seven months after launch. Aerobraking into Mars orbit was completed on 11 January 2002 and after checkout of the onboard systems, the spacecraft commenced its primary NASA, JPL mapping mission on 18 January. Mars Odyssey’s Water ice clouds hang above volcanoes in April 1999. primary science mission is scheduled to run from February 2002 to August 2004. tations describing ALH84001 as a different sort of We have long known that Mars’ polar caps con- containing interesting polycyclic sist mainly of frozen carbon dioxide. The gamma aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were made at the ray spectrometer aboard Mars Odyssey saw low LPSC in early 1995 — a year and a half before the gamma ray emissions from a region stretching from public announcement of evidence for possible life the South Pole to 60 degrees south. Low emissions on early Mars (see Ad Astra May/June 1995). indicate that hydrogen is absorbing the gamma With the introduction of cheaper, fast-track rays. Water is the only compound containing missions in the Discovery and New Millennium hydrogen that scientists would expect to find in series in the 1990s, and the availability of miniatur- near surface layers around the south pole of Mars. ized instruments capable of returning vastly more An ecstatic Bill Boynton from the University of data than previous planetary spacecraft, the annual Arizona summarizing results from Mars Odyssey’s conference has become an annual focus of the plan- gamma ray spectrometer told the assembled scien- etary science community. This year, more than tists and reporters in Houston that there is lots of 1,100 scientists crowded the sessions and exhibits. ice — “whopping” and “huge” amounts of ice were These days there are few new rock samples to the terms he used. The Mars Odyssey instruments discuss — a new Martian meteorite recently discov- can penetrate the first meter of the Mars surface ered in Morocco attracted considerable interest — and Boynton estimated several percent of that top but it was preliminary results from the first weeks of meter from the South Pole to 60 degrees is water. data from Mars Odyssey that drew the media and a The instruments did not see the same signature at standing-room-only crowd this spring. the North Pole but it is winter in the northern The mission name, Mars Odyssey, is a tribute to hemisphere of Mars and the polar region is covered Arthur C. Clarke. The spacecraft was launched on with a thick layer of carbon dioxide ice. Boynton its own “2001” from Cape Canaveral believes that when spring arrives, and the ice on a Delta 11 rocket on 7 April 2001. Mars recedes, the spacecraft instruments will likely detect Odyssey team members say that the name of the similar evidence for water around the North Pole.

24 may Ⅲ june 2002 Ad Astra to the stars Further analysis of data from the South Polar would be approximately the same as that experi- Region will help to determine the distribution of enced aboard the International Space Station. the subsurface water. Initial analysis suggests that Another factor to keep in mind when deciding distribution is not uniform across the region. where to locate a Mars base - radiation on Martian Bill Feldman from Los Alamos National surface is lower in the lowlands. This level of radia- Laboratory who is the principal scientist for the Mars tion should not be dismissed lightly. Experts Odyssey neutron spectrometer was also responsible describe it as “difficult but manageable.” Limiting for the neutron spectrometer on Lunar Prospector. the length of time astronauts spend at the He provided context and comparison for the discov- International Space Station (ISS) is the main way of ery of subsurface . He was fascinated managing the radiation hazard at present. to see a much greater variation in the hydrogen sig- But the really bad news from MARIE is the nal at Mars. The spectrometer picked up a very sig- mega dose of radiation received by the instrument nificant signal with a 600% range variation. At the during the from Earth’s atmosphere to Mars Moon, the Lunar Prospector spectrometer had seen orbit. Radiation levels experienced by the instru- only a 7% range in signal. The amount of hydrogen ment were more than twice those at the ISS. The detected at Mars is a factor of 10 higher than that data that is cause for serious concern is that bom- detected on the Moon, confirming absolutely the bardment by heavy ions, associated with galactic presence of subsurface water ice on Mars, while the cosmic rays — the bad guys so far as the radiation water on the Moon could be combined in clays threat to human health is concerned — is three rather than in the form of water ice. times that at the ISS. It appears that the radiation It is probably too early to quantify the amount environment around Mars is more dangerous than of water detected in the southern polar region but models had suggested. An astronaut in orbit around the area in question, dubbed the Southern Mars would receive twice as much radiation in one Permafrost Province, was described as having day than he or she would be exposed to over a year approximately the area of the surface of Antarctica. on Earth. It has been suggested that the Mars’ Southern experts and biomedical special- Permafrost Province could contain as much water as ists have insisted for a long time that the radiation Lake Lagoda, a very large lake north of St. hazard was by far the greatest challenge to be over- Petersburg, Russia. come before humans could travel to Mars. If we Final confirmation of the presence of water on had the will to do it, we could start building a Mars has major implications for future human mis- spacecraft capable of taking humans to Mars sions to Mars in terms of water for drinking, water tomorrow. But, to date, we really haven’t confront- to wash with, to cultivate plants, and derive fuel. ed the radiation issue. Now, with solid statistical But another instrument on Mars Odyssey, the Mars data to emphasize the gravity of the problem, Radiation Environment Experiment (MARIE), has NASA has announced it will increase research into serious implications for the future of human space cosmic radiation research. travel and especially for long duration spaceflight, Right now experts do not have a clear under- travel to Mars, and space settlements. standing of the health implications of this type of MARIE started taking data on 23 April 2001, radiation and the radiation threat remains the just 16 days after launch. On 13 August, the instru- biggest “unknown” and the biggest challenge for ment stopped transmitting data and contact with human exploration of the planets. The new, 10-year the instrument was only regained on 7 March 2002 initiative will spend five years developing a better after the spacecraft was in Mars orbit. Timothy understanding of the space radiation risk, and a fur- Cleghorn, scientist for the MARIE instrument at ther five years developing biological countermea- the Johnson Space Center, analyzed the MARIE sures. At the same time, a greater focus on radiation data collected prior to 13 August during the transit shielding will be included in space transportation to Mars and found that a major cosmic radiation vehicle and human habitat design concepts. a event occurred in June or July 2001. Analysis of the MARIE data collected during Pat Dasch, RSC International, is the former Executive the trip to Mars and the data collected since the Director of the National Space Society and a former editor instrument resumed operation in Mars orbit tells a chilling story. Once on the surface, the radiation of Ad Astra magazine. that an astronaut would be subjected to on Mars to the stars Ad Astra may Ⅲ june 2002 25 ASTROBIOLOGY ON MARS:

ANALOGS FOR EXTRATERRESTRIAL under pressure ENVIRONMENTS ON EARTH Let’s take the case of Mars and the potential and in hot water analogs here on Earth that we can explore. A goal of Looking for life in extreme environments. Astrobiological exploration is to determine the bio- logical potential of Mars—past, present and future. BY MICHAEL MEYER, NASA HEADQUARTERS How do we actually look for evidence of life, past life, or prebiotic chemistry? Morphology is a classic example—finding a trilobite fossil would be a slam- ASA has been interested in exploring extreme dunk. However, as we have seen in the paleontologi- Nenvironments on Earth ever since it was realized cal work, identifying single-celled microfossils is that terran life could thrive in previously considered prone to error and can be extremely controversial. hostile environments. Life on Earth has been found The more obvious indicator of all life would be at -20°C (well below freezing), 113°C (well above finding inorganic compounds and be able to charac- boiling). Life has also been found at extremes of terize them, including their isotopic composition. If pressure in Earth’s subsurface and in the high compounds are found that are constrained to a few radiation environment of a nuclear power plant specific compounds such as certain lipids or amino sarcophagus. Life, it seems, just needs nutrients, acids, and the isotopic composition is significantly energy and liquid water. Many of these environ- different from the environment, then life was most ments resemble locations in the probably involved in the formation of those com- solar system previously though to be pounds. Other indicators could be certain minerals uninhabitable. that are considered biogenic, or their morphology or NASA’s interest in extreme envi- fabric is indicative of having formed in association ronments is threefold: 1) expanding with life. A more subtle feature maybe the envelope of habitable environ- physical/chemical gradients that are not explained by ments as a way to develop plausible environmental (non-biological) gradients. inventories of habitats in our solar

NASA/JPL system and beyond, 2) learning how PLEASE HAND ME THAT TRICORDER to recognize evidence of life, and 3) How are these things going to be measured— developing the know how to explore that’s the rub. These are delicate measurements, novel environments. requiring extensive sample handling and may require Astrobiology has expanded the extensive survey work before discovering the certain nature of funded research to move rock that potentially contains the information that beyond just sampling you’re interested in. Considering that mass, volume (organisms that live in extreme and power are at a premium on space flight missions, environments) and measuring their putting instruments on a mobile platform just boosts limits. Astrobiology has added the challenge. NSF research into appropriate planetary One potential approach to savings is the develop- Top: Prototype instruments, the tools for finding promising miner- ment of highly integrated systems. For instruments, NASA cryobot. als, organics, fossils, and perhaps even life. In recog- the concept would be an entire processing laborato- nition of the challenges of searching for subtle signs ry in a teacup. Imagine, the sample would be Above: Cryptoendolithic of life and of manipulating samples and applying dumped in one end and it would be view micro- microorganisms found sophisticated instruments . . . autonomously, NASA’s scopically at different wavelengths, dissected, sub- in the McMurdo Dry Astrobiology Program has started a program called samples sent to series appropriate analyzers and out Valleys, Antarctica. Astrobiology Science & Technology for Exploring the other end is a elemental, mineralogical, and Planets (ASTEP). organic map of the sample. Before collecting a sam- The concept behind ASTEP is to have instru- ple, some pre-screening would be extremely impor- ments relevant to life detection deployed on appro- tant to learn from a diversity of samples and concen- priate robotic platforms, and sent to extreme envi- trate resources on those rocks or sediments that have ronments to accomplish good science here and the highest potential pay-off. expand the capabilities and operations of instru- Mars is a cold, dry environment with less than ments and robotic platforms through field trials ten millibars of atmosphere. There is no place like it during demanding scientific quests. on Earth. However, Mars was more Earth-like in its

26 may Ⅲ june 2002 Ad Astra to the stars NASA

past, the subsurface may be similar to Earth’s, and evidence for life that has not different areas of Earth can be comparable to certain been destroyed by the cur- aspects of the Martian environment. Following are a rent oxidizing surface. few examples. [See “How do you build a tricorder?” Permafrost areas on Earth Ad Astra January/February 2002] are cold storage lockers pre- serving our recent climatic ANTARCTICA—PREVIEW OF MARS? past and containing surviv- The McMurdo Dry Valleys, Antarctica, represent ing microbial populations, the closest analog to the Martian surface. Its average which have been known to temperature is -20°C and precipitation is below survive millions of years. On 10cm per year. A cold dry desert, hostile enough to Earth, the age of permafrost once be considered devoid of life except for the is constrained by the increase episodic streambeds in the valley floors. However, in heat encountered at deep- since the 1970s life has been found thriving in peren- er depths. On Mars, the nially ice-covered lakes and inside the pore spaces of depth to which one could sandstone rocks (cryptoendoliths). access the most ancient past These environments permit liquid water to be may be well above any (geo- present for at least short periods of each summer. thermally) generated melt- Could NASA develop a rover that could spot cryp- ing point, and therefore exist toendoliths are a distance, traverse the rugged terrain to be found during some and then sample the subsurface, detect layers of future drilling operation. organic material and identify the microorganisms? Polar ice sheets have These are challenges indeed for intrepid Antarctic been valuable in recon- explorers, much less a robot. However, the robot struction of our climatic could operate in conditions where the explorer history over the last tens of would appropriately be hunkered down is his or her thousands of years. Mars’ tent, waiting for more clement conditions. polar ice caps represent the Developing this exploration capability is the chal- same potential for the red lenge for NASA. planet and, considering the periodic global dust storms, A Mars explorer HIGH AND DRY IN CHILE may have the added bonus of containing episodic rappels down a cliff to The Atacama Desert, running along the western samples of the entire planet. If drilling with tradi- sample an interesting edge of the Andes, is another example of a habitat tional methods, the challenges would be similar to layer of rock. that is at the limits to life. The Atacama is a fog desert drilling in permafrost, perhaps a bit easier. Another that has no recorded rainfall. Chris McKay from approach, however, would be to melt through, NASA Ames Research Center has been able to find with instruments capable of sampling during the areas where there is no indigenous life. process or periodically sub-sampling the sidewalls The only living things are brought in by the wind of the melt hole. or trekked there by humans in jeeps (see “Two dry for Another intriguing aspect about penetrating life: The Atacama Desert and Mars,” this issue). A through the Martian ice cap is that, with great pres- rover capable of covering long distances could survey sure and geothermal heating, there is a possibility of the extent of indigenous life. The challenges would be liquid water at the base, analogous to many lakes the extended autonomy and the capability of system- underlying the Antarctic ice-sheet. Accessing a pris- atically measuring minute quantities of organic mat- tine liquid water environment that has been isolated ter in soil, in crevasses, and under rocks. for extended periods of time also presents challenges for precluding forward contamination. We must not DRILLING AND MELTING OUR WAY INTO MARS contaminate the very environment that we wish to Accessing the Martian subsurface presents a explore. The distance may be too large to use tradi- major challenge. Drilling more than a meter or two tional methods, but a self-contained vehicle that into permafrost is difficult for humans. Imagine of melts through, communicating with the surface, the robotic challenges of drilling and handling the which is then capable of surviving high pressures and samples on a different planet. However, access to the measuring in a liquid water environment needs to be subsurface on Mars maybe our only hope of finding developed and tested. to the stars Ad Astra may Ⅲ june 2002 27 HOT SPRINGS—ANCIENT AND CURRENT greatest promise of preserving evidence of life and develop the tech- If we look at environments that are more representative of ear- niques for sampling those minerals. lier Mars, or even potentially in existence today, hot springs would be a reasonable bet. Microorganisms are able to exploit the chemi- COLD—YET VOLCANIC cal disequilibria between the reduced compounds being brought Cold active volcanic areas, such as Kamchatka, Russia, are also forth from the subsurface and the surrounding surface environ- analogous to an earlier Mars, and in rare instances, maybe even ment. The spectacular colors of Grand Prismatic at Yellowstone are today. Reduced gasses emanating from fumaroles can supply the evidence of this very microbial activity. chemical power for microorganisms to make a living. The difficul- Hot springs are also rapidly mineralizing environments, which ty in exploring these interesting environments is the danger, from have the potential of entombing the resident microflora. For Mars toxic gases to rocks falling on your head. exploration, an optimal approach to learn the mineralization A different set of instruments would be required that could processes and preservation that can take place. In exploration and handle extremes in temperature, track gradients of gases and exam- research here, we can develop a catalogue of minerals that show the ine life at the microbial scale. The mobile platform would have to

28 may Ⅲ june 2002 Ad Astra to the stars An astrobiologist and an astrogeolo- gist collect samples at a Mars base. NASA, Pat Rawlings

be very capable of managing the terrain of large volcanic rocks and EVERYONE SHOULD BE ABLE TO WATCH steep slopes—a “spiderbot” may be the answer. Robotic exploration Something that hasn’t been discussed, but is an impor- of these regions would further our understanding of ongoing tant aspect of exploration, is the opportunity to bring the microbial processes and how evidence for life might be preserved— public along in the adventure. Remote communication capa- a necessary condition for determining for what to look in exploring bilities make the process of exploration available to the extinct volcanic regions of Mars. world. In exploring environments on Earth, we can directly From these examples, it is clear that instruments and explo- involve students with hands-on participation and remote ration platforms need to be developed that are capable, rugged, but direct communication. In this aspect, we also hope to and able to operate autonomously if we are going take advantage learn how to better involve people of our world in exploring of the precious opportunities on Mars. Hopefully, the experi- another planet. a ence gained in the pursuit of science in extreme environments on Earth will bring us closer to maximizing what we learn from Dr. Michael Meyer is the Astrobiology Discipline Scientist at the Office of the red planet. Space Science at NASA Headquarters. to the stars Ad Astra may Ⅲ june 2002 29 Two dry for life: The Atacama Desert and Mars

Too hostile for Earth microbes, the Atacama is a good simulation of Mars.

BY CHRISTOPHER P. M CKAY, NASA AMES RESEARCH CENTER NASA

The Atacama desert as seen from a Space Shuttle as it serviced the Hubble Space Telescope. The Atacama desert is about 1,000 km long.

