Retro-innovating nature in megacities São Paulo/ Brazil - A Case Study
São Paulo/ Weimar 2010
Retro-innovating NATURE IN MEGACITIES São Paulo/ Brazil - A Case Study
Dissertation zur Erlangung des akademischen Grades Doktor-Ingenieur an der Fakultät Architektur der
Bauhaus-Universität Weimar vorgelegt von Jörg Spangenberg geb. 07. Juli 1972 Weimar, 2009 Erstbetreuer: Prof. Max Welch Guerra Zweitbetreuerin: Prof. Marcia Peinado Alucci
Gutachter (nach der Disputation nachzutragen) ......
Tag der Disputation:......
ACKNOLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank everyone who helped, me time to think and to develop. I am Cecília Mueller, Daniel Cóstola, Érica Flavio Laurenza Fatigati, Elaine Pereira encouraged and supported me during the especially grateful to the professors at Umakoshi, Johnny Klemke, Almeida, da Silva, Cyra Malta Olegário da Costa years I have worked on this thesis. LABAUT (Laboratory of Environmental Lara del Bosco, Luciana, Luciana Ferreira, and Eduardo Panten of the Secretaria do Comfort and Energy Efficiency) at the Mônica Marcondes, Norberto Moura, Verde e do Meio Ambiente (SVMA) for First of all I am particularly grateful to my Faculty of Architecture and Urbanism Rodrigo Cavalcante, Sabrina Agostini information, data and discussions and tutors who have contributed in different of the University of São Paulo and Simone Buttner which helped with Anja Fritzsch of the Alfred Herrenhausen ways, languages and countries: Prof. FAUUSP (Brazil) Profa. Dra. Joana discussions, measurements and as Society in Berlin. Max Welch Guerra my main supervisor Gonçalves, Profa. Dra. Anésia Barros interviewers. chair of Spatial Planning Department of Frota, Prof. Dra. Roberta Kronka, and Prof. Susannah Hagan of the University the Bauhaus University in Weimar (in Prof. Fernando Cremonesi for their Special thanks also to Wolfram Lange of East London and Prof. Simmos Yannas Germany) who helped with the general collaboration, energy, patience and and Prof. Dr. Marcelo Eduardo Giacaglia of the Architectural Association for conception, approach, questions of spatial hospitality during the development and Johannes Flacke for GIS help. Highly discussing the questions of sustainable planning, the description and analysis the process of this work which mainly appreciated is also the help from especially and climatically adapted urban spaces socio-economical situation. Profa. Marcia happened in São Paulo. Mike Lehman, Erik Ray and Steven Haley in São Paulo. My friends and colleagues Peinado Alucci at LABAUT (Laboratory (of the NGO American Forests based Humberto Kzure-Cerqueira, Oscar of Environmental Comfort and Energy Especially I would also like to thank a in Washington D.C.) for donating the Niemeyer, Benedito Abbud, Thomas Efficiency) at the Faculty of Architecture group of researchers (“os verdinhos”) tool CITYgreen for the study and to help Engel, Carlos Leite, Mario Biselli, Newton and Urbanism of the University of São consisting of Erik Johansson and Paula adjustment of the input data to São Paulo Sodre, Marco Palhares, Celi Cavalari, Erika Paulo (in Brazil) who gave important Shinzato, Mariana Lino Gouvêa and conditions. La Groteria, João Godoy, the Bijari group, advice throughout the work, especially Profa. Dra. Denise Duarte, as well as, Prof. and Cãndido Malta. were it looks deeper into the worlds of Ednilson Freitas for creative and inspiring Michael Bruse and Prof. Lutz Katschner measuring, modeling, quantifying and discussions on the need to “not reinvent for help concerning questions on Last, but not least, I want to thank my monetizing. the wheel” and collaboration. Further the climate, thermal comfort and ENVI- family. I am most grateful to my wife colleagues of the lab Alessandra Prata, met simulations, Heike Köckler and Thelma, my parents Uta and Peter- Further I am grateful to the Holcim Rafael Brandão, Leonardo Monteiro, Tadeu Fabrício Malheiros, for explaining Ludwig and my sister Edda for their Foundation of Sustainable Construction Andrea Vosgueritchian, Anarrita Buoro, concepts and methodologies for indicator encouragement, support and patience for the financial support and to give Anna Miana, Bruna Luz, Carolina Leite, development for environmental quality. during the difficult phases of this work.
Table of Contents
LIST OF TABLES...... 09 3.1.2 Verticalisation x Sprawl (1915-1929)...... 41 3.1.3 Metropolization (1930 – 2009)...... 46 LIST OF FIGURES...... 10 3.2 Socio-Environmental Conflicts Today...... 54 3.2.1 Tropical Urban Climate...... 55 LIST OF ABREVIATIONS...... 15 3.2.2 São Paulo’s Urban Forest...... 59 3.2.3 Transport and Air Pollution...... 63 ZUSAMMENFASSUNG...... 16 3.2.4 Water Access and Use...... 64
ABSTRACT ...... 17 4 THE ROLE OF URBAN VEGETATION...... 65 4.1 Plant Physiology and Climate...... 65 RESUMO ...... 18 4.1.1 Solar Radiation...... 66 4.1.2 Reflection, Absorption and Transmission...... 66 1 INTRODUCTION...... 19 4.1.3 Urban Whites versus Greens...... 68 4.1.4 Evapotranspiration Cooling of Plant Surfaces...... 68 2 ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES OF MEGACITIES...... 25 4.1.5 Carbon Sequestration and Growth...... 71 2.1 Concept Nature...... 26 4.2 Parameters for Urban Vegetation Cover...... 71 2.2 Humans and Environment...... 27 4.2.1 Vegetation Land Cover...... 71 2.3 Indicators for Urban Quality of Life and Sustainability...... 27 4.2.2 Green Weightened Index (Glw)...... 72 2.4 Environmental Comfort...... 31 4.2.3 Leaf Area Index (LAI) of typical urban Trees...... 72 2.5 Perception of the Urban Space...... 33 4.2.4 Leaf Area Density (LAD)...... 77 4.3 Limitations and Need for Growth Models...... 77 3 CITY x FOREST...... 34 3.1 The historical Roots and the Brazil Tree...... 35 5 COST-BENEFIT APPROACH...... 80 3.1.1 Colonialization until Modernization (1554-1915)...... 36 5.1 Overview for Estimations of Cost-Benefit Analysis...... 82 5.2 Costs...... 82 6.3.3.2 Modelling Method...... 112 5.2.1 Planting and Maintainance...... 82 7 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION...... 113 5.2.2 Indirect Costs and Drawbacks...... 84 7.1 Results...... 113 5.3 Benefits...... 84 7.1.1 Thermal Comfort and Energy Conservation...... 113 5.3.1 Environmental Benefits...... 84 7.1.2 Stormwater Retention...... 117 5.3.2 Social Benefits...... 87 7.1.3 Air Pollution Removal...... 118 7.1.4 Carbon Sequestration...... 118 6 ENVIRONMENTAL MODELLING AND ESTIMATIONS...... 89 7.2 Investment versus Environmental Benefits...... 119 6.1. Approaches and Models...... 89 7.3 Discussion...... 119 6.2 Direct, local Benefits...... 91 7.4 Recommendations for Urban Forest Management...... 120 6.2.1 Thermal Comfort...... 91 7.5 Final Considerations...... 120 6.2.1.1 Thermal Comfort Indices...... 93 6.2.1.2 Modelling Methods...... 95 REFERENCES...... 126 6.2.2 Energy Conservation of Buildings...... 97 6.2.2.1 Energy Matrix of Brazil and CO2 Emissions...... 98 ANNEXES ...... 140 6.2.2.2 Impact of Trees on Energy Efficiency...... 99 A. I Interview with Architect Oscar Niemeyer...... 140 6.2.2.3 Modelling Method...... 101 A. II Interview with Sophie Bonjour (WHO)...... 142 6.3 Indirect, citywide Benefits...... 102 6.3.1 Stormwater Retention...... 106 A. III ENVI-met Vegetation Model...... 143 6.3.1.1 Modelling method...... 108 A. IV Article 1 - The Impact of Urban Vegetation 6.3.2 Air Pollution Removal...... 109 on Microclimate in Hot Humid São Paulo ...... 147 6.3.2.1 Dispersion of Pollutants...... 110 A. V Article 2 - Simulation of the Influence of Vegetation on Microclimate and 6.3.2.2 Modelling Method...... 110 Thermal Comfort in the City of São Paulo...... 149 6.3.3 Carbon Sequestration and Storage...... 111 A. VI Ehrenwörtliche Erklärung...... 159 6.3.3.1 Trading Carbon-Offset with urban Trees...... 111 A. VII Curriculum Vitae...... 160 LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1 Overview of human senses as interactive tools with the environment (Based on Behling 1996)...... 30 Table 3.1 Measurements of maximum temperature differences between green areas and urban areas in São Paulo (Results of Lombardo in Soares, 2007)...... 56 Table 3.2 Conservative estimation of energy dissipated in the Metropolitan Region of São Paulo through human activities in 2000 (Azevedo, 2001b)...... 57 Table 3.3 Overview of impacts and sensations of urban climate in hot cities (based on Hupfer and Kuttler, 2004)...... 57 Table 3.4 Principal tree species existing on the streets of the municipal area of São Paulo (in Geocidades report, pg. 108, Source Depave 2, data submitted on 25th of October 2003)...... 61 Table 3.5 São Paulo’s Urban Forest in Numbers (various) http://www6.prefeitura.sp.gov.br/secretarias/planejamento/sp_em_numeros/0001/portal/secretarias/planejamento/sp_em_numeros/0044, Secretaria das Finanças Companhia de Processamento de Dados do Município de São Paulo/PRODAM-1997 Journal da Tarde, 5th of July 2007 http://atlasambiental.prefeitura.sp.gov.br/pagina.php?B=38&id=22 http://www.crmariocovas.sp.gov.br/noticia.php?it=8327...... 63 Table 4.1 Results of LAI of 13 individuals (7 species) see also table 4.2 93...... 76 Table 4.2 Measurements of shading coefficients of isolated, individualand mature urban trees in São Paulo/ Brazil (mostly native of Atlantic Forest binome) (Various authors as indicated in the table)...... 78 Table 5.1 Overview shortlist of costs and benefits, indication whether estimated or simulated and empirical estimate of importance of the impact on the cost/ benefit ratio (Various authors as indicated in the table)...... 81 Table 6.1 Overview of simulation tools applied and respective boundaries/ scales (compiled by the author)...... 91 Table 6.2 Interpretation ranges for Temperature of Equivalent Perceptive (TEP) (by Monteiro 2008)...... 95 Table 6.3 Overview of boundary options considered (compiled by the author)...... 102 Table 7.1 Simulated impact of LAI 1 to LAI 10 canopies on thermal and luminous quality below the canopies, the perceived temperature lowers by one range from hot to slightly hot (top) Difference per increase leaf area index (bottom)...... 119 Table 7.2 Annual Environmental Benefits of São Paulo's Urban Forest...... 120
9 LIST OF FIGURES
Fig. 1.1 Map of the ecumenópole (Source: Defense Meteorological Satellite Program/NOAA-EUA in Menegat, 2008)...... 19 Fig. 1.2 Preliminary design sketches for the vegetated fascades of São Paulo’s Museum of modern Art by Lina Bo Bardi (1965)...... 20 Fig. 1.3 Future new town of Gwanggyo/ Korea (2008) (left) and Megacity Datatown experiment (1999) both by MVRDV architects Rotterdam...... 22 Fig. 1.4 Scales and perspectives: Whole Earth Image in Whole Earth Image, geostationary GEOS 75°W in „Kunstwerk Erde – Satellitenbilder aus dem All“ (DLR, 2002) - Icon of globalized world view with overlay Tropical Belt (left) and Individual open Perception Sphere by the author (right)...... 23 Fig. 1.5 Green urban center proposed by Kenneth Yeang (2000)...... 24 Fig. 2.1 The surreal collage “Aircraft Carrier in the Landscape” by Hans Hollein (1964) captured a mega-structure (machine = “swimming” city) as a foreign object with clear boundaries in the landscape in one image...... 25 Fig. 2.2 Urban structure and culture, the “dry” Avenida Brigadeiro in São Paulo, sparse of vegetation versus overgrown abandoned dwelling in Dois Rios, Ilha Grande 2005 (Photos by the author)...... 26 Fig. 2.3 Brainmap of the biosphere, visualizing of the paradox relation between humans and their natural environment (compiled by the author)...... 27 Fig. 2.4 Index of Human Development – IDH (Source: PMSP/ Secretaria Municípal do Desenvolvimento, Trabalho e Solidariedade – SDTS) Socio-Environmental Profile of the SVMA...... 29 Fig. 2.5 Environmental comfort as a central and direct (benefit) issue in the discussion on urban Sustainability and Quality of Life. (compiled by the author)...... 30 Fig. 2.6 Two examples of a new urban environmental sensibility in literally green cities with vegetation shade for thermal comfort: Expo Sevilla Spain in 1992 (S. Yannas) and Lessons from Brisbane http://picasaweb.google.com/maruglenn/LessonsFromBrisbane...... 31 Fig. 2.7 Two example Non-Places in São Paulo: Driveway of Octavio Frias de Oliveria Bridge (Photo: André Pasqualini of NGO CicloBR) and End of footpath at Consolação/ Paulista Avenue (Author)...... 33 Fig. 3.1 Between Past and Future - Original Indian Tupi Oca dwelling (left, Photo: Levi-Strauss)and modern interpretation of the Oca by Oscar Niemeyer in São Paulos Ibirapuera Park 1950(right)...... 34 Fig. 3.2 Pristine Atlantic Forest in a Valley of the Costal Mountain Range by Jean Baptiste Debret (1768-1848) Wikipedia...... 35 Fig. 3.3 A change of construction methods and materials from leafs to adobe: The point of origin Patio do Colégio in São Paulo (Photo: Fabio Robba, 2003) and shelter of native Indians constructed of palm leaves (Photo: Levi-Strauss 1953)...... 37 Fig. 3.4 View near São Paulo painting by Henry Chamberlain circa 1819-20 shows the widely deforested grounds east of the center with swamp areas of the rivers Tiête and Tamanduateí and the Cantareira Mountain Range in the background...... 38 Fig. 3.5 Colonial village São Paulo in 1822 (vegetation is not presented in the city model) in the year of independence Ipiranga Museum and Rows of houses
10 and narrow streets no vegetation in 1900, when the rails for the tram system were laid...... 39 Fig. 3.6 Streets and avenues (like Avenida Angélica in wealthy districts like Higienólopliscak. 1880) received some landscaping (Robba and Macedo, 2003 p. 25)...... 40 Fig. 3.7 Relations between urban spatial extension, density, mobility and cost (thus efficiency and sustainability) (Morill, 1970 in Cadwallader and Yeang, 2000)...... 41 Fig. 3.8 Living conditions of the poor in the late-nineteenth century in London (by Gustave Doré, 1872) and London Underground advertisement for access to green picturesque, scenic or even idyllic “urbanism” (in Behling 1996)...... 42 Fig. 3.9 The “Three Magnets Scheme” was emblematic for Howards projected antithesis of the chaotic megacity (left) and layout for the first Garden Neighbourhood implemented in São Paulo, Jardim América 1915 (right, in Ferreira and Wolff, 2001)...... 43 Fig. 3.10 Announcement for the “new urban miracle” of the Pacaembú Garden Neighbourhood by City CIA (left) and the clear-cut Tabula Rasa implementation scheme (right)...... 43 Fig. 3.11 São Paulo’s Central region with Park Dom Pedro II, the city’s first high-rise Martinelli building, sparse of street trees (left) and meandering Pinheiros River west of city center (right) in 1929 http://www.saojudasnu.blogger.com.br/2005_01_01_archive.html
11 Fig. 3.25 Land-use (left) and the Urban Surface Heat Island (SVMA, 2000). http://atlasambiental.prefeitura.sp.gov.br/mapas/105.jpg
12 of one hectare based on classification and building constellation (right) (in Schöpfer and Lang, 2005)...... 72 Fig. 4.12 Leaf Area Index of grass, scub and trees by Scurlock et al. (2001) including Ong (2003) Green Plot Ratio (GPR) modified (left) and tree with LAI 4 by Trowbridge and Bassuk (2004) (right)...... 73 Fig. 4.13 Hemispheric photograph of tree canopies in São Paulos Ibirapuera Park with fish-eye lens on 10th of October 2007 (left) and experimental black and white threshold definition using Gap Light Analyzer[1], no results obtained (right)...... 74 Fig. 4.14 Equipment used by Bueno (1998) Linear Pyranometer (Delta-T, 1993) (left) and Radiometer (Delta-T, 1993) (right)...... 74 Fig. 4.15 The graphs by Bueno et. al (2001) compare measurements of mean solar radiation measured with pyranometers outside and below the crowns of ; Cinginium jambolana during 31st of June 2000 (left) and Schinus Molle during 12th of June 1999 (right)...... 74 Fig 4.16 Tube Luximeters used by Pietrobon (1999) (left) Set of pyranometers used by Ali-Toudert (2005) in Freiburg to measure mean radiant temperature...... 75 Fig. 4.17 Image of Pau Ferro (Caesalpinia leiostachya) taken in Ibirapuera Park on 07th of October 2006 at 20 meters distance (left), absolved and isolated in Photoshop (middle) and threshold/ pixel count of Silhouette Area in Sigma Scan to calculate Leaf Area (right)...... 76 Fig. 4.18 Example of LAD parametric profiles for trees, 10m high globe canopies with light canopy density, LAI 1 (left), mean canopy density LAI 3 (middle) and high canopy density LAI 5 (right)...... 77 Fig. 5.1 Urban tree used as a shelter place (left) and single trees and green areas are abused to dump litter (right) (Photos by the author)...... 83 Fig. 5.2 Sunflecking due to shading (in Araraquara-SP) (left) and Evapotranspirational cooling (in Paúba-SP) as principal atmospheric cooling elements (Photos by the author) Fig. 5.3 Democratic urban spaces in São Paulo’s Ibirapuera Park, Praça da Paz on 1st of September 2007 (Photos by the author)...... 85 Fig. 6.1 Overhead shading elements aside from trees are pergolas, building overhangs (arcades), marquises, solar sails, canvases etc...... 86 Partially transmissive and movable device in courtyard in Seville/ Spain (Simmos Yannas)...... 92 Fig. 6.2 Relative frequency of accidents related to air temperature, Riveiro, (1985) (left) Correlation between air temperature and urban criminality in São Paulo, analyzing mean air temperatures 1961-1991 and 1979-1995, Mendonça (2002)...... 93 Fig. 6.3 Brainmap shows the complex interactions of microclimatic parameters and the urban environment necessary to be analyzed to assess thermal comfort in a simplified way (compiled by the author)...... 93 Fig. 6.4 Meditating man on Paulista Avenue in São Paulo, picture to illustrate environmental and especially thermal discomfort (Advertisement 2006) (left) Scheme of impacts to calculate thermal comfort in urban situations near surface (right)...... 94 Fig. 6.5 Hemispheric pictures of the sky view with fish eye lens for park (left), canyon (middle) and open square (right). (Photos by Leonardo Monteiro 2006)...... 95 Fig. 6.6 The method developed to estimate thermal comfort based on climate and urban morphology on a day (19th of December) of peak thermal discomfort...... 96 Fig. 6.7 Output RAMS 4.3. Macroclimate (simulations by Mariana Lino Gouvêa) of shows that the differences of air temperature and humidity between the six analyzed tissues vary especially during the cooling period at nigh...... 97 Fig. 6.8 Demand of electric energy in Brazil Projection from 2007 MPX Business Plan Brazil`s ONS, http://www.ons.org.br/histórico/carga_propria_de_energia.aspx...... 98 Fig. 6.9 Air conditioninghours in the months of October and March in relation to % vegetation cover in three districts in São Paulo, derived from Velasco, 2007,
13 (left) and Decrease of energy bill per tree in US$ in 5 U.S. Cities according to latitude derived from McPherson et. al. 2005 (right)...... 99 Fig. 6.10 Tree-shaded low-rise residences in São Paulo’s Garden Neighbourhood Jardins (left) and principle of folding horizontal vegetation cover (or “landscape”) into a vertical direction...... 100 Fig. 6.11 The Latitude Theory based on simulations by Alexandri and Jones (2006), shows benefits of urban vegetation increasing with decreasing latitude, the red line marks São Paulo’s latitude (regressions derived by the author)...... 101 Fig. 6.12 City-wide regional ecosystem analysis Area of Interest (Municipality of São Paulo), Distribution of Vegetation Cover and Topography...... 103 Fig. 6.13 Quantification of the eight vegetation density classes of São Paulo (SVMA 2000)...... 106 Fig. 6.14 Stormwater events in São Paulo sometimes causing death victims (Cenofanti and Brancatelli, 2006)...... 106 Fig. 6.15 Permeable pavements: grass pavers (left) and permeable paver (right) (Photo kindly supplied by Benedito Abbud)...... 107 Fig. 6.16 The impacts of urban vegetation on an improved stormwater management are reducing the runoff by increasing retention and improved water quality through filtering on leafs and soils (Source: unknown)...... 108 Fig. 6.17 Impact of the vegetation cover on through-fall of Chameecyparis lawsoniana, Pinus negra and Wuerus rubra (Robinette, 1972 in Mascaró, 1996 p. 81) ; The relationship between surface runoff and percentage vegetation by Ong (2003) based on data extracted from Pauliet and Duhme, (2000)...... 108 Fig. 6.18 Air pollution reaches health-endangeringmeasures especially in the dry winters (left) and leads to increased respiratory problems within the population (right) http://atlasambiental.prefeitura.sp.gov.br/conteudo/metro/metro_21.htm...... 109 Fig. 7.1 The attenuation of direct solar radiation by the tree leads to increased comfort and lowered TEP quantified here for 15h air temperature 32°C, humidity 40%, speed 0.8 m/s (ENVImet simulation and map by the author)...... 114 Fig. 7.2 The relation between Leaf Area Index (LAI) and the attenuation of the vertical solar radiation at solar noon (zenithal angle) under clear sky conditions (direct radiation > 85%)...... 115 Fig. 7.3 Interpolated mean semi-deciduousness (of the local Atlantic forest biome, derived from master plant database, table 4.2) shows that LAI tends to oscillate throughout the year between LAI 2.35, attenuation of 59.91% in winter and LAI 4.28, attenuation 85.29% in summer (compiled by the author from table 4.2)...... 115 Fig. 7.4 Daily variation of thermal comfort without, below light and below dense vegetation covers (see also Spangenberg et. al. 2007)...... 115 Fig. 7.5 Perceived temperature in six typical urban tissues during the peak thermal stress period and after sunset on the typical summer day. Sections indicating sky view factors (buildings and vegetation) (above) and floor plan at pedestrian height (1.50m) (below) (simulationsby Mariana Lino Gouvêa)...... 116 Fig. 7.6 Mitigation of heat stress: Annual analysis of heat load in São Paulo and below open sky (left) and empirical estimate below shade tree of mean density (right)...... 117 Fig. 7.7 Percent Change in Contaminant Loadings...... 118 Fig. 7.8 Some literally green designs have been proposed to transform São Paulo’s river banks into more attractive and accessible for public use and infiltration areas again, http://stellar.mit.edu/S/project/saopaulo/courseMaterial/topics/topic11/project/two_rivers_small/two_rivers_small.pdf
14 LIST OF ABREVIATIONS
ASHRAE American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers AOI Area of Interest BRT Bus Rapid Transit BVOC Biogenic Volatile Organic Compounds CBD Central Business District CFD Computer Fluid Dynamics DBH Diameter at Breast Height DPI Dots Per Inch GDP Gross Domestic Product GIS Geographical Information System GIw Weighted Green Index GPR Green Plot Ratio IBGE Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística IDH Índice de Desenvolvimento Humano HVAC Heating, Ventilating and Air Conditioning QoL Quality of Life LAI Leaf Area Index LAD Leaf Area Density MRT Mean Radiant Temperatures NDVI Normalized Difference Vegetation Index NGO Non-governmental organization SVF Sky View Factor PAR Photosynthetically Absorbed Radiation PET Physiologically Equivalent Temperature RAMS Regional Atmospheric Modelling System SVMA Secretaria do Verde e do Meio Ambiente SEADE Fundação Sistema Estadual de Análise de Dados TEP Temperature of Equivalent Perceptive UHI Urban Heat Island PLEA Passive and Low Energy Architecture PPM Parts Per Million WHO World Health Organization WMO World Meteorological Organization WWR Wall-Window-Ratio VDI Verein Deutscher Ingenieure
15 ZUSAMMENFASSUNG
Die vorliegende Studie analysiert Umweltdienstleistungen von städtischer Vegetation weiteren behandlt sie aktuelle Themen wie Klimawandel, Energieeffizienz und thermische innerhalb der Stadtgrenzen einer Megacity durch maßstabsübergreifende Modellierung Behaglichkeit, sowie die Reinigung der natürlichen Ressourcen Boden, Wasser und Luft. und versucht ihren Nutzen näherungsweise zu quantifizieren. Aus verschiedenen Insbesondere da derzeit keine effizienten technischen Lösungen existieren, um die Blickwinkeln werden die Vorteile (sowie die Herausforderungen) von in Städte Umweltleistungen der Vegetation zu ersetzten. eingebetteter Natur für die Bevölkerung aufgezeigt. Aus geographischer Sicht wird, hier am Fallbeispiel der Stadt São Paulo/ Brasilien, das Profil der Megastädte in den niedrigen Diese Nutzen tragen zur Lebensqualität und in kontrastreichen Megastädten (tropischen) Breiten betrachtet. insbesondere zu sozio-ökologischer Gerechtigkeit bei. Die Vegetation hat in Städten zwei wichtige Dimensionen. Die funktionale Seite bringt konkrete, meßbare Umweltnutzen. Im allgemeinen wird die städtische Vegetation dort von Bevölkerung, Regierungen und Aus symbolischer Sicht repräsentiert Vegetation Natur in Städten, sowie ursprüngliche ökonomischen Strukturen vernachlässigt. Sie ist zwar spärlich vorhanden, wird aber kaum Naturverbundenheit des Menschen.
