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Introduction Notes Introduction 1This study uses ‘Estonian Veterans’ League’ as the most practical translation of the Eesti Vabadussõjalaste Liit (‘Veterans’ League of the Estonian War of Independence’). The popular term for a Veterans’ League member was vaps (plural: vapsid), or vabs, derived from vabadussõjalane (‘War of Independence veteran’). This often appears mistakenly capitalized as VAPS. A term for the Veterans frequently found in historical literature is ‘Freedom Fighters’, the direct translation of the German Freiheitskämpfer. Another unsatisfactory translation which appears in older literature is ‘Liberators’. It should be noted that until 11 August 1933 the organization was formally called Eesti Vabadussõjalaste Keskliit (‘The Estonian War of Independence Veterans’ Central League’). 2 Ernst Nolte, The Three Faces of Fascism (London, 1965), p. 12. 3 Eduard Laaman, Vabadussõjalased diktatuuri teel (Tallinn, 1933); Erakonnad Eestis (Tartu, 1934), pp. 54–62; ‘Põhiseaduse kriisi arenemine 1928–1933’, in Põhiseadus ja Rahvuskogu (Tallinn, 1937), pp. 29–45; Konstantin Päts. Poliitika- ja riigimees (Stockholm, 1949). 4 Märt Raud, Kaks suurt: Jaan Tõnisson, Konstantin Päts ja nende ajastu (Toronto, 1953); Evald Uustalu, The History of Estonian People (London, 1952); Artur Mägi, Das Staatsleben Estlands während seiner Selbständigkeit. I. Das Regierungssystem (Stockholm, 1967). 5 William Tomingas, Vaikiv ajastu Eestis (New York, 1961). 6 Georg von Rauch, The Baltic States: The Years of Independence 1917–1940 (London, 1974); V. Stanley Vardys, ‘The Rise of Authoritarianism in the Baltic States’, in V. Stanley Vardys and Romuald J. Misiunas, eds., The Baltic States in War and Peace (University Park, Pennsylvania, 1978), pp. 65–80; Toivo U. Raun, Estonia and the Estonians (Stanford, 1991); John Hiden and Patrick Salmon, The Baltic Nations and Europe: Estonia, Latvia & Lithuania in the Twentieth Century (London, 1991). 7 R. J. Crampton, Eastern Europe in the Twentieth Century (London and New York, 1994), p. 99; Joseph Rothschild, East Central Europe between the Two World Wars. A History of East Central Europe, vol. IX (Seattle, 1974), p. 373. 8 Tönu Parming, The Collapse of Liberal Democracy and the Rise of Authoritarianism in Estonia (London, 1975); Alvin Isberg, Med demokraten som insats. Politisk-konstitutionellt maktspel i 1930–talets Estland, Studia Baltica Stockholmiensia 4 (Uppsala, 1988). ˆ 9Olaf Kuuli, Vapsidest Isamaaliiduni. Fasˆismi ja fasismivastase võitluse ajaloost kodanlikus Eestis (Tallinn, 1976); Olaf Kuuli, Six Years of Fascist Dictatorship in Estonia (Tallinn, 1975); Eesti NSV ajalugu, vol. 3 (Tallinn, 1971); V. A. Maamägi and H. T. Arumäe, ‘Fasismi Baltiassa’, Historiallinen Arkisto, 72 (1977), pp. 93–112. 160 Notes 161 10 Rein Marandi, Must-valge lipu all. Vabadussõjalaste liikumine Eestis 1929–1937. I. Legaalne periood (1929–1934), Studia Baltica Stockholmiensia 6 (Uppsala, 1991); II. Illegaalne vabadussõjalus (1934–1937), Studia Baltica Stockholmiensia 18 (Uppsala, 1997). 11 Roger Griffin, The Nature of Fascism (London, 1991), p. 119; Roger Griffin, ed., Fascism (Oxford, 1995), p. 215; Stanley G. Payne, A History of Fascism, 1914–1945 (Madison, 1995), p. 323. 