30 may Ⅲ june 2002 Ad Astra to the stars here are stories of children living in the Atacama valley within the University of Antofagasta desert TDesert reaching adulthood before ever seeing experimental station (24° 04’ 50” S, 69° 55’ 11” W, rain. Our measurements performed in this desert elev. 900 - 1000 m) near the abandoned nitrate mine support these stories. of Yungay. Over 5 years ago we installed an automatic envi- The surface is characterized by a dried soil surface ronmental station in the extreme arid core of the with little moving sand and few stones. Drill cores Atacama, near an abandoned nitrate mine. In those show that the soil vertical profile is composed of five years we recorded only one rain. It was a minis- broad alternate layers of sandy soil and impervious cule 2 millimeters that fell near midnight. The rain clay which inhibits vertical water diffusion. There is was so slight that a standard weather station a few virtually no vegetation except at rare sites where the blocks from our instruments did not even record it. water table reaches the surface. Throughout the We recorded it because our station had several sensi- region the water table is typically at a depth of 25 tive devices specifically designed to record low levels meters or more. There are no permanent human of moisture in deserts. Indeed our team has spent settlements in the central desert near Yungay. almost two decades studying life in deserts, both hot and cold. AS OLD AS DIRT Of all the deserts we have worked in, the Atacama Geological and soil mineralogical evidence suggests is the driest. It is the only desert that we found to that extreme arid conditions have persisted in the be too dry even for microbial life. It is, in microbio- southern Atacama for over 10 million years making logical terms, the most Mars-like environment on it one of the oldest, if not the oldest desert on Earth. Earth. LIFE IN THE DRY THE DRY COAST Any past or present life on Mars was probably micro- The Atacama Desert is about 1000 km long extend- bial and it therefore makes sense to search for micro- ing from 30°S to 20°S along the Pacific coast of bial ecosystems in Mars-like places on Earth. The South America, but is only a few hundred kilometers basis of any ecosystem must be primary productivity. wide. It sits between the towering Andes Mountains That is, some organisms must be capable of produc- and the coast. The Atacama Desert owes its extreme ing organic material from inorganic material. On aridity to a persistent climate pattern that is formed Earth the dominant form of primary productivity is by the presence of the strong high-pressure center photosynthesis. For this reason our team has spent in the atmosphere over the Pacific Coast of South decades studying microbial photosynthesis in desert America and by a constant temperature inver- environments, by single-celled organisms known as sion due to the cool north-flowing Humboldt ocean cyanobacteria (also known as blue-green algae). current. We have found that in many of the extremely The position of the Pacific high-pressure center is arid deserts on Earth microbial photosynthesis generally stable with a small shift of a few degrees occurs only under or within translucent stones. south in the summer. The high-pressure center cre- Porous sandstone is an example of a type of stone ates easterly trade winds (winds blowing from the within which cyanobacteria can live. Light can pene- Chris McKay east) which push ocean storms west, out to sea, and trate into the sandstone and water can be held in the away from the South American coast. The high pores. Quartzite is the most common type of desert Location of study site Andes to the east cut off any moisture that would stone under which cyanobacteria can live. Light lev- near Yungay, Chile, come across from the Amazon basin. els beneath the stones are sufficient to allow for pho- an abandoned nitrate Even though it is located in the tropics, the tosynthesis and the stone apparently traps soil mois- mine, in the extremely Atacama does not get extremely hot due to its prox- ture. Both in the sandstone and under the quartzite arid region of the imity to the cool Pacific Ocean. The maximum tem- the organisms find a habitable micro-environment— Atacama desert. perature we recorded was 37°C. The Atacama is it is as if they are living in a little rock greenhouse. known as a temperate desert. Even though it is not We have not found any suitable sandstone in the extremely hot, it is probably the driest desert in the Atacama but there are quartzite stones on the desert world. surface. In all the other deserts we have studied the The driest parts of the Atacama desert are located underside of these quartzite stones are green with between approximately 22°S to 26°S in the broad algae. valley formed by the coastal range and the medial However, algae are not observed under the range. Our main study site is located in this broad translucent stones that are present near our study site to the stars Ad Astra may Ⅲ june 2002 31 would see low levels of organic material and some soil bacteria in the desert soil. In most of the desert this is what we did see. However, in the most arid region (in the very core of the Atacama desert) we were surprised to find extremely low organic con- tent—and virtually no bacteria in the soil samples. We think this is another Mars-like threshold. To understand this, imagine moving east, in from the coast. The first threshold or challenge that life faces is the one in which the level of available water becomes too low to support microbial photosynthesis. The Chris McKay second threshold that is reached is (we think) a Location of our study site near Yungay, Chile, an abandoned nitrate chemical one. At this point, the level of water activi- mine, in the extremely arid region of the Atacama desert. ty is so low that photochemical oxidants produced by ultraviolet light can build up in the soil. These oxi- in the core of the Atacama. We have observed these dants actively destroy bacteria. They literally sterilize algae under quartzite stones along the coast at the the soil. same latitude, and at sites inland but further south in Everywhere on Earth these oxidants are being the wetter regions. Presumably, the extreme arid produced. But in all other locations water deactivates regions of the Atacama desert are too dry an envi- them and the production of organic matter by life ronment to provide for such microorganisms. overwhelms them. This is not the case in the driest Thus, the Atacama crosses the dryness threshold place on Earth. Here, the conditions are finally life- for life. Along the coast where fog is common—or in less—and dry enough that the oxidants can build up. the south below the arid core—algae are present Interestingly, this is exactly what we think has hap- under stones. The desert in these regions still looks pened on Mars. And the buildup of oxidants on barren and lifeless, but closer examination shows that Mars is what is thought to have caused the activity the algae are there. However, as one moves in toward seen in the Viking biology experiments. the core of the desert and rain levels drop to a few millimeters a decade, the algae are no longer present: RADIATION RESISTANT SUPERBUGS the limit of life has been reached and crossed. The few bacteria that are found in the Atacama soils Without enough water there is no life, and we can are subjected to dry conditions. To survive they must see in the Atacama that not enough water is available. be able to recover from the stress produced by dehy- Unfortunately for those with thoughts of life on dration. Dehydration is known to cause damage to Mars, the arid core of the Atacama desert is much DNA. Interestingly, bacteria that can survive damage wetter than Mars today. As such, we conclude that to their DNA due to dehydration can also survive The surface of the the surface of Mars today is most likely as barren of damage to their DNA due to high levels of radiation. Atacama is character- microbial primary production as is the arid core of The ability of some organisms to survive high radia- ized by a dried soil sur- the Atacama. Mars would need to have water levels tion and live, for example, inside nuclear reactors is a face with little moving comparable to the coastal or southern parts of the puzzle since there is no known natural environment sand and few stones. Atacama for microbial photosynthesis to occur. on Earth that would select for organisms capable of enduring such high levels of radiation resistance. The STERILE SOILS? correlation between dehydration resistance and radi- Without photosynthesis a true microbial ecosystem ation resistance has led to the suggestion that organ- cannot be maintained. However, there might still be isms have “learned” to survive dehydration in nature organisms in the soil. We expect that in the Atacama, and that their resistance to radiation is a byproduct like locations elsewhere on Earth, bacteria are falling of an evolutionary adaptation to dehydration. down from the sky. Bacteria are so small that they If radiation resistance does arise from dehydra- can be carried by winds essentially everywhere across tion resistance, then one might expect to find the Earth. They are even landing on Earth’s South Pole. most radiation resistant bacteria on Earth in the dri- As such, it might be possible that some sort of mea- est desert. With this in mind we have begun a pro- ger existence in the arid core of the Atacama is possi- gram of characterizing the radiation resistance of the ble for a few hardy bacteria due to bacteria being car- soil bacteria throughout the Atacama. Perhaps there ried in by the wind. Thus, we expected that we we will find a superbug able to survive high levels of

32 may Ⅲ june 2002 Ad Astra to the stars dryness and high levels of radiation: a candidate for the first Mars micro-astronaut.

DRY—EVEN IN EL NIÑO The climate throughout South America is affected by changes in rainfall due to El Niño. El Niño events can bring heavy rainfall to the deserts of Peru and stronger events can penetrate further inland and NASA southward. Previous studies have shown that mud- flows and heavy rains during the 20th century at Frost on Mars. There is water on Mars as shown by this Viking Lander 2 image Antofagasta on the coast in Northern Chile are relat- taken at on May 18, 1979. ed to the occurrence of El Niño events. Thus, the effects of a strong El Niño event on the coast of Three factors seem to be responsible for the South America do reach as far south as Antofagasta. nitrate deposits in the Atacama: extreme age, lack of We wondered if a strong El Niño could bring rain to water, and lack of microbial activity. All three were the core region of the Atacama and we were fortunate present on Mars. Thus, is it probable that early in to have our data include the period of the strongest Mars’ history, as atmospheric processes such as light- recent El Niño, which spanned from April 1997 to ning produced nitrate, nitrate sediments accumulat- mid-May 1998. Our results show that this El Niño ed on the surface. As is the case the Atacama, the sur- did not cause rain at our study site even as its effects face of Mars may be richly layered with nitrates. were being felt in the coast at the same latitude. Confirming this supposition would be important for understanding the total planetary inventory and fate NITRATES ON EARTH AND MARS of nitrogen on Mars. If Mars does have large nitrate One of the most interesting features of the Atacama deposits this could be a useful resource for human desert are the large accumulations of nitrate that are exploration and for the re-creation of a biosphere on found there. In some locations the desert surface is that planet via terraforming. composed of several meters of virtually pure nitrates. Nitrogen is a key element for life. Mars does not The Atacama is the only place on Earth that has such have enough of it in its atmosphere. deposits. Accumulations of nitrates are unusual for two reasons. First nitrate is very soluble and is carried FROM HERE TO MARS away by water. Secondly, microorganisms consume Our studies in the Atacama are just in the beginning nitrate. Nitrate is second only to oxygen as a desir- stages. In the years to come we will collect a more able compound for microorganisms to use to react complete environmental dataset. We will conduct with organic material. further biological studies, not only in the extreme There was enough nitrate in the Aatacama that in arid core of the Atacama, but also along a line to the the early 1900s nitrate mining operations were con- south where conditions become wetter—and then ducted. Throughout the desert the top few meters of further along a line to the coast where fog becomes surface were literally stripped away. As the near sur- an important source of moisture. face supplies were exhausted and with the invention As we move along these moisture gradients in the of the Haber- process for industrial production Atacama we move from conditions like Mars today of ammonia, the Chilean nitrate mines were aban- to conditions that might have prevailed on Mars dur- doned. Only one or two mines still operate in the ing a wetter, more hospitable, but still dry, phase. northern Atacama today. In so doing, we cross the border from sterility to The age and aridity of the Atacama are probably life. Studying this border here on Earth may help us directly responsible for the large nitrate accumulations to recognize this boundary when we cross it on that are present there. The nitrates are likely to be of Mars. a atmospheric origin, being produced by natural electri- cal events such as lightning and aurora. The nitrates Dr. Chris McKay is a planetary scientist with the Space are not biologically decomposed or carried away by Science Division at NASA Ames Research Center. water flow—for the simple reason that there is so little water available to do so. As such, the Atacama’s nitrate deposits have accumulated into significant concentra- tions over the long age of the desert. to the stars Ad Astra may Ⅲ june 2002 33 Q: Are We Martians? Hitchhiking on a Meteorite: Is there Mars LifeonEarth? BY KEITH COWING, SPACEREF INTERACTIVE

arious space agencies have been planning for discoverers’ certainty that evidence of ancient Vsample return mission from Mars for years. Yet Martian life was been found. Regardless of where Mars itself has been providing a steady stream of you sit on this debate, it is important to note that samples (in the form of meteorites) since the dawn the announcement spurred many to revisit a tanta- of the solar system. All we have to do is go out and lizing thought many thought had been put to rest pick them up off the ground. 20 years earlier: the possibility that life may have Estimates of the amount of material that has existed on Mars. been thrown from Mars to Earth across the history While ALH84001 itself may have grabbed the of the solar system are as high as 1 billion tons — headlines, countless other rocks have arrived on MARS that’s 10^12 pounds or 4.5 x 10^12 kg. Some esti- Earth with no fanfare at all. The trip taken by mates suggest that the number of individual mete- ALH84001 can serve as an illustration of the con- orites could number in the billions. That’s a moun- veyor belt that exists between Earth and Mars. tain — one piece at a time. Some of these meteorites can take millions of HOWDOYOUKNOWITISFROMMARS? years to make the trip. Others can do so in only a To date, several dozen meteorites have been classi- few thousand years. While it is interesting enough fied as having come from Mars. The most recent that planets swap rocks, given our about find was announced in March 2002 and involved Mars’ life bearing potential, many wonder whether fragments found in the Sahara desert in northwest one of these rocks have brought viable organisms Africa. Meteorites thought to come from Mars are from Mars to Earth? often referred to as “SNC” meteorites. SNC stands While it isn’t an everyday occurrence, it is rather for Shergotty, Nakhla, and — location straightforward for a rock to make it from the sur- names associated with the first three meteorites face of Mars to the surface of Earth. However, it is (originally found in 1865, 1911, and 1815 respec- quite another (assuming that there is — or was — tively) now identified as being from Mars. life on Mars) for a rock to carry viable organisms Curiously, despite being the most famous Mars between one world and another. Upon first consid- meteorite, ALH84001 is not an SNC meteorite. It eration, one would expect that the fiery plunge into is much, much older than the SNCs — all of which Earth’s thick atmosphere would fry anything inside are all less than 1.3 billion years in age. a meteorite. Just as firewalkers manage to traverse The evidence that SNC meteorites are from simmering coals, it is possible (albeit theoretically) Mars revolves around a careful analysis of gases to send organisms inside a rock between one planet trapped within glass bodies inside these meteorites. and another — including a blazing descent through These small glass “inclusions” formed on Mars and Earth’s atmosphere. trapped small amounts of the local atmosphere in Perhaps the most famous Mars meteorite is the process. The case for a Martian origin was ALH84001. It is within this meteorite that a num- made with an analysis of meteorite EETA79001. ber of NASA scientists claim to have found chemi- The gases sampled from the small glass inclusions cal and morphological evidence — fossils — of inside EETA79001 chemically and isotopically ancient Mars life. While their evidence is com- match the gas ’ atmosphere as pelling (it captivated the world’s attention for sever- observed by the two Viking lander spacecraft on al weeks in August 1996) not everyone shares the the surface of Mars.

34 may Ⅲ june 2002 Ad Astra to the stars In addition to the chemical analysis (which was the The impact would have been a rather violent real clincher) there is the structure of the meteorites event. In order to leave Mars, ALH84001 would themselves. All of the SNC meteorites show some have had to reach a speed of 5.4 km/sec — that’s amount of shock damage — damage that could result 18,000 km/hr (11,000 mph). from the initial shock that threw them out — and then Calculations show that a rather large impact, one off of the surface of Mars. The violent nature of such a involving an impactor several kilometers in diameter, power jolt would likely fragment weaker rocks — such would have been required. The rocks that made it into as sedimentary rocks. As such, one would expect that space were also of a certain size range. Large chunks only relatively strong rocks — such as those formed by would have fallen back to the surface. Small rocks melting (igneous) — would be able to make the trip would have been pulverized. In a variation on the fable intact. Indeed, all SNC meteorites yet discovered are of Goldilocks, some rocks were not too big and not too igneous rocks. Further chemical analysis of SNCs in small and made if into space without being shattered.