bewusst wahrgenommen. Während der kurzen Geschichte rasanter Verstädterung, die Zusammenfassend verteidigt die Studie die Wichtigkeit und Wertschätzung von Natur von massiver Umweltzerstörung begleitet ist, wird Stadtgrün im Disput um den Raum in und die vereinigten Anstrengung für wirklich grüne Städte, u.a. weil diese Arbeit zeigt, Städten wie São Paulo zum wahren Luxus. dass finanzielle Investitionen in städtische Vegetation sich direkt auf die Kosten für das
Gesundheitssystem und die Infrastruktur auswirken. Nicht als Rückentwicklung, sondern als Fortschritt, wird gezeigt, daß ein Ideal durch die Verflechtung zwischen Natur und Stadt dargestellt würde. Die näherungsweise Die Stadtregierung São Paulo investierte 2008 umgerechnet 122 Millionen Euro Quantifizierung der Variationen zwischen aktuellem Szenario und begrünten Szenarien (einhundertzweiundzwanzig Millionen Euro) in Stadtgrün (und Umwelt), dass zeigt die Notwendigkeit das städtische Biom als ein vom Menschen dominiertes jährlich mindestens 665 Millionen Euro (Sechshunderfünfundsechzig Millionen Ökosystem neu zu überdenken. Euro) einspart. D.h. mit anderen Worten, dass jeder Euro 1 der in Pflanzung und Pflege von Stadtgrün investiert wird, der Gesellschaft, und damit letzendlich den Die Nutzen von städtischer Vegetation sind facettenreich. Diese Arbeit detailliert Einwohnern São Paulos, Ausgaben von mindestens 5 Euro für Gesundheit, den Bau von Vegetation als Katalysator des klimatischen und ökologischen Gleichgewichtes. Des Regenwasserrückhaltebecken, Energie etc. einspart.
16 ABSTRACT
The present study analysis the environmental benefits of urban vegetation within the climate change, energy efficiency and thermal comfort, as well as the purification of municipal boundary of a megacity through multi scale integrated modelling to estimate natural resources, through the treatment of water, soil and air. Especially because at its benefits approximately. The advantages (and challenges) that Nature, inserted into present no efficient technical solutions exist, that could substitute the environmental cities, offers to the population are observed from different viewpoints. As geographical services of the vegetation. reference the profile of megacities located in low (tropical) latitudes was observed, in a case study on the city of São Paulo/ Brazil. These benefits contribute to quality of life and increase socio-environmental equity especially important in high-contrast megacities. The vegetation assumes two important Commonly, urban vegetation is overlooked by local people, governments and roles in cities. The functional dimension brings concrete and measurable benefits economical structures. Although sparse vegetation exists, it is hardly recognized. Along to the environment. From a symbolic vision, vegetation represents Nature in cities, the brief history of rapid urbanization which is accompanied by massive environmental approximating humans to their origins. degradation, urban green becomes, in the dispute for space, a true luxury in cities like São Paulo. Conclusively the study defends the importance of the valorization of Nature and of the united efforts for literally green cities because it proves that financial investment in urban Not as retrogression but as advance, it demonstrates that the integration between vegetation has direct effects on the costs destined to the areas of health and infrastructure. nature and city would be desirable. The approximated quantification of the variations which occur between actual scenario and greened scenarios shows the need to rethink The City of São Paulo, invested in 2008 about US$ 180 million (one hundred and eighty the urban biome as a man-dominated ecosystem. million dollars) in urban green (and environment) which tends to save US$ 980 million (nine hundred and eighty million dollars) of expenses annually. In other words, for each The benefits of the urban vegetation are diverse. This work details plants as agents of US$ 1 invested in planting and maintenance of urban green, the society saves at least climatic and ecosystem balance and performance. It also approaches current issues like US$ 5 of expenses in health, construction of French drains, energy etc.
17 RESUMO
O presente estudo faz uma profunda análise dos benefícios ambientais da vegetação E ainda, a purificação dos recursos naturais, através do tratamento de água, solo e ar. urbana dentro dos limites municipais de uma megacidade através de modelagem Principalmente, porque ainda não existe nenhuma solução técnica tão eficiente que integrada de múltiplas escalas visando estimar os benefícios aproximadamente. Um possa substituir os serviços ambientais da vegetação. conjunto de fatores expõe as vantagens (e os desafios) que a Natureza, inserida dentro de cidades, traz à população. Como referência geográfica, foram consideradas as Todos esses benefícios são claramente vistos como fatores de qualidade de vida, características de megacidades localizadas em latitudes baixas (tropicais), como é o caso comprovando que a vegetação urbana contribui para a igualdade socioambiental. A da cidade de São Paulo. vegetação assume dois importantes papéis nas cidades. O lado funcional onde traz benefícios concretos e mensuráveis ao meio ambiente. E sob uma visão simbólica, Comumente, a vegetação urbana é negligenciada por pessoas, governos e estruturas representa a natureza no meio urbano, aproximando o homem de suas origens. econômicas. Ela está lá, mas quase ninguém vê. Ao longo da História, o processo de urbanização veio acompanhado da degradação ambiental, e, na disputa pelo espaço, o Conclusivamente, o estudo defende a importância da valorização da natureza e do verde se tornou um verdadeiro luxo em cidades como São Paulo. esforço conjunto por cidades literalmente verdes, pois comprova que o investimento financeiro em vegetação urbana impacta diretamente nos custos destinados às áreas de Sem a pretensão de um retrocesso no desenvolvimento, fica provado que ideal seria saúde e infraestrutura. a integração entre natureza e cidade. Quantificar as mudanças ocorridas com esem as plantas urbanas, traz à tona a necessidade de repensar o bioma e o ecossistema na Tomando como exemplo a cidade de São Paulo, a Prefeitura Municipal investiu em 2008 civilização dominada pelo homem. em verde (e meio ambiente) cerca de R$ 330 milhões (trezentos e trinta milhões de reais), tendo uma economia nos gastos estimada em R$ 1,8 bilhão (um bilhão e oitocentos Os benefícios da vegetação urbana são diversos. Esse trabalho detalha oseu milhões de reais) por ano. Ou seja, a cada R$ 1 investido em plantio e manutenção de desempenho como agente de equilíbrio climático e do ecossistema. Aborda também áreas verdes, a sociedade deixa de gastar no mínimo R$ 5 em despesas com saúde, questões atuais como mudanças climáticas, eficiência energética e conforto térmico. construção de “piscinões”, canalização de córregos, energia, entre outros.
18 1. INTRODUCTION “A systematic change is on the horizon, whereby the boundary between the natural and the manufactured no longer exists” (Michael Weinstock, 2006)
Fig. 1.1: Map of the ecumenópole, resulting of the composition of satellite images obtained at night between 1994 and 1995 (Menegat, 2008)
Nature surrounded by Civilization and expected – much in contrast to of its natural resources (PNUMA/ SVMA/ to other, newer megacities under similar the Boarders of Growth Report (Club of Rome IPT, 2004). conditions. In the urban age megacities sprawl into and Meadows, 1972) - an environmental the surrounding pristine tropical forests all equilibrium. São Paulo was one of the first cities of the In fact since São, Paulo is located on the over the planet, literally eating up natural 20th century to swell to megacity status. It Tropic of Capricorn, thus the margin of resources causing environmental damages The manual for the elaboration of Geocity was chosen for this case study because it is the tropical belt, it can be expected that yet unmeasured. A global conurbation of Reports of the United Nations Environment considered an almost iconic (relatively old) the benefits of urban vegetation (as a the megacities in a world wide urbanization Program (UNEP) is based on the circular example of a megacity with all its cultural representation of urban Nature) are even pattern was already anticipated by concept of Pressure -> Space -> Impact -> benefits and environmental problems (see higher in the higher latitudes, according to Konstantinos Apostolos Doxiadis1 (1913- Response and states that “urbanization Brazilian geographer Milton Santos) and the latitude theory (see page 124). 1975) in the Ecumenopolis (1976). is a powerful pressure factor on the with a widely very low fraction of vegetation environment”. The environment supplies cover. The tendencies of the spatial The rapid process of urbanization in São Paulo The Greek city planner described the growing demands of the population and pressures, impacts and responses of the led to widely to disregard and “expulsion” of how progressive urbanization would the economic activities of the urban centers urban culture on the environment analyzed natural elements (vegetation, rivers, creeks, lead inevitably to an urbanized planet and receives in return the waste of the use here can hopefully also be transferred open soils, etc.) within the metropolitan
19 1 Interestingly Konstantinos Doxiadis also developed an urban development plan for Rio de Janeiro in 1965 (see Arch+ No. 190) area, while climatic phenomena react with unforeseen intensity to the land-use change over an almost completely urbanized area of an mean diameter of 60 kilometers.
“Cities, often thought of as the inverse of nature, are now recognized as the most environmentally friendly way to house the world’s increasing population. In theory people who live in [dense] cities leave a [relatively] smaller footprint on the environment per capita than people living in other [less dense] types of communities, [such as Garden Cities/ or suburbs] but usually have as well less Figure 1.2: Preliminary design sketches for the access to green areas. It’s obvious that high-density vegetated fascades of São Paulo’s Museum of development can help preserve the environment modern Art by Lina Bo Bardi (1965)3 outside urban areas but what does it do to the urban environment? As [world-wide] more [and more] people move into cities, [consequently] quality of the sprawling urban structures. Gardens in collaboration with Oscar “We need to walk, just as birds need to fly. We more and more [climate regulating] tree cover is Although vegetation can not solve all of their Niemeyer, Lúcio Costa in Brasília and Lina need to be around other people. We need beauty. being lost” (American Forests, 2004). problems it plays a paradoxical key role for We need contact with nature. And most of all, we BoBardi’s preliminary designs for the need not to be excluded. We need to feel some the new paradigm of urban sustainability. Museum of Modern Art in São Paulo). sort of equality.” (Enrique Peñalosa, former mayor Urban land-use (or footprint) of cities, of Bogotá/ Columbia) together with population density (short Necessity of the present study However, it seems that with the end of the ways) and urban quality of life belong to industrial age the strongly modified relation Analyzing urban environmental parameters the most discussed and urgent issues of Urban vegetation is one of the most obvious between humans and their environment (or and elements Ali-Toudert (2005) reports sustainable cities, especially when discussing elements to increase environmental Nature) needs to be revised and discussed. e.g. that studies on the effects of urban the transformation of megacities located quality and to partially reverse the negative vegetation on thermal outdoor comfort mostly in the lower latitudes (close to and environmental impacts of urbanisation, but “We need most of all to renew that love and empathy are very few, in particular those specifically within the tropical belt). in the urbanistic discourse (after the Garden for nature that we lost when we began our love affair City and Le Corbusier’s Vertical Green City, see with city life. Socrates was probably not the first to addressed to urban streets (e.g. Shashua- say that nothing happens outside the city walls, but “In [many tropical, emerging and] developing chapter 3.1.2) of the twentieth century, it can Bar and Hoffmann, 2000). countries, people often migrate to cities because of he would have been familiar with the natural world be observed that urban vegetation has often outside. Even in Shakespeare’s time cities were small crop failures, natural disasters, or armed conflicts, The complex phenomenon of the urban not because cities have robust economies capable been overlooked, probably because it does enough for him to walk to ‘a bank whereon the wild of supporting more people. In the coming decades, not represent urbanity in its traditional sense. thyme blows, where oxlips and nodding violet grows’. climate is in contrast well researched (Ali- many new city dwellers will be desperately poor. Toudert, 2005) and the use of green as a With little access to air conditioning, refrigeration, The early environmentalists who knew and strategy to mitigate the urban heat island Interestingly some modern, Brazilian truly appreciated nature – Wordsworth, Ruskin, or medical care, the world’s urban poor will (UHI) and improve the microclimate has be particularly vulnerable to heat wave health architects and landscape planners sought - Rousseau, Humboldt, Thoreau and so many hazards.” (Interview with Stuart Gaffin 20062) probably more than in any other regional, others – lived for much of their lives in small been widely emphasized (e.g. Escourrou modern architecture – for a dialog between compact cities. Now the city is so huge that few 1991, McPherson et al. 1994a, Akbari et al. ever experience the countryside, it is so distant. 1995, Avissar 1996, Taha et al. 1997). Vegetation in cities has additionally, due their constructions and the surrounding I wonder how many of you know what an oxlip to the climate, more important impacts tropical Nature in some rare constructed looks like or have seen one” (James Lovelock in on quality of life, especially on the thermal examples (see e.g. Roberto Burle Marx’s Revenge of Gaia, 2006 p. 10,11) The scientific revision of the exaggerated
20 2 Online http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/GreenRoof/printall.php
21 4 Urban morphology means here the actual spatial (three-dimensional) arrangement of buildings, infrastructure and greening as a result of the historical development of the city layout. Brazilian megacities, São Paulo and Rio, is Forest Management in the light of economical and environmental contrasts considered even richer than the Amazon the socio-environmental difficulties of and produce more energy, drinking region in terms of biodiversity. megacities in emerging countries, often water and food than their inhabitants put forward. The Urban Forest concept (and visitors) consume. This approach also tries to explore includes all inner city urban trees, as well as any other private and public forms of Especially the combined (synergetic) • Past and present: The urban-natural vegetation, including (currently still rare) benefits of vegetation could be history of the São Paulo region (which green roofs, facades and sky gardens. significant at large scale. In hot climates will be analyzed in the third chapter) important is that since artificial cooling is witnessed first an intense coffee Analyzing São Paulo’s dense and expensive and only affordable for limited production which occurred within vertical urban structures (like Köhler space, passive cooling through greening today’s municipal area (as well as in São and Schmidt did the case of Berlin is an effective strategy for adapting Paulo state). This period was fundamental 1996) it becomes clear that (apart from buildings (and whole tropical cities) for for São Paulo’s initial economical the obvious street trees) noteworthy climate change, increasing their energy growth. Subsequently (after 1929) greening potentials are also principally efficiency. the growing urbanized area showed localized on the building surfaces, their a strong decrease of the vegetation façades and rooftops. The architectural formula to cover or cover and the sealing of the fertile soils, “substitute the grey by the green” or due to the accelerated urbanization • The vision: A transformation of the “hardware by software” is according process. Today environmental problems existing cities into “Disappearing”, to Ambasz (1995) a simple but a deep- linked to increased urban land-use and tropical and vertical Garden Megacities going way to develop a new urbanism decreased vegetation cover become (as a synthesis derived from Le that does not alienate the citizen from visible and perceptible within the city. Corbusier’s, Howard’s and Wright’s early the vegetative area but creates an visions, see chapter 3) which would be architecture that is closely interlaced • The possible: Urban forms of vegetation conceived more sustainable today will with the green and with Nature. are manifold: from private gardens to probably not “concretize” in the near public street trees, parks, ornamental future but an approximation between According to Koolhaas (1999) such flower beds - as well as in the form environment and human society contemporary visions or ideal cities (e.g. of mostly undesired spontaneous (within the economical possibilities) is proposed by the so-called Green Avant- vegetation. The integration of undeniable especially within concepts of garde) are less popular today than in the Fig. 1.3: Future new town of Gwanggyo/ Korea vegetation can have negative impacts (literally?) “Green Cities”. beginning of the modern age because (2008) (above) and Megacity Datatown experiment when interfering with other urban • modernism was not able did not keep its (1999) both by MVRDV architects Rotterdam infrastructures and optimizing is a Thus apparently paradox, such literally “alchemical promises”. big challenge for contemporary city cool Tropical Green Cities could planning. hypothetically not cause, neutralize Anyhow the recent emergence of an or reverse their negative impacts increasing number of literally green The work analysis chances of an (footprints) on the environment, be urbanistic proposals - from literally increase of urban vegetation cover in more comfortable, less stressful and green retrofit to whole green new cities combination with an improved Urban more livable. They could decrease social- - (especially in Asia) is undeniable.
22 INTRODUCTION
Method and Limitations Since the capacities and scales of models vary and boundary conditions are difficult The broad overall aim of the study was to define the concept of “nesting” (from to give a panorama on the role of urban large scale to small scale) is an interesting vegetation and environmental models modeling approach to integrate different to estimate the cost/ benefits relation, models which was applied here integrating as well as a preliminary calibration the regional scale climate model RAMS and application of the models. The with the micro-scale model ENVImet. main challenge is that the so-called Another challenge is to re-calibrate models Environmental Services (“mechanisms”) developed (and calibrated) in temperate of urban vegetation act at different climate regions by comparing them with scales ranging from local micro-scale local measurements. (thermal comfort due to tree shade) across regional (improved stormwater Besides from all technical advances, more management and air, water, soil quality) and more science recognizes its own to global scale (climate change and limitations. Especially the exact sciences sequestration of carbon dioxide). learn to accept their limitations concerning Fig. 1.4: Scales and perspectives: Whole Earth Image - Icon of temporal-spatial exactness, not least due to globalized world view 5 with overlay Simulating the dynamics of living systems, the quantum physics. This work therefore Tropical Belt (above) and Individual urban vegetation canopy and climate has to accept “fuzzy” approximations and open Perception Sphere (below) change is still very complex even using estimations as an integral part, due to the advanced computer models. At this complexity of the issue. moment no integrated model exists are capable to make reliable analyses and Sources analyzed and cited are manifold: prognostics of the benefits (see chapter 3), Literature research contained scientific so that various models had to be acquired, articles and guide books (in English, German calibrated and applied in order to estimate & Portuguese language), as well as articles quantum change of the environmental (mostly Portuguese) from local newspapers services or urban vegetation. Especially and journals. All quotations originally in the dynamic spatial and temporal German and Portuguese language were variations and transformations of the translated by the author; citations originally living systems are a big challenge when in in English language were quoted literally to comes to defining input parameters. maintain the original content.