1. The Emergence of Independent Estonia 1Hans Kruus, Eesti Aleksandrikool (Tartu, 1939), p. 209. 2 Ea Jansen, ‘On the Economic and Social Determination of the Estonian National Movement’, in Aleksander Loit, ed., National Movements in the Baltic Countries during the 19th Century, Studia Baltica Stockholmiensia 2 (Stockholm, 1985), pp. 48–9; on the development of the Estonian intelli- gentsia see Toomas Karjahärm and Väino Sirk, Eesti haritlaskonna kujunemine ja ideed 1850–1917 (Tallinn, 1997). 3 Toivo U. Raun, ‘The Estonians’, in Edward C. Thaden, ed., Russification in the Baltic Provinces and Finland, 1855–1914 (Princeton, 1981), p. 298. 4Carl Robert Jakobson, Kolm isamaa kõnet (Tallinn, 1991). 5Raun, ‘The Estonians’, pp. 307–8. 6 Eesti NSV ajalugu, vol. 2 (Tallinn, 1963), p. 116. 7 Toomas Karjahärm, ‘The Political Organization of Estonian Society and the Political Parties in Estonia in the Years 1900–1914’, in Aleksander Loit, ed., The Baltic Countries 1900–1914, Studia Baltica Stockholmiensia 5 (Stockholm, 1990), pp. 133–4. 8 Toivo U. Raun, ‘Estonian Social and Political Thought, 1905–February 1917’, in Andrew Ezergailis and Gert von Pistohlkors, eds., Die baltischen Provinzen Russlands zwischen den Revolutionen von 1905 und 1917, Quellen und Studien zur baltischen Geschichte 4 (Cologne, 1982), pp. 63–5. 9 Toomas Karjahärm, Ida ja lääne vahel. Eesti-Vene suhted 1850–1917 (Tallinn, 1998), pp. 110–21. 10 Toivo U. Raun, ‘1905 as a Turning Point in Estonian History’, East European Quarterly, 14 (1980), p. 332. 11 Karl Aun, ‘The 1917 Revolutions and the Idea of the State in Estonia’, in Ezergailis and von Pistohlkors, eds., Die baltischen Provinzen Russlands, p. 288. 12 Mati Graf, Eesti Rahvusriik. Ideed ja lahendused: ärkamisajast Eesti Vabariigi sünnini (Tallinn, 1993), p. 132. 13Representatives elected to the Maapäev: Rural Union 13, Labour 11, Social Democrats 9, Socialist Revolutionaries 8, Populists 7, Bolsheviks 5, Radical Democrats 4, non-party representatives 3, national minorities 2; total of 62 seats, Artur Mägi, Kuidas valitseti Eestis (Stockholm, 1951), p. 6. 14 Olavi Arens, ‘Soviets in Estonia, 1917/1918’, in Ezergailis and von Pistohlkors, eds., Die baltischen Provinzen Russlands, p. 301. 15Vabadussõja Ajaloo Komitee, Eesti Vabadussõda 1918–1920, vol. 1 (Heidenheim, 1951), p. 59; August Rei, Mälestusi tormiselt teelt (Stockholm, 1961), p. 153. 16 Percentage of votes in Estonia in the Russian Constituent Assembly elec- tions on 12–14 November 1917: Bolsheviks 40.2, Democratic Bloc 22.6, 162 Notes Labour 21.5, Radical Democrats 5.8, Socialist Revolutionaries 5.8, Social Democrats 3.0, Russian Socialist Revolutionaries 1.1, Raun, Estonia and the Estonians, p. 103. 17 Olavi Arens, ‘The Estonian Maapäev during 1917’, in Vardys and Misiunas, eds., The Baltic States in Peace and War, 29. 18 Ibid., p. 24. 19 Eduard Laaman, Eesti iseseisvuse sünd (Stockholm, 1964), p. 158. 20 Ants Piip, Tormine aasta. Ülevaade Eesti välispoliitika esiajast 1917–1918. aastal dokumentides ja mälestusis (Stockholm, 1966), p. 65; Gustav Suits, ‘Tagasivaade Eesti Vabariigi sünniaegadele’, Tulimuld, 1 (1973), pp. 34, 37. 