A large impact event hurls pieces of Mars into space. Some of these E rocks pursue their own orbit around the sun for millions of A years. One in 10 million of these rocks lands on Earth. R T — — — — — — — H Keith Cowing

comparison with Viking data suggests that some of the The exact date that ALH84001 was blasted off Martian surface may be covered with soil composed of Mars is not certain. However it was no sooner weathered basalt similar in nature to material found in than 16 or so million years ago. Estimations of its some of the SNCs. transit time between Mars and Earth are deter- Results from the twin Viking lander missions mined from the exposure of its surface showed a surface apparently devoid of life with only as it moved naked through space. The rock may some exotic chemistry — chemistry that Carl have been part of a larger body in which case the once described as “self sterilizing.” Of course we impact could have been much more ancient (since looked for Earth-like life on the surface and have the portion we know as ALH84001 could have yet to look within Mars itself. With the discovery of been shielded from cosmic rays). The rock could life in previously unheard of, indeed bizarre, places have been roughly the same size throughout its on Earth, we now know that many other locations trip, with constant cosmic ray exposure at its sur- on Mars will have to be examined before the answer face, in which case the 16 million year estimate of life on Mars can be answered. would be more likely. Once it left Mars, ALH84001 went into its own GETTING HERE orbit around the sun. Each time its orbit came back The “parent” rock from which ALH 84001 came was close to Mars it was altered. Combined with other formed from molten lava 4.5 billion years ago. 500 mil- gravitational influences in the solar system, lion years later, a strong shock (a large asteroid impact ALH84001 eventually found itself in a solar orbit perhaps) fractured the parent rock. 3.6 billion years ago, that intersected with Earth’s orbit. mineral rich water flowed through cracks in the rocks After entering Earth’s atmosphere, the rock leaving behind carbonate deposits. It is in association landed in Antarctica. Based on where it was found with the carbonate granules that the putative Martian and the condition of its outer surface, it is proba- fossils were found. Another, much more recent shock ble that it arrived around 13,000 years ago. event once again disturbed the rock. It is possible that Humans first encountered (and named) this shock resulted from the large impact event which ALH84001 in 1984 when it was picked up off of eventually threw ALH84001 off of the surface of Mars. the surface in the Allan Hills (hence the “ALH”)

to the stars Ad Astra may Ⅲ june 2002 35 ALH84001 is 4.5 billion years old. It was blasted off of Mars around 16 million years ago. It landed on Earth 13,000 years ago. region of Antarctica by an ANSMET The microorganism Deinococcus radio- (ANtarctic Search for METeorites) expe- durans can survive massive radiation expo- dition. ANSMET is sponsored by the sures that literally blow the organism’s National Science Foundation’s Office genome into pieces. Placed inside a rock Polar Programs. blown from Mars to Earth, d. radiodurans ALH84001 then languished in a collec- (or an organism much like it) has an excel- tion container until some years later when a lent change of making the trip intact. mineralogical analysis, and comparison with SNC meteorites, showed enough similarities DID LIFE TRAVEL FROM MARS TO EARTH? to conclude that it was from Mars. No one knows. Just because something is

NASA possible (or probable) doesn’t mean that it COULD MARS LIFE HAVE HITCHED A RIDE? has happened. Given the substantial Many things need to happen if life is to amount (and number) of pieces of Mars make the trip from Mars to Earth inside a rock. To begin with, that are though to have made it from Mars to Earth, and the con- the rock blasted off of Mars needs to have come from a location siderable amount of time, the statistics would suggest that life where life (again, if there is life) actually exists. Second, the life- could be transported between worlds. As mentioned before, this forms need to be located within the rock. can only happen if there is (was) life on Mars in the first place. The takeoff would be quite a kick in the pants. To see if bac- What if life made the trip? How would we know it? Are we teria could survive the shock biologists have put them in high- Martians? All life on Earth — even the most bizarre extremophiles pressure vises and fired bacteria-laden bullets into clay. They’ve living in hydrothermal vent communities miles under the sea, or even shot them out of a cannon. The conditions of these tests are those such as D. radiodurans — shares one thing in common: a very similar to the sudden accelerations and shocks bacteria with- basic genetic heritage. While the differences are, to be certain, in a meteorite would experience. In each case, significant numbers great between many different species, common genetic sequences of bacteria survived. are very ancient — some have almost certainly changed little in Not only was the trip rough — it was hot. However, research billions of years. This relationship has often been shown in dia- has shown that the interior of meteorites such as ALH84001 can grammatic form as the “tree of life” one where all of the branches remain rather pleasant — even as the rock hurtles through Earth’s spring from a common stem or trunk. atmosphere at supersonic speed causing the outer crust to melt. Let’s say we find life on Mars — either living or as fossils of life Indeed, the interior of this meteorite may never have exceeded than once thrived. Suppose further that this Martian life has a 40°C (100°F) during its trip from Mars to Earth. genetic system we can analyze. Once examined, we find that it has Given the paucity of nutrition and clement conditions inside a genetic structure similar to life on Earth. Given the odds that go a meteorite in space required for organisms to remain alive, even with the evolution of a genetic code in the first place, it would be for short periods, it is almost certain that any lifeforms that sur- rather improbable that the genetic system on two worlds would vive the trip are in some sort of state of dormancy. During dor- share a common vocabulary unless they were somehow related. If mancy many of life’s processes slow down and come to a halt. In the final analysis shows that Earth and Mars life share a common so doing, the ability to survive rough times is enhanced. A num- tree of life then the question of whether we are Martians would be ber of lifeforms on Earth have been shown to survive rather severe closer to being answered. But not completely. conditions while dormant. While it takes much more energy to get rocks from Earth to Some bacteria have been revived from permafrost that is sev- Mars (rocks have to exit Earth’s heavier gravity and thicker eral millions of years old. Other research, most notably on bac- atmosphere), it is not impossible. The infection could have hap- teria recovered from the gut of bees fossilized in amber 25-40 pened the other way. Indeed, it could have happened multiple million years ago suggest that revival can occur after many mil- times — in both directions. Sharing a family tree would at least lions of years. Bacteria recently sent into space inside of salt bind our two worlds in a profound way. It would also have some crystals survive the trip rather nicely. Remaining essentially inert interesting consequences for the presence on life in the universe. while dormant solves a host of problems about the trip itself. Just as life on Earth traverses great distances to colonize virgin But others remain. land (new volcanic islands) perhaps this happens between worlds. Dormancy can reduce an organism’s vulnerability consid- But what if Martian life has a genetic system that is different than erably, but it cannot eliminate it, Radiation either in the form Earth’s? This would suggest that Martian life arose independent of of external sources, or from the rock itself can eventually lead Earth. If so, the consequences would be equally profound — i.e. the to a slow but lethal degradation of the biomolecules that make simplest implication being that life can arise in multiple locations. up an organism. Given the size of the rock and where organ- Perhaps both mechanisms — the transport of life between ism are located it is possible that they can be shielded from worlds and the independent origin of life — are at work and most if not all external radiation sources. Research on bacte- worlds regularly swap life. We won’t know until we go to Mars ria exposed to the space environment have shown that those and begin to sample the planet in detail. which die can serve as radiation shields for those that remain In the mean time, it’s probably OK to walk around and think alive underneath. “You know, I might be part Martian . . .” a

36 may Ⅲ june 2002 Ad Astra to the stars SPACESPACE FOOD:FOOD: ChickenChicken ala ala King King anyone?anyone? Food traveling into deep space has to provide excellent nutrition, be safe, easy to digest, and appealing to the crew.

BY LAKSHMI SANDHANA NASA

Life aboard the hat do astronauts eat? Pretty much the same with waste products and packaging being equally International Space Was ordinary folks! There are some constraints, easy to dispose of. The food and packaging must Station. however, on food that’s literally going into orbit. also survive the temperature, pressure, acceleration, The nutritional value of the food comes first. and vibration of a Shuttle flight. Food traveling into deep space has to provide excel- Weight is a crucial factor. Hikers carry rehydrat- lent nutrition, be safe, easy to inject and digest, and able foods with them for less weight and easier trav- appealing to the crew. Certain nutrients, like iron, eling. The same principle applies in a space pro- are used differently in the body while in orbit, so gram. Every bit of added weight raises fuel con- those variances have to be taken into consideration. sumption at liftoff. Water on the space shuttle is The lack of ultraviolet light due to spacecraft easily attainable, it being a by-product of the fuel shielding takes away the body’s ability to produce cells so it makes more sense to carry foods that can Vitamin D (a nutrient which is important for bone be rehydrated with water. They take up less space health). The nutritional value of the food over time and are more compact, an important attribute becomes even more important during long space when it comes to storage. flights. The food has to keep the astronauts in peak physical condition and has to be totally free from THE EARLY YEARS: potentially catastrophic disease producing bacteria, FLYING CRUMBS AND SPOON BOWLS! viruses, and toxins. The astronauts of the Mercury project contributed Carting away tins and cans is acceptable down their share to space food design by gallantly munch- here on earth, but in space it is both added weight ing through unappetizing bite-sized cubes, freeze- and potentially hazardous to handle. Packaging dried foods and semi-liquids in aluminum tooth- thus becomes a very important issue. The package paste-typed tubes. Not surprisingly they disliked must be light in weight, protecting and stabilizing squeezing the contents of the tube directly into the food in storage for periods that might last well their mouths, had trouble rehydrating the freeze- over 30 days. Slaving for hours over the perfect dried foods and moreover had to prance around menu or cleaning up afterwards are not amongst capturing crumbs from the cubes! the top ten favorite astronaut activities. Food must To prevent the annoying crumbs from fouling be easy to prepare, requiring little crew attention, up instruments and possibly being inadvertently

to the stars Ad Astra may Ⅲ june 2002 37 tainer the size of three shoeboxes. With the added luxury of heated water for hot drinks, the menu had more delicious items, including coffee, bacon squares, cheese crackers, scrambled eggs, tuna salad, beef pot roast, spaghetti and frankfurters.

AH, WHAT I WOULD DO FOR A TABLE! In 1973 and 1974 astronauts of the Skylab space- craft got to truly dine in style! The Skylab laborato- ry had the dream kitchen: a table, refrigerator, freez- er and warming trays. “Sitting down” for a hearty NASA meal was no longer a task for the imagination. The Expedition crew at three member astronaut teams would strap them- lunch time. inhaled, scientists came up with the idea of coating selves in a sitting position in the air around the the food chunks with an edible gelatin to prevent table with the aid of foot and thigh restraints and crumbling. The bulky aluminum tubes were eat in an almost normal fashion. The food trays scrapped (they often weighed more than the food doubled up as warming devices and a pair of scis- they contained), lightweight plastic containers were sors for cutting open plastic seals was added to the developed instead. conventional knife, fork and spoon. These items The intrepid gastronomic explorers of the were held magnetically to the food tray. Improved Gemini mission enjoyed much more delectable fare. food containers included aluminum cans with full Rehydratable foods were enclosed in improved plas- panel pull-out lids and collapsible drinking bottles tic containers. Food could be rehydrated by injecting that expanded accordian-style when filled with hot water through one end of the package through the or cold water. nozzle of a water gun. After kneading the contents, Vanilla ice cream and delicacies such as filet the food became a puree and could be squeezed out mignon entered the diets of these lucky space trav- of the other end of the package into the astronaut’s elers thanks to the freezer. The refrigerator helped mouth. To the great relief of the astronauts, these in chilling fruits and beverages. Because of the large foods were more similar in appearance — including storage space available, Skylab was able to feature an color, taste, and shape and texture — to freshly pre- astonishing 72 different food items on its menus. pared food products. Astronauts finally got to choose Chili, mashed sweet potatoes, asparagus, lobster from a more varied menu that included cinnamon- Newburg, prime rib of beef, mints etc. were avail- toasted bread cubes, fruit cocktail, chocolate cubes, able for the first time. turkey bites, cream of chicken soup and beef stew. A In 1975, the last Apollo flights took place with typical meal would include shrimp cocktail, chicken the Apollo-Soyuz docking mission. It lacked the and vegetables, toast squares, butterscotch pudding, freezer that Skylab featured but many of the food and apple juice. Astronauts also got to choose meal advances from Skylab and the earlier Apollo mis- combinations in advance and selections were ample sions were incorporated. The flight duration being enough to provide for four days of meals without repeating any menus. On the Apollo mission, astronauts finally got the chance to lay their hands on a spoon! Rehydratable foods were encased in a plastic container called a ‘spoon bowl’. After adding water to the food the astronauts simply had to unzip the package and dip in. The moisture content allowed the food to cling to the spoon making eating a much more normal experience. The ‘wetpack’ followed soon after, retaining the water content in the food and making meal times much more enjoyable. For the first time astronauts could see and smell what they were eat- NASA ing. The new packaging allowed for one week’s Food storage in space is a major issue. worth of rations for one astronaut to fit in a con-

38 may Ⅲ june 2002 Ad Astra to the stars only nine days, many short shelf-life items were added. Fresh breads and cheeses took off into space for the first time. Food trays that could be secured to the crewmembers’ legs during mealtime were car- ried on this mission. Though they didn’t heat the food like their more evolved predecessors, they did serve to hold the food in place with springs and vel- cro fasteners!

ALMOST LIKE EATING AT HOME The experience of all these previous missions helped experts design the most effective and Earth-like feeding experience for astronauts of the . A standard shuttle menu is designed around a typical 7-day shuttle mission. NASA Astronauts may substitute items from the approved food list or may even design their own menus, but In space, meals are these have to be checked out by dieticians to ensure NO COKE,PEPSI OR PIZZA? a major highlight of that they are nutritionally sound. In 1985 Astronaut There are a few items that just don’t work in space. every “day.” Rodolfo Neri Vela from requested flour tor- Carbonated drinks don’t make the trip because the tillas as part of the food manifest. The space shuttle carbonation and the soda separate in microgravity. galley lacks a refrigerator. Foods that have a long Orange drink crystals when rehydrated, just make shelf life are preferred and commercial tortillas were orange ‘rocks’ in water, which is why the ever pop- found to spoil after 7 days. To pacify tortilla-loving ular ‘Tang’ is used in place of orange juice. Ice astronauts, scientists got cracking and developed a cream and frozen foods don’t make the trip because tortilla with a shelf life of 6 months! the shuttle currently doesn’t have freezers. And try Shuttle astronauts may gleefully choose from as they might, experts have not been able to come between 74 different food items and 20 beverages. up with a shelf-stable pizza! Foods that do travel Each astronaut’s food is identified by a colored dot need to be able to be stored safely at room temper- affixed to the package. Food is prepared at the gal- ature for long periods of time. A convection oven is ley, which has an oven for warming foods and a available to warm up foods, but it can only reach up water dispenser for rehydrating them. A full meal to 82 degrees Celsius. Though not hot enough to for a crew of four can be whipped up in about 5 boil water or cook meals it heats foods to serving minutes. Reconstituting and heating the food takes temperatures. an additional 20 to 30 minutes — about the time it It’s not all downhill though. Modern menus takes to fix a snack at home, and far less time than include beef stroganoff, granola bars, chicken it takes to cook a complete meal. During a typical teriyaki, chocolate covered cookies, Mexican scram- meal, a tray is used to hold the food containers. It bled eggs, applesauce, jelly, meatballs in spicy toma- can either be attached to the wall or to the astro- to sauce, tapioca puddings, rice pilaf, turkey tetrazi- nauts lap. The tray acts as a dinner plate, helping ni, creamed spinach, tabasco sauce and a whole lot the astronaut to choose between multiple items and of scrumptious goodies that can be custom made! preventing food packages from taking a star trek of The most frequently requested favorites are shrimp their own in the microgravity of space. cocktail, potatoes au gratin, chocolate and vanilla Among the most precious things an astronaut puddings, butter cookies, granola bars, orange- holds dear to his heart is a pair of scissors in his pock- mango drinks and lemonade. et. This humble tool supersedes the knife, spoon and Menus for the discerning astronauts of today are fork in importance, being necessary to cut open the a gastronomic delight. Palate-conscious astronauts plastic packages. Food can be seasoned with serving- can find just about anything one would order on a sized packets of mustard, catsup, mayonnaise, hot typical menu. The presentation might be different, sauce, and liquefied salt and pepper. At the end of the the Chicken a la king might be dehydrated, the beef meal, food containers are discarded in the trash com- goulash a tad dry, but the names and — most partment. Eating utensils and food trays are cleaned importantly the taste — are thankfully the same. at the hygiene station with “wet wipes.” That’s one more heroic bite for mankind! a to the stars Ad Astra may Ⅲ june 2002 39 SAILS n a letter to in 1610, Johannes viable step in spacecraft propulsion. “Solar sailing Isurmised, “Provide ships or sails adapted to the is the only known technology that exists that [may heavenly breezes, and there will be some who will lead] to practical interstellar flight,” says Friedman. brave even that void.” “‘Practical’ means that the time-scales for interstel- O Now, nearly four hundred years after Kepler’s lar travel are short enough to be of interest to the musings, solar sails for spacecraft are about to people who started it — that is in a generation or become a reality. “In the last five years the tech- two, not thousands of years.” nology for gossamer space structures has gotten to the point were these kinds of sail-craft are more WHAT ARE SAILS IN SPACE? L feasible for doing real missions,” says Hoppy The solar sails now being developed consist of Price, manager for solar sail development at large smooth sheets of very thin film, supported NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL). “This by ultralight structures, or booms, that hold the technology has the potential to be the great sailing sail film taught once deployed in space. “When ships between planets.” the sunlight hits the sails, it produces a force in the A Surprisingly, a privately funded mission by the opposite direction,” says Price. The photons from Planetary Society (TPS), Cosmos 1, may usher in the sunlight—not the solar wind—hit the sail this new era in spacecraft propulsion. Cosmos 1, a film, bounce off and in effect push the craft away. technology demonstration of solar sails, is poised “Generally, what you do with a solar sail is you for a spring or early summer 2002 launch. turn the sail at about a 35 degree angle to the sun and generate a force component which is 90 R OVERCOMING THE LIMITSIMITS — degrees from the direction of the sun,” says Price. MASS,SPEED,ENERGY “And that component of the force can be used to The Next With traditional spacecraft and their chemical fuel accelerate your orbit and spiral out in an orbit, or engines, we’ve reached the limits of what technol- it can be used to slow down.” Best Way to ogy can do to get us there faster. “The Voyager These highly-reflective sail films can be easily Get There? spacecraft are traveling at an amazing 37,000 produced in the range of 2.5 to 6 microns thick— mph, but even at that speed it will take 80,000 a sheet of office copy paper is approximately 100 BY DIANA WHITMAN years to reach the nearest star,” says Marc Millis, microns thick—and are both strong enough to project manager for NASA’s Breakthrough hold up to the rigors of space travel and easy to Propulsion Physics (BPP) project. If we want to handle for deployment. And while there are cur- pursue faster and more affordable space travel we rently several film materials commercially avail- can’t rely on chemical fuel engines. “The difficul- able, they do have their problems, including easi- ty is that rockets need so much fuel that they can’t ly tearing, melting at high temperatures, and the push their own weight into interstellar space,” need for relatively heavy support structures to says Les Johnson at NASA’s Marshall Space Flight stretch the thin material. Center. Both the weight and the cost of the In the latest breakthrough this summer, a new tremendous amount of fuel needed for such trips material with the potential to outperform all cur- make interstellar flight an impossible task for tra- rent sail films was developed by Energy Science ditional spacecraft. Laboratories, Inc., a private firm located in San Solar sails hold the promise to overcome these Diego, California. This carbon-fiber material is 25 limits, with their ability to harness a renewable times lighter than a sheet of paper and yet rigid energy source — sunlight — for spacecraft propul- enough not to bend when picked up by the corner. sion. Initial research also promises that this new It is also much thicker and at the same time more propulsion method will enable spacecraft to travel porous than the thinnest solar sail materials to at speeds of up to 10 times faster than current craft. date. The new carbon material is being hailed as a “The main thing about solar sails that is unique step towards the development of featherweight to it among all other forms of [propulsion] tech- spacecraft of the future. However, this super-light nology, is that it doesn’t require fuel,” says Louis material will probably not be commercially avail- Friedman, president of The Planetary Society able for another decade. (TPS). And although solar sail technology is just The sail material being used for the Cosmos 1 one of several advanced propulsion methods being spacecraft is made of 5-micron-thin aluminized developed these days, some scientists — with reinforced Mylar—the same material used to make Friedman at the forefront — see it as the next most balloons atat youryour local local card card store. store. The The spacecraft spacecraft