“Collectively we must come to the realization Additionally to literature research, field studies that there is no exterior to our ecology. There such as measurements of leaf area and is only one environment and everything is climate monitoring (combined with resident entered on the balance sheet. Every positive, every negative. Everything counts” (Bruce interviews) were executed in two locations for Mau 2004) calibration of the microclimate simulation tool.
5 See Martin Heidegger: Die Zeit des Welbildes (Holzwege, 6. Auflage 1980, S. 92) and 23 Die Geometrie des Ungeheuren – Das Projekt der metaphysischen Globalisierung (Peter Sloterdijk, Sphären II Globen, Surkamp 1999) Structure of thesis
Since this thesis tends to interlink everything e.g. many strongly correlated and socio- environmental issues, a large number of cross-references became necessary. In the following each chapter of this book is presented in a resumed form.
Chapter 1: This indicial, introductory chapter details and justifies why it is worth analyzing especially the environmental benefits of urban vegetation in predominantly warm (or hot) megacities of low latitudes.
Chapter 2: The second chapter presents and discusses essential concepts like Nature, urban environment/ ecosystem and contemporary indicator concepts of urban quality of life, sustainability and environmental comfort – all closely interlinked with urban vegetation. Though Fig. 1.5: Green urban center proposed the chapter can be described only as Chapter 4: This chapter seeks to understand Chapter 6: The sixth chapter explores by Kenneth Yeang possible attempt of impossible definitions better the complex role of urban vegetation, methods to simulate environmental (due to the fuzziness), the importance of focusing on plant physiology, the climatic benefits of the existing vegetation cover and benefits beyond conceivability or even these concepts defined rather by individual impact of vegetation cover, exchange of future scenarios at different scales and immeasurable benefits exist which are not perception, social disputation seeking for processes between vegetation and with different tools. Special notion is given considered in this book. Further the last consensuses has to be pointed out explicitly. atmosphere and metrics (or parameters) to the quantum change of vegetation on chapter gives some recommendations for for calculations and especially important for surface energy balance and thermal comfort an improved urban forest management as Chapter 3: The third chapter presents a brief growth simulations. at micro-scale - e.g. to re-vitalize degraded well as literally green architecture. history of the relation between landscape public spaces in megacities like São Paulo. and urbanism of City of São Paulo focusing Chapter 5: The fifth chapter is a critical Further citywide benefits like stormwater According to an interview with São Paulo on its vegetation from the city foundation analysis of the cost-benefit concept, management and air pollution removal and based landscape planner Benedito Abbud
until today. This retrospection reveals the starting from a comprehensive overview on global ones like CO2 sequestration will be urban vegetation can mitigate environmental outcome of a strong decrease of vegetation benefits and drawbacks (or costs) of urban analyzed, using a geographical information problems but he adds: “Planting helps but cover and at the same time an increase of vegetation encountered in literature, which system (GIS). does not solve the problem (…) It does not urban environmental problems due to rapid also illustrates complexity and conflicts of help to plant any tree in any place, because urbanization during the second half of the re-introducing and maintaining urban green Chapter 7: The last chapter resumes and instead of becoming a solution it can twentieth century. in existing cities. discusses the results and points out that become a problem” (Abbud, 2007)
24 “Since man is the most powerful being on Earth he has to fear 2. ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES nothing more than his own OF MEGACITIES acting.” (Weizsäcker et. al. 1995)
This chapter begins with a brief exploration of According to the Healthy Cities Program has a symbolical character representing to Constanza (2008) adequate definition the contemporary relation between human city of the United Nations urbanisation has Nature in cities: Contact with Nature and measurement have been elusive. In dwellers and their urban environment, Nature affected traditional social bonds and cultural in cities leads, as surveys indicate, to a this approach these concepts are however and its fragments. This relation has changed affinities: “People are becoming increasingly decrease of stress-related illnesses (see fundamental because they seek to analyze significantly during the 20th century, mainly anonymous in big cities and the sense of chapter 5.3.2). Especially in urban greens, direct and indirect perceptions of the through rapid processes of industrialization, belonging to a neighborhood or a city has parks or gardens but as well in green dynamic environment, as well as consensuses urbanization and globalization. started to deteriorate. These physical and neighbourhoods, we may have the chance concerning e.g. the ratio of urban vegetation social factors affect health, directly and to transcend contradictions, recognizing a its impact on above-named concepts. A short reflection on the question appears to be indirectly” (see also local research carried second (or even umpteenth), designed and important within the context of São Paulo, localized out in São Paulo on Health, Well-being and cultivated Nature, which consists often Besides from the wide and general use of the in a country like Brazil, which developed rapidly from Stress)1 mainly of ornamental urban gardening buzzwords quality of life and sustainability, a rural country to an urbanized country within the and is rarely wild. Köckler (2007) points out the indicators of last century. Both immigrant waves and a national Urban vegetation tends to establish a these concepts (first developed in Europe rural exodus have led to an urbanization rate of 83% local climatic2 equilibrium and is basic Contemporary, fuzzy concepts like quality of and the United States) and goals to increase in Brazil until today. At global scale more than half of need for local ecosystems. Besides from life (QoL), environmental comfort, aesthetics them should be defined and adjusted locally humanity lives in cities since 2007. this environmentally functional aspect it etc. are often policy goals but according in processes which incorporates citizens.
Fig. 2.1: The surreal collage “Aircraft Carrier City in Landscape” by Hans Hollein (1964) captured a mega-structure as a foreign object with clear boundaries in a natural landscape in one image.
1 São Paulo Megacity - Pesquisa sobre Saúde, Bem-estar e Estresse Online: http://hcnet.usp.br/ipq/projetos/spmegacity.htm
26 ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES OF MEGACITIES new scientific discoveries – to new hybrids (see Stuiver, 2006) which is reflected e.g. in concepts like “living machines”, “mimicry” and “bionics”.
2.2 Humans and Environment According to Mendonça (2002) the history of humanity is a history of the adaptation of humans and their society to the conditions of the physical-natural terrestrial environment, and as well the history of the transformation of the environment through human activities. Today we cannot conceive the reading of (our own) reality only through the perspective of natural or environmental determinism, but the complete denial of the influence of Nature on men and his society would also not be acceptable. Fig 2.2: Urban structure and culture in São Paulo’s treeless Brigadeiro Avenue (left) and Overgrown abandoned dwelling in Dois Rios, Ilha Grande 3 Mendonça concludes that to say “that the 2005 (right) (Photos taken by the author in 2007 and 2005). geographical environment explains all of the psychological dispositions of people" acquisition in the so-called developed It has to be pointed out that these indicators because they introduce new forms of would be (as Sorre, 1984, p. 86 alerted), counties. One of the aims of censuses are only (temporally and spatially) limited environmental rules and regulations as “as wrong as denying any role of the was to measure the quality of living means to an end, benchmarks or agents well as alternative strategies and tactics to environment”. conditions of populations rapidly (Köckler, 2007) which allow (or simplify) mainstream environmentalism (Jensen et. increasing in numbers and limited by the assessment of the concepts which al., 2004). 2.3 Indicators for Urban Quality natural resources e.g. space. they represent. According to Jensen et. al. of Life and Sustainability 2004, the growth and expansion of these Although indicators are often derived The aim of defining indices which reflect concepts within and across the economic from standardized censuses (in Brazil by The development of indicators quality of life and sustainability by and regional development literatures is the IBGE4) according to Köckler (2007) in (and indices) to support broad, weighting various indicators statistically is undeniable especially in the Americas. an ideal process, issues important to the comprehensive and complex index a contemporary approach to understand local population need to be discussed concepts for Quality of Life and and monitor socio-economical and Complex phenomena like the quality of in participatory processes, to achieve Sustainability emerged in the second environmental development at different life or sustainability cannot be observed consensuses. This is especially important half of the twentieth century with the scales (household, neighbourhood, directly and not be defined generally in cities which seek to customize and censuses and other geographical data district, city, country, state). but are important in the discourse to adopt concepts of quality of life or
3 The apparently inevitable scenario of man disappearing from the Earth’s surface and subsequently spontaneous vegetation recovering the surface is an issue covered by the History Channel’s documentary “Life after People” (2008) 4 Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística, www.ibge.gov.br/english/
6 www.sustainlane.com/us-city-rankings
Fig. 2.4: Indices for quality of life in São Paulo - Index of Human Development IDH (left) and Socio-Environmental Profile of the SMVA (right)
29 developed by the Municipal Secretariat Fig. 2.5.: Environmental comfort as a central of Green Areas and the Environment and direct (benefit) issue in the discussion on urban Sustainability and Quality of Life. (SVMA) and the Municipal Secretariat of Urban Planning (SEMPLA) of the City of São Paulo as an interdisciplinary project also developed in cooperation with the University of São Paulo (USP). The atlas analyzed for the first time environmental issues like vegetation cover, urban climate, and socio-economical environment in a comprehensive way, applying a geographical information systems (GIS) at a city-wide scale. The atlas e.g. includes an index named Socio- Environmental Profile12 which integrates the three environmental indicators of Distribution of Vegetation Cover (1999), Deforestation during the period of 1991-2000 and Surface Temperature (1999) with one socio-economical indicator based on income to indicate quality of life and sustainability per district.
• The GEO-Cities Report for São Paulo (2002)13 was elaborated under the supervision of the United Nations Program for the Environment (UNEP/ PNUMA) based on the Pressure -> Space -> Impact -> Response model methodology developed by the Organisation for Economic Co- operation and Development (OECD) which is applied for cities world-wide. The São Paulo report was developed in cooperation with the local institutions Table. 2.1.: Overview of the human senses and sense organs as interfaces with the environment, between in and outside (based on Behling 1996)
14 http://sempla.prefeitura.sp.gov.br/urb_pde.php
IPT (Institute of Technological Research) conditions could improvequality of life and the SVMA (Municipal Secretariat in São Paulo. In comparison in London of Green Areas and the Environment). 51% of the specialists considered The Global Environment Outlook the urban environment important. (GEO) report focused on the urban Interestingly - and much in contrast to environment and analyzed its state. European experts - the loss of green areas and vegetation cover (15%) • The Strategic Masterplan of the City as well as climate change (8%) were of São Paulo (2002)14 (Plano Diretor among the environmental issues which Estratégico do Município de São concerned São Paulo specialists least. Paulo) is the city’s first masterplan and seeks to regulate the future urban • The Basic Indicators of the City of São development and transformations Paulo (2009)17 study was carried out by to increase urban quality of life. It the NGO Nossa São Paulo. It analysis defined general goals to increase the 33 basic indicators (of 140 available) number of street trees and green which are internationally accepted areas significantly and proposed the references as indicators for good implementation of a regional system quality of life for each of São Paulo’s 31 of linear parks until 2012. A recent sub-municipalities (districts). One of actualization (2009), the Agenda 2012 the environmental indicators is square 15, promises the implementation of meters of green area (with more than 50 linear parks and 800,000 trees. 900m² of continuous vegetation cover, see also fig. 6.12). The study introduces • The Urban Age City Survey (2007)16 a so called “Desigualtômetro” Fig. 2.6: Two was a survey on the actual quality of (“Inequitymeter”) which is the factor examples of a new life in São Paulo carried out by Oliveira of inequity between the best and the urban environmental and Page for the Urban Age Congress worst indicators above zero. It shows sensibility in literally for the Green Areas Indicator one of green cities with held in São Paulo in December 2008. vegetation shade for The aim of the survey was to detect the highest inequalities of 176.3 times thermal comfort: Expo key challenges analyzing public and of all 33 basic indicators analyzed. Sevilla Spain in 1992 expert opinions. While environmental (above) and Brisbane/ Australia (below)19. issues were not even recognized by the 2.4 Environmental Comfort Other cities which public, they appear as one of the less incorporated new important issues in the expert opinions Besides from the indicators for quality urban environmental after transport, housing, crime. Only of life and sustainability it appears to sensibility are among others Sacramento in 13% of the interviewed local specialists be important to draw attention and to the United States and believed that the better environmental give a short introduction on the even Singapore in Asia.
17 www.nossasaopaulo.org.br/portal/files/CadernoIndicadores2009.pdf
32 20 Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) Green Building Rating System www.usgbc.org/LEED 21 http://hcnet.usp.br/ipq/projetos/spmegacity.htm
Generally speaking, the often high levels of disturbing factors, and their 2.5 Places and Non-Places combination, tend to lead to stimulus The anthropological concept of Places satiation, distress and often a stressful and Non-Places by Augé (1994) describes urban environment, which has direct urban transitorial places which do not influences on urban quality of life and invite pedestrians for strolling and/ or health (see São Paulo Megacity - Pesquisa permanence or for any engagement sobre Saúde, Bem-estar e Estresse21) and appropriation with the place, as non-places. In contrast places invite Environmental Comfort relies additionally pedestrians for temporary stays and/ or on other, highly subjective, psychological to rest but these are, still according to sensations, which are difficult to grasp, or Augé, shrinking throughout cities. even to quantify. Among those also are important issues in cities like São Paulo The concept can be enhanced here are aspects like safety of public spaces, to those public spaces (or places especially at night, due to urban violence, respectively) that are not pedestrian access to transport, health, education, and cyclist friendly, abandoned although culture, alimentation, sanitation, housing dangerously exposed to traffic, noise etc. (see fig. 2.5) and air pollution. Places which do not offer environmental comfort or quality The research carried out on artificial of life. Places that are not designed and partly restricted spaces of shopping sustainable. Places that are in São centers (see chapter 3) serves as a Paulo often labeled with No pedestrian good example to prove the general trespassing signs (see fig. 2.7) importance of environmental comfort Of course urban vegetation is not the due to the major attention which is paid only mean to turn non-places places, to the satisfaction of all the five senses to create environmental comfort and of the consumers in order to offer the quality of life, but correctly planted and best “climate/ atmosphere” to sell maintained urban green appears to be commodities. Especially in hot cities in a key element to improve the quality developing countries thermal comfort, of the environmentally degraded public as well as, safety are the key elements space, in hot megacities especially due of the success of shopping centers. comfort generating shade.
33 3. CITY VERSUS FOREST
This chapter describes the process of land Obviously this dialectic approach, which looks continent, the “Rumors of the Paradise”, the development until the dawn of the occupation and urbanisation in the São deeply into the historical relations between city, early beginnings of “civilization” and the first modern age focusing on the loss of Paulo region since city’s foundation until dwellers and natural environment, points towards settlements in a vast and densely vegetated tropical vegetation cover, the relations between the present and attempts to constitute an a future synthesis between the natural and the built clime, sparsely populated by partly cannibalistic accessible public and private spaces (which adequate contextualisation for the better environment in a yet untold natural-cultural history. indigenous people who wore no cloths. developed differently from the European understanding of the socio-economical perception in Brazil) and the genesis of the dynamics and today’s socio-environmental This chapter summarizes the civilizing background, Subsequently it approaches the foundation phenomenon of urban landscapes versus conditions and challenges. since the mythical discovery of the South American of São Paulo in 1554 and the slow urban natural landscapes.
Fig. 3.1: Between Past and Future - Original Indian Tupi Oca dwelling (above) and modern interpretation of the Oca by Oscar Niemeyer in São Paulos Ibirapuera Park 1950 (below)
34 CITY VERSUS FOREST
3.1 The historical Roots and the Brazil Tree
Cave-paintings and pottery art works prove that the costal region of the territory named Brazil today was populated for at least ten thousand years before arrival of the Portuguese discoverers. Constructed signs of these civilizations are e.g Sambaquis and Ocas (Lacerda 1985).
Shortly after the discovery of the American Continent in 1492 by Columbus, the Portuguese and Spanish crowns decided, motivated by the church, the Division of South America by signing the Contract of Tordesilhas (1494). When the Portuguese discoverer Pedro Álvares Cabral and his fleet landed on the South American coast, on 22nd April of 1500, at a tropical beach , located North of were the city of Porto Seguro (Bahia State) is located today, he appropriated of the land on behalf of the Portuguese crown and named it “Ilha da Vera Cruz” (Island of the True Cross).
Pedro Álvares Cabral’s writer Pêro Vaz de Caminha wrote „Se planta tudo dá” (Whatever one plants grows) in a famous countries in South America, Africa and and little work due to the abundance Fig. 3.2: Pristine Atlantic Forest in a letter to the Portuguese King. Two years later Asia), harmful to the aforementioned of natural resources – exhaustless and Valley of the Costal Mountain Range by Jean Baptiste Debret (1768-1848) the navigator Américo Vespúcio reported on paradise (or eldorado), its forests and the to anyone’s disposability”. It is often another expedition off the southeastern apparently exhaustless natural resources claimed that the Portuguese travellers- Brazilian coast: "If the paradise exists here covered by the apparently endless forests. much in contrast to the mainly British on Earth - I am surely close". North American colonization and the For Macondes (2006) it is clear that since Spanish Latin American colonization - Subsequently these myths, like fertility the first settlers arrived from Europe came to only explore the resources of of the soil and abundance of the forests people perceived Brazil as a marvelous the New World but not to stay and to became (like in many colonized tropical country were “man can be plainly happy settle (Bartelt, 2008).
35 Named “Costa de Descobrimento” (Discovery Coast) in the State of Bahia in ISA 2008, p. 195 The most common explanation of the place along the costal Brazilian clime, has laid the foundation for Brazil’s wealth According to Murillo Marx (cited by Robba countries name Brazil is, that it was named which was then widely covered by the but on the other hand by today 93% and Macedo, 2003), the Brazilian colonial after the Brazil tree Caesalpinia( echinata Atlantic Forest biome (Mata Atlântica). It of the genuine Atlantic forest has been cities were founded always as a result of a Lam.) which contains a bright red pigment, consisted of dense tropical and subtropical destroyed and is irrecoverable due to the charter of an allotment for a certain saint, used first by indigenous people for ritual forests, which stretched along Brazil’s massive exploration and land-use change. with the subsequent construction of a face painting. Unknown to the Portuguese Atlantic Coast from the Northern state of The process has lead to fragmentation and chapel and the establishment of a parish until the discovery, the Brazil wood was the Rio Grande do Norte to the Southern state degradation of ecosystems and landscapes, to worship him. first resource exported to Europe as ink and of Rio Grande do Sul. The Atlantic Forest leaving behind literally hundreds of forest for dyeing cloths (followed by other, then Biome is the biome to which the Brazil tree islands often on hilltops. With the tiny settlement which would only exotic and rare luxury goods, such cane belongs and is, in terms of biodiversity, 400 years later grow to megacity status sugar, coffee, rubber etc.). Interestingly, considered even richer than that proper began a new local relation between man according to this version, Brazil is the first - Amazon Forest. 3.1.1 Colonization until and the surrounding, the exuberant nature and only - country named after a tree. Modernization (1554-1915) of an entirely new environment, especially Although partly regarded as a valuable due to the fact that the two padres had The social history and the background raw material (due to extraction of the The settlement and later the city of São Paulo come originally from Portugal. It is of the country’s name is e.g. covered by Brazil Wood2 by Natives and Brasileiros) (Portuguese for “Saint Paul”) has, like most obvious that this initial human settlement Sérgio Buarque de Hollanda (1902-1982) during the first phase of the colonisation Brazilian cities, literally grown out of the refrained from its surrounding tropical in his 1936 book with the ambiguous the impenetrable forest was regarded jungle. The Jesuit padres Manuel da Nóbrega jungle due to dangers from poisonous title "Os Raizes do Brasil", (which can be mainly as an antagonist (or obstacle) to and José de Anchieta founded a mission at animals etc. McDonough et al. (2002) 3 translated literally either to "The Roots reclaim land, for civilization and progress. latitude 23º32'53" S longitude 46º37'57" W point out, that it should not be forgotten of the Brazil Tree" or to “Brazil's" Roots”) Especially the Portuguese’s crown which on 25th of January 1554, after clambering the that people had struggled for thousands of and the 1959 book "Visões do Paraíso" allocated large strips of land (so-called costal mountain range with guidance of Tupi- years to maintain the boundaries between (“Visions of the Paradise”). sesmarias) from 1523 on to Portuguese Guarani Indians from São Vicente (founded human and natural forces and that to do noblemen recognized deforestation as an in 1532), when they reached the continental so was often necessary to survival. The origin of the Portuguese word Brasil act of appropriation and apparent land plateau (Planalto de Piratininga). again derives originally from the word use which was responsibility of the leud. Consequently the first construction in São Brasa, which means ember and ember- One of the main advantages of the Paulo, the mission of the Pátio do Colégio, red. From the 16th century onwards the Like in many colonized counties covered location at almost 800 meters above sea and its annexed open space followed the first Brazilians (Brasileiros) consequently entirely with tropical rainforest parts were level in the sylvan hills of the Serra do Mar, common urbanistic principle applied in were the people who traded and exported felled or fire cleared and former forest land was that it is climatically considerably most South American cities: the indicial the Brazil wood. The exportation of the became more valuable than land covered more temperate than the costal clime creation of a central Patio (also called Brazil wood marked only the beginning with standing forests. This means that (Levi-Strauss, 1952). The tropical climate parish, largo, terreiro, piazza or plaza of the intensive exploitation of the rich since the beginning of the colonisation of altitude is at an average 3-6°C cooler in Europe). These plazas located vis-à- forest resources; including the minerals it process deforestation resulted in richness than the costal climate. Another reason vis front side of the church or mission covered (Macondes, 2006). due to “cultivation” or use of land. to settle was that the water supply on the (and their extensions) were so-called high plateau from the three rivers Tietê, dry spaces4, (praças secas) which were The Portuguese colonization and the Exploring this costal region, in which the Pinheiros and Tamanduateí (all flowing free from any vegetation to represent founding of the first settlements took megacity of São Paulo is located today, inland) seemed guaranteed. civilization and mastery and to serve
2 The use of wood is regarded as a direct benefit (see chapter 5.3.1) in contrast to slash-and-burn reclaiming land 3 Instituto Geográfico e Cartográfico – IGC 36 4 Robba and Macedo (2003) define “dry spaces” (also “largos”, “pátios” or “terreiros” in Brazilian Portuguese), as what is called “piazza” and “plazas” in Europe while “praça” referres to “squares” which are usually associated with vegetation. According to the authors in Brazilian cities, any town green, whether with trees or just grass, the central median strip of an avenue or the empty space between buildings is called “praça” (square). CITY VERSUS FOREST for assemblies. Levi-Strauss (1952) Fig. 3.3: A change of remembered that the beginning of the construction methods and materials from leafs to 20th century many of these dry Patios adobe5: The point of origin especially in many small Brazilian towns Patio do Colégio in São had often remained unpaved, rammed Paulo (left) and shelter of earth, overgrown with grasses and herbs. native Indians constructed of palm leaves (right) The central spot was reserved for the chapel/ mission and the parvis, while the spaces surrounding it became cemetery and common farming grounds. In contrast to cities of the Spanish colonization which were built based on pre-elaborated drawings which were usually regular grids, the Brazilian cities grew “somehow more improvised, unplanned and centrifugally”, as a result of the founding of parish or religious brotherhood. Streets yards and squares configured themselves based on the construction of rows of houses, resulting in crooked, narrow streets6, which converged to the central building of the settlement (Robba and Macedo, 2003).