21 Revolutsioon, kodusõda ja välisriikide interventsioon Eestis, 1917–1920, vol. 1 (Tallinn, 1977), p. 44; Laaman, Eesti iseseisvuse sünd, pp. 203, 219, 224. 22 Tönu Parming, ‘Population and Ethnicity as Intervening Variables in the 1905/1917 Revolutions in the Russian Baltic Provinces’, in Ezergailis and von Pistohlkors, eds., Die baltischen Provinzen Russlands, p. 9. 23 Uncompleted Estonian Constituent Assembly election results, 21–22 January 1918 (percentage of votes): Bolsheviks 37.1, Labour 29.8, Democratic Bloc 23.3, Left Socialist Revolutionaries 3.5, Social Democrats 1.7, Right Socialist Revolutionaries 1.0, others 3.6, Revolutsioon, kodusõda ja välisriikide interventsioon, vol. 1, p. 302. 24 Elmar Järvesoo, ‘Estonia’s Declaration of Independence in 1918: An Episode of Collision Between National-Revolutionary and Bolshevist Ideologies’, in Arvids Ziedonis Jr., William L. Winter, and Mardi Valgemäe, eds., Baltic History (Columbus, 1974), pp. 170–2. 25 Piip, Tormine aasta, p. 106. 26 Eesti Vabadussõda, vol. 1, p. 164. 27 Laaman, Eesti iseseisvuse sünd, p. 630. 28 Heinrich Laretei, Saatuse mängukanniks. Mällu jäänud märkmeid (Lund, 1970), p. 101. 29 Revolutsioon, kodusõda ja välisriikide interventsioon Eestis, 1917–1920, vol. 2 (Tallinn, 1982), p. 204. 30 Laaman, Eesti iseseisvuse sünd, p. 403. 31 August Kasekamp, ‘Ülemjuhataja ja vastupealetung jaanuari esimesel poolel 1919. a.’, in Johan Laidoner. Mälestusi kaasaeglasilt (Tallinn, 1934), pp. 134–40; Eesti Vabadussõda, vol. 1, p. 282; Seppo Zetterberg, Suomi ja Viro 1917–1919. Poliittiset suhteet syksystä 1917 reunavaltiopolitiikan alkuun. Historiallisia Tutkimuksia 102 (Helsinki, 1977), ch. 5; Stanley W. Page, The Formation of the Baltic States (New York, 1970), p. 128. 32 Artur Mägi, ‘Asutav Kogu maareformi otsustamas’, Tulimuld, 10 (1959), p. 305. The results of the Constituent Assembly elections were as follows: Social Democrats 41 seats, Labour 30, Populists 25, Agrarians 8, Socialist Revolutionaries 7, Christians 5, ethnic minorities 4; Mägi, Das Staatsleben Estlands während seiner Selbständigkeit, p. 321. 33 Evald Uustalu, Eesti Vabariik 1918–1940 (Lund, 1968) p. 43. 34 Riigi Teataja 42 (1919), art. 89. 35 John Hiden, The Baltic States and Weimar Ostpolitik (Cambridge, 1987), p. 17; Bernhard Sauer, ‘Vom “Mythos eines ewigen Soldatentums”: Der Notes 163 Feldzug deutscher Freikorps im Baltikum im Jahre 1919’, Zeitschrift für Geschichtswissenschaft, 43 (1995), pp. 869–902. 36Hannes Walter, Landeswehri sõjast, Riia operatsioonist, Võnnu lahingust (Tallinn, 1989). 37 Karsten Brüggemann, ‘Kooperation und Konfrontation: Estland im Kalkül der weißen Russen 1919’, Zeitschrift für Ostforschung, 43 (1994), pp. 541–2. 38 Ibid., pp. 545–7. 39 Page, Formation of the Baltic States, p. 180. 40 Uustalu, Eesti Vabariik, p. 57. 41 Putting a positive gloss on military failure, Lenin stated that the Tartu peace treaty was of great historical significance since it broke the blockade of Soviet Russia and heralded the beginning of the end for intervention; Edgar Mattisen, Tartu rahu (Tallinn, 1989), pp. 24–5. 42 John M. Thompson, Russia, Bolshevism, and the Versailles Treaty (Princeton, 1966), p. 307. 2. The Political Context
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