40 may Ⅲ june 2002 Ad Astra to the stars will carry 8 triangular-shaped sail panels that will According to Price at JPL, plans for sail tech- deploy once in space. In total, the sails will cover nology on an upcoming ST mission include test- an area of 600 square meters. Such a large surface ing the deployment of four triangular sail panels area is needed to enable enough energy-gathering supported by deployable booms. As with Cosmos capability for the spacecraft. The sails themselves 1, the booms can be articulated, turning the sails can be turned in order to change to direction or and changing the direction of movement of the momentum of the spacecraft, and when unfurled, spacecraft. The ST spacecraft would also include form a circular disk around the spacecraft, look- instrumentation to run diagnostics and measure ing like the petals of a giant space flower. The the performance of the sails. Though similar in spacecraft bus, or main body of the craft, weighs theory to the Cosmos 1 concept, the technology a mere 40 kilograms and will be dwarfed by the NASA plans to use will be quite different. huge sails. Whether or not sail technology is tested on the next ST mission, NASA plans call for solar sail SOLAR SAIL MISSIONSISSIONS propulsion on its Interstellar Probe mission. If Established by , Bruce Murray, and funded, this mission will study the outer solar Louis Friedman in 1980, TPS is a nonprofit organ- system and the interstellar medium, and would ization with 100,000 members from 140 coun- likely be launched between 2010 and 2015. The tries. TPS serves as an advocacy group for the mission goal is to reach a distance of about 200 exploration of the solar system and the search for Astronomical Units (AU) from the Earth as extraterrestrial life. Cosmos 1 is the first space mis- quickly as possible (one AU is the average dis- sion undertaken by TPS, or any public member- tance from the Earth to the sun, about ship organization for that matter. Not coinciden- 150,000,000 kilometers). tally, Louis Friedman, president, devoted much of For now, all eyes are on the Cosmos 1 mission. his career at NASA to developing solar sails. “We have a very simple objective on our flight — To execute the Cosmos 1 mission, TPS has to be first,” says Friedman. “This is a pathway for teamed with Russia’s Babakin Space Center. The real interplanetary growth, development and Babakin Center is building and will launch the exploration. And in that sense it is particularly fas- spacecraft from a submarine in the Barents Sea. cinating to be here and be part of the birth of it.” Funding is from a private organization, Cosmos But, even if Cosmos 1 is successful the design Studios. Ann Druyan, CEO, was Carl Sagan’s wife won’t translate to one that NASA can use as a fol- and long-time collaborator, and she plans to make low-on mission. However, they will have demon- a documentary film of the Cosmos 1 mission— strated that solar sails work, and there will be whether successful or not. some in-flight data on inflatable space structures “It’s risky, we know it,” agrees Friedman. “And that will help us to understand how the sail film I think anybody in [this business] has got to be behaves in the space environment. Successful or prepared to fail, if not 50% of the time, pretty not, however, TPS does not plan to continue in close to it.” One reason for the high risk is the low its development of sail technology. “Our mission cost of Cosmos 1. “Lou and the Russians aren’t is to inspire the people of the Earth to explore doing a lot of testing, and that’s one reason why other worlds...not just to develop technology,” it’s very cheap. If successful, it’s great, and worth says Friedman. the risk,” says Price. In the near term, solar sail technology will like- Cosmos 1 will launch its small spacecraft into ly be used for missions to Mars, and for space Earth’s orbit, deploy the solar sails, and demon- weather and other solar research missions, travel- strate an initial operation of the sails. The goal of ing relatively close to the sun. However, in order to the mission is to measurably increase the space- reach longer-term goals of some craft’s orbital energy in controlled flight—to basic problems must be solved, including how to expand the orbit farther from Earth. find a light source at the far reaches of the solar sys- In the meantime, NASA’s plans include testing tem. But these problems are seen by most scientists solar sails on one of its upcoming as challenges to overcome, rather than impossible (ST) missions. NASA uses the ST missions specifi- obstacles. “Just as the sailing ships of the 17th and cally to test its newest technologies. But, this spring, 18th centuries opened up the world to exploration, in announcing the technologies for the upcoming we are trying to open up new areas of exploration

ST7 mission, solar sails were not included. in our solar system,” says Price. A Pat Rawlings

to the stars Ad Astra may Ⅲ june 2002 41 NSS Board Candidate Statements

CANDIDATES FOR AT-LARGE DIRECTOR From the NSS Elections 13 Candidates Committee Chair GREGORY H. ALLISON This candidate was nominated by petition and by the Nominations his year I was honored to serve with four of Committee of the Board of Directors. my fellow Directors (Murray Clark, Cliff I will direct my efforts toward reinvigorating the chapter network, McMurray, Alan Wasser, and Philip Young) space activism, and pursuing meaningful projects. I chaired the to oversee the 2002 Board of Directors elec- Foundry, a project incubator workshop, at the 2001 International tions. I am happy to report to you that all Space Development Conference (ISDC) which lead to direct funding preparations for this election have gone of chapter projects. I actively worked to develop cheap access to space technologies as smoothly and are proceeding very fairly. By the Program Manager for the Huntsville Alabama (HAL5) meeting the requirements, 7 At-Large (4- High Altitude Lift-Off (HALO) Program, and as President of the year) candidates were nominated by petition, High Altitude Research Corporation (HARC). The HALO Sky as were 10 Regional (2-year) candidates. Launch 1 (SL-1) mission, a balloon launched hybrid rocket launched over the Atlantic Ocean 11 May 1997, landed HAL5 in the TAdditionally, the NSS Nominations Committee, Millennium Edition of the Guinness Book of World Records 2000. It is Chaired by Director Jeffrey Liss, has selected 12 At- my honor to serve as President of HAL5. Large candidates and one Regional candidate (neces- Worked on the International Space Station (ISS) Program for sary due to insufficient petitions). The Nominations Grumman as a systems engineer specializing in robotics, and for the Mevatec Corporation as an electrical power integration engineer. I Committee reported that it sought nominees who currently work for Teledyne Engineering as an integration “as a balanced group, reflect a cross section of the engineer for external ISS experiments. I devote myself to the study of backgrounds, skills, personalities and experience that means to defend Earth from asteroids and the construction of large- will be most useful to NSS at this particular time.” I scale space stations. want to thank Jeffrey and his Committee members I am the National Space Society (NSS) Vice President for Chapter Affairs. I chair the Chapters Committee, serve on the Budget (Directors Larry Ahearn, Sharon Elbert, Francis Committee, Awards Committee, and the Executive Director Search Govers, Dana Johnson, Brian Lundquist, and Wayne Committee. White) for planning and executing a very fair nomi- Served NSS and the L5 Society in many capacities over the past nations process. 24 years: Director for the NSS (1998 to present, and 1994 to 1995), Assistant Treasurer for the NSS Executive Committee (1995), Members and chairpersons of both the Elections Chairman of the highly successful 1993 ISDC, Co-chairman of the Committee and Nominations Committee were NSS National Phone Tree, President of the Huntsville Alabama L5 elected by members of the Board of Directors in Society (HAL5), and participant in the NSS Policy Committee. early 2001. Membership automatically expires once Since joining the L5 Society and the in this election is over. 1978 I consistently promoted space as an avid activist. I founded three chapters: Cumberland L5 Society, North Star L5 Society (1st in The At-Large election is contested (more candi- Alaska), and HAL5. I also co-founded one of the first chapter coun- dates than openings), as are 3 of the Regional elec- cils, The Carolina Council of L5 Societies. I served as state coordina- tions. Please read the candidate statements that follow tor for both the Alaska and Alabama L5/NSS Phone Trees, chaired panels calling for people to write their elected representatives, and and make your voting decisions based on what they written hundreds of letters myself. I circulated petitions garnering wrote and what else you may know of these candi- hundreds of signatures. dates. I encourage you to read all of the candidate I have been honored with the following NSS awards: Chapters’ statements that follow, even for candidates outside Assembly 1996 Outstanding Chapter Member Award, and the your Region. Many of these candidates will become National Space Society’s Space Pioneer Award for Entrepreneurship for Project HALO in 1997. NSS Directors, and will join the group that is guiding Endorsed by Greg Rucker. our Society. Take every opportunity, such as ISDCs and regional gatherings, to get to know your Directors, and to let them know you. MARIANNE J. DYSON This candidate was nominated by petition and by the Nominations Don’t forget — your complete ballot must be Committee of the Board of Directors. received by 1 August, so plan to mail it by 26 July. If re-elected, I plan to continue to use my background and experience — Ronnie Lajoie, Chair, NSS Elections Committee to help NSS push political issues and develop writers and speakers to spread our message. Specifically, I will coordinate the new NSS Policy Alert Network, help with the World Space Congress in Houston, and start an NSS Literary and Graphics Art Contest for young people.

42 may Ⅲ june 2002 Ad Astra to the stars

On 5 August 1974 Wernher von Braun became the I have been a Congressional intern, a Republican precinct chair- President of the National man, and delegate to political conventions (see old issues of Ad Astra). Space Association, which I have a degree in physics and was one of the first 10 women to work for NASA in Mission Control (as an FAO). became the National Space It is my good fortune to have won the Golden Kite Award for the Institute. In March of 1986 best nonfiction children’s book of 1999, Space Station Science, pub- lished by Scholastic. I speak to thousands of children about space every the NSI joined L5 to become year in schools and to teachers and other writers at conferences around the National Space Society. the country. Today the NSS is larger I push NSS whenever I can, including during the broadcast of one of my school appearances on C-SPAN/BookTV in 2001. My new than ever with membership books for 2003 include Frontier Moon from National Geographic and of over 33,000. 5 astronomy books (Stars, Constellations, Holes, Galaxies, and Universe) from Enslow Publishing. I am available to speak at chapter events free of charge when in town for other appearances. I joined NSS in 1977, co-founded the Clear Lake Area NSS chap- ter, served as editor of Spacecause News for 4 years, as Secretary of NSS, VP-Public Affairs, chaired the profitable 1999 Houston ISDC, served MARK HOPKINS as a Regional Organizer and Director, and am currently an At-Large This candidate was nominated by petition and by the Nominations Director. I am a member of the NSS Policy and Chapters Committees. Committee of the Board of Directors. I ask for your vote to let me continue to serve NSS in a leadership position. Contact me via: http://www.mariannedyson.com. The idea of a National Space Society (NSS) was first proposed by Mark Hopkins. He initiated the discussions and did most of the nego- tiating for the L5 Society’s side of the 1987 L5/NSI merger which cre- RICHARD GODWIN ated NSS. This candidate was nominated by the Nominations Committee of the Hopkins has continuously served as an Officer and or Member of Board of Directors. the Board of Directors of L5 and after the merger of NSS for 26 years. Twenty of those years were spent as an Officer. By the time you read Educated in England, majors were Physics, Maths and Economics, this statement, he expects to be serving as NSS Secretary. went on to study Mechanical Engineering and Business Administration According to Chris Pancratz, Chief Executive Officer of NSS, at College. I have been self-employed since leaving college building “Mark Hopkins has enthusiasm, dedication and organizational history substantial businesses, the largest of which turned over $30 million which are important resources for the future of NSS and the Space dollars per year in revenues. My days date from the age Movement.” of seven. I have been a member of NSS since 1992 and of The Space Hopkins, a California Institute of Technology and Harvard educat- Frontier Foundation since 1997. I served on the board of the SFF for ed economist, has written numerous articles concerning space econom- two years in 2000/01. I helped organize their annual conferences and ics. He is responsible for most of the early economic studies of Space was on many occasions a spokesperson on Radio and Television. I Colonization which were done while working closely with Gerard started a project called “The Watch” for the SFF in 1997. This project O’Neill, Father of the modern concept. was to be a fundraising and educational project dealing with Asteroid He has been active since 1972, when he co-founded and later Impacts and their dangers. I was able to disburse over $250,000 to served as President of the Harvard Radcliffe Committee for a Space asteroid researchers over the past five years. Economy, a chapter-like precursor of L5 dedicated to the goal of large I decided in 1997 that I would eventually make my living out of scale Space Commercialization. some kind of Space business. Thanks to my publishing company Hopkins developed the first comprehensive set of chapter rules and I have achieved that goal. Our series of Space books has was in charge of chapters at the national level for six years. He current- now firmly established Apogee as “The” Space Book company. My ly serves as Chairman of the Board of Governors of OASIS, our Los goals with the company continue to grow, as I am very committed to Angeles Chapter. education of the general public when it comes to the Space fields, but He was the primary force behind the establishment of regional more importantly to inspire our children, as they are the ones who will positions on the Board of Directors, which significantly democratized eventually open the new frontier. I work very closely with both NASA the Society and greatly increased Chapter influence. and the Astronaut corps producing new books. I occasionally lecture For 18 years ending in 1997, Hopkins led the political efforts of grade school children about space topics and am totally inspired by L5, NSS and associated organizations. He played a significant role in their interest in the subject. They want to know why my generation our successful effort to defeat the anti private enterprise . dropped the when it comes to Space exploration. Hopkins has developed a plan that he believes can be used to at I am a businessman, hence a pragmatist. I absolutely believe that least double the long term number of members in the Society. we as a species must move out from Earth. But dreaming too far Previously, he ran a campaign that increased L5’s membership by 125 forward makes us nothing more than Star Trek fans. We have to get to percent. He also served for three years as L5’s informal, volunteer, grips with the here and now, with ISS, Congress and other government Executive Director. entities globally; with new technological challenges, the current state of Mark Hopkins has received the “L5 Directors’ Award For world politics and to make sure that our message doesn’t get lost in the Outstanding Service” and the NSS “Activist Of The Year” award, both hubris which is always a part of our lives. We must do everything in for lifetime service. our collective power to ensure that ISS succeeds, because without that According to Keith Henson, Co-founder and first President of L5, success, no government will be investing in manned space flight for “Mark Hopkins is nothing less than the Father of the Space Movement.” some time to come. to the stars Ad Astra may Ⅲ june 2002 43 NSS Board Candidate Statements