Traditional Construction Methods organic materials, especially wood, leaves worth mentioning is theMuxarabi 7 facade a metaphor of Eden, attracting the image of paradise and heavenly peace. The Portuguese colonization had imported and clay (Weimar, 2005). element, which was incorporated by the its own traditional construction methods so-called Portuguese Colonial Style. It In Europe, the end of the 18th century witnessed from the Iberian Peninsula, but in tropical This type of buildings and urbanism would came originally from the Arabian regions the appearance of the first landscaped areas, Brazil soon the necessity of the climatic be called bioclimatictoday, since no heating and was later later via Portugal imported meant for collective use. Those were the first adaptation of the buildings was recognized. and cooling facilities were available at the to Brazil (see Spangenberg, 2004). public promenades, which kept characteristics of the palace gardens as areas meant for The size of the country and the large variaty time. The temperature inside of these contemplation, mediation, strolls and enjoyment of its climates and ecosystems created naturally ventilated buildings was virtually The Garden in the Brazilian of open-air pleasures. many adaptations of vernacular, traditional the same as outdoors. However, building Colonial City construction methods, influenced by envelopes were fulfilling the basic human Rarely found in Brazilian colonial cities, the gardens were limited to religious properties immigrants that came from all over the needs of shelter from the elements of “In ancient days, the garden was a space devoted to meditation and contemplation, even or to the yards of residences, intended for world and from all climate zones. The rain and solar radiation, allowing privacy, though this nature might be a human imitation utilitarian purposes. They consisted mainly of prevalent building materials were local, security and natural ventilation. Especially of a wild environment. The garden represented fruit trees, vegetables and medical plants. They
5 Both materials are toady often considered more sustainable than industrial building materials used today 6 This colonial urbanism in its vernacular tropical adaptation, based on tacit knowledge, represented low Sky View Factors creating maximum building shade and thus thermal comfort (see 5.3.1) while shade trees were sparse in this urban model, which left over little space for planting due to the narrowness of the streets 37 7 The Arabian Muxarabi element came to Brazil via Portugal and was used in colonial architecture and later re-discovered by modern architects like Lúcio Costa and Lina Bo Bardi were meant to support the kitchens and in the soil conditions and the growing railroad yards, used as vegetable gardens and for other network which connected inland, São services”. (Robba and Macedo, 2003). Paulo and the sea port of Santos. During the 18th century São Paulo remained a rather unimportant small The fragmented landscape forms are colonial village. However, it became an called Campo limpo (Clean Field) and important base of expeditions of the Campo sujo (Dirty Field) in Brazil and refer bandeirantes (flag bearers) into the to the remaining vegetation cover. The hinterland (interior) for land occupation, French ethnologist Claude Levi-Strauss to enslave Indians and seek for the who lived and researched in São Paulo exploration of mineral resources. reflected about the landscape near São Paulo in his 1953 book Sad Tropics: During the 19th century Brazil important political changes occurred: Brazil became “This landscape confuses the European traveler because it does not fit into none of independent from Portugal since the royal his traditional categories. We do not know any family fled threatened by the invasion of pristine nature, our landscape is ostentatious Napoleon to Brazil. Soon the first books subdue to man […], we are confused with the Fig. 3.4: View near São Paulo painting by Henry Chamberlain circa 1819-20 shows were printed in the capital Rio de Janeiro natural ferocity of the landscape which is the result is a long series of unconscious initiatives the widely deforested grounds east of the center with swamp areas of the rivers from 1808 on. Interestingly the first book and decisions. One has to travel America in Tiête and Tamanduateí and the Cantareira Mountain Range in the background. printed was an assay of the royal physician order to recognize that this sublime harmony is Manuel Vieira da Silva (1808) on the not at all spontaneous expression of the nature Urban Green that non-official space for its demonstration, improvement of the climate of the city of but comes from agreements that were gained besides the multiplicity of uses allowed the in long cooperation between landscape and 8 The New World – especially Catholic colonial squares and plazas. Rio de Janerio . The independence was human being […]. declared in 1822 by Dom Pedro I in the America – built its first public gardens At that point there was incipient urban elite fields of Ipiranga near São Paulo. By today Nature, which was tamed so remorseless, contemporaneously with Europe. In who would eventually frequent public gardens, Ipirangá became a district of the city. that it reminds rather an industrial site than a São Paulo the former Botanical Garden, consolidating in Brazil the European custom landscape. (...) In the surroundings of São Paulo, which first had not been intended for “stroll” and the “parade”, which motivated the I learned to become familiar with a nature construction, the motivation and maintenance City and Landscape that is more brittle than ours because it is less public use and fulfilled only the function of urban gardens and promenades […]. populated and less cultivated, but nevertheless of investigating the native flora, for At the end of the 19th century the city the true freshness is missing: a Nature, which is scientific and commercial purposes was Landscaped areas became a significant element was still very compact. Although it had not wild, but downgraded. transformed into the city’s first public park in the complex of buildings and open spaces in no city walls there were clear boundaries - Parque da Luz - in 1825. Brazilian cities. Such changes bred a new habit: Barren lands, as large as provinces humans once landscaping. The population began to value the between urban and rural land use. possessed here but soon he moved on. Behind use of plantings for the beautification of streets Meanwhile agricultural use had lead to itself he left a battered ground full of ruins. And “The construction of the first public parks and part of their yards, now named gardens” deforestation around the city especially on these battlefields, on which he has fought turned the import of this model of space from (Robba and Macedo, 2003). since coffee cultivation reached São with an unknown earth for some decades, the European cities into a fact, although the slowly new, monotonous vegetation9 begins to differences between the Brazilian and European Paulo from the Rio-Paraiba-Valley from sprout” (Claude Levi-Strauss, written in 1935, societies led to the failure of the park. The non- The second half of the 19th century saw 1850 on due to the favorable climatic and published in 1952) existence of an urban bourgeoisie which needed great changes of the Brazilian society with
8 Manuel Vieira da Silva (1808) Reflexões sobre alguns dos meios propostos por mais conducentes para melhorar o clima da Cidade transcribed in 38 "Hygiene da cidade do Rio de Janeiro", ABN 1 (1876), p. 187-190. http://blog.controversia.com.br/2008/04/22/diagnostico-do-rio-do-seculo-19/
During the second half of the 19th century A similar process had already occurred “It is precisely at this moment that the squares the cultural influences arriving from France in Paris with the implementation of in the most important cities became objects of
40 CITY VERSUS FOREST
landscaping projects. Squares could no longer 3.1.2 Verticalisation versus have the characteristics of colonial plazas, lacking, vegetation or the picturesque elements Sprawl (1915-1929) of the Belle Époque Today with the traffic chaos of sprawling11 During the first decades of the 20th century, the model of the landscaped square became a megacities it has become clear, why compact, paradigm of quality for open spaces, and even densely populated structures promote short the oldest and traditional squares underwent ways and combined with well-developed some process of landscaping and gardening […] public transport sustainability. On the other Urbanistic landscaped projects like Praça Ramos de Azevedo and the Parque Anhangabaú in the hand opening up spaces for the integration Center of São Paulo were landscaped in 1911.” of at (least small) green areas is considered (Robba and Macedo, 2003). important to achieve sustainability and Qualified Density. In terms of a landscaping style, elements and aesthetics of these projects Robba Although more actual than ever the and Macedo report mostly European challenges of high population density, influences and the absence of an own Fig. 3.7: Relations between urban spatial extension, density, mobility, gasoline consumption and cost (thus space-efficient land-use, mobility and Brazilian landscaping style (which efficiency and sustainability) environmental quality - were (and are developed only later with the modern still) discussed by the conflicting schools movement) during this first period of of though which follow the two most this important moment of the cities’ (and relations between open/ green spaces, urban landscaping: important urban planning theories of the the global) history which is worth being building heights, population densities and “Brazilian landscaping architecture of the twentieth century: Ebenezer Howard’s clean observed more detailed and critically consequently distances. Retrospectively time was called Eclecticism.10 This series, but sprawling The Garden City of Tomorrow because it implies the fundamental these contradictions were revised by Jane which involves gardens of the end of the 18th (1898) and Le Corbusier’s theories of contradictions and planning decisions. Jacobs in her 1961 book The Death and century up to the landscaped squares built highly dense and verticalized modern cities Life of great American Cities, judging both in the first decades of the 20th century, is characterized by the appropriation of several (e.g. manifested in The Radiant City, first Technically the enormous and exaggerated principles as “nothing but lies” and as styles and influences. exhibited in Brussels in 1930). urban growth of São Paulo became only “divorced from reality”. possible with the enthusiastic welcoming of The violence and speed of these Both European-born modern urban the new and modern construction methods transformations grounded Eclecticism as the The Garden Neighbourhoods of most expressive landscaping prototype in the planning theories were imported, and materials and the industrialization of São Paulo (1915-1930) country. For years, until the 1950s, the eclectic discussed and subsequently implemented the construction. They would paradoxically projects, even the late ones, were proposed in adapted forms and at different scales allow São Paulo’s urban areas to spread During the 19th century the European and built, and its influence may be seen until in São Paulo. This marked a moment of widely into the surrounding natural agglomerations of London and Paris the end of the 20th century. decision making for urban policies and landscape trivializing and overriding the had already experienced the ecological Of course, the growing appreciation of the design for the forthcoming period of most urban planning theories. consequences of the new industries use of plantings in the city, so as to reduce the rapid metropolitan growth, although and the interconnected rapid urban effects of intense urbanization in the great it would become clear only later, that Although related, the concepts created population growth. In England, the “First capitals, strengthened, throughout this century the typology of the landscaped square (Robba unplanned sprawl would override both competing schools of thought, with Pollution Report” had been published and Macedo, 2003). theories. This chapter looks deeper into conflicting opinions on the spatial already in 1819/1820. In the same year
10 Its name was inspired by the architectural prototype of that time and remains an important pot-pouire “style” in many so-called neoclassical and postmodern building examples in São Paulo. 41 11 The planning term of "urban sprawl“ refers to urbanized areas, which develop in the course of the mostly uncontrolled expansion of settlement clusters like living, work etc. the first important study on urban climate had bought 12 million square meters of (after Roman Marcus Vitruvius pioneering development land in São Paulo. work) was published by Luke Howard in London. The year 1858 became the year The Garden Neighbourhoods implemented of The Great Stink due to pollution of the in São Paulo by the City CIA were: Jardim river Thames. América in 1915, Anhangabaú in 1917, Butantã in 1918, Alta da Lapa/ Bela Aliança However, Ebenezer Howard (1850-1929) in 1921, Pacembú and Alto de Pinheiros in had looked at the living conditions of 1925, later Jardim Guedala in 1949 and the poor in the late-nineteenth century City Boaçava in 1950. in London. The most important idea of Howard which has influences until today São Paulo’s Garden Neighbourhoods (much was probably the (re-)approximation smaller than the self-sustaining satellite and integration of the built and the or dormitory Garden Cities in England), natural environments and a socio- were spatial expansions of the city of environmental equilibration (Ottani and São Paulo into the Western and South- Szmrecsányi, 1997). Western directions (see Levi-Strauss, 1952 p. 112), adding rather a green sickle than a Howard managed to build the two prototype Garden Cities, Letchworth and complete Green Belt to the city. Welwyn, located North of London. Both were designed by architect Barry Parker São Paulo’s first Garden Neighborhood, and built from 1903 on. Subsequently the Jardim America, was also developed by the concept was exported and enthusiastically architect Barry Parker who had designed adopted, especially in the Americas. the Garden Cities in Great Britain with Howard between 1917 and 1919. Parker In Brazil the Garden City, was the most adjusted the original concept - which had innovative model at the time, was first (according to Feldman, 2005) already applied at neighbourhood scale and later suffered an adaptation to the automobile at a larger scale in the state capitals of through North-American engineers when Belo Horizonte (Minas Gerais) and Goiânia it reached Brazil - further to the habits of (Goias). All neighbourhood projects the São Paulo coffee aristocracy clientele emerged from the drawing board and (Ferreira and Wolff, 2001). Apparently Fig. 3.8: Living conditions of the poor in the late- were implemented in São Paulo, Rio de somewhere on the way Howard’s original nineteenth century in Janeiro and Recife. In São Paulo eight socio-environmental preoccupation with London (by Gustave Doré, Garden Neighborhoods were built from the Garden City got lost. 1872) (above) and London 1912 on by the British company City of Underground advertisement for access to green São Paulo Improvements and Freehold Due to the common practice of clear-cutting picturesque, scenic or even Land Company Limited (City CIA.) which sites, all vegetation was removed before the idyllic “urbanism” (below)
42 CITY VERSUS FOREST land division and beginning of construction of began to expand quickly in the 1920s, due the Garden Neighbourhoods. Subsequently to the implementation of the industrial exotic (non-Brazilian) vegetation was production model and the growing planted, introducing a Second, civilized, commercial activity. The socio-economical urban Nature. transformations attracted large population masses in search of jobs leading (besides The Garden Neighborhoods of São Paulo immigration) also to large national rural- had in the drawings of their building lots urban migration (rural exodus). areas assigned to the establishment of squares of scenic and contemplative In São Paulo of the price of the urban land character. The well-landscaped but not under the system of absolute property (Lei densely populated urban structures of das Terras, 1850) rose with the expansion the Garden Neighbourhoods are also due to the fact that the demand was seen as the beginning of the urban sprawl larger than the supply. Aside from the Fig. 3.9: The “Three Magnets Scheme” was emblematic for Howards projected antithesis of the chaotic and their results can be observed in so regular market which fostered real estate megacity (left) and layout for the first Garden Neighbourhood implemented in São Paulo, Jardim America many suburbs, especially in the Americas, speculation, deforestation continued a 1915 (right). but also in Europe (Jacobs, 1961). Such form of demarcation of property and urban-rural structures are considered appropriation of land. unsustainable today because they are globally invading natural landscapes, “Open spaces, especially the informal ones like meadows, fields and the outskirts were taken causing enormous land consumption, up by buildings. In this phase, the open space, provoking decentralized organization and public and urban, became one of the options long ways which is inefficient in terms of for existing areas of leisure in the city. Parks energy use for mobility (see fig 3.7). and public squares began to be used for this purpose, even though devoted exclusively to contemplative activities”. According to Jacobs (1961) Ebenezer Howard proposed his “city-destroying “The growing density of the city led to a ideas” because he hated “the wrongs and subsequent diminishing of the amount of open (green) spaces imbedded in the urban network, mistakes of the city thought it an outright increasing the value of those remaining even evil and an affront to nature”. He “wrote more.” (Robba and Macedo, 2003). off the intricate, many faceted cultural life of the metropolis” and proposed Le Corbusier’s visit in decentralist Green Belt Towns instead, São Paulo 1929 with “factories hidden behind a screen of trees”, regionally distributed throughout Rapid urban transformation and also large territories. preoccupations with modernism had already been discussed in São Paulo’s Meanwhile, according to Robba and important Semana da Arte Moderna Fig. 3.10: Announcement for the “new urban miracle” of the Pacaembú Garden Neighbourhood Macedo (2003), in Brazil the urban centers (Modern Art Week) in 1922 and the by City CIA (left) and the clear-cut Tabula Rasa implementation scheme (right)
43 majority of the Garden Neighbourhoods of image”. But he wrote: “The Garden City is emerging countries like Malaysia, Hong São Paulo had already been implemented a will-o’ the wisp”, “Nature melts under Kong, Singapore etc. when “the man with the most dramatic the invasion of roads and houses and the idea” (Jacobs, 1961), first visited Brazil, promised seclusion becomes a crowded Le Corbusier did not foresee the danger Argentina and Uruguay, countries eager settlement. The solution will be found in that Nature in future building practice to apply - and to transform - the European the Vertical Garden City” (Le Corbusier would also melt under the maximum born modernism. cited by Jacobs, pg. 32). exploitation of lots due to real estate speculation (in terms of building volume Although Le Corbusier did not construct Important is to point out that in Le and footprint), resulting in minimum his own work in Brazil12, his approach Corbusier’s concepts the importance of distance spaces (or green, open spaces and architectural ideas had an even more urban vegetation was also recognized: respectively). With the development important influence on modern Brazilian In his statements on the travels to South of Gated Communities in Brazil and the architecture and urbanism than those of America (published in 1930) he also reports fencing of the real estate property, the Ebenezer Howard two decades before. in the chapter “Moscow atmosphere” public space would be reduced further to Le Corbusier pioneered modernism in about the socialistic planning of a “Green street/ sidewalk corridors. architecture in Latin American and laid City” 30 kilometers outside of Moscow the foundations for Bauhaus (and/or the exclusively for “the recreation break of the Le Corbusier’s diagnosis for São Paulo when International Style13), seeking to improve city-dweller on the fifth day”. Corbusier he visited the city in September 1929 was living conditions through densification, resumed: “You do not heal sick people, already “city center illness” and “traffic considering urban environmental well- you create healthy people”. problems”. As a solution he proposed being through access to light, air and to solve the problem by imbedding two opening (see Behling, 1996, p. 156). For Le Corbusier the modern city was “gigantic viaducts” (see fig. 3.13), a cross to “be replete of trees”. “It is a need for meeting in a right angle represented His 1920s dream cities „La Ville Radieuse“ the lungs, it is tenderness with regard horizontal connections an aqueduct-like and “La Ville Verte“ did not consist of to our hearts, it is the flavor of the infrastructure of continuous residential low rise buildings, like the Garden Cities, great geometric plastic introduced in buildings with highways on top, into the but of “majestic skyscrapers”, which contemporary architecture by the iron surrounding hills. Its cruciform shape was were surrounded by parks, lawns14 and and for the reinforced concrete” L.C. intended to give the city an armature that expressways, achieving “an impressively wrote (1930, p. 156). would order its future development. “It’s high density” (Jacobs 1961) of 1000 not a fly-over, it is a roll-over”, he wrote inhabitants per hectare. “The whole city is However, his model certainly laid the (Le Corbusier, 1930). a park”, Le Corbusier declared. bases for the phenomenon of High-Rise Sprawl, which later, as a consequence, Interestingly and much in contrast to According to Jabobs (1961) “yet became typical for São Paulo. This High- contemporary theories of Le Corbusier’s ironically, the Radiant City came directly Rise Sprawl can also be observed today idea to revitalize the already degraded out of the Garden City and Le Corbusier also in other American city centers, but downtown was proposing the death of accepted the Garden City’s fundamental also especially in cities situated in tropical the traditional street, overpasses and Fig. 3.11: São Paulo’s Central region with Park Dom Pedro II, the city’s first high-rise Martinelli building, 12 Except - according to Niemeyer - from the MEC in Rio, (see Fig. 3.17.) which is based on his drafts sparse of street trees (above) and meandering 13 The tendency of an emerging “International Style” had been observed (and declared as a concept) by Philip Johnson and Henry-Russel Hitchcock already in the 1932. Hence according to this Pinheiros River west of city center (below) in 1929 concept marks a tendency in which architecture would no longer be culturally and climatically adapted to its surrounding and the same typology would be constructed everywhere. 44 14 Le Corbusier actually proposed mainly open spaces with lawns (“grass, grass, grass” as Jacobs puts it) and few trees (see Fig. 3.12.) and thus littler overhead shade (see chapter 6.2.1) in the public parks around the buildings, probably in order to maintain the views on the “majestic skyscrapers” CITY VERSUS FOREST the disconnection of urban functions which influenced cities worldwide and later especially the layout of the new Brazilian capital Brasília by Lúcio Costa in the 1950s.