KIRBY IKIN I have served as Executive Vice President and Board member of the This candidate was nominated by the Nominations Committee of the American Astronautical Society, and have been on the Boards of Board of Directors. Women in Aerospace, and the AeroAstro Corporation. I am also a member of NASA’s Advisory Committee. In my seventeen years as a member of NSS and its forerunners I have An active communicator, I have promoted space in hundreds of played an active role in all levels of the Society’s activities. At the same public forums, dozens of published articles, and countless appearances time I have developed a significant professional involvement in the on domestic and international radio and television programs. I am cur- , firstly running a major space insurance business, pro- rently working to engage public participation through Humanity’s viding risk management services to start-up space companies, and most First Starship, Team Encounter’s interplanetary solar sail expedition. recently serving as the Commercial Director for a planned commercial My contributions to the space program have been recognized with launch service. This professional role has allowed me to enhance my NASA’s Distinguished Service Award, the Exception Achievement effectiveness for NSS. Award, two Exceptional Service Awards, and designation as a Fellow of At the Society level I have filled an assortment of roles. Initially I the American Astronautical Society. started as President of the Sydney chapter, serving six years in this role. At the dawn of the , visionaries and politicians spoke During this time I instigated the formation of the National Space enthusiastically of a robust future for humans in space. The imbalance Society of Australia, serving as its founding President from 1990 to between those bold predictions and the current state of space develop- 1996. As NSS’s presence grew in Australia I fulfilled the roles of ment is a frustration to all space advocates. Shouldn’t we all be there by Australian Chapter Coordinator and later, International Chapters now? Coordinator. At the international level I am currently Chairman of the I believe NSS can help to bridge the gap between vision and reality Board of Directors and serve on the Executive Committee. Previously I by doing more to highlight the contributions space activities bring to also served on the International, Project Review and Conference economic growth, advances in science and technology, education stim- Coordination Committees. ulation, and international cooperation. It’s time to change the percep- I firmly believe that NSS needs to take a very professional and tion of NSS as a collection of eclectic advocates on the fringe to organized approach to the attainment of its objectives. In my opinion become a recognized force capable of truly advancing the space agenda NSS needs strong management, clear strategic planning, and a focus- for the betterment of humanity. ing of its efforts through pursuit of the NSS Road Map, to make the best possible use of our limited financial and human resources. I believe I have an excellent working knowledge of NSS at an opera- KAREN MERMEL tional level, whilst also having the business acumen and industry pro- This candidate was nominated by petition. file to take NSS forward. The six previous Australian Space Development Conferences that I Wayne White, current Director, Nominations Committee, and Chair chaired and organized have materially raised awareness about key com- of the 2002 ISDC endorses her candidacy and says: mercial space issues such as launch regulation and licensing for “... Ms. Mermel has voluntarily performed enormous amounts of Reusable Launch Vehicles. Through NSSA I also instigated the forma- work for the NSS for many years. She should be recognized in particu- tion of the Australian Space Industry Chamber of Commerce. Serving lar for her work on the NSS Strategic Plan, a task of great value to the as its founding Chairman I have worked to use the unique forum that organization which took many, many hours to organize and docu- it provides to address barriers to space development from the profes- ment.” sional perspective. Endorsements also include: Charles D. Walker, past President of As an Australian member of NSS I will aim to foster the interna- the Society and current Board member, Kirby Ikin, past CEO and cur- tional growth of NSS, and I believe that my experience with the space rent Chair of the Board of Directors, Marianne Dyson, current Board industry, at both a Society and professional level, make me an ideal member, and Larry Ahearn, past VP of Chapters and current Board candidate for a position on the NSS Board of Directors. member, endorse Karen. Credentials past: • NSS Vice President for Public Affairs (never missed an Executive ALAN LADWIG Committee meeting This candidate was nominated by the Nominations Committee of the • First Chair of Strategic Planning for NSS (Mission/ Vision state- Board of Directors. ments developed under her direction) • Member, NSS Board of Directors (never missed a Board meeting) Space is my passion. It has been the exclusive focus of my work, the • Drafted the “Expectations for NSS Board Members” document inspiration of my artistic creations, and the theme of my substantial • Helped make 1989 ISDC a highly successful conference toy collection. Throughout a 30-year professional career I have worked • Member, NSS Budget Committee to advance the space agenda through leadership positions in the non- Credentials present: profit, government, consulting, and commercial sectors. • Liaison to the NSS Board of Governors The high points of my career have been associated with activities • Chair, International Committee designed to directly engage the public in space exploration and devel- • Member of the Society (L5/NSS) since 1978 opment. Early in my career I collaborated with Dr. Glen Wilson and • Member, NSS Conferences Coordinating Committee Leonard David to lay the groundwork for, and eventually manage, • Special projects NASA’s Shuttle Student Involvement Program. I also promoted public If elected, I’d like to continue working on the same things I’ve been engagement as the manager of NASA’s Space Flight Participant doing. There’s still much to do especially in the international area and Program, the Corporate Program, and the Non-sci- in making the Board of Directors more accountable to the organization. entific Payload Program. As the Associate Administrator for Policy and If you have any questions about what she’s done and what she still Plans, I managed the coordination of the NASA Strategic Plan and wants to do please don’t hesitate to contact her: [email protected]. represented the agency in the development of the National Space If you’d like some quotes from a letter from to Ms. Policy. Mermel, contact her.

44 may Ⅲ june 2002 Ad Astra to the stars Ad Astra

In January 1989 the National Space Society published the first issue CHRISTOPHER M. PANCRATZ This candidate was nominated by petition and by the Nominations of Ad Astra Magazine. Committee of the Board of Directors.

Today the magazine “It has always been my dream to someday travel into space,” says Chris reaches three times its Pancratz. “Some years ago, I realized I could not just sit by and hope. If I were to have any chance at that opportunity I needed to help make it hap- original subscription base. pen. I joined NSS. Among space advocacy groups, NSS is best positioned Arthur C. Clarke calls it to be THE advocate. NSS has the clear vision, the right mission, and grass roots involvement. Hard work by many people, over many years has estab- “the only space magazine lished this position. I want to continue to make it stronger.” Pancratz has been involved wherever his help has been needed. of its kind.” During the past four years, serving as Assistant Secretary, Vice President for Public Affairs, and recently elected Chairman of the Executive Committee. During that time, Chris led the NSS strategic planning process, the development of the NSS Roadmap to Human Settlement of Space and initiated the healthcare special interest group. He has also continued to be active with the DC-L5 chapter. Pancratz was recognized as the NSS Activist of the Year 2000. DR. STEWART NOZETTE For ten years, he was Executive Director of a DC based, national This candidate was nominated by the Nominations Committee of the association, and prior to that, CEO of multi-million dollar corpora- Board of Directors. tion. He has extensive experience in activism, membership growth, chapter support and association management through many years in I am currently working with the Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) leadership positions. developing follow-on to the Clementine program. During my career I He writes, “The cause for space that brings us together requires have endeavored to advance many of the goals of the NSS, specifically that NSS be the central advocate speaking in a loud, clear voice on the goal of creating a spacefaring civilization through development of behalf of a large body of people who cannot be ignored. An army of space resources, and entrepreneurial approaches to space technology. Members seeking opportunities and promoting change will cause that This included efforts as a member of the professional staff of the change. To make that happen we will grow the organization’s member- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, as a consultant and Senior ship and build a stable revenue stream. Together, those two elements Scientist for Spacecraft Design and Production with Hughes Space and will allow our Society to have a much more significant impact on cur- Communications in 1997 and 1998, as technical director of the rent issues and future opportunities as they arise. I WANT TO GO!” microsatellite technology program at the USAF Phillips Laboratory Pancratz joined NSS to help move mankind into space. Neither from 1994-1997, as Deputy for Sensor Integration (The Clementine scientist nor engineer, he has the proven ability to guide our Society in Program), at the Department of Defense Ballistic setting, funding, and achieving the goals to get us there. Organization, as a member of the Synthesis Group, a Presidential He is nominated by petition, and by the Nominations Committee. Commission chartered to plan the Space Exploration Initiative, and Endorsements include those from Chairman Kirby Ikin, EVP Gordon finally at the White House in 1989. I endeav- Woodcock, Treasurer Joe Redfield and Directors Greg Allison, Sharon ored to further NSS goals in all of these positions. Elbert, Robert Gounley, Dana Johnson, Mark Hopkins, Charles I received my BS in Geosciences with Honors and Distinction Walker, and Jay Wittner. from the University of Arizona in 1979, and Ph.D. in Planetary Chris Pancratz asks for your vote to continue to serve our Society. Sciences from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1983, where I participated in the NASA Pioneer Venus mission as a member of the ORAD (Orbiting Radar) team. I also served as a visiting scien- JOE REDFIELD tist at NASA Headquarters, Office of Solar System Exploration, during This candidate was nominated by the Nominations Committee of the 1980-81. Board of Directors. My contributions toward NSS objectives can be seen in the range of honors I received including: the National Space Society’s (NSS) 25 I currently serve as Treasurer of the National Space Society and seek Young Space Pioneers for 1994 and the 1994 NSS Award for election to the NSS Board of Directors, because I believe that by serv- Achievement in Science and Engineering. The most important contri- ing on the Board I can be even more effective in helping NSS fulfill its bution I have made towards creating a spacefaring civilization was vision and mission. leading the team which discovered the first evidence of ice on the If we are to ensure a sustained and continued development of space Moon using data collected by Clementine. This finding was later con- in our lifetime, the entire membership of NSS must work together firmed by the NASA Lunar Prospector mission. These findings strong- toward that goal. I recognize that there are a variety of ideas and ly indicate large quantities of accessible water are present at both lunar approaches for meeting that goal. As a Director member of the Board, poles. This resource will be critical to establishing an economically I will represent the At-Large membership in insuring that the great viable lunar settlement sometime in this new century. This is perhaps variety of ideas and approaches to that goal are taken into account by my most significant accomplishment in furthering NSS objectives. I NSS leadership on both the national and chapter levels. look forward to continued contributions to NSS and its Board of I hold BS and MS degrees in and lead a Directors in turning the vision of lunar settlement into reality. team developing fuel cell technologies at Southwest Research Institute, an applied research and development firm in San Antonio, Texas. My association with the NSS leadership began with my serving as Finance Director for the financially successful 1991 International Space Development Conference (ISDC). After the conference, I was appoint- to the stars Ad Astra may Ⅲ june 2002 45 All the Buzz

In 1986 Astronaut Edward “Buzz” Aldrin ed to the Board to complete the term of the Region Three Director. became Chairman of the Since that time, I have served as a Region Three Director and as an At- Large Director. Board of Directors of the Also in 1991, I was elected to the Executive Committee as Treasurer, a position I have been fulfilling for the past ten years. I also National Space Society. serve as Chair of the NSS Investment Committee, the Budget Today, he continues his Committee, and the Conferences Coordinating Committee. My NSS positions have given me both the opportunity and experi- efforts as one of more than ence in working directly with the HQ staff and the Society leadership 40 high-profile NSS to bring to fruition the many NSS projects and activities of the past ten years. The most notable of these developments is the NSS Road Governors. See page 5 Map to Space, the cornerstone of NSS policy and activity. As a mem- ber of the Board, I will remain in my position of NSS Treasurer and for the complete list. continue to participate in the Board committees. I will use my Board position to continue to establish fiscal structure that will ensure the fulfillment of the NSS vision, “People living and working in thriving communities beyond the Earth.”

President, Chapters), Jay Wittner (Vice-President, Membership), Joe GREG RUCKER Redfield (Treasurer), and Mark Hopkins (Secretary). This candidate was nominated by petition and by the Nominations Of particular importance to the Society in 2002 has been the Committee of the Board of Directors. search for a new Executive Director. I have served as the Chairman of the “Executive Director” Search committee. Currently I serve as the NSS Vice-President, Fundraising, where my experience as a professional financial manager is particularly useful. I’ve served as Vice-President, Fundraising since 1997 when first elected to F. KENNETH SCHWETJE the NSS Board as the Region 5 representative. This candidate was nominated by the Nominations Committee of the In 1997 I led a special appeal that has developed into the Board of Directors. “Leadership Fundraising” program. In 1998, I created the NSS Endowment Fund and implemented the NSS Investment Committee. I plan to bring the benefit of practical experience to the Board. Since The dollar target goal of $100,000 for the first three years of the attaining my Masters of Laws in Space and Aviation Law at McGill Endowment Fund was met on schedule in 2001. In 2000, I aided in University, I have been privileged to have a series of challenging posi- creating a program for funding NSS chapter projects. tions dealing with and policy. As an active duty officer in the In 2001, I proposed a “Dream Book” of a dozen projects linked to the U.S. Air Force, I was the Chief of Air and Space Law, HQ USAF, at NSS “Roadmap” (strategic plan), many in the million-dollar range, the Pentagon. In this capacity, I had the opportunity to learn about the that were approved by the full Board to be undertaken when and as entire government and commercial space programs. My office was new funding is identified. responsible for developing and advocating the “blue suit” positions on My other work for the Society has included: many important issues, such as SDI, space treaty interpretations, com- • Participated in creating the NSS “Roadmap” mercial uses of government launch facilities, the uses of the • Service on two Nominations committees International Space Station, and many others. • Budget committee After the Air Staff, I was assigned to the Joint Chief of Staff, in the • Executive Director Review committee international negotiations and agreements division. Among a number • Board Reform committee of duties, I participated in the UN study on the military uses of space, • Strategic planning committee evaluated ballistic missile defense programs for compliance with inter- • Attended all Board and Executive Committee meetings national treaties and domestic law, and was a delegate to the Standing • Recruited editor for “NSS Online Report” Consultative Commission in Geneva. These military postings gave me In addition to being a member of the NSS Executive Committee, I the opportunity to travel extensively and learn of foreign space pro- have served the Society in a number of roles: member since 1984; grams and policies. Society “Visionary Donor”; engaged participant in the activities of the Since retiring from the USAF, I have worked for defense contrac- chapters where I have lived; assisted in founding of two chapters; and tors on classified space programs. For the past six years I have been as a chapter president. I have regularly attended and been actively engaged in the private practice of law representing many of the major involved in our annual ISDCs, Apollo dinners, special events, and two aerospace companies in both the United States and Europe. Presently, I Board of Governors meetings. SPACEPAC awarded me its am with the firm of Pierson & Burnett LLP. Pierson & Burnett has Outstanding Service award for 1995. been the pro bono counsel for the NSS for many years. I have been Presently I work as Manager, Underwriting in the Actuarial depart- fortunate in that I was selected as the lead counsel for this work. As ment of HealthNow (the parent organization of several BlueCross such, I was able to learn about the inner workings of the Board, the organizations). Previously, I’ve directed the underwriting of nationwide needs of the Chapters, and the policy positions of the Society. health insurance programs (set the rate levels) for a dozen companies In addition to acting as the General Counsel to the Society, I was including New York Life, Aetna, and HUMANA. I am a pilot. the Committee Chairman for the Space Law Committees of the Endorsed by: Kirby Ikin (Chairman of the Board), Chris Pancratz American Bar Association, the Federal Bar Association, and I served as (Chairman of the Executive Committee), Charlie Walker (Former the president of the US Section of the International Institute of Space Chairman of the Executive Committee), Jeffrey Liss (Senior Vice- Law. I taught space law and policy at the School of Law President), Greg Allison (Vice-President, Chapters), Craig Ward (Catholic University) and the National Law Center (George (Former Vice-President, Chapters), Larry Ahearn (Former Vice- Washington University).