Shortly after Le Corbusier’s visit, in 1935, the another visitor, French anthropologist Claude Levi-Strauss described the degraded center of São Paulo on one of his first excursions, to Brazil approving Le Corbusier’s observations:
“Some mischievous spirit has defined America as a country which has moved from barbarism to decadence without enjoying any intermediary phase of civilization. The formula could be more correctly applied to the towns of the New World, which pass from freshness to decay, without even simply being old.” (Levi-Strauss, written in 1935 but not published before 1952)
Modern Construction methods Fig. 3.12: La Ville Radieuse – or the “Radiant City15”was a prototype Tabula Rasa Plan Voisin for the central region of Paris 1930 (left) and La Ville Verte with vegetation covered open space (right) both projects published by Le Corbusier at the same time. The main reason for the modernization of the concept and the possibility to built vertical, dense urban structures was also a result of technological advance Fig. 3.13: Le since Ebenezer Howard’s proposals: The Corbusier’s 1929 innovative and soon common application vision sketch for São Paulo which of frame construction, elevators, curtain implemented a walls and air conditioning in construction traffic cross as a engineering changed construction backbone into the methods allowing the verticalisation hilly landscape (left) and the processes of cities. This also changed first modern, the relation the building and the ground- then avant- floor, und thus the relations of public and garde, "Casa modernista" in São private spaces. Paulo by Gregori Warchavchik, 1930 (right)
45 15 It is not clear whether “Radiant” might also refer also to highly reflective/ albedo building surfaces (see 4.3.1) Le Corbusier visited São Paulo in same Fig. 3.14: the year in which the first high-rise, the Ministry of Education and neo-classic Martinelli Building (see fig. Health (MEC) 3.11), still with ornamental façades, was with Burle completed in São Paulo’s center which Marx’s first also coincident with the moment that the roof gardens. Developed and city’s population transgressed the one- constructed million-inhabitants borderline. between 1936 and 1943 by While the Garden City can be described as Costa, Niemeyer, Reidy and others a horizontal expansion causing enormous (left) based land consumption16 Le Corbusier proposed on ideas and verticalisation and densification to sketches by Le decrease land-use. Especially the then new Corbusier (right) material of reinforced concrete became the predominant construction material from 1930 on in São Paulo, displacing brick on. The first air conditioning in Brazil had proposed by Le Corbusier, North-American In terms of population density and construction and allowing verticalisation been installed already between 1905- architect Frank Lloyd Wright proposed extension of the urban area density the (and thus density) through frame 1909 in Rio de Janeiro’s municipal theatre. anti-urban (or suburban) development compactness of the city had decreased construction. This new industrial material for the New World already at that same significantly during this period (not at 17 further allowed the development of the The first CIAM congress had been held a time. His concept named “Broadacre City” least due to the Garden Neighbourhood typically modern Brazilian free-form organic year before Corbusier’s first trip to Latin followed the Garden City´s ideology of development). In 1914 the size of the style, e.g. shell structures, presented in the America (Behling, 1996 p. 129). Even “Back to Nature” (Behling 1996). Wright urban area was 3.760 hectares and the works of many Brazilian architects, especially though it marks the beginning of the presented the idea in his article The population density was 110 inhabitants that of Oscar Niemeyer, intending, according International Style Le Corbusier’s global Disappearing City in 1932. This concept per hectare, in 1930 the inhabited area to his own words, “to imitate natural forms” approach still included (tropical) climate can be perceived as a blueprint of had been multiplied by four, while the (like the mountains of Rio as Le Corbusier adaptations of buildings (so-called passive contemporary so called Eco-settlements population density had decreased to 47 said, see A I). cooling elements today), for example (see fig. 3.15). inhabitants per hectare (Rolik, 2008). Brise Soleil and Roof Gardens18 which While climatisation was applied for made part of Le Corbusier’s “Five points In São Paulo the coffee boom - and thus 19 3.1.3 Metropolization centuries in the temperate climates of architecture” and were first fully the importance of agriculture in the São through heating, the upcoming new applied on the Ministry of Education and Paulo region – came to end with the (1930-2009) Health (MEC) in Brazil’s then capital Rio de th cooling technologies became another saturation of the global market by 10 of “What is growth?” success story in the hot climates. They Janeiro, for which he acted as a consultant October 1929. With the so-called Black changed (according to Medela et. al. (see fig. 3.14.). Friday at the New York stock-market a “The growth of nature (and of children) is 2007) the “habits of consumption and life global economical crises began which led unusually perceived as beautiful and healthy. Industrial growth, on the other hand, has been style of the Brazilians” when it entered the Interestingly, and as a counter-example to a period of permanent changes and a called into question by environmentalists and market from the beginning of the century to the high density urban developments reorientation of the markets in São Paulo. others concerned about the rapacious use of
16 In German also e.g. called “Landfrass” – Urban areas spilling into (“eating up”) the surrounding natural landscapes 17 Congrès Internationaux d’Architecture Moderne 46 18 Seeking for an integration between city and landscape 19 Le Corbusier in Vers une architecture CITY VERSUS FOREST
resources and the disintegration of culture and environment. Urban and industrial growth is often referred to as a cancer, a thing that Fig. 3.15: Two perspectives of Broadacre City grows for its own sake and not for the sake of proposed by Frank Lloyd Wright in 1932 the organism it inhabits (or as Edward Abbey puts it “Growth for growth’s sake is a cancerous madness.”)
But unquestionably there are things we all want to grow and things we don’t want to grow. We wish to grow education and not ignorance, health and not sickness, prosperity and not destitution, clean water and not poisoned water. We (all) wish to improve (our) quality of life.” (McDonough and Braungart, 2002)
This chapter describes the rapid and uncontrolled urban growth in the São Paulo region during the second half of the 20th Century, in which the modern urbanistic principles developed in Le Corbusier’s theories e.g. International
Fig. 3.16: Massive land use and landscape changes: Native Atlantic Forest (left) and the urbanized environment of the City Center (right)
47 Style, the car-orientated city etc. were region, (mainly car industry) with the city cars were still rare. It consisted of an applied. While these principles established absorbing more immigrants from around inner-city tram system (see Fig. 3.5) , as cosmopolitan life in the formal city of São the world, as well as due to the rural well as train lines connecting the city Paulo on one side, the informal city - were exodus (rural-urban migration processes with the state’s hinterland and allowed the urban theories failed - began to sprawl mainly from less developed North-East of maintaining a dense urban structure and on the other. Brazil) triggered by the search for work, reduced land-use for infrastructure. success or sometimes even survival. This description also mentions the This changed rapidly with Prestes Maia’s foreshadowing of the problems to come The national migration was caused by poor radio-concentric Avenues Plan20 which with the massive changes, as an underbelly profit opportunities in the countryside, seemed efficient in terms of transport of the rapid urban growth: sprawl, the the failure of an even distribution of land for a city of medium scale (and is not success stories of the typologies which (agricultural reform) and the automation in terms of landuse). The future was fostered built contrast and indirectly of agriculture. The wide belief in technical thought to be individual road transport surveillance, segregation and violence, progress especially forced in cities, the and not collective on rails which was like Shopping Centers, Gated Communities better job opportunities, a promised also reflected in the deactivation of the (see City of Walls) and lead to High-Rise break-out of static traditions offer a rail system, as well as the stabilization Sprawl on one hand and Favela Sprawl projection screen for desires and hopes of a system relaying on diesel busses. on the other, due to modified relations (pull-factors), which makes it for many This model was later also applied on a between the public and private space, worthwhile to abandon a more calm rural national scale. leaving public spaces to degradation life and to move towards stressful cities turning them non-places (see Augé 1994 (Bodemann, 2002). The most important local road traffic and chapter 2.4) axes proposed by Maia were soon Unfortunately the cities, among them defined by major Fabio Prada (1934), Here the functions (like shelter, security, São Paulo, did not have robust economies preparing the circulation of petrol-driven privacy and climate control) of the capable of supporting more and more vehicles, instead of electric trams, trains building envelopes - as an interface people, so that the dreams of many did and trolleybuses, stimulating the local between inside and outside – the public not become true in many cases, leading automobile industry which began to and the private play an important to urban marginality and misery, often established along the river valleys: Ford (and even energetic and climatic) role, worse and more violent than observed in had opened a factory in 1919, General Fig. 3.17: The urban extension in the 1940s, the which lead to the actual discussion of a rural regions. Motors Brazil opened in 1925. At that dense city still surrounded by forests and wetlands (above) and Prestes Maia radio-concentric Avenues (sometimes cruel) competition for urban time, horn and engine sounds were plan 1929 (left) settlement space which has rarely left In 1932 the rapidly developing state of São becoming part of São Paulo’s daily life over sufficient green space. Paulo even declared an independence war and cars gained increasing importance to the rest of the country, which failed after for urban policies and development During the decades after the coffee a short civil war. During the coffee boom until today. boom São Paulo’s accelerated urban an extended railway system had been development took mainly place due established by British firms, which allowed As in the past preferring the interest to the industrialization progress of the rapid (and clean) urban locomotion since of the elite in the development of the
48 20 The Prestes Maia master plan stipulated the deviation and canalization of São Paulo’s urban rivers CITY VERSUS FOREST urban network took place following the a living museum or Gesamtkunstwerk22 South-West-Development indicated by consisting of integrated free-form the Garden Neighbourhood development modern Brazilian landscape planning and two decades before. Levi-Strauss (1952, p. architecture and is today an important 122) had also observed these “mysterious reference for the democratization of a strengths that drive so many cities two-tier society in the public space (see westward, abandoning their eastern also 5.3.2). During the same time (1951- districts to misery and decay” already in 55) Niemeyer’s, iconic wavelike Copan the 1930s. Housing Union (a machine for living) which mixes commercial, social and During the following period of urban middle class housing, was constructed in development the CBD (Central Business the city center. District) of the city was constantly shifting, following the South-West vector, from the In 1950 São Paulo overcame the capital of Fig. 3.18: Ibirapuera Park implemented between 1951 and 1954 Old center (until 1950) via Avenida Paulista Rio de Janeiro in terms of inhabitants. The (1950-1960) to Avenida Faria Lima (1970) city was absorbing enormous amounts and on to Avenida Berrini (1970-1990) migrants especially from the North-East of and Marginal Pinheiros (1990-2000) (see Brazil. While growth rates and horizontal Meyer et. al. 2004). expansion were increasing (see preceding chapter) the paradox and continuous According to Hehl (2008) at this time process downtown degradation and urban the formation of public areas was purely sprawl became difficult to avoid. Later, neglected because the inadequate besides from the aforementioned High- infrastructure was regarded to be the more Rise Sprawl and the retreat of privileged urgent problem. This nation-wide policy into Gated Communities the dream of the Fig. 3.19: Development of Urban Sprawl and fragmentation during the city’s history called Rodoviarismo (road construction homestead23 (often with small gardens) and car-orientated development) was contributed to the spatial expansion. especially driven nationwide by the Getúlio Vargas administrations (1930– “The settling throughout the 20th Century, of the urban model of production caused the 1945 and 1950–1954). population migration from the country to the city which together with the national socio- As a counter-balance São Paulo’s now economic situation during the last decades, led to a phenomenon typical of the so-called second largest but most popular and iconic developing countries: the existence of great Ibirapuera Park was created between metropolitan centers, swollen and over- 1951 and 1954 by Oscar Niemeyer, populated, that centralize a great part of the Roberto Burle Marx, Ulhôa Calvacanti, production, opportunities, investments and financial resources and that in turn, attract more Zenon Lotufo, Eduardo Knesse de Mello and more people in search of jobs.” (Robba and and Ícaro de Castro Mello21. It became Macedo, 2003). Fig.3.20: Dynamic population growth in the municipal area of São Paulo (IBGE 2007)
21 Ibirapuera in Guarani-Tupi language means “foul wood” because the region where the park is located was originally wetland. Before implanting the park the soil was dried out by strategically planting Eucalyptus trees 22 May be translated to “complete artwork” 49 23 In Portuguese: Casa própria, in German Eigenheim Fig. 3.21: Urban Explosion I - Growth of the urban area between 1905 and 1997, with massive sprawl from the 1970s on, and no clear line between countryside and city
50 CITY VERSUS FOREST
Separation of Private and Public This development changed the relation and Segregation between inside and outside, public and private space, sharpening the separation “More lightly dressed as usually, I stroll over the of classes and the triumphant advance waved meanders of white and black mosaic and of the typologies of shopping centers perceive a special atmosphere in these narrow, shady alleys, which cross the main street; the and gated communities with residential transition between houses and street is less towers (High-rise sprawl), but on the manifested than in Europe here; despite luxury other the growth of the favelas. of the merchandise displayed in the shop windows, the outlays of the stores stretch as far as on the streets so that one hardly notices The emergence of the typologies of whether one is outdoors or indoors. Because the Shopping Centers (in English Shopping streets are not only there to pass through; they Malls) and gated high-rise communities are places to stay. in São Paulo a tendency of increasing Lively and peacefully at the same time, more restrictions of public access to certain animated but more protected than ours, they areas. Caldeira’s 1992 book City of Walls seduce me to make a comparison: the change of by treats these segregation phenomena in the hemisphere, the continent and the climate São Paulo in detail. caused hardly anything different until now than making redundant that thin glass blanket, that creates similar conditions in Europe in artificial Ironically the emergence of artificial way: Rio seems reconstruct the Milan Gallerias, environments occurred during the the Galerij, in Amsterdam, the Passage des time when visionary architect Richard Panormas, or the hall of the railway station, to Fig. 3.22: Naturally ventilated “Shopping Center Grandes Galerias” in the center of São Paulo (left) and Saint-Lazare under open skies”. (Levi-Strauss in Buckminster-Fullers (1895-1983), aerial view of Shopping Center Ibirapuera, a Sub-Center in South of the city (right) Rio de Janeiro 1934, published in 1952) preoccupied with energy consumption, urban growth and climate control proposed After the period, of the early modernism, his biomorph project of the Geodesic aforementioned comfortable indoor “Sound, scent, light, air, even plants are climate, which stimulates the human being, manipulated to extract the desired response in which the Brazilian society had tied Dome City (1968) during the space age. from consumers (…) nature now serves the to absorb and mix the multi-cultural Under a gigantic dome stretching over Mid- to feel well and to consume while the most artificial process, (...) operating as one of influences the social climate began to Manhattan he pretended to create an all- “resistance is eroded” (Koolhaas, 2001). the primary mediums to lure the consumer (…). change in the 1960s, which coincident year spring climate (through natural means), Shopping Centers were inspired by the Nature is now a replascape (…) using the aura of the naturally familiar to disguise the mechanics with increasing growth of the favelas and a cleaner and safer, simply utopian city, market halls in Paris, London and Milan, of the synthetically composed. (...) Part real, part the continuous growth of the social gap. which is an approach that inspires Shopping although they are intimately linked with synthetic”. (Koolhaas, 2001) Malls and Centers - as they are cities within the American Way of Life (Padhilha, 2006). The widely unplanned and construction cities (Behling, 1996, Spangenberg, 2004). The development of the new centralities of buildings and infrastructure of the “Urban private space that disguises as public, (sub-centers) often generated by shopping car-orientated city led to an increasing However, the roots of the shopping centers example for what anthropology designed as centers also often lead to degradation of the maldistribution of urban open and green lie, according to Padhilha (2006), in the Non-places discriminate not only because they surrounding commerce and the surrounding offer what the poor cannot buy but because spaces and started to change many cold and temperate climates of Canada their existence is supported by a symbolic that environment: It was found that areas traditional relations and boundaries and and the United States but became soon eliminates those who do not know how to around shopping centers are 2ºC hotter due to socio-environmental conflicts. a success story world-wide, due to the decode its signs.” (Padhilha ,2006) to anthropogenic heat (see Soares, 2007)
51 Shopping Centers further have the context into two), flux-dynamic fly-overs Gated Communities and the Real “In the 1970s, cities like Rio de Janeiro and following properties: (like later the undesired Minhocão24), especially São Paulo became great metropolitan Estate Market centers, absorbing enormous population as well as inundated tunnels started masses. The exaggerated growth of these cities • Pedestrian paths are separated from to confound the population with ever While Shopping Centers can be perceived forced the reconstruction and the enlargement (road) traffic and allow save strolling decreasing the environmental quality of as semi-public places, Gated Communities of the urban infrastructure, especially that which • Restricted access either due to the public space. (which range in Brazil between the small related to transportation, housing and leisure. (…) The role of the open urban space in these control mechanisms or due to shame size of so-called Vilas and whole cities) large cities or metropolitan centers is constantly “Urban gardens are open spaces fundamental being ratified by the exaggerated urban growth; of (potential) users who feel not for the improvement of environmental quality tend to separate completely from their from the point of view of urban environmental appropriate to enter or cannot read for they allow for a better air circulation, surroundings by using fences and/ or quality its existence is fundamental.” (Robba and insulation and drainage, besides serving as walls, transforming more and more urban the signs (semi-public spaces). Macedo, 2003) • Controlled indoor spaces, that suggest scenic references in the city. They should not, space into restricted areas. however be called squares because they do not an effect of safety which makes one hold social programs, as leisure and recreational Public Transport feel being part of something special activities, and in many cases because they are As São Paulo based urban planner Cãndido • All-year controlled air temperature not accessible to pedestrians due to its situation Malta said27: the consolidation and Late, but finally in the 1970s subway (Enclosed Mall Air Conditioned Emac, next to big, well traveled roads25. “(Robba and compaction processes are often eroded Macedo, 2003, p.17) lines began to be constructed in São see Padhilha, 2006) the initial sales arguments put forward Paulo to mitigate increasing transport • Generous decór with plants, trees, by construction firms for real estate The urbanization processes and problems. The lines were following the seating arrangements, fountains and enterprises. These arguments are e.g. population growth continued in the radio-centric corridor lines intended by sculptures. elevated views on the urban landscape, peripheries, in the core districts were Le Corbusier and Prestes Maia in the being surrounded by vast green space the infrastructure is well-developed, late 1920s partly substituting the radial The first Shopping Centers and Gated (or even pristine forest), calm streets etc. shrinking population numbers can be expressways. Simultaneously the grid Communities opened in Brazil at the Malta left clear that the green, the views observed (SVMA, 2000). Following plan PUB (Plano Urbanístico Báscico, and the promised seclusion and calmness same time and in São Paulo: Alphaville the security measures of the new 1968) was introduced to reinforce the of the street later vanishes with (pretended Gated Community in 1965 and philosophy, even green spaces can be road network. sustainable) densification processes and Iguatemí Shopping Center in 1966. The notified as parts of restricted spaces in when the individual car traffic increases. development generated new centralities Brazil, for example fencing and closure In the neighboring city of Curitíba (at a (partly in traditional neighbourhoods of most public parks at night (“gated distance of ca. 350 km and then governed During the urban consolidation processes as well as in the peripheries) leading to public green”) for security reasons continuously by architect Jamie Lerner of verticalized urban fabrics further enter increasing multi-centrality (thus sprawl) (Carrasco, 2007) 1971-1975, 1979-1983 and 1989-1992) being triggered by mobility and triggering in conflict with horizon views. This concept slowly sustainable urban change become becomes readable in names of releases of visible achieving the best development more locomotion. “Brazil has many squares.26 Very few, however, resemble the celebrated medieval and recent real estate enterprises like Open View pattern in terms of quality of urbanization. Degradation of public spaces Renaissance European squares. Only a few (observed in Pinheiros, 2008) Horizontes de The city waged with an efficient guidance colonial spaces, which have survived until today, Brooklyn28 (observed in Brooklyn, 2007) plan and successive technical municipal The new development fostered the further display such a morphological structure, for Generally the sales rule is, the more elevated administrations the appreciation of instance Largo do Pelourinho in Salvador, Patio degradation of public spaces: broad de São Pedro in Recife, and Patio de Colégio in an apartment (the better the horizon view) “green” to raise the level of quality of life avenues (cutting former neighbourhood São Paulo.” (Robba and Macedo, 2003) the higher its value. of its inhabitants.
24 Portuguese: Earth Worm 25 E.g. so-callled traffic islands which are often not pedestrian refuge islands but non-places 26 São Paulo ca. 4000, according to RSVP 2006 - ano2 nº24 52 27 In a personal interview in 2005 28 Literally Horizons of Brooklyn CITY VERSUS FOREST
I’m convinced that every city in the world, “The need to preserve the remaining no matter of scale, no matter the financial environmental legacies and the serious problems resources, can have a significant change in less of metropolitan areas – like floods, landslides, than two years. (…) With environmental issues high atmospheric pollution and contamination you can make important changes (…) It all of waterways – which began to show as a depends on the city, but anything is possible. consequence of the process of urbanization It’s not a question of scale. Sometimes mayors without planning, also fostered, in the 1980s, use as an excuse that their cities are too big. But the rise of the ecological consciousness.” (Robba no, it’s not a question of scale; it’s a question of and Macedo, 2003). philosophy. (Jaime Lerner, 2004)
The politics of transforming Curitíba into the Concerning the more common design “ecological capital” of the country was a strategy strategies and policies of contemporary by the government to promote and make the horizontal public and green spaces were also local administration known in the 1980s. In the interpreted by Robba and Macedo (2003). process of fostering and valuing “green” the city gained a series of open spaces, old spares were renovated and some new build. (Robba and “In some cases, the project would make the Macedo, 2002). informal appropriation of the public space official, that is, squares occupied by open markets and peddlers. Some authors proposed Another South-American city, the peddlers´ pavilions and buildings designed to city of Bogotá also underwent similar shelter markets and grocery stores. processes increasing both green and public transport BRT29 infrastructure The design of projects known as contemporary Fig. 3.23: The virginia creeper on the largest greened modern facade (by Gelpi & Gelpi, 1951) in the center of São under prefect Enrique Peñalosa (1998- move freely between geometric outlines, graphics, rigid elements and the most irreverent Paulo (Rua Major Quedinho No. 273) was planted in 1983 by the lawyer Dr. Joaquim (Information provided kindly 2001). post modern forms, passing through proposals by facility manager Maluf Volpe). The building proposes a possibility of exploitation of urban space for plants which value the project scenically. Freedom One of the recent changes within the urban Aside from that the increasing sprawl Pioneering cities which put is the best word to define this budding line of environmental issues on top of their project. Bold designs, geometric, scenic, colorful, fabric is the abandoning huge of inner-city and irregular settlements São Paulo graphic, organic, evocative, celebrating forms agenda emerged from the late 1960s industrial areas. These often contaminated have turned the city into a Diffuse City, from the past or old icons are being accepted brown-fields bear an interesting potential in which mainly road-based car and on and especially in Germany important and proposed, besides the introduction of work was carried out towards urban elements and equipment of various kinds and for protection of environmental heritage bus transportation cause high degree ecology. In the City of São Paulo also forms, as colourful gateways, columns, ruins and and new constructions paired with re- inefficiency and unsustainability, which an increasing environmental sensibility sculptures. naturalization. attracts urban researchers from around the world. became notable with the creation its The great visibility of urban public spaces and Departamento de Parques e Áreas its importance within the city transform parks The actual state of the recently abandoned Verdes (Depave - Department of Parks and squares in objects of political dissemination urban fragments (which evidence natural In 2002 the City approved a Strategical and Green Areas) in the 1970s, which was and propaganda. Sound policies concerning the re-naturalization processes within the city) Master Plan (Plano Diretor Estratégico) creation and maintenance of public spaces in the through spontaneous vegetation is well- which covers on one hand questions of later turned into the SVMA (Secretary of city have a very positive effect in the approval of Environment and Green Spaces) later the administration by public opinion” Robba and documented in the Guide to the Wastelands conservation of green spaces and forests, (Robba and Macedo, 2003). Macedo (2003). of São Paulo (Almarecegui, 2006). interconections of sub-centers and
53 29 Bus Rapid Transit population density, but is on the other the landscape, but ultimately these nuances still very limited, especially in terms of vanish amid the hugeness and chaos of the whole. Thus Sao Paulo has the appearance of environmental compensation. a vast, monotonous, dense uplift cut across by deep clefts.” “The picture outlined at the end of the century in some capitals showed great metropolitan “Every notion we may have about planning and areas totally conurbated. Accommodating vast architecture evaporates here. What do you do masses of people and facing a series of urban about cities with over 10 million inhabitants? problems. The increasing volume of traffic of What do you do about cities that threaten both vehicles and people, escalating violence, to swell into metropolises of 25 million the progressive deterioration of the urban inhabitants (São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro)? ecosystem and quality of life in the city, not to What do you do about cities that were mention the difficulty in the management of planned for a few hundred thousand people such large urban complexes, are some of the but within a few decades have 2 to 3 million problems bearing down upon our larger cities” inhabitants? You cannot do them justice with (Robba and Macedo, 2003). ‘normal’ planning or ‘normal’ architecture. That would suggest that the contemplative In environmental terms the urbanization slowness of the plan or design would work here. In Brazil, action is chronically overtaken has caused another unforeseen by events. No time for consideration, no time phenomenon called Urban Heat Island for reflection. That’s a European luxury, but which is undesired in predominantly hot here every municipal organization is powerless regions because it creates a apparently against the proliferation of the city. All that can be done is to keep things under control. vicious circles between energy and water Urban planning becomes a matter of policing balance and consumption which will be rather than a political or cultural discipline.” discussed in the following chapter. (Wim Nijenhuis and Nathalie de Vries/ MVRDV Fig. 3.24: Illustrative resume of environmental Architects, Rotterdam, in “Eating Brazil” 2000) problems: Urban energy balance leads to urban climate, thermal discomfort and elevated 3.2 Socio-Environmental The sprawling megacity of São Paulo energy consumption, the urban water balance to inundations after torrential summer rainfalls Conflicts Today is today (2009) the largest Brazilian caused by soil sealing in São Paulo, 2001 Megacity, the largest of the Americas “Like a huge, dynamic mass of gridded patches and as well the largest of the southern and structureless emulsions of masonry, São Paulo’s economy represents 31%31 São Paulo insular urban development asphalt, cars and people, the colossus sprawls hemisphere - and at the same time rd of the national Gross Domestic Product covers only 0.01% of the Brazilian territory, across the endless plateau and gobbles its way its youngest. It ranks between the 3 through the dark green forest, leaving little and 5th largest agglomerations in the (GDP). The economic development all Brazilian cities sum up 2%, but 82% of reddish spots behind. The new developments World30. São Paulo’s metropolitan area however, has led on the other hand the Brazilians live in these “hot spots”, the and the mutations follow the logic of land houses almost 20 million inhabitants, to significant degradations of the cities, while their impacts on the global speculation and are driven by instantaneous urban environment and quality of life climate remain unknown. Almost a third impulses such as a randomly placed new distributed in an area of 1887 km² factory or an equally randomly placed favela. (1998). The macrometropolis of São (especially of the poor), (Municipal of the population of the municipality of Admittedly, the ring of motorways around and Paulo (in a range of roughly 100km Environmental Agency SVMA, 2000, São Paulo (about 4 Million people) life in through the centre, together with the railways around the capital) includes various Jacobi, 2006), which is a common the favelas, often occupying “preserved and two rivers, form a bundle of infrastructure that allows us a distant panorama, and the built- other municipalities which are important situation in many large cities in tropical areas” at the peripheries many located up area occasionally follows an undulation of for the Brazilian economy. developing countries. upstream from drinking sources (water
54 30 http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/wup2001/WUP2001report.htm 31 http://www.emplasa.sp.gov.br/portalemplasa/infometropolitana/rmsp/rmsp_dados.asp
55 of vegetation shade tend to develop heat Scales Boundaries Range Min Max Author islands on calm sunny days, retaining and Citywide Rural-center ca. 15 km 10.00 12.00 Lombardo 2007 emitting the absorbed energy until late at District Neighborhood with high/ low GWR ca. 1500 m 0.09 2.14 Velasco 2007 night (hot, dry, desert climate). Neighborhood Square-Canyon-Park (8 hectare) ca. 250 m 0.30 3.60 Spangenberg 2007 In contrast the more comfortable summer Single Tree Below - outside tree canopy ca. 5m 0.31 1.17 Abreu 2008 oasis climate develops close to water Table 3.1.: Measurements of maximum temperature differences - heat island intensity – (in ºC) between bodies, forests, parks, as well as in Garden green areas and urban areas in São Paulo which usually occur during late afternoon, early evening Neighbourhoods through shade and Fig. 3.25: Land- evaporating (relatively cool ground and use (left) and the leaf) surfaces (Akbari et. al. 1988) (cool, Urban Surface humid, forest climate). The evaporation Heat Island as a result of urban/ summer oasis effect of vegetated areas rural land use depends on evaporation of humid Image obtained soils associated to vegetation and on through remote evapotranspiration through the plant sensing, thermal mapper TM5+ metabolism (see chapter 4.1.4). Landsat 7 ETM+ 03.09.1999 at Dry soils, which are common in urban 9:57h with a areas due to sealing of the ground, spatial resolution of 30x30 meters evapotranspiration cooling will might be (SVMA, 2000). limited (Oke, 1987) and in tropical cities also to the high vapor saturation of the air (in very sultry climatic situations).
Although the difference of ambient temperature of heat - oasis island effects at city-scale may be as significant as 10-12 Degrees Celsius between rural surroundings and city core of a megacity like São Paulo The Environmental Atlas of São Paulo temperatures were found in the west but remain extremely hot during summer (see Lombardo 1985, Soares, 2007 and (SVMA, 2000) includes a map (based on the center in low rise regions, sparse of midday hours, see chapter 7.1.1). Kuttler, 2004), regionally (at neighbourhood remote sensing data) showing surface vegetation, (e.g. Brás, working men’s scale) the differences in cities usually do not temperatures in the city of São Paulo cottages) and along the former industrial According to Ali-Toudert (2005), the climatic exceed temperature differences between 1 (Urban Surface Heat Island). The lowest valley of the Tamanduateí valley. effectiveness of the vegetation within an and 5 ºC between a park and a region sparse surface temperatures were found in parks urban structure depends on the ratio green of trees (McPherson and Simpson 1995). and consolidated districts located in the In some cases good exposition to winds area/built-up area, as well as on the size, The sizes and density of canopy islands and south-west of the old downtown, which, and verticalisation (and thus low sky location and own characteristics of the plant the distances between them seem to play are often well landscaped and green (e.g. view factors, like in the region of Paulista (species, density, shape, size, volume, age, an important role. Garden Neighbourhoods). The highest Avenue) can also generate oases climate, etc.). The benefits of the vegetation increase
56 CITY VERSUS FOREST
with the increase of its proportions (Saito et For example Krusche et. al. (1982, p. Significant parcels Value Participation al. 1990, Avissar 1996). 57) report that local air temperatures Fuel of transport sector 5.16E+17 41% in autocades can be elevated by 2°C in According to Ali-Toudert (2005) the cooling Germany and Lombardo (1985) mentions All industrial sector 3.43E+17 27% effects (e.g. air temperature decrease) commercial districts like the shopping area Human biomass 2.54E+17 20% of large parks were found to extend in of Rua 13 de Maio in São Paulo’s center All public and commercial sector 6.32E+16 5% the surroundings at a radius of several show elevated ambient temperatures due Electric energy of residential sector 4.94E+16 4% hundred meters and can even lead to to metabolite (anthropogenic) heat. Gas for cooking of residential sector 3.27E+16 3% breezes. However, these effects become insignificant for small vegetated areas The following overview resumes that the Table 3.2: Conservative estimation of energy dissipated in the Metropolitan Region of São Paulo through human activities in 2000 (Azevedo, 2001b) (Shashua and Hoffman 2000). Hence, it has overall sensations caused by the urban been suggested that several smaller areas climate during the summer season in low with sufficient intervals are more cooling latitudes are mainly negative, but tend effective than one large green space (Honjo to invert during the winter and can thus and Takakura 1990, McPherson 1992, create positive sensations (like in the McPherson et al. 1994b). temperate climates, see Brandt 2007).
Shashua-Bar and Hoffman (2000) Regional Climate and Change investigated the cooling effects of shade trees at small urban green sites, São Paulo was originally nick-named courtyards and streets in a subtropical Cidade da Garoa (The City of Drizzle) location (Tel Aviv, Israel, N 32º). They and is thus considered a rather cool city found for several planted urban streets by many Brazilians. Compared to other that the cooling effect is about 1 K and Brazilian cities, São Paulo’s climate is more Table 3.3: Overview of impacts and sensations of urban climate in hot cities (based on Hupfer and Kuttler up to 3 K at the hottest hour of the day. temperate, but by world standards it is 2004) Key of sensations: J = increased comfort, K = neutral, L = decreased comfort The highest effects are registered at the actually warm. centre of the canyon at mid-distance Lombardo (1985) the dew point has both continental and maritime influences. “The climate of São Paulo is (…) one of the most increased with the temperature (land-use Due to its elevated situation on the from the edges but the cooling effect pleasant of the world, with all the attractions decreases noticeably when moving to of a tropical climate without any displeasure of change, urban climate) and has changed Brazilian high plateau at a mean of 800m street edges. excessive heat. (…) The nature of the soil and precipitation patterns. above sea level but only at a mean of of the climate offers inexhaustible sources of 40km from the sea, the temperatures are wealth” (Spix and Martius 1823) Anthropogenic Heat São Paulo’s Urban Climate Map (Tarifa and lower than typical for the latitude (tropical altitude climate). “São Paulo possesses the most temperate Rezende, 2001) reveals that the hottest A mentioned before heat emissions of climate in the world” (Saint Hilaire 1940) natural climates developed along the machines (like air conditioning equipment, river valleys (due to thermal inversions). February has the highest average cars etc) and crowds of people pollute the As an indicator for the atmospheric Located on the Tropic of Capricorn (and temperatures, with typical maxima of thermal environment and lead besides changes it became obvious that the thus in the marginal tropics) São Paulo’s 27°C and minima of 19°C while the coolest from land-use etc. to the formation of climatic phenomenon of drizzle rarely climate is according to Köppen Cw, warm- month, July, has equivalents of 21°C and urban heat islands. occurs nowadays. According to geographer temperate, with winter-dry climate, with 12°C All-time record temperatures are 38°C
57 and -2°C. Rainfall is abundant at 135cm, under the influence of polar air masses. falling mostly in the warmer months. Lower solar paths and deep, shaded and windy street canyons can intensify the The phenomenon of snowfall in the sensation of cold stress, especially during São Paulo region was rare, already in the mornings and in the evenings. Since the past. The last snowfall event was heating facilities are uncommon, indoor registered on 25th of June 1918 with -3ºC climates are also uncomfortable. Due to air temperature. Rocks shaped by glaciers the absence of rainfalls, humidity drops in the Park Moutonneé in Salto, North of sometimes below 10% while air quality São Paulo prove that glaciers covered the decreases with humidity causing climatic region during the last ice-age. situations which are (according to the World Health Organisation) dangerous Fig. 3.26: Increase of winter air temperatures in São Paulo by Morengo and Rogers, 2001 Although the seasons are not very to health. distinct (but readable due some trees which lose their foliage at the end of the Various studies (Lombardo, 1985, Gore, growing season) there are certain climatic 2007) indicate, that the overlay of characteristics of the two main seasons: global CO levels assigned to increased air DJF and JJA) and mean precipitations • Global Heating (due to global CO 2 2 temperatures, Lovelock (2006) estimates will as well increases by 9-13 percent, • São Paulo’s hot & humid summers emissions) that the situation in Brazil could become (simulated with the models MAM and are usually long and (increasingly) • Tropical Climate (due to high latitude) unbearable soon: SON). However, according to the author • Localisation in the marginal Tropics of hot. Summer rains (usually in the El Ninã could also change rain regimes the Southern Hemisphere (with higher afternoon) are often torrential “Concerning my estimates the situation will and the region could become drier in causing inundations, and the summer CO concentration in the become unbearable around the year 2040. 2 the future. The IPCC report predicts an breakdown of the traffic system. atmosphere, due to less land mass and Most of the tropical areas, including the whole Brazilian territory, will practically be too hot increase of ambient temperatures in the thus vegetation, see Al Gore, 200732) and dry by then. In Latin America for instance, region of up to 2-4°C. • Further the physical and thermal • Urban Climate (due to land use, surface (climate) refugees will gather on the Andean properties the typical materials of climatic response and anthropogenic mountain range and in other higher situated places. Up to 2100 it is probable, that around The differences of the results of the which cities are made of (see fig. heat waste) 80% of the humanity disappears”. (James 3.25) and the small fraction of green prognostics indicate the complexity of Lovelock in an Interview with Veja São Paulo, climate modelling. However, all studies areas lead to elevated radiation and results in increased climate change, Edition 1979, 25. Oct. 2006) air temperatures and the undesired and the tendency of local heating. indicate increasing air temperatures, phenomenon of the urban heat island. Lovelock (2006) mentions that the urban A more moderate (conservative) considerable climate changes, either development – due to the mentioned scenario based on historical, local due to natural processes and/ or due • During the arid winter (June to different mechanisms - may combined measurements was given by Morengo to human activities, such as the urban September) the daily climates vary, so even trigger loops (or rollovers) leading to and Rogers (2001). According to the development (see chapter 3.1.3). This that climate of all seasons can occur an accelerated local climate change. Brazilian climate researcher the São leads to increased thermal stress, higher within the course one day, from very Paulo region the mean air temperatures energy consumption for cooling, as well as cold at night to very hot sensations In a worst-case scenario, based on will increase until 2050 by 0.9°C to increased water consumption during very at midday. Cold stress occurs mainly estimates considering a continuous rise of 2.8°C, (simulated with the models hot periods.
32 Al Gore (2007) “An Inconvenient Truth” Film 58 CITY VERSUS FOREST
3.2.2 São Paulo’s Urban Forest The forest structure of the Atlantic Forest contains multiple canopies that support an An urban forestry is considered to be extremely rich vegetation mix of broadleaf the “sustained planning, planting, and evergreens, as well as semi-deciduous protection of trees residential tree lines and trees. Further it includes an astonishing forests in urban areas” (Blouin and Comeau diversity of ferns, mosses, climbers and 1993). Broadly defined, urban forests, epiphytes (“air plants” or plants that constitute all (public and private) vegetation attach to other plants) including lianas, (also non-tree, like creepers, bushes, green orchids and bromeliads. Altogether the roofs etc.), within urban areas (Rowntree, forest boasts 20,000 plant species, many 1986). The Anglophone concept of the of them found nowhere else in the world, urban forest is recently also being applied in representing 8% of the Earth’s plant Europe by Konijnendijk, 2000. species and a higher biodiversity that in the Amazon forest. In literature urban vegetation is commonly Due to the aforementioned pressure of Fig. 3.27: Urban Explosion II (see also figures 3.18 and 3.19) - The metropolis’ spatial development - referred to as an urban forest because literally emerging out of the forest: Spatial bare urban development versus an estimate of inner-urban city most of the strategies and practices urbanization processes along the coast, the vegetation covered areas (within the urbanized area of ca. 1887 km² 1995). The graph shows a slowing of used for managing and maintaining remnant of the biome is estimated to be less the deforestation process within the metropolitan area. urban vegetation initially came from than 10% of the original vegetation cover and and continue to be updated by foresters is often broken into hilltop islands. Despite its (Pedlowski, et al. 2002). diminished state the Atlantic Forest still ranks as a global conservation priority. However, there is, according to Rowntree Within metropolitan area of São Paulo the natural landscapes into artificial ones. (1986) some skepticism about referring In the metropolitan region of São Atlantic Forest biome, which once covered the In the peripheries literally hundreds to the leaf mass of urban vegetation as Paulo (which is one of the three largest whole hilly region except from swam regions of of island settlements are scattered in an “urban forest” because there is the urbanized and sealed regions in the world) the rivers is rare. Some small fragments of the the forest (and in already deforested potential that the notion overstates the the process of massive and continuous pristine forest remain for example in Parque regions). A clear line between the urban situation. Instead some people prefer deforestation can be continued with the do Estado, in the refuge of an Indian tribe and rural does no longer exist (see figure the idea of an “urban savanna”, which is timeline of the urban-rural development in the Santo Amaro district and in the State 3.19), while on inner city brownfields especially true, in arid tropical megacities and shows the outcome of the massive University Campus (USP - Cidade Universitária) spontaneous vegetation slowly reclaims with sparse vegetation like São Paulo. urban sprawl from the 1950s on. as well as at the peripheries, and especially on the urban space (Almarecegui, 2006). the northern (Serra da Cantareira) and in the The original biome in the São Paulo region Concerning the threshold density between southern boundary districts, near the barrages The process of urbanization further also is that of the Atlantic Forest (in Portuguese urban forest and pristine jungle, it should which supply the city with drinking water, lead to significant loss of (animal and plant) Mata Atlântica), Tropical and subtropical be pointed out, that the concept of an were the urbanization is still proceeding in an biodiversity due to loss of vegetation cover, forests, which stretch along Brazil’s urban forest separates density, structure, accelerated manner. which is fragmented and very unevenly Atlantic Coast from the northern state of morphology and biodiversity from a distributed within the urban fabric. In Rio Grande do Norte to the southern state pristine „jungle”, since it is by definition The combined deforestation and many regions of the city urban land of Rio Grande do Sul. cultivated - managed and maintained. urbanization processes have turned occupied by infrastructure and buildings
59 33 based on handout by landscape architect Patricia Akinaga, GSE Harvard University Cantinho do Céu Workshop by Prof. Christian Werthmann in São Paulo, March 2nd 2009 reaches limits of intensity through widely Fig. 3.28: Volumetric unplanned development. This continuous relation between construction materials pressure on land has rarely left over public and biomass in the spaces for recreation, causing serious municipality of São environmental problems, such as floods, Paulo based on urban heat island with elevated surface data analyzed by Almarecegui, 2006b and air temperatures (fig. 3.25). “The Construction Materials of São Paulo” The continuous deforestation process, and Spangenberg (2008) even within the city was reported by The for more details. Estado de São Paulo reported in 2006: in 2005 of a total of 81.219 requests by citizens was made to the SVMA. Of those only 2.339 (2,8%) were for planting, while 44.024 (54,2%) were for pruning, and 11.423 (14%), for tree removal. Considering the additional vegetation cover loss in the sprawling peripheries in the north and the south of the municipal area (about 10% within one decade) the overall vegetation cover is still decreasing. According to the legislation planting is allowed without consulting the SMVA, pruning and felling designed environmental crime (Duran, 2006).
Principal street tree species
The favorable climatic conditions for plants allow a whole-year-growth- period for vegetation (high radiation and Fig. 3.29: Natures “violence”/ precipitation) and, even in the metropolitan spontaneous vegetation: area, a relatively high biodiversity of more The tropical climate creates often better conditions for than 300 (native and exotic) species of vegetation than for man street trees is scattered throughout the city shown illustrated here with: (Gregório, 2006). The majority of the urban Ipê Tree re-tillered from a post forest is composed by dense, evergreen, which was made of it in Porto Velho/ Rodônia (left) and broadleaf vegetation, but amongst the spontaneous green façade in most typical street tree species are also Luz/ São Paulo (right).