46 may Ⅲ june 2002 Ad Astra to the stars NSS Board Candidate StatementsX

JAY WITTNER research in solar power satellites under the sponsorship of the Space This candidate was nominated by petition and by the Nominations Studies Institute. I then returned to industry. Committee of the Board of Directors. For approximately a dozen years, I have been involved with NSS, first through Board membership in the New York City and Education Why Wittner? I have been a space enthusiast for over thirty years, and Chapters of NSS, then as President of OASIS, the Los Angeles Chapter a member of NSS for 14 years. In early 2000 I was appointed to the of NSS. I have also had the opportunity to participate in activities of NSS Board of Directors, and later that year I was elected Vice organizations with overlapping interests. In 1994, I helped organize the President of Membership. conference on Practical Robotic Interstellar Flight, hosted by New York • Membership growth of approximately 50 percent since I’ve been University and sponsored by The Planetary Society. Two years later, I Membership VP was privileged to assist in the organization of ISDC in New York City. • Financial support — Visionary Donor since 1997 Through the NSS Education Chapter, as well as through working with • Lobbying — 150 letters to Congress in the last year engineering students at several universities, I have encouraged a new Participation since I joined the NSS Board: generation to contribute to the exploration and development of space. • Membership VP More recently, I became secretary of the Sunsat Energy Council, an • Facilitator 2001 Strategic Planning Session organization that promotes solar energy from space. I have been fortu- • Every Board meeting nate to be able to combine my professional interest in solar power • Every Executive Committee meeting and teleconference satellites and other concepts related to the exploration and develop- I feel that the top priority for NSS must be membership growth in ment of space with my activities in space advocacy through NSS. order to maximize our influence. I’m delighted that NSS has grown by These experiences have led me to conclude that one of NSS’s greatest approximately 50% during my term as VP Membership. I have pur- strengths is the chapter-based system. This has enabled individuals sued various new initiatives since I took office and intend to continue. throughout the U.S. and the world to contribute to building a future I was able to obtain funding in the NSS 2002 budget for eight new beyond the Earth, while taking advantage of the strengths and interests initiatives to help us grow. of each region. At the same time, NSS Headquarters has a valuable I believe in “putting my money where my mouth is” and have been role in giving our organization cohesion, and providing opportunities a Visionary Donor since 1997. Of the election candidates, I am one of to communicate with one another. three who are Visionary Donors. I am the only candidate who has As an NSS Board member, I will strive to strengthen opportunities for been a Visionary Donor for the past several years. chapters, promote the relationship between chapters and Headquarters, as As a Director, I also served as Facilitator for NSS’s 2001 Strategic well as build coalitions with other organizations when appropriate. At the Planning Session. The meeting went quite well and resulted in mem- same time, I will respect the diversity of viewpoint and other qualities bership growth being named as NSS’s top priority. that have distinguished NSS. As your representative on the NSS Board of I have participated in eight of NSS’s International Space Directors, I will help you to continue to make a difference. Development Conferences, including the most recent five. I have also worked with the editor on the monthly production of our email newslet- ter, NSS Online Report. While NSS is my primary commitment, I am also a member of the Mars Society and have been a member of the CANDIDATES FOR REGION 2 DIRECTOR Planetary Society and the Space Studies Institute for over a decade. I am honored that the following NSS leaders have endorsed my DR. J. PETER VAJK candidacy: This candidate was nominated by petition. • Kirby Ikin - Board Chairman • Chris Pancratz - Executive Committee Chairman Qualifications: • Jeffrey Liss - Senior VP • Ph.D. in Theoretical Physics, Princeton University. • Gordon Woodcock - Executive VP • Six years on Board of Directors of L5 Society (predecessor of NSS). • Greg Rucker - Fundraising VP • Participant in 1977 Summer Study on of • Joe Redfield - Treasurer Solar Power Satellites (SPS). • Bob Gounley - Assistant Secretary • Participant in landmark Space Industrialization Study for NASA. • Wayne White - ISDC 2002 Chairman • Initiated and lead studies for DOE/NASA on military implica- • Mark Hopkins - former President, Spacecause tions and financing SPS. • Larry Ahearn - former Chapters Coordinator • Contributed to “High Frontier” report and was a member of Please support me in this election so I can continue my efforts. I National Advisory Council on National ; these would appreciate your input on all space and NSS issues. Email: wit- helped persuade President Reagan to start Strategic Defense [email protected] Initiative (SDI). • Initiated and lead study for Defense Nuclear Agency on policy implications of SDI. • Frequent speaker on space colonization and industrialization. CANDIDATE FOR REGION 1 DIRECTOR • Twelve years experience in public and private education in science and math. SETH D. POTTER • Author of Doomsday Has Been Canceled, critically acclaimed book This candidate was nominated by petition. which highlights role of space colonization and industrialization in creating a positive future. My name is Seth Potter. I am a candidate for Region 1 Director for the From published book reviews on Doomsday Has Been Canceled (1979): National Space Society Board of Directors. I have been involved in • “Peter Vajk is one of the first post-Copernican social thinkers to aerospace, energy, and related fields in industry and academia for many recognize the vast potential of the future of humanity as part of years, starting in industry, then moving on to academia where I earned the universe.” — Barbara Marx Hubbard, Co-founder of The a doctorate in Applied Science at New York University. There, I did Committee for the Future

to the stars Ad Astra may Ⅲ june 2002 47 NSS Vision “People living and working in thriving communities

beyond the Earth.” work to keep the Board focused on grass roots campaigns like the “I Want To Go” petition drive. I helped lead the highly successful California field test, which gathered several thousand signatures. In 2000, I partici- NSS Mission pated in the planning sessions to which Board candidates were invited, “To promote social, including the first sessions on NSS’s “Roadmap To Space.” Besides my activist background, with degrees and work experience economic, technological, in physics, mathematics, ecology, and computer science, I am well pre- pared to understand the scientific issues involved in space exploration. and political change, In short, I believe I can make a valuable contribution to the Board’s to advance the day when work and hope you give me the opportunity to do so. humans will live and work in space.” CANDIDATES FOR REGION 3 DIRECTOR DONALD DOUGHTY This candidate was nominated by petition.

• “Vajk insists that a fusing of science and philosophy can assure us of Background: I’m an Electrical Engineer with experience on the follow- survival as space pioneers within the next generation....[His book] blue- ing projects: the FMV Dynamic Flight Simulator, a high performance prints the future with exacting detail, sturdy common sense and perfect training & aeromedical centrifuge; Fiber Optic Data Transmission self-confidence.” — Ben Reuven, Reviewer for Los Angeles Times Systems at Labs; the Scorpius Rocket Sequencer and a Test Stand Goals: President Bush’s abrogation of the ABM Treaty signals Data Acquisition System; and an Airplane Passenger Communication renewed emphasis on large-scale operations in space, requiring cheap (Phone) System. I am also a member of the following organizations: access to space on a far larger scale than we have yet seen. NSS must AIAA, IEEE, Reaction Research Society and Space Access Society. continue to push for cheap and massive human access to orbit in the Endorsement: Vice-President of Chapters Greg Allison has endorsed near term. Yet the next generation who will most benefit from space my candidacy for the Region-3 NSS Board of Directors position. barely know it’s overhead. I believe NSS can play a major role in edu- NSS Accomplishments: As a member of the Boston Chapter, I suc- cating and inspiring young people around the globe about the endless cessfully mobilized a ‘grassroots’ network to restore FY-2000 NASA frontier and its boundless opportunities which will open shortly. Space Exploration funding and worked in the past to keep the DC-X Endorsements: “I have known Peter Vajk since the early days of the Rocket flight test program funded. I have also set up the first NSS L5 Society. He is the rare individual who combines brilliance, knowl- majordomo e-mail lists and now manage the delta- edge, and a deep dedication and willingness to work for our cause. [email protected] list, which tracks RLV issues. I design interac- Please elect him to the Board.” — Sandy Adamson, former Executive tive displays and run model rocket workshops for Science Exploration Vice President of NSS; Cofounder and Former President of Tucson Encounters (SEE). I organized the effort to council the Space NSS chapter; former editor of Oregon Chapter newsletter. Exploration Merit Badge at two BSA Jamborees. I have been Chairman of the Chapter Assembly Administration Council. Also, I’m founder of the New Hampshire chapter and Embry-Riddle JEAN MARIE WALKER Aeronautical University Chapter in Prescott Arizona, where a micro- This candidate was nominated by petition. scale antimatter rocket motor is under construction. NSS Policy: As a member of the Board of Directors I will work toward For three years I was President of the Golden Gate Space Frontier the following: have the membership surveyed and organize a Political Society and for the last four have been the Secretary/Treasurer. I have Action Network; establish State Contacts for areas not served by Chapters; also been a chapter representative at numerous California Space set up a national E-mail list for NSS members; set up free Web pages & E- Development Council meetings and at the last four ISDC Chapters’ mail lists for Chapters; and support funding for Regional Chapter Assembly meetings. During its last three years, I was on the editorial Coordinators. Also, I will encourage Ad Astra to publish issue themes, arti- board for the Spacefaring Gazette. cle submission deadlines and writer guide on the NSS HQ Web page. In Since the age of 12, I have been convinced that the only healthy future the area of national space policy, I support building and flying X-Vehicle for humanity would be based on expanding outward into space. When I dis- as part of NASA’s $4.5 Billion Space Launch Initiative (SLI). covered the L5 Society (one of NSS’s predecessors), I immediately signed up, If you have suggestions or ideas I can be reached at amazed that such a group existed. In the years since, I have worked with the [email protected]. organization in many different ways to promote space development. I have participated in phone trees and I have called and written government offi- cials. I have worked on conferences and organized public events. ROBBY GAINES My space promotion activities have not been limited to NSS. I am This candidate was nominated by petition. a volunteer at the Challenger Learning Center at Chabot Space and Science Center in Oakland California where I work as a mission assis- Space & space exploration has always been of interest to me. That tant with school and community groups taking simulated space voy- interest started as a young child when I watched ’s ages. For the last two summers I have spent a week working with one Mercury flight. The next week my mom took me down to our bank of Chabot’s day camps. I am a Space Frontier Foundation Advocate, a where they gave me a plastic bank model in the shape of a Mercury founding member of the Mars Society, a member of the Planetary space capsule with the flight profile printed on the bottom, which I Society, and a regular attendee at Contact conferences. read over and over. By the way I still have it! At recent NSS International Space Development Conferences I have Since graduating from Texas A&M with an engineering degree I have included part of the Board of Directors meetings in my activities. I will been fortunate to live and work as a construction engineer in at least ten

48 may Ⅲ june 2002 Ad Astra to the stars NSS Board Candidate StatementsX

different states scattered around the USA which has helped me to under- stand and appreciate our country’s variety of ideas and cultures. One of the CANDIDATE FOR REGION 6 DIRECTOR most rewarding jobs I had was as a “pad rat” on launch pads 40 & 41 where we prepared the pads to launch communications and spy satellites. I JAMES PLAXCO watched every launch of the shuttle and other rockets while working there. This candidate was nominated by petition. I joined NSS when I moved to Houston and immediately became very involved with the chapter. As the publicity chair I worked on the My first contact with space activism came about in the early 80s when 1999 ISDC to obtain media coverage. I was the chairperson of a Mars I joined the National Space Institute. My passion was fired when I Party, which over 400 people attended to celebrate the landing of the attended my first local L5 chapter event. I became a space activist in . We received live television coverage on every local order to make a positive contribution to humanity’s future. As an channel as well as a newspaper writeup. Our chapter has staged several activist I have held a number of positions in various organizations and Mall exhibitions where we set up displays on space and NSS to coin- have spoken widely on the topics of space and planetary exploration. cide with a popular science fiction movie. I have served the NSS in a variety of roles. Previous experiences Last year I spoke to over 4,000 students and adults where I use that include: founding a successful chapter; initiating the formation of a old Mercury capsule bank to talk about space flight and the NSS. This chapter at my alma mater; editing a chapter newsletter; serving as a year I was named as one of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL)’s Star phone tree coordinator; attending and presenting at space development Ambassadors. I am also a member of the Planetary Society, the Mars conferences; organizing the highly successful visit of a cosmonaut to Society and a founding member of the Challenger Learning Center. Chicago. My current involvements include: serving as a chapter officer; As a member of the board I will help us focus on the two biggest providing web hosting for the Chicago chapters; making numerous areas we need to concentrate on; fund raising and membership growth. presentations on behalf of the local chapters. I have experience in both as an officer and board member of several I have also been active outside the NSS. Previous experiences include: charities. I would hope to channel some of our celebrity status and con- serving on the Board of Advisors for the Harper College Center for Meteorite tacts into functions around the country that would promote NSS and and Planetary Studies; serving first as Membership Director and PSF News our message. I look forward to your support and more importantly Editor and later as Webmaster and Vice President of the Planetary Studies hearing your ideas. I may be contacted via [email protected]. Foundation. My current activities outside the NSS include: being the creator and webmaster of Astrodigital (http://www. astrodigital.org); serving as a NASA JPL Solar System Ambassador; serving as the contact for the Schaumburg (my hometown) chapter of the Mars Society. CANDIDATE FOR REGION 4 DIRECTOR As a member of the NSS Board, there are three areas I hope to J. DAVID BAXTER focus on. These are our Internet presence, the chapter support system, and outreach activities. This candidate was nominated by petition. A recent Brookings Institute survey of academics placed space exploration near the bottom of the list of most important future priorities for the U.S. (No statement was submitted.) government. I think that it is important for the NSS to take an active leader- ship role in changing this perception by expanding its outreach activities. With respect to outreach activities, NSS chapters will play a key CANDIDATE FOR REGION 5 DIRECTOR role. As the local representatives of the NSS, chapters are an important component of the society’s outreach activities. I am concerned by the HARRY REED fact that the number of chapters, both U.S. and international, has This candidate was nominated by the Nominations Committee of the declined by over 30 percent since 1993. As a director, I would work to Board of Directors. see new initiatives developed to bring about both the formation of new chapters as well as enhancing the capabilities of our existing chapters. The National Space Society affords us an opportunity to participate in the great historical event of our time — man’s expansion to the stars. My participation in this quest began in the early 80s when we founded two Southern region NSS chapters. I then became coordinator for the CANDIDATES FOR REGION 7 DIRECTOR Kentucky Phone Tree and later backup to the Southern region where we made many calls to support space in the heat of legislative battles. PATRICK R. BAHN After helping organize three regional activist conferences in This candidate was nominated by petition. Huntsville, I was elected to the Southern region position on the NSS Board of Directors serving one term. At the Washington D.C. ISDC, I Background: I am the founder of an entrepreneurial space launch cor- received the Spacecause Outstanding Service Award for 1992. As poration the TGV Rockets Corporation. I founded this company in National Coordinator for local Spacecause activities, I developed con- 1998 and have been a space activist since the mid 1990s. I have a 20 stituent visits to key congressmen. We developed a letter writing cam- year history with small business and enterprise in software development paign that produced 17,000 pro-space letters and more can be accom- and have closely followed the space industry since the mid 1980s. I have plished. I have a long-standing interest in developing grassroots support a BS degree from Clarkson College and a MBA. I was a 2 year board for exploration; if elected I would seek to further NSS capabilities. member for Prospace America Inc. and have been active in the Space I disagree with those who feel it is inevitable man will voyage the heav- Frontier Foundation since 1996. I have been closely involved in the ens. History is replete with cultures auspiciously advancing only to then small space launch industry since 1997 and have participated in the FAA subsequently recede. Space will be mastered by purposeful men and COMSTAC (Commercial Space Transportation Advisory Committee) women who act. As NSS members, we are those people. As citizens, we since 1998. I have participated in the regulatory process for FAR Part have a responsibility and duty to make our views known to representatives. 400, the controlling regulations for the commercial space industry. I look forward to working with our members and representing I know most of the individuals working in the commercial space them in issues to advance our common cause. industry especially in the insurance and financial side. I am working to

to the stars Ad Astra may Ⅲ june 2002 49 NSS Board Candidate Statements VOTE! help open a commercial spaceport in Oklahoma, the first spaceport that would be independent from US Weapons development practices. NSS Accomplishments: I am a new member to the National Space VOTE!2002 NSS Board of Directors Election Ballot The front and back Society, but, I will work hard to focus efforts on critical policy issues in Your completed ballot must be received by 1 August 2002. Regional Candidates At-Large Candidates For 2-year term: 2003-2004 ߛ For 4-year term: 2003-2006 ߛ Please vote for only one from your Region. ⅜ 13 candidates; vote for up to 12. ⅜ covers of this magazine

Region 1: USA: South CA (zip codes 93499 and below), HI; Asia (incl. Middle ⅜ (P,N) Gregory H. Allison remote sensing, commerce and opening space enterprise to the East, excl. Russia), Australia, Antarctica; Pacific/Indian islands ⅜ (P) Seth D. Potter ⅜ (P,N) Marianne J. Dyson

Region 2: USA: AK, North CA (zip codes > 93499), OR, WA; Canada: BC, ⅜ Yukon, NWT; Nunavut; Arctic islands (N) Richard Godwin ⅜ (P) Dr. J. Peter Vajk American people. I have worked hard at Prospace and the Space ⅜ (P) Jean Marie Walker ⅜ (P,N) Mark Hopkins have complete voting Region 3: USA: AZ, NM, OK, TX; Mexico; Central America; South America; ⅜ (N) Kirby Ikin Caribbean islands ⅜ (P) Donald Doughty ⅜ Frontier Foundation, and have helped foster a credible movement in ⅜ (P) Robby Gaines (N) Alan Ladwig Region 4: USA: CO, ID, IA, KS, MN, MO, MT, ND, NE, NV, SD, UT, WY; ⅜ (P) Karen Mermel Canada: AB, MB, SK ⅜ (P) J. David Baxter ⅜ (N) Dr. Stewart Nozette rules, regulations and Region 5: USA: AL, AR, FL, GA, KY, LA, MS, NC, SC, TN ⅜ small low cost Suborbital RLV corporations. I have worked to bring ⅜ (N) Harry Reed (P,N) Christopher M. Pancratz Region 6: USA: IL, IN, OH, MI, WI ⅜ (N) Joe Redfield ⅜ (P) James Plaxco ⅜ (P,N) Greg Rucker Region 7: USA: DC, DE, MD, NJ, PA, VA, WV ⅜ (P) Patrick R. Bahn the small Suborbital community together at conferences, in issues ⅜ ⅜ (N) F. Kenneth Schwetje (P) Robert Goetz a 2002 NSS Board of Region 8: USA: CT, MA, ME, NH, NY, RI, VT; Canada: NB, NF, NS, ON, PEI, ⅜ (P,N) Jay Wittner PQ; Europe (incl. Ukraine); Russia; Africa; Atlantic/Mediterranean islands before the FAA and in commerce. I have given numerous public ⅜ (P) Elaine A. Walker appearances and written several articles on space enterprise for spacee- This space reserved for Ad Astra mailing label — ballot void if removed or defaced Directors Election Ballot. quity.com and SpaceFront magazine as well as been interviewed by Your participation is National Geographic, U.S. News, The Baltimore Sun and Wired Magazine. I am a capable and committed speaker. very important. NSS Policy: As a Board member, I will work hard to represent the needs and interests of the mid Atlantic chapters to the board. I will appear at least once at every chapter for a general meeting so as to learn more about each chapter and their needs. I will work to commu- nicate the unique perspective of industry and small business to the NSS board and will work to represent NSS views to NASA, the U.S. Air Force, Governmental policy makers and the public at large. CANDIDATE FOR REGION 8 DIRECTOR ROBERT GOETZ ELAINE A. WALKER This candidate was nominated by petition. This candidate was nominated by petition.

Chris Pancratz, CEO of the National Space Society (NSS), asked me I am honored to have the opportunity to run for the Region 8 seat on to run for the Region 7 position on the NSS Board of Directors the Board of Directors for NSS. The prospect of someday getting because, he said, “expertise in growing membership, serving chapters humanity permanently into space is something that obsesses me daily, and managing conferences is very much needed in NSS.” I bring to and as a , performer and space enthusiast, I find opportunities this position extensive experience in association activities and manage- to contribute where I can. There have been plenty of opportunities. ment gained through over 25 years in local, state and national leader- I was president of the Boston Chapter of NSS from April 1997 ship positions (Chapter President, Region Director, Membership Vice until moving to NYC and reorganizing the NYC Chapter in March President, etc.) in the volunteer-managed U.S. Junior Chamber of 2000. I became Region 8 Chapters Organizer in 1998, and adminis- Commerce (Jaycees), and managing local, state and national meetings tered the NSS-Discuss list with Bruce Mackenzie for two years. I have and conferences for 50 to 5,000 attendees. participated in March Storm, and will again this year. I received the These positions gave me tremendous into the critical com- NSS “Space Pioneer Award” for “Activist of the Year 2001,” and the ponent that local chapters are in a successful association, and helped NSS “Space Merit Award” for “Most Improved Chapter” of 2001. me understand chapters systems. Local chapters are the lifeblood of I was pinned as an Advocate of the Space Frontier Foundation in most associations, as it is in local chapters where the activism of one October 2001. I have also recently been appointed as “U.S. Groups individual can be exponentially multiplied to affect countless people. Team Leader” for the Extropy Institute, an organization that also I have recently been appointed to the NSS Conferences Coordinating believes humanity’s place is among the stars, and have initiated a Committee and look forward to assisting in the growth and impact of the “Humans-in-Space” session for their regional NYC Conference. I am International Space Development Conference celebrating free enterprise in discussions with Amanda Moore, the UN representative for the and entrepreneurship leading the human race to the stars. NSS, about holding a regional NSS conference at the UN annually. I have worked for the U.S. Government for over 26 years, most Other projects that I’ve initiated are the World Space Festival recently managing analysis and evaluation of programs and operations. http://www.WorldSpaceFestival.com which will kick off at the World Prior to that I served my country in the U.S. Army. I have also served Space Congress in Houston this year, an education outreach project for the past five years as a Trustee of the U.S. Jaycees Foundation, rais- http://www.AskASpaceQuestion. com, and “A Million Reasons To Go To ing funds and providing grants for local chapters’ charitable and educa- Space,” which is linked to the World Space Festival and NSS/NYC sites. tional projects. I also currently serve as a Director for the Lake As a performer, I have taken every opportunity to talk about Braddock Community Association, a 1,300 unit homeowners’ associa- human space exploration to the media. I will be appearing live on two tion with a million dollar annual budget. “Around Space” shows on Fairfax Public Access in March 2002, have I have been a space enthusiast since my childhood. I remember appeared on “Cosmic Visions” hosted by SpaceWatch.com, watching in awe while Neil placed the first human foot- “Astronomy Forum” on Staten Island Cable TV, including other TV step on the moon, the horror of the Challenger disaster, and the fasci- shows, and dozens of radio shows and magazine articles. nation of the pictures from Mars and Jupiter. Throughout the years Since the early 90s I have written music and lyrics that spread a I’ve wondered when I would get to go there while sitting back and positive message about human space exploration to a young audience. waiting for others to make it happen. If the human race is to ascend And, for the last two years, many of you have seen me singing at pro- to the stars, more people must join us and get involved. We need space conventions around the U.S. and Canada. Attending and singing more members, stronger local chapters and better conferences to at 7 or 8 conventions per year has been a great opportunity to network affect more people than we can each do alone. And so, I seek to be an and hear many people’s perspective on the state of the industry and the active participant in the effort to reach the stars by representing pro-space community with one-on-one conversations. a Region 7 on the NSS Board.

50 may Ⅲ june 2002 Ad Astra to the stars Mars On Earth continued from page 17 The best mix of short and long range capa- surface. Moreover, they were bulky and Moon). The use of individual motorized bilities will probably be provided by a trail- tiresome to use. While a few days of hard- vehicles is not new per se. Personal astro- er (with several ATVs aboard) towed ship inside a stiff suit can be adapted to, naut motorcycles were designed and tested behind a pressurized rover. When neces- exploration activities over the course of sev- during the Apollo program, but never sary, astronauts would go EVA from the eral months on Mars would suffer greatly if made it to the Moon. Still, the idea of hav- pressurized rover and conduct local explo- a poorly designed suit were to be used ing spacesuited explorers drive individual rations using the ATVs. repeatedly. ATVs had never gone far beyond the con- Current estimates of the target “felt cept stage. OUT FOR A STROLL weight” on Mars of a future are Our use of ATVs on Devon Island, The spacesuit that will be used on the in the 50-70 pound (~25-35 kg) range, i.e., sponsored by Kawasaki Motors USA, com- Martian surface will be one of the most the spacesuit’s actual mass might be 130- bined with the prior experience of some of complex pieces of hardware that will need 185 pounds [~65-95 kg]. While this our team members with snowmobiles in to be developed in order to enable effective weight may seem high, these numbers Arctic and Antarctic field research, is allow- human Mars exploration. A spacesuit should be compared to the mass of the cur- ing operational benefits of such mobility should be viewed as a wearable spacecraft. rent Space Shuttle/ISS EMU spacesuit sys- systems to be evaluated. ATVs offer a high Compared to spacesuits in use today, the tem: over 300 pounds [150 kg]. Because of degree of flexibility and reliability, through Mars surface suit will need to operate for its use in zero g, Shuttle and ISS astronauts redundancy in particular, in field explo- much longer periods of time, be easily and are still able to wear their suit relatively ration activities. repeatedly cleaned and repaired, comfort- comfortably, but such a suit would be inad- Any ATV-like vehicle taken to Mars able to wear for many hours at a time on equate on Mars. Its felt weight would be will need to be optimized for safety, power difficult terrain, and be capable of support- 115 lbs, an impractical burden to bear, not consumption, performance on different ing its wearer in a wide variety of condi- to mention the fact that the EMU suit was terrain types (dunes, rock fields, salt flats), tions. The suit will also have to support not designed for walking to begin with. and ride comfort. They will also need to be information systems that will allow astro- As such, doing work on the design robust, equipped with redundant systems, nauts on Mars to communicate and handle requirements for Mars surface suits now, and most of all, easy to repair. Range of use data effectively. even at moderate pace, may provide an also needs to be understood. Our studies It is important to note that current EVA important headstart. NASA JSC is current- suggest that ATVs are best used for activi- suits in use on the International Space ly leading an advanced spacesuit develop- ties within a few miles or so from a local Station and Space Shuttle can only be used ment effort that will help pave the way for base (a shirt-sleeve haven such as the base for a matter of tens of hours before requir- a future Mars suit. Realizing the impor- habitat or a pressurized rover). Beyond that ing a complete overhaul. Apollo Lunar suits tance of advancing suit system develop- distance, exploration is safely and effectively were rendered almost useless by lunar dust ment now as well, the aerospace company conducted likely only by pressurized rover. after only a few excursions onto the lunar Hamilton-Sundstrand has also been devot- ing some internal R&D resources to devel- op a concept spacesuit for advanced plane- tary exploration. In coordination with ongoing efforts led by Joe Kosmo at NASA JSC, Ed Hodgson’s team at Hamilton-Sundstrand has conducted a series of field tests on Devon Island of various components of the 65-lb non-pressurized concept suit. The specific focus of the studies using the HS concept suit is the development of new information technologies interfaces in sup- port of field exploration. Working with Steve Braham and several HMP field geol- ogists, the HS team began tests during the 2001 field season of wearable computers in NASA HMP 2000/Mark Webb support of field exploration EVAs. The Baruch Blumberg, Nobel Laureate and Director of NASA's Astrobiology Institute (third from hardware used in these simulations was left, standing) examines a sample while Pascal Lee (third from right, kneeling) collects sponsored by Xybernaut, Inc. Such EVA- additional specimens. related studies will continue at Haughton

to the stars Ad Astra may Ⅲ june 2002 51 during upcoming field seasons, in particu- (named after an early major sponsor) was time were added to both suits and ATVs lar through the generous support of the eventually established near the HMP Base for all EVAs. We also made use of (imagi- National Space Society. Camp on the rim of Haughton Crater in nary) pre-positioned caches of supplies One highlight of the field tests per- July 2000. During the 2001 field season, a (including auxiliary oxygen) in the execu- formed to date is the establishment of mul- rotation of six crews, each comprising tion of extended traverses. tiple-relayed wireless links and the remote between 5 and 7 people, lived and worked Field traverse planning, science imple- control of field computers on geology-driv- out of the “Hab” for 5 to 10 days at a time, mentation, and in-hab data analysis were en simulated EVAs. Control was estab- allowing a first wave of valuable operational carried out in consultation with an experi- lished over distances in excess of 2 km. Use experiences to be logged. mental “Science Operations Center” estab- of integrated information systems in sup- For the simulated EVAs performed out lished at NASA Ames Research Center by port of EVAs will be critical for ensuring of the Hab, Mars Society volunteers had Michael Sims, Kelly Snook, and Carol the safety and productivity of future produced simulated spacesuits. While these Stoker. Jeffrey Moersch of the University of human exploration activities on Mars— suits were of low fidelity in many respects Tennessee, Melissa Lane of the University and indeed at any other location in the (they weighed only 25 pounds [12 kg], of Arizona, and James Rice of Arizona State solar system. were not pressurized, and did not restrict University served as the Earth-based sci- motion significantly), they were neverthe- ence team. less good to have for three reasons. First, One lesson emerging from the field tra- the suits took 25-35 minutes to put on, verse simulations performed to date is a requiring that a checklist be followed and quantitative assessment of the duration of the buddy system be used. Thus, their use EVA cycles in support of exploration activ- imposed an operational burden that was ities. Extended exploration EVAs on Mars not unrealistic for an actual suit that might will require that substantial amounts of be used on Mars. Second, the suits restrict- crew time and Mission Support resources ed the wearer’s vision in a relatively realistic be spent on the careful planning (including manner. Thirdly, the suits, by virtue of possibly reconnaissance robot deployments their good looks, served as an effective and and the pre-establishment of caches), important tool for public outreach. implementation (the actual EVA), post- EVA data analysis, and communications

NASA HMP 2000/Bill Clancey EVAS AND SCIENCE OPERATIONS with Earth. While pre-mission crew train- While public outreach continues to be an ing, robotic reconnaissance and caching, Pascal Lee doing geological field work in important aspect of the FMARS activity, and the development of effective EVA Hamilton-Sundstrand's concept spacesuit HMP science and exploration programs planning tools will clearly help streamline for advanced planetary exploration. were also brought into the mix in support EVAs, extended exploration traverses on of FMARS research. During the shifts I Mars will, in a true sense, remain expedi- THE HAB participated in (I served as crew command- tions within an expedition, mobilizing each A recently added element to the HMP is er on 4 of last summer’s 6 crews), we per- time a substantial fraction of the crew. the Flashline Mars Arctic Research Station formed field work with specific operational (FMARS). The project has its genesis back constraints and procedures defined in con- FUTURE ACTIVITIES in 1998 when I suggested to Robert Zubrin sultation in particular with the Exploration Upcoming seasons will see the addition of (who was then in process of forming the Office at NASA JSC. new research elements to the NASA HMP. Mars Society) that this new organization The underlying assumptions for these One of these will be the “Arthur Clarke should look at contributing a simulated simulated EVAs included simulated pure Mars Greenhouse,” a 12 x 24 feet long to our ongoing efforts on oxygen prebreathing time prior to egress so experimental facility recently donated to Devon Island as its first project. The prem- as to simulate specific cabin pressure and the SETI Institute for the HMP by ise was that such a habitat would provide a air composition conditions. We also limit- SpaceRef Interactive Inc. Slated for initial more constrained framework for carrying ed the duration of our EVAs so as to adhere deployment in 2002, this greenhouse will out some of our studies of how humans to plausible life support system operation allow HMP researchers to carry out a vari- will live and work on Mars, and at the same times. These time limits were usually 2-3 ety of astrobiology and space biology exper- time serve as a visible and tangible symbol hours on a backpack, which would be used iments in the field, and also test out of the society’s stated goal—help send while walking, and 2-3 additional hours advanced life support system technologies humans to Mars. assumed to be carried on the ATV and used for future Mars exploration (see “Greenhouses for Through the efforts of many, the while riding the vehicle. For simulation of a Red Planet,” on page 14). On another front, Flashline Mars Arctic Research Station safety margins, 30 minutes of “don’t use it” a specially modified Humvee, sponsored to

52 may Ⅲ june 2002 Ad Astra to the stars the SETI Institute for the HMP by AM But why Mars? Why not the Moon, draw in significant participation from the General, may also begin service on Devon asteroids, or Pluto, or a technology pro- private sector. It would also provide an Island in 2002 as a long-range field explo- gram with universal applicability but no ideal opportunity for international cooper- ration roving lab. Through its use in sup- specific focus? It is here that the specific ation, building on the ISS experience and port of actual field research, the rover will scientific potential and complexity, and binding allied and friendly nations in a be used to help define over time the the undeniable public appeal of Mars kick positive, forward-looking enterprise that requirements for long-range pressurized in: a) Mars might have once harbored life would help promote world peace, educa- rovers to be deployed by humans on future and might still; it is a world promising new tion, human knowledge, and a more secure Mars missions. knowledge and potential revolutions in the global future. life sciences and many other disciplines; b) And did I mention that going to Mars HUMANS TO MARS Mars is a planet bearing clear similarities to will also be exciting? a As a planetary scientist, I am a strong sup- the Earth and is more directly able to help of the human exploration of Mars, us understand and manage our own plan- Dr Pascal Lee is a planetary scientist at the SETI which I view as the most effective means of et; c) Mars is a planet actually accessible to Institute. He is Project Lead and Principal learning more about this and other planets human exploration and its exploration and the possibilities of life. But there are would be much better done by humans on Investigator for the NASA Haughton-Mars Project. many other reasons why humans should site rather than remotely from Earth; d) For more information on the NASA HMP, visit go—many of which may be unrelated to Mars represents a goal that would provide www.marsonearth.org. science. In the end, rather than science a clear and well-defined focus for the alone, it is likely to be the broader factor of nation’s space program, the latter being a national interest that will drive a nation— capability that needs to be sustained any- or a group of nations—to undertake a way as a matter of national interest in its human mission to Mars. Going to Mars own right. now would serve our national interest in an If our micro-scale experience on the ideal way as it would be a powerful invest- NASA HMP analog project has been any ment in our future on Earth, regardless of indication, going to Mars, if initiated what we are to find on Mars. through a government effort, would likely