60 CITY VERSUS FOREST
some semi-deciduous species, which stay The article includes for example an Popular Brazilian Name Scientific Name Family Origen bare during the short, dry and at times also estimated number of trees on street and Aroeira pimenteira Schinus terebinthifolius Anarcadiaceae Native hot winter (May - August). squares trees (which will be used for Aroeira-salsa Schinus molle Anarcadiaceae Native estimations in chapter 6.2.2.3) and includes Ipê-roxo-de-bola Tabebuia impetiginosa Bignoniaceae Native Today in the urban forest non-native information on the implementation plans Ipê-roxo-de-bola Tabebuia heptaphylla Bignoniaceae Native species are common, as the mild climate for parks which’s was (at the time of the Ipê-rosa Tabebuia avellanedae Bignoniaceae Native and abundant rainfall permit a multitude of publication) lower than the number of Ipê-amarelo-cascudo Tabebuia chrysotricha Bignoniaceae Native Ipê-amarelo Tabebuia ochracea Bignoniaceae Native tropical, subtropical and temperate plants Shopping Centers (32 versus 47). In the Ipê-branco Tabebuia roseo-alba Bignoniaceae Native to be cultivated, with Exotic tree species like following table data from other sources Espatódea Spathodea campanulata Bignoniaceae Exotic Tipuana (Tipuana Tipu) (Origin: Argentinian) were added to the data given by Gregório, Jacarandá-mimoso Jacaranda mimosaefolia Bignoniaceae Native and Eucalyptus “paulistana” (a natural but it was found that the numbers (e.g. Urucum Bixa orelana Bixaceae Native hybrid between E.globulus and E.robusta, vegetation cover) vary considerably from Paineira-rosa Chorisia speciosa Bombacaceae Native originally Australian) being especially other sources (see chapter 6.3) Aldrago Pterocarpus violaceus Leguminosae Native ubiquitous. Flamboyant Delonix regia Leguminosae Exotic Distribution of Green Pau-brasil Caesalpinia echinata Leguminosae-Caesalpinoideae Native The exotic Tipuanas planted decades ago Pau-ferro Caesalpinia ferrea var.leiostachya Leguminosae-Caesalpinoideae Native Sibipiruna Caesalpinia peltophoroides Leguminosae-Caesalpinoideae Native in the center of the city (and the Garden The economic development of the city, Chuva -de-ouro Cassia ferruginea Leguminosae-Caesalpinoideae Native has led on one hand to enormous richness Neighbourhoods) have adaption problems Falso-barbatimão Cassia leptophylla Leguminosae-Caesalpinoideae Native and are especially fragile to termite attacks but on the other hand to significant Alecrim-de-campinas Holocalyx balansae Leguminosae-Caesalpinoideae Native (vermin) and thus sensitive to windbreak. degradations of the urban environment Farinha seca Peltophorum dubium Leguminosae-Caesalpinoideae Native Thus the urban green space planning and quality of life. As mentioned the Manduirana Senna macranthera Leguminosae-Caesalpinoideae Native office (SVMA) decided not to plant (and to distribution of street trees in the city is Pau-cigarra Senna multijuga Leguminosae-Caesalpinoideae Native indicate) certain exotic species like Tipuana unequal, according to the SVMA (2000) Bauinea Bauhinia variegata Leguminosae-Caesalpinoideae Exotic and Ficus, due to windbreak and superficial reflecting the model of the concentration Tipuana Tipuana tipu Leguminosae-Faboideae Native roots and to focus on native species. of landholding and income35. In some Suinã Erythrina falcata Leguminosae-Papilionoideae Native central and eastern districts, where only Mulungu Erythrina mulungu Leguminosae-Papilionoideae Native few isolated trees are encountered, the Suinã-candelabro Erythrina speciosa Leguminosae-Papilionoideae Native São Paulo’s Urban Forest in Resedá Lagerstroemia indica Lythraceae Exotic vegetation is negligible, while in the Numbers Dedaleiro Lafoensia pacari Lythraceae Native richer districts especially the Garden Magnólia-amarela Michelia champaca Magnoliaceae Exotic Although the urban green space planning Neighbourhoods reasonable fractions of Quaresmeira Tibouchina granulosa Melastomataceae Native office (SVMA) is starting to work on mapping vegetation cover are maintained. Cinamomo Melia azedarach Meliaceae Exotic and monitoring program (SIGAL) today Uva-japonesa Hovenia dulcis Meliaceae Exotic highly reliable numbers or information The distribution of the estimated 1.5 Cedro-rosa Cedrela fissilis Meliaceae Native on the composition of the urban forest million public urban trees, scattered across Ficus Ficus benjamina Moraceae Exotic Ligustro Ligustrum lucidum Oleaceae Exotic structure (species) are not available. Some the streets and squares (see also Journal da Pau-formiga Triplaris brasiliana Polygonaceae Native 34 th estimations were published in Gregório, Tarde, 5 of July 2007), is of high interest, Salgueiro-chorão Salix babylonica Salicaceae Exotic (2006) in the article Beyond the grey, because especially these trees bring direct Quereutéria Koelreuteria paniculata Sapindaceae Exotic metropolis has much Green (Além do cinza, benefits (such as shade) to occupants (see Native: 29 TOTAL 40 14 metrópole tem muito VERDE) chapter 6.2.1 and 7.1.1). According to Exotic: 11 Table 3.4: Principal tree species existing on the streets of the municipal area of 34 According to a telephone interview with the author Erika Gregório on São Paulo (in Geocidades report) 61 20th of January 2009 the information was allocated by the Municipality. SMVA (2000) 4.6m² is the mean green area Netzband et. al. (2006) have looked Other important Brazilian personalities of Size of municipality 1,509 km2 SVMA 2000
per inhabitant in São Paulo is, much lower into the interconnection of the urban the socio-environmental discourse were Urbanized ares 870 km2 SVMA 2000
than, according to Perreira (2003) in Rio de ecological parameters/ indicators such as Jose Lutzemberger (1926-2002), Roberto Number of Inhabitants 11,000,000 SVMA 2000
Janeiro with 59,4 m², in Curitiba 55 m² and vegetation cover, their social implications Burle Marx (1909-1994) and Frans Krajcberg Trees per inhabitant 0.14 Calculated
120 m² per inhabitant in Brasília. and vice versa in Santiago de Chile/ Chile. (born in 1926). Martínez Alier believes that Green Sace per inhabitant 4.6 m2 SVMA 2000 “eco-justice is the response of the third They found that the vegetation cover in Vegetation Cover 21% RSVP 2006 - ano2 nº24 world to the challenge of sustainability”. To get rough idea about how the trees cities is not only a natural phenomenon Number of public urban trees ca. 1,500.000 RSVP 2006 - ano2 nº24 are distributed in the city the following but also strongly influenced by socio- numbers give some indication: the As suggested in the historical background, economic distributions and potentials and Asphalted Road Network 11,916 km PRODAM, 1997 neighbourhood of Lapa has 11 m², Moema from the beginning of any urbanization clearly linked to the income situation. A Number of Squares 4,000 RSVP 2006 - ano2 nº24 24 m², Tucuruvi 23 m², Vila Andrade 100 Brazilian study by Pedlowski, et al. (2002) processes deforestation attracts Number of species > 300 RSVP 2006 - ano2 nº24 m², in Morumbi 239 m² per inhabitant. One shows the same tendencies in Campos dos investments, because cleared areas (as well Trees plantes per day 180 RSVP 2006 - ano2 nº24 of the areas with the lowest proportion of Goytacazes in the state of Rio de Janeiro. as yet forested) are perceived as exploitable Surviving 75-80% RSVP 2006 - ano2 nº24 green per inhabitant is the central region of or potential land for construction. Only Workers 7,800 RSVP 2006 - ano2 nº24 Sé with 0.21 m² per inhabitant. The region Environmental Inequity recently the question whether “a standing with the largest proportion of green cover forest is worth more than a felled forest”37 Number of parks 32 RSVP 2006 - ano2 nº24 is Engenheiro Marsilac in the very South “The great contradictions of our which refers directly to the conflicts of of the municipality with 26.000 m² per time pass over the territory use.” territory and vegetation cover is discussed. First: Parque da Luz 1,825 RSVP 2006 - ano2 nº24 Milton Santos (Brazilian Geographer) 2 inhabitant consisting mostly of Atlantic Largest: Anhanguera 950,000,000 m RSVP 2006 - ano2 nº24 2 Forest fragments. Although a general zoning is rough Second largest: Ibirapuera 1,600,000 m RSVP 2006 - ano2 nº24 Although the distribution of urban trees (or simplification (see fig. 3.31) in the real city, Area of existing parks 15,534,197 m2 RSVP 2006 - ano2 nº24 vegetation canopy) can be considered as one “There seems to be some irony in the naming the Global City is in some cases found vis-à- New parks until 2008-09-21 39 RSVP 2006 - ano2 nº24 of the most established parts of the periphery (among many) indicators for quality of life, vis the informal or illegal city respectively. Urban Parks 19 RSVP 2006 - ano2 nº24 “garden so and so.” There are few places that property value etc. it is important to point out Brazilian Geographer Milton Santos referred Linear Parks 22 RSVP 2006 - ano2 nº24 are further from gardens than these places, that it is a difficult indicator because in São to the Glocal City since contrasts between Annual Budget (2006) 106 Million Reais RSVP 2006 - ano2 nº24 whether in terms of the presence of greenery or Paulo the amenities of vegetation cover are green areas or in the sense of being esthetically rich and poor usually only found at great Table 3.5: São Paulo’s Urban Forest in Numbers pleasing. Quite the contrary, these areas are recognized as wealth (or even luxury) in inner distances can be observed. These conflicts visually very unattractive. Buildings are covered city districts while in peripherical areas the and violent fights for the urban space leads to in graffiti, garbage is thrown anywhere, and forest vegetation cover is often considered an urban developments stigmatized by concepts cars that were destroyed in accidents are left obstacle for expansion and land reclaim to rot on the side of the roads, giving a derelict such as gentrification und ghettoisation. feeling to the areas. There are no proper sidewalks, even on major roadways. This means Generally the unequal distribution goods According to Jacobi (2006) some of the that pedestrians have to compete with passing and bads across the urban space reflect traffic on major roads, endangering their lives. environmental problems are directly linked Walking or waiting for a bus in such places is socio-environmental inequity (Köckler, to the loss of vegetation cover (like urban very unpleasant. The heavy smell of fumes from 2007). According to Martínez Alier (2006) in heat island, inundations, water and soil trucks and buses, and the noise from engines Brazil Chico Mendes (1944-1988) was one quality etc), while others (like transportation, negotiating the steep hills all contribute to stress of the first to defend environmental rights waste etc.) could be improved by a broader as do the lack of parks, playground, and green areas—amenities that make life a little easier”. of the poor in Brazil; without following vegetation but do not directly depended on (Leonardo Shieh, 2006, p. 6836) the typical discourse of environmentalists. the vegetation. Theseviscous cycle problems
62 36 http://stellar.mit.edu/S/project/saopaulo/materials.html
Fig. 3.30: Distant examples of rich & poor housing: Vista Alegre (Unknown in ISA 2007, p. 380) at Serra Mountain Range and private rooftop pool in Morumbi (Nelson Kon). of transportation, air quality, soil sealing, The moving traffic itself (estimations vary stormwater, sewage and waste are resumed between 6 and 9 million vehicles in São Paulo) in the following part: further generates waste heat, noise, and gas and particulate matter emissions. Especially 3.2.3 Transport and particulate matter is dangerously high in São Paulo due to poor fuel quality in Brazil: diesel Air Pollution has 500 particulates per million, while in The necessity of transportation and Europe and the US, diesel has 10 particulates infrastructure generates indirectly a series per million (Oliveira and Page, 2008). of urban environmental problems linked to traffic, especially air pollution resumed here: The fuel is inefficiently used because The city’s asphalted road network of the road system is overloaded. Daily 11.916 km (PRODAM, 1997) for the congestions summing up more than moving and stationary traffic, is the main 100km (with maxima of almost 300km) cause for increased surface temperatures during the rush-hours are common, (the urban heat island) and increased causing costs estimated to almost R$ 2 Fig. 3.31: LEDC Urban Land Use Model by Barcelona Field Studies Centre S.L. for São Paulo (left) and runoff leading to inundations. billion per year (Cintra, 2008) displacement of ecological conflicts in European cities (Martinez Alier, 2007)
63 37 “A floresta vale mais em pé do que deitada”. http://revistaepoca.globo.com/Revista/Epoca/0,,EDG79544-6009-491,00.html According to Kohlhepp (1996) 90% of the settlements) are not treated which air pollution is caused by traffic in São increases the pollution of the urban rivers. Paulo, (10% to industry). São Paulo is the fifth most polluted city in the world (Center Especially the draining of the swamp areas of Atmospheric Sciences England). The and the regulation of the meandering mean pollution is 28.1 micrograms per m³ three main rivers Tiête, Pinheiros and (the limit of the World Health Organization Tamanduateí (see fig. 3.11) to increase is 10 micrograms (Sangiovanni, 2009) urban land and to construct expressways (marginais) in a cost-effective way in the Indirect costs for the health system 1960s lead to an increase of inundations of estimated to 334 million Brazilian Reais these lowest regions of the city, also due to per year. Cardiorespiratory diseases such the increased intensity of urban rainfalls. as infarcts, pneumonia, asthma and lung cancer are the most registered. According The land reclaim of these areas (from the 1920 to Sangiovanni (2009) 20 persons per day on) further lead to real estate speculation die in São Paulo from air pollution. and further impermeabilization along the expressways constructed in the 1960s. Sad Circa 30% of the 11 million inhabitants, de Assis and Frota (1999) e.g. suppose that it is in megacities of the Third World where Fig. 3.32: Direct contrast of favela Paraisópolis and Gated Community in the Morumbi district own seven million cars. Since the “Rodízio (Foto: Tuca Viera) System” was inaugurated in the central the damages on the natural and built up region it is quite common to have more environments take their most serious form than one car to to avoid the suspension of due to the speculative use of urban space. their car use a secondary one. The annual mean water consumption Metropolitan centers suffer from per person is 65m² but varies highly atmospheric pollution problems; the city with the living standard. More than 20% of São Paulo for example, lives through of the sewage are not treated direct dramatic situations during the winter discharge into the rivers, carry thus months when air humidity is very low. carry blackwater which causes also a huge sanitary problem (Jacobi, 2006) 3.2.4 Water Access and Use The illegal appropriation, deforestation Another constant problem is water and occupation of environmentally management. Especially the combination protected regions where the spring of torrential rainfalls (intensified by urban regions of the drinking water are hear island), soil sealing and accumulation located (mamanicais) by favelas and the of street waste leads to inundations subsequent direct discharge of sewage and water contamination. Parts of the into the barrages which supply São Paulo Fig. 3.33: Precarious housing near the Billings reservoir (headwaters) (above) and accumulation of street sewage water (especially from informal with drinking water. waste in French drains (below)
64 THE ROLE OF URBAN VEGETATION 4. THE ROLE OF URBAN VEGETATION
This chapter outlines the role of urban comprehensive list derived from literature Further the climatic role of plants which metrics are difficult to obtain and predict from vegetation in predominantly hot, cities like research, compares chances and risks and act as buffers, pumps or living machines, measurements, due to their tempo-spatial São Paulo, supporting the hypothesis (based points towards the following chapters which transforming radiation energy into water vapor variations of leaf area within the seasons of on Taha, 1997, Alexandri and Jones 2006) that deal with quantifications (through modelling) linking water, energy, carbon and nitrogen the year and the growth/ sequestration rate the benefits or urban vegetation increase with of some of the impacts of vegetation seeking cycles, regulating climate through shading and and the life cycle of a plant. decreasing latitude. Most of the benefits from an approximation with a cost/ benefit relation. evapotranspiration is lined out. vegetation are linked to mitigation of urban Often these positive impacts e.g. of plants are climate, or in other words the equilibration The benefits are divided into two main parts: In the last part indices for urban green referred to as environmental services because of the urban energy and water balance lead environmental benefits such as climate required as numerical indicators for climate the improvements (or benefits) created to an increased quality of life and/ or urban control, thermal comfort and energy efficiency, and plant interaction (ecological) modeling are by urban vegetation can be associated to sustainability (see chapter 2). purification of resources through urban analyzed. Such metrics are requires to model monetary (and cultural) values. The simulations vegetation and social benefits, which are much and estimate plant performance or so-called and estimations of costs and benefits of urban This chapter gives an overview on the pros more difficult to model, quantify or/ orto environmental services (see ISA, 2008), with vegetation in São Paulo will be described in and cons of broader urban vegetation, in a monetize. numerical planning tools (see chapter 6). These chapter 6.)
Urban vegetation has been indicated expansion of the natural environment means as one of the most efficient solutions conserving energy passively and vice versa. to mitigate the undesired urban heat islands, heat stress and increased energy CO 4.1 Plant Physiology 2 2 at consumption for cooling caused by strong CARBON ENERGY O he CO2 / O2 WATER incident solar radiation in predominantly and Climate lease re hot regions or cities like São Paulo/ Brazil. air air Most of the benefits gained from cleaning cooling Beyond the climatic benefits urban plants result according to Ong (2003) vegetation absorbs filters and stores, due from plant metabolic and physiological air no esh ise to its physiognomic characteristics, natural processes. These include photosynthesis, NITROGEN gases fr and man-made environmental influences evapotranspiration, respiration, uptake of minerals and nutrients from the air and (like precipitation, CO2 and other gaseous and particulate emissions, as well as noise) ground, interlinking the complex air-gas- present in abundance in many dense, tropical water-soil systems of the biosphere. megacities without consuming any primary energy. According to Corrêa da Costa (2005), These plant physiological, natural processes Fig. 4.1: Resume of ecological qualities and environmental services of trees (after Bernartzsky, 1982, left) this illustrates why the conservation and which interlink energy and water, carbon and Simplified model which links the most important cycles which enable life within the biosphere (right).
65 and oxygen, as well as nitrogen cycles, climate regulation element: clouds and Fig. 4.2: The are explained in detail in Jones (1992). dust. Within the atmosphere solar radiation electromagnetic spectrum of Here only a resumed introduction on the is absorbed, transmitted or reflected by extraterrestrial complex functions of vegetation on the these (mainly water) molecules. As a result radiation after equilibrium of global to local energy and the radiation is scattered, becoming less atmospheric matter fluxes can be given. direct and intense but more diffuse. absorption based on Duffie & Beckman, 1980 (left) and the As shortwave (visible and near infra- beneficial and the 4.1.1 Solar Radiation red) radiation hits the Earth’s surface or dangerous side the obstacles (such as trees, buildings etc.) sun in Olgyay and Near surface climates (and life) are driven Olgyay, 1957 (right) by the primary energy resource of the sun’s it is partly being reflected and absorbed electromagnetic radiation and the properties by opaque bodies, and transmitted of the Earth’s surface or land-use respectively. by transparent or permeable bodies. Fig. 4.3: The surfaces trigger local heating and cooling The relation between reflection and absorption is defined by the albedo of Annual of air and changes of air pressure which incident lead to horizontal air movements (wind). the surface. The transmission is defined ultraviolet radiation over Beyond most important cooling mechanisms, by the transmission and/ or attenuation coefficient of the material (in urban the Earth’s antagonists to heating are shading, and the surface is context for example glass) but radiation is wet exchange processes of evaporation, strongest in condensation and precipitation which avoid also transmitted/ attenuated by trees. the Tropics of the southern the overheating of the system. The fraction of the radiation energy which hemisphere is absorbed by matter is transformed into Solar radiation also enables the process of longwave thermal (or terrestrial) radiation photosynthesis and thus indirectly animal and which is emitted from the material in human life on the Earth’s surface. Described the form of radiant longwave radiation in a simple way solar radiation is visible (heat). The heat flux from the surface can sunlight which is also sensible in the form of either be sensible or latent depending warmth (or heat) when the sun is above the on whether the exchange process is dry horizon. According to the electromagnetic Fig. 4.4: Annual Cloud or humid. According to measurements theory light (shortwave) and heat (longwave) Cover Thickness - carried out by Oke (1989) the strongest energy only differ in their according to their Clouds linking the influence of the thermal radiation isin energy with the respective wavelengths. urban context significant within a distance water cycle reference to humidity. It shows of 0.5 m from the surface, but this may be (in combination with 4.1.2 Reflection, Absorption more significant in tropical cities. fig. 4.3) that the and Transmission São Paulo region Urban surface properties are highly receives high solar Cloud Optical Thickness radiation income due When entering the Earths atmosphere responsible for thermal comfort in open to little cloud cover solar radiation is filtered by a primary spaces and on energy efficiency of the throughout the year
66 THE ROLE OF URBAN VEGETATION surrounding buildings. Generally building Low albedo urban surfaces surface albedo (reflexivity) is considered as most important, but the following When hitting dark, dry surfaces the analyses why also their humidity (e.g. absorbed shortwave radiation is plant surfaces) is important to decrease transformed into outgoing longwave urban surface temperatures. radiation leaving the earth as infrared radiation, increasing also the ambient air Transmission of Canopies temperatures through convection on hot urban surfaces. The actual reason for the The secondary natural climate regulation urban surface heat island (see fig. 3.25) element hit by the solar radiation (after are actually mostly dark surfaces (low the aforementioned clouds) are tree albedo) such as bitumen roofs and asphalt canopies which have highly complex streets, leading to increased surface properties - similar to those of clouds. The and air temperatures and the emission transmission (or interception) rate of solar of longwave re-radiation (sensible heat radiation either through gaps between flux). Low albedo surfaces thus remain leafs or through translucent leafs depends although widely applied, but worst option Fig. 4.5: Scheme of surface reflection, absorption and transmission of direct (and diffuse) solar radiation on mainly on the density and structure of to mitigate the urban surface heat island opaque and transparent surfaces the crown, which also defines the shading – in fact they create it (see the urban heat pattern which has important influence on island and summer oasis, chapter 3.2.1) the heating of the ground and on thermal comfort (see chapter 6.2.1).
In climates where not the maximum utilization of the sun is a main aim (see concept of Solar Cities of the North, in Behling, 1996) but rather efficient protection against solar rays, attenuation by clouds and tree canopies is often crucial to mitigate heat stress (see 4.2.3).