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to the stars Ad Astra may Ⅲ june 2002 53 MODULESa

TX - Clear Lake Area Chapter of NSS MO - Heart of America Chapter NSS REGION 02X Murray G. Clark George Howard P.O. Box 890588 P.O. Box 22537 Houston, TX 77289-0588 Kansas City, MO 64113-0537 National Space Society Chapters Region Two Chapters Organizer 281/367-2227 816/523-7593 Bryce Walden [email protected] [email protected] The NSS Chapter List is available at P.O. Box 86 http://www.nsshouston.org/ http://hometown.aol.com/ghoward683/ Oregon City, OR 97045 http://www.nss.org/chapter. 503/655-6189 TX - NSS of North Texas UT - Utah Space Association Please direct all changes to NSS [email protected] Louis Mazza J. David Baxter Headquarters at [email protected]. PO Box 1671 378 I Street CA - Golden Gate Space Frontier Arlington, TX 76004-1671 Salt Lake City, UT 84103 Society 972/681-3600 801/359-0251 CHAPTERS COORDINATORS Brook E. Mantia [email protected] [email protected] P.O. Box 11341 www.nssnt.org http://members.aol.com/utahspace/ V.P. of Chapter Affairs Berkeley, CA 94712-2341 Gregory H. Allison 510/393-0518 TX - San Antonio Space Society PMB 168 925/520-6070 FAX Joe and Carol Redfield 1019A Old Monrovia Road [email protected] 609 Ridge View Dr. REGION 05X Huntsville, AL 35806 San Antonio, TX 78253 256/859-5538 CA - Sacramento L5 Society 210/679-7625 256/461-3045 FAX Robert Compton 210/522-3729 FAX Region Five Chapters Organizer [email protected] 3945 Grey Livery Way [email protected] Jerry Samples Antelope, CA 95843 2880 Barbara Lane NE U.S. Chapters Coordinator 916/344-3290 NM - New Mexico Space Society Marietta, GA 30062-1431 Bennett Rutledge [email protected] Fred Aiken 770/971-6481 8275 E. Easter Pl. http://www.geocities.com/CapeCanaveral/ P.O Box 94133 770-977-8595 FAX Centennial, CO 80112 Launchpad/1939 Albuquerque, NM 87199-4133 [email protected] 720/529-8024 505/856-2145 720/529-8024 FAX OR - Oregon L5 Society [email protected] AL - Huntsville Alabama L5 Society [email protected] Bryce Walden Gregory H. Allison P.O. Box 86 PMB 168 International Chapters Coordinator Oregon City, OR 97045 1019A Old Monrovia Road Michael James 503/655-6189 REGION 04X Huntsville, AL 35806 PO Box A2078 503/655-6189 FAX 256/859-5538 Sydney South, NSW 1235 [email protected] 256/461-3045 FAX Australia http://www.OregonL5.com Region Four Chapters Organizer [email protected] 61-2-9808-1429 Wayne White http://hiwaay.net/~hal5 [email protected] WA - NSS Seattle 4465 Kipling Street, #2 David Stuart Wheat Ridge, CO 80033 GA - NSS Atlanta 14618 21st Ave. SW 303/403-0980 Jerry Samples UNITED STATES Seattle, WA 98166 [email protected] 2880 Barbara Lane NE 206/241-6165 Marietta, GA 30062-1431 425/671-0271 FAX CO - Colorado Springs Space Society 770-977-8275 REGION 01X [email protected] T. K. Roberts 770-977-8595 FAX http://members.aol.com/CLVANCIL/ 1403 Sausalito Drive [email protected] Colorado Springs, CO 80909 http://www.nssatlanta.org Region One Chapters Organizer 719/380-9238 James Spellman, Jr. [email protected] KY - Kentucky Chapter of NSS 4617 Oak Lane, Mtn. Mesa REGION 03X www.cspringspace.bigstep.com/ Harry Reed Lake Isabella, CA 93240-9713 163 Harrison Rd. 760/379-9713 CO - Front Range L5 Society Benton, KY 42025 [email protected] Region Three Chapters Organizer Bill Nelson 270/527-2386 Claire Stephens 2295 Gross Circle East #2 [email protected] CA - NSS Western Spaceport 1206 Classen Blvd. Boulder, CO 80302 Chapter Norman, OK 73071 303/247-9797 TN - Middle Tennessee Space James Spellman, Jr. 405/329-4326 [email protected] Society 4617 Oak Lane, Mtn. Mesa [email protected] Chuck Schlemm Lake Isabella, CA 93240-9713 CO - Mile High L5 Society 508 Beechgrove Way 760/379-2503 AZ - Tucson L5 Space Society Mark Schloesslin Burns, TN 37029 760/379-2503 FAX Dick H. Fredericksen 6937 E. Briarwood Circle 615/441-1024 [email protected] 7351 E. Speedway #11-G Englewood, CO 80112 [email protected] http://hometown.aol.com/wspaceport/ Tucson, AZ 85710 303/779-5692 Welcome.html 520/722-2230 [email protected] TN - NSS Memphis/Mid-South [email protected] William W. Wood CA - OASIS www.azstarnet.com/public/nonprofit/tucl5 CO - United States Air Force PO Box 770412 Seth Potter Academy Chapter Memphis, TN 38117-0412 P.O. Box 1231 OK - Oklahoma Space Alliance NSS Luke Sauter 901/745-3828 Redondo Beach, CA 90278 Claire Stephens PO Box 2695 901/743-2828 FAX 310/364-2290 1206 Classen Blvd. USAF Academy, CO 80841 [email protected] [email protected] Norman, OK 73071 719/333-4675 http://chapters.nss.org.oasis 405/329-4326 [email protected] [email protected] CA - Orange County Space Society http://members.aol.com/osanss/science/ KS - Wichita Chapter of NSS Larry Evans Dr. Randall Chambers P.O. Box 53241 TX - Austin Space Frontier Society 2704 Winstead Circle Irvine, CA 92619-3241 John Strickland Wichita, KS 67226-1179 949/770-0702 12717 Bullick Hollow Road 316/684-2614 949/770-0702 FAX Austin, TX 78726 316/684-6748 FAX [email protected] 512/258-8998 [email protected]

54 may Ⅲ june 2002 Ad Astra to the stars space community

NY - NSS/NYC University of New South Wales REGION 06X REGION 07X Elaine Walker Space Frontier Society 463 4th Ave., #3R Jennifer Wood Brooklyn, NY 11215 c/o Student Guild Region Six Chapters Organizer Region Seven Chapters Organizer 718/369-2719 1st Floor, East Wing Larry Ahearn Michelle Baker [email protected] Quadrangle Building 610 West 47th Place 122 East Beebetown Road www.ziaspace.com/nssnyc University of New South Wales Chicago, IL 60609 Hammonton, NJ 08037 New South Wales 2052 773/373-0349 609/561-8867 Australia [email protected] [email protected] 61-2-9746-5518 SPECIAL INTEREST CHAPTERS [email protected] IL - Chicago Society for Space MD - Baltimore Metro Chapter of NSS Studies Dale S. , Jr. Lawrence Boyle 102 F. Seevue Ct. CA - Society PO Box 1454 Bel Air, MD 21014 Linda Plush, RN CANADA North Riverside, IL 60546 410/879-3602 3053 Rancho Vista Blvd H377 708/788-1336 [email protected] Palmdale, CA 93551 Calgary Space Frontier Society 708/455-6299 661/949-6780 Paul [email protected] PA - NSS North Coast Chapter [email protected] 218 - 200 Lincoln Way http://www.astrodigital.org/csss/ Edward C. Longnecker www.spacenursingsociety.com Calgary, Alberta T3E 6K6 88 Pine Leaf Drive Canada IL - Chicago Space Frontier L5 Erie, PA 16510 GA - The Odyssey Foundation 403/287-3107 Society 819/899-8069 Harry K. Coffman [email protected] Bill Higgins [email protected] P.O. Box 2723 MS 355, Fermilab Box 500 Norcross, GA 30091 Niagara Peninsula Space Frontier Batavia, IL 60510 PA - Philadelphia Area Space 404-786-5958 Society 630/393-6817 Alliance [email protected] Raymond Merrick [email protected] Earl Bennett PO Box 172 http://www.astrodigital.org/csfs PO Box 1715 Thorold, Ontario L2V 3Y9 Philadelphia, PA 19105 Canada IL - Illini Space Development 215/633-0878 INTERNATIONAL CHAPTERS 905/684-5770 Society [email protected] [email protected] Joannah Metz http://region.philly.com/community/PASA 314 Talbot Laboratory 104 S. St. Urbana, IL 61801 VA - DC-L5 (Metro Washington DC) AUSTRALIA 217/244-4263 Donnie Lowther [email protected] PO Box 16630 NSS of Australia http://www.vivc.edu/ro/isds/ Arlington, VA 22215-1630 Philip Young Deutsche Raumfahrtgesellschaft e.V. 703/567-8930 GPO Box 7048 Germam Space Society IL - Illinois North Shore NSS [email protected] Sydney NSW 2001 Michael Stennecken Jeffrey Liss Australia Greta-Buenichmann-Str. 3 1364 Edgewood Lane 61-2-9614-1900 48155 Muenster Winnetka, IL 60093 [email protected] Germany 847/446-8343 REGION 08X http://nssa.com.au +49 251 131857 312/201-0737 FAX [email protected] [email protected] Central Coast Space Frontier http://www.drg-gss.org Region Eight Chapters Organizer Society OH - Cuyahoga Valley Space Elaine Walker Tony James Society 463 4th Ave., #3R 98 Malison Street George F. Cooper, III Brooklyn, NY 11215 Wyoming, NSW 2250 IRELAND 3433 North Avenue 718/369-6426 Australia Parma, OH 44134 [email protected] 61-2-4329-4748 NSS Ireland 216/749-0017 [email protected] Alan Kelly [email protected] MA - NSS Boston Chapter P.O. Box 6896 Roxanne Warniers Newcastle Space Frontier Society Dublin 2 WI - Lunar Reclamation Society, 5 Driftwood Rd. Jack Dwyer Ireland Inc. Acton, MA 01720 PO Box 1150 +353-1-87-2220425 Peter Kokh 978/266-2625 Newcastle, NSW 2300 P.O. Box 2102 [email protected] Australia Milwaukee, WI 53201-2102 http://nss.ac/ma 61-249635-037 414/342-0705 [email protected] MEXICO [email protected] NY - New Frontier Society http://www.nssa.com.au/ccsfs/ http://www.lunar-reclamation.org of Greater Rochester, NY Sociedad Espacial Mexicana, A.C. Carl Ellsbree Queensland Space Frontier Society Jesus Raygoza B. WI - Sheboygan Space Society 117 Kirklees Rd. Noel Jackson Apartado Postal 5-75 Wilbert G. Foerster Pittsford, NY 14534 P.O. Box 419 Guadalajara, JALISCO 45042 728 Center St. 716/381-4218 Nundah Queensland 4012 Mexico Kiel, WI 53042-1034 716-657-7244 FAX Australia 3/647-5710 920/894-2376 [email protected] 61-7-3266-6324 [email protected] [email protected] http://space.rochester.ny.us [email protected] NY - Suffolk Challengers for Space Sydney Space Frontier Society Prof. Lorraine Lavorata Wayne Short 182 Millard Avenue GPO Box 7048 NOTE: West Babylon, NY 11704 Sydney, NSW 2001 This list is constantly changing. 631/321-0964 Australia [email protected] 61-2-9502-3063 Visit nss.org for the most http://www.geocities.com/CapeCanaveral/ [email protected] current chapters listing. Hall/5950/challengers.html

to the stars Ad Astra may Ⅲ june 2002 55 lifting off MODULESa

ORGANIZING FOR MARS! BY CHRISTOPHER M. PANCRATZ, NSS VICE PRESIDENT OF PUBLIC AFFAIRS & CHAIRMAN, EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE

Going to Mars is an important step toward our Vision of humans liv- chapter nearest you. If there is no chapter nearby, ing and working thriving settlements beyond the Earth. Not only is NSS can provide you with simple guidelines to Mars a potential destination for those settlers, but the very fact of start your own chapter. It only takes three people going there will move us many steps forward on our Roadmap to the to get started. Contact the NSS office... we will Settlement of Space. Great strides will need to be made in at least help you get started. one-half of the 13 Barriers to Space Settlement identified by NSS. Even without a chapter, you can be organized Significant progress will need to be made on government funding and contribute to the overall effort to raise public Chris Pancratz mechanisms, affordable transportation to space, perceived risks, interest. NSS offers resources to assist you in closed-loop life support, and launch vehicle reliability. U.S. National bring the message to your community. Visit the NSS website at Space Policy will need to be changed, and, perhaps, most important, www.nss.org for a slide presentation on the NSS Roadmap to Space public interest and support will need to be high. Settlement which you can download to show to groups in your com- Going to Mars is a massive undertaking that will require resources, munity. Check out the “Space Educator” for a wealth of resources dedication and organization that we have not seen since the Apollo pro- that you can offer to local teachers. The information is also there to gram of the 60s. Raising public interest to the level that will allow the help you consider “Adopt-a-School” as your own project. undertaking to begin in earnest is part of the Mission of the National And don’t forget those things that we can all do every day: Space Society. For that effort, WE need to be organized. Organized to do • Share the Vision with everyone you meet; whatever possible to stimulate public interest and capture the imagina- • Vote and communicate regularly with your legislators; tions of everyone we can with the potential of space. • If you invest, consider space-related companies; One way to organize is through the NSS chapters’ organization. • Ask others to join NSS. Chapters offer you the opportunity to work together with other com- We must be organized in promoting our Vision! Please let me mitted enthusiasts and activists to bring the message to your com- know what you are doing in your community and feel free to contact munity. NSS has about 50 chapters across North American and in me to share your ideas or to ask others for their ideas—email me at other parts of the world. Check the listing here in Ad Astra for the [email protected]. Ad Astra! a

Visionary Donors

B UZZ A LDRIN C OUNCIL I NDIVIDUALS

Majel Barrett-Roddenberry Ⅲ Richard F. Beers Edward Apke Ⅲ Jack Bader Ⅲ Richard F. Beers Ⅲ Michael Cronin Ⅲ Stephen R. Donaldson Ⅲ Michael Downey Ⅲ Hugh Downs

Paul Canolesio Ⅲ Lars S. Easterson Vernon Edgar Ⅲ Steven Goddard Ⅲ David R. Hamlin Ⅲ David Hampton Ⅲ Mark Herrup Ⅲ Hugh Hotson, Jr. Ⅲ Robert Hunter

Robert Edwards Ⅲ Gregg Foote Dave Jacques Ⅲ William Jaeger Ⅲ Randy D. Kelley Ⅲ Don Kimball Ⅲ Jeffrey Kodosky Ⅲ Georgette Koopman Ⅲ Ronnie LaJoie

David Peter Kapelanski Ⅲ J. Michael Lekson Evan Malone Ⅲ Eugene Montgomery Ⅲ James O’Neil Ⅲ Frederick I. Ordway III Ⅲ Christopher Pancratz Ⅲ Ed Post

Charles T. Lenzmeier Ⅲ Dean E. London Guilermo P. Rodriquez Ⅲ Greg Rucker Ⅲ Neil Ruzic Ⅲ Randall Skinner Ⅲ Charles E. Stauble Ⅲ Mike Symond Ⅲ John A. Swanson

Mary Morss Ⅲ John H. McQuilkin Eric W. Tilenius Ⅲ Adrian Tymes Ⅲ Jeffrey C. Walker Ⅲ Glen P. Wilson Ⅲ Jay Wittner

Stanley J. Novak Ⅲ Allan M. Schiffman & Phylis Ooi C ORPORATIONS

Lockheed Martin Ⅲ Raytheon Ⅲ SGI

56 may Ⅲ june 2002 Ad Astra to the stars

Space

is our

future.

http://www.nss.org/ phone: 202.543.1900

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