Temperate as tropical forests (like the Atlantic Forest biome) are multi-cultural, mutual ecologies with needs of co- existence and co-evolution. Within each layer of the forest, the availability of light is a limiting factor and in lower storeys only the so-called shade-tolerants are able to survive (Martin and Keefee, 2007). Fig. 4.6: Energy balance at different scales forest canopy (Packham et. al 1992) and single leaf scale (Brown and Gillespie, 1995)
67 4.1.3 Urban Whites versus But Akbari et al. (2001, p. 298) admit that island.” Light-colored roofs might absorb building materials, however high their less of the Sun’s energy than dark roofs, Greens albedo, absorb heat and store it and that but they do nothing to mitigate runoff. Generally (white) high albedo surfaces are even white surfaces can become as much as a modern building strategy to keep building 10°C higher than the ambient temperature” Comparing “whites” to “greens”, Gaffin envelopes cool especially applied common in while Jones (1992) reports that plant and his colleagues presented the results of the tropics. It has its origins in Bauhaus and surfaces, as a result of transpiration, do not their 2002 New York City heat wave study Le Corbusier’s Radiant City (see fig 3.12). In rise more than 4–5°C above the ambient at a science meeting (in 2006) considering Brazil the aforementioned MEC in Rio (see fig. and are sometimes cooler). white roofs the winning strategy, but they 3.14) was one of the first buildings with has soon changed their mind finding that plant highly reflective surfaces and white surfaces According to an interview by Michon Scott surfaces are generally (even) cooler than became also one of Niemeyer’s trademarks. with urban climate researcher Stuart white surfaces. In tropical urban settings Gaffin (2006) white surfaces may be cooler it was found that the surface temperature Recently multiple reflections glare and than dark surfaces, but they still trap heat. of a greened roof was up to 12ºC degrees increased radiant temperatures caused Compared to plant surfaces light urban cooler than a relatively new and reflective Fig. 4.7.: Highrise buildings with (mirror) glass façades by highly reflective white (and especially surfaces are usually hotter. concrete roof (with a low albedo of 0.31). causing glare, Jaragua building (above) and building at specular mirror) surfaces are discussed Paulista Avenue (below) and criticized (see Spangenberg, 2004). Gaffin points out that white materials 4.1.4 Evapotranspiration Glare problems have been documented (especially roofs) get dirty quickly, reducing in Brazil by Yannas and Corbela, 2003 and their ability to reflect sunlight and that Cooling of Plant Surfaces also by Roaf (2007) in temperate climate: even when they are kept clean, white roofs cause problems in reflecting the sunlight The definition of the fractions of absorption, transmission and reflection of “The reflectance of light and heat from metal and degrading even distant surroundings and glass finished buildings can often cause thermally and visually. Or they might just plant canopies is by far more complex than chronic problems, to motorists, pedestrians and bounce much of it off nearby buildings, for urban construction materials, such as to adjacent buildings. (...) Some buildings like the heating up the immediate area. Due to glass, due to the complex architecture of Ontario Hydro Building in Toronto (...) actually tree crowns (for example), heterogeneous focuses the sun’s rays onto the sidewalk.” (Roaf multiple reflections between the buildings et. al., 2007,p. 234) and in complex urban geometries the leaf distribution, different species etc (see energy is trapped in street canyons chapter 4.2). The trapping of the solar radiation within increasing mean radiant temperatures the urban structure is actually more a (see Spangenberg, 2004). According to Oke (1987) for trees roughly problem of reflective glass fascades than a fraction of 20% transmission, 55% of roofs, which are the building surfaces Light-colored roofs hold another drawback absorption and 25% reflection can be which receive the highest solar radiation for Gaffin. Researching mitigation options assumed. Brown and Gillespie (1995) income in low latitudes and can contribute for the urban heat island Gaffin became give 80% for absorption and 10% each more to decrease energy consumption. aware of another issue that causes some for reflection and transmission. However, White roofs were proposed by Akbari et. cities as much hardship: stormwater such generalizations are complicated al (1998) promoted as a public policy and runoff. The purpose of asphalt is to create because these parameters very strongly applied in the United States. an impervious called “the urban runoff for most species, depending on the season
68 THE ROLE OF URBAN VEGETATION of the year and within the life-cycle of the The principle of conservation of energy (the plant. First Law of Themodynamics) states that Fig. 4.8: Microscopic energy cannot be created or destroyed, but photographs of representative stomata Tropical leaf albedos are often low and only changed from one form to another: from the leafs of forest structure are dense and dark, so In contrast to the direct radiation which different species from that generally only a very low part of the hits dry urban low albedo surfaces the Jones 1992 (above) solar radiation absorbed by plant leafs and Evaporation - The radiation is reflected back skywards and transformation of liquid most radiation is trapped and absorbed in is not transformed into sensible heat, water into water vapor the tree canopies. According to Oke (1987) but mainly into latent heat, through the requires large amounts the dependence of the albedo upon the evapotranspiration of water through the solar radiation and cools surfaces (below) solar altitude also explains why tropical plant metabolism. This leads to lower air (Behling p. 205/206) albedos are usually less than those for temperatures and higher air humidity within similar surfaces at higher latitudes. the crown and its immediate surroundings.
The highly complex multiple reflection and The air masses are moved into the leeward diffusion of solar radiation skywards, into direction of the canopies, but for isolated and through the canopy, depends on many trees these microclimatic modifications parameters, like leaf albedo and transparency, are rapidly diffused in the air volume leaf angle, crown structure etc. and makes which traverses the tree crown by the calculations of radiation extinction (and wind (McPherson and Simpson, 1995). The transmission) extremely difficult. (see Jones, magnitude of the cooling effect was found 1992 and chapter 5.1.1).1 to increase with rising number of trees (Shashua-Bar and Hoffman, 2004) and is The absorption of the radiation in tropical significant especially on the lee sides of vegetation is usually > 90% and enables a urban parks (see Yu and Hien, 2006). maximum transfer of energy into biomass through photosynthesis and thus plant A mature tree evaporates up to 400 liters growth on one hand and protection of of water per day through millions of the ground through shade on the other, pores (leaf stomata) by pumping water creating a special microclimate which enriched with nutrients through the tree improves the conditions of the plant in the structure by osmotic suction/ pressure. ecosystem community. The metabolite process of photosynthesis though evapotranspiration further cools Low albedo surfaces which absorb a the leaf surfaces passively by transforming maximum of solar radiation to enable liquid water with the aid of solar radiation maximum transpiration appear to be into water vapor (change of aggregation). natural cooling strategy of tropical biomes which applies to the evolution of both leaf The relationship between latent and and skin albedo. sensible heat flux is described by the
69 1 Ray tracing computational studies are highly recommended for future work Bowen Ratio. The evaporation cooling effect is very powerful because the amount of energy necessary to transform liquid water into vapor is surprisingly high: 680 kWh/ m³ water, which means that the evaporation of 1g of water per minute requires 41W.
Grey and Deneke (1978) considering that a single tree transpires approximately 380 liters per day calculated a cooling effect equivalent to five mean air conditionings (2500 kcal/h) going 20 hours per day. But as mentioned these microclimatic modifications are, rapidly diffused by the wind and do not benefit directly nearby buildings. Fig. 4.9. Measurements of surface temperatures in São Paulo’s center on 19th of December 2006 proved Especially important in urban context is cooler leaf surfaces (Spangenberg, 2008)2, (left) and the combined absorption and reflection the impact on leaf temperate when the (Citrullus of the tree canopy, generating shadow colocynthis) leaf is being cut off and does not receive (attenuation of solar radiation) as well water for evapotranspiration (Larcher, 2001) (right). as cool leaf and urban surfaces below elements (building materials, plants etc., the canopy. The combined absorption/ see also chapter 6.2.1) reflection effect of the canopy leads (in contrast to the transmitted /intercepted They show that radiation heats up the direct solar radiation) to thermal surfaces it hits, dry and dark surfaces comfort and increased energy efficiency much more that reflective and humid of shaded buildings. ones (the latter due to the effect of evaporation cooling). Shade leads to cool The experiments (fig. 4.9) presents surface surface temperatures below the shading temperatures of different materials and element and is considered to have a plants measured in loci in São Paulo’s more important direct impact on thermal central conditions, (Luz Neighbourhood) comfort than the evapotranspiration on 19th of December 2006 with infra-red cooling effect on air temperature. contactless equipment TFA 31.1108 by the author. Surface temperatures are However the metabolite performance a meaningful indicator to identify the (evapotranspiration/ photosynthesis Fig. 4.10: Schematic relations of the dependency of stomatal resistance on different climatic factors heating and cooling performance or urban rate) of plants reciprocally depends on which limit or stimulate plant metabolism rates (see Oke 1987)
70 2 First published en AU-Arquitetura & Urbanismo Year 23, No. 167, February 2008 THE ROLE OF URBAN VEGETATION
(micro-)climatic conditions, especially air Circa 30%-50-% of wood is carbon. A controls the within- and the below-canopy (90m x 120m, 1.1 hectares), especially temperature and water availability. Plants constant of 3.67 can be applied to calculate microclimates, determines and controls in the Amazon Region, but as well in are sensible to water-stress, heat stress the rate from absorbed CO2 to sequestered canopy water interception, radiation peripherical regions close to megacities, etc. (see Oke, 1987), which can lead to carbon. The evapotranspiration process extinction, water and carbon gas exchange like São Paulo, because this means a closure of the stomata (in order to protect enables the metabolite photosynthesis and is, therefore, a key component of descriptive, imaginable size. the plant organism against uncontrolled and respiration process of plants absorbing biogeochemical cycles in ecosystems. It should be pointed out that generally water losses) leading to an increase of leaf inhaling carbon-dioxide (CO2) from temperature (see fig. 4.9 right). the atmosphere and exhaling oxygen Leaf area depends mainly on specie, crown building shadows and vegetation covers architecture (genetic information) and above low-rise buildings cause problems (O2) during the day by breaking up the A climatic situation when the air is highly molecular structure of the carbon-dioxide local microclimatic, growth conditions, in distinguishing the vegetation cover saturated with water vapor, close to the liberating oxygen and sequestering carbon. consequently health etc. but a limitation in land-use maps derived from satellite dew point, a quite typical situation in São of this ecological measure are tempo- images in urban regions. For classifications Paulo during the summer the evaporation spatial variations of leaf area according (two-dimensional indices) it is important rates decrease due to vapor pressure. 4.2 Parameters for Urban to the seasons (deciduousness) and the to additionally to include (aside from Vegetation Cover plant growth (life cycle). Consequently distribution) detailed information on the every measure describes a moment so vegetation type (e.g. tree, scrub, grass), 4.1.5 Carbon Sequestration This chapter gives an overview and that leaf area can not really be considered understory cover information (soil, and Growth explores methods to measure plant a stationary parameter. sealing etc) and/ or other qualitative or properties as metrics (or numerical quantitative indicators on health and Typically, 90% of the energy contained in parameters and indices) and input data to Since Moffat and Schiller (1981) point out density of the green areas. the wavelengths between 0.4 and 0.7 µm simulate (e.g. climatic) benefits of urban that any use of vegetation for improving (PAR) is absorbed by a leaf, transforming vegetation. Leitão and Ahern (2002, p. 74), the microclimate has to exploit judiciously In cities, green spaces are often correlated radiation energy into vapor. The remaining noted that there are “literally hundreds of these properties according to site comfort with the number of inhabitants, per district 10% of the light is transmitted through the metrics developed” and that these metrics requirements this chapter seeks for leaf area or per municipal areas (SVMA, 2000). For leaf and becomes enriched with far-red are “frequently strongly correlated, and of typical isolated street trees in São Paulo. comparative mean numbers of square light (Lee, 1985). may be confounded”. meters of green spaces per inhabitant in 4.2.1 Vegetation Land Cover large Brazilian see chapter one. But only 0.05%-0.25% of photosynthetically Among the metrics, vegetation land cover active radiation (PAR) absorbed during and leaf area (per ground unit) were Vegetation cover and its change within Many articles mention different values the day is transformed into biomass while separated as key parameters. Especially timeframes are usually calculated in (ranging between 8m² and 20m²) of a the largest part of the incident energy leaf area (index or density) has become a hectares or square meters from land minimum proportion of green area per of trees is transformed to support the common parameter to simulate and thus use classifications, derived from aerial inhabitant proposed by the United Nations metabolite transpiration process: leafs estimate plant-physiological exchange or satellite photos. The classifications of (UN), the World Health Organization absorbing (inhaling) carbon-dioxide (CO2) processes and especially climatic benefits. remote sensing images are calibibrated (WHO) or the World Food Organization from the atmosphere and exhaling oxygen from typical leaf or forest albedos. (FAO) but do not indicate the exact source
(O2) during the day by breaking up the According to Nowak (1994) most of (Christina and Braga, 2005). A personal molecular structure of the carbon-dioxide the benefits of plants can be shown to It is an interesting fact, that it is common contact with WHO (see annex A II) has liberating oxygen and sequestering increase directly or indirectly with an in Brazilian (non-scientific) reports to give affirmed that, also by 2007, such guideline carbon. increase in leaf area. Leaf area drives areas of deforestation in football field size did not exist. It must be added that
71 besides from the mentioned qualitative the localization of the green. The final and/or quantitative indicators (see 6.3) results of the Weighted Green Index the establishment of such guidance were presented in four classes. value should consider urban land use, population density and the particular 4.2.3 Leaf Area Index (LAI) of climate of the region or country. typical urban Trees Ong (2003) points out the necessity of an Leaf Area Index is defined as the total one- ecological measure for urban green, but sided area of leaf tissue per unit ground also that no official guidelines exist yet. surface area (Watson, 1947) has become However Lang and Schöpfer (2005) report the standard measure for vegetation that Berlin’s Local Agenda 21 determined cover from global scale to single tree a guidance value of 6m² per Inhabitant (for scale. According to Ong (2003) the green close to tenements) and 7m² per methods to measure leaf area index at inhabitant (for green close to dwellings). urban tree scale can be divided into two main categories: 4.2.2 Weighted Green Index (GIw) • Destructive, direct methods The direct methods essentially involve Lang and Schöpfer (2005) introduce physically calculating the average area an interesting and more detailed of individual leaves taken from a plant indicator Green wheightened Index or parts of a tree and then extrapolating (derived from the German concept to the stand or the entire tree. “Durchgrünungsgrad”), which analyses According to Peper and McPherson distances and density of constructed (1998) destructive methods harvest and planted spatial arrangements as one all leafs of an individual tree and scan indicator for quality of life in Austria. their total area and obtain more exact Fig. 4.11: Constellations results than other methods but are also of buildings which can Using high resolution images from low- time consuming and more expensive. interfere negatively the perception of green altitude flights, the authors classified space (above) and the the images in 14 classes, 10 classes for • Non-destructive, indirect methods. Green Wheightened green (including water) and 4 for non- Indirect methods in general involve Index within cells of one hectare based green pixels, analyzing fuzziness values. determining light transmittance on classification and Further within cells of 1ha (100m x values through the plant canopy of building constellation. 100m) the mean footprint proportion individual trees or can be derived for The colours refer to 0 – of multi-family houses and mean values canopy cover from remote sensing 25%, 25 – 50%, 50 – 75% and 75 – 100% (below) of distances between buildings the measurements of Earth’s surface (in Schöpfer and Lang, cells evaluated to additionally weight albedo/ absorption of PAR. 2005)
72 THE ROLE OF URBAN VEGETATION
Here only non-destructive methods called Green Plot Ratio (GPR), based on (which can be applied to satellite images the findings of modeling environmental or measurements of isolated urban trees benefits and leaf area or LAI (leaf area in loci) will be shortly outlined. Destructive index) respectively. According to the methods were also considered to estimate author this metric, is based on the leaf area of local typical street trees in São common biological parameter of the leaf Paulo but not applied. area index (LAI) and makes an analogy to the to the building plot ratio (BPR), Leaf Area Index (LAI) can be obtained from comparing the number leaf storeys (see high resolution satellite or low-altitude fig. 4.12, right) to the number of building flights or be measured in loci, even for storeys on site, seeking for an equilibrium isolated urban trees. Remote sensing between constructed an vegetated mass. using satellite images are based on a Consequently the green plot ratio is discovered linear relationship between the simply the average Leaf Area Index (LAI) of Fig. 4.12: Leaf Area Index of grass, scub and trees by Scurlock et al. (2001) including Ong (2003) Green Plot Normalized Difference Vegetation Index whatever greenery on site. Ratio (GPR) modified (left) and tree with LAI 4 by Trowbridge and Bassuk (2004) (right) (NDVI), derived from the aforementioned images, and Leaf Area Index (LAI) (Green Measurements of leaf area of and Clark, 2000). Normalized Difference isolated urban trees Vegetation Index (NDVI) is calculated 1998) with the energy efficiency of low According to Ong (2003) hemispheric and using values of red and infra-red bands of Only few studies which measure the rise buildings, analyzing the question of other photographic methods, are based satellite photographs between 666.5 and bioclimatic qualities (like leaf area, decreased thermal load versus decreased on the gap fraction theory. The theory 752.8 nm. A regression formula linking its seasonal change and attenuation/ daylight access. relies on the fact that leaf densities in tree NDVI values and LAI is then used to derive transmission of solar radiation) of typical canopies are unevenly distributed and that LAI thematic maps. street trees in Brazil were found especially The authors mentioned measured gaps exist between these leafs through when compared to research carried out transmission, attenuation or leaf area which unattenuated light transmission Scurlock et al. (2001, cited by Ong, 2003) in the United States e.g. by Nowak, Peper index (LAI) of 13 (approximately one third) solar penetration is assumed. for example give benchmarks of LAI 1 for and McPherson etc. amongst the most typical 40 street tree grass, LAI 3 for scrub and LAI 4 for trees species planted in São Paulo (PNUMA/ A general problem of photographic (see fig. 4.12). Peper and McPherson (1998 Individual street trees, species of Atlantic SVMA, IPT (2004) in different seasons. methods are the definition of the and 2003) carried out distinctive research Forest biome of the south of Brazil Most of the measured individuals are threshold between transmitted (white) orientated towards the determination were measured by Weingartner, (1994), native species of theAtlantic Forest biome, and attenuated (black) in the pictures, of LAI values of isolated trees in urban Piertobon, (1998 and 1999), Bueno semi-deciduous, thus climatically adapted due the necessity to define a threshold conditions, applying and comparing (1998 and 2003), Spangenberg et. al. and thus robust (e.g. Jacarandá, Ipê for grey (fuzzy) pixels. Recommend different methods. (2007, unpublished) and Abreu (2008) Amaleo, Sibipiruna, Cedro, Aroreira salsa, timeframes are morning and evening applying different methods. Interestingly Alecrim de Campinas and Quaresmeira). on cloudless days because cloud cover Green Plot Ratio (GPR) all studies were carried out by architects, The measured trees were mostly mature and direct sun on the lens can lead to engineers and urban planners and and have a mean height, as well as crown dissolving effects near the sun (diffuse Ong (2003) proposed a literally green question for example “whether trees are diameter more or less 10m (summarized light) which complicates the photographic planning indicator or ecological measure a commitment or a conflict” (Pietrobom in table 4.2). measurements.
73 According to Ong (2003) the estimation below canopies was applied for common of LAI using linear canopy measurements species in the State of São Paulo by Bueno is based the fraction between canopy et. al. (1998, 2001), Abreu (2008) in transmittance/ attenuation (transparency, Campinas/ Brazil and by Pietrobon (1998) porosity) defined by theBeer-Lambert law. in Maringá. These methods combine direct The law assumes that light is attenuated and indirect, long and shortwave radiation exponentially as it travels through the measurements using a combination of canopy in accordance to the (stand pyranometers and radiometers. specific) extinction coefficient, k. The incident shortwave radiation (light) below The results of the Brazilian studies are the canopy, Qi, is related to the incident considered to have a good exactness because shortwave radiation above the canopy, they consider the complex self-shading and
Q0, and LAI, by the natural logarithmic multiple reflections inside of the crown (see relationship: Jones, 1992) by measuring also the diffuse radiation below the canopies. The results of Fig. 4.13. Hemispheric photograph of tree canopies in São Paulos Ibirapuera Park with fish-eye lens on 10th Q = Q e-k LAI (1) attenuation and transmission were applied of October 2007 (left) and experimental black and white threshold definition using Gap Light Analyzer3, no i o results obtained (right). in the Bears Law (1) to calculate LAI and are The assumption that the canopy is randomly resumed in table 4.2. dispersed is a necessary simplification that enables mathematical manipulation of Other instruments measure hemispherical collected data (see limitations). (long and shortwave) radiation below canopies to determine LAI are Licor LI-2000 Software which analyzes light transmission and LI-3000 and Decagon AccuPAR4, to through tree canopies using hemispheric measure Photosynthetically Active Radiation photographs is for example WinScanopy (PAR) outside and below the canopy. and Gaplight Analyzer. The values obtained by these software produce Fig. 4.14: Equipment used by Bueno (1998) Linear Pyranometer (Delta-T, 1993) (left) and Radiometer Empirical formula to estimate (Delta-T, 1993) (right) estimates of LAI, leaf distribution, mean Leaf Area foliage inclination (leaf angle distribution), transmission coefficients for diffuse and Another method worth mentioning to radiation penetration, and extinction calculate leaf area from few parameters coefficients. In Brazil this photographic was elaborated by Nowak (1994). The method was applied by Piertobon (1998). author and his team measured shading coefficients, height and diameter of Pyranometers and/or typical local urban trees (top 20 species) Radiometers in Chicago (United States) to developed an empirical logarithmic formula (r2=0.91) Another ground based method to measure to estimate leaf area of isolated trees with the relation between radiation outside and heights and diameters of up to 12 meters. Fig. 4.15: The graphs by Bueno et. al (2001) compare measurements of mean solar radiation measured with pyranometers outside and below the crowns (attenuation/ transmission) of Cinginium jambolana during 31st of June 2000 (left) and Schinus Molle during 12th of June 1999 (right) 74 3 http://www.ecostudies.org/gla/
Y = e -4.3309 + 0.2942H + 0.7312 D + 5.7217 Sh - 0.0148S +0.1159 where Y = total leaf area (m²), H = crown height (m), D = crown diameter (m), Sh = shading coefficient and S=πD(H+D)/2. The correction factor (0.1159) was added by Nowak for local adjustment of the formula for urban trees in Chicago.
The application of Nowak’s formula for typical street trees in São Paulo led to over-estimations of leaf area, compared to results of other models but the approach in combination with growth rate models (see Peper et. al. 2001 and American Forests 2002) is promising in order to predict increase of size, leaf area and Fig 4.16: Tube Luximeters used by Pietrobon (1999) (left) Set of pyranometers used by Ali-Toudert (2005) in Freiburg to measure mean radiant temperature. benefits in future scenarios.
Experimental application of CD in 2003. The authors further found, that the at University of São Paulo) in São Paulo’s Step 3: The image were resampled from th method CD method showed good correlation with Ibirapuera Park; on 07 of October 2006 original 300 dpi to 72dpi and the crowns true leaf area (R2 >0.71) (spring time) applying the analogue CD isolated, using Magic Wand tool of Adobe Literature review on measuring leaf area for method (Peper and McPherson, 1998). Photoshop microclimate modeling (see above) indicated This photographic method relays on lateral The following steps were carried out in that estimating leaf area for isolated trees transmission of indirect light through the situ and subsequently using image analysis Step 4: Real Height and Crown Base were is not a simple and time-consuming task, isolated tree crowns analyzing pictures of software in the laboratory. calculated from the pixel relation given by especially due to equipment, object trees trees taken on elevation. The concept of leaf the poster-board. and luminous conditions. area estimation based on Silhouette Area also Step 1: Analogue elevation photos of evolves the understanding that, in a three- isolated trees were taken on 24 x 36 mm Step 5: Subsequently the crown Looking for a more effective, simple and dimensional crown, certain portions of leaf area negative film (2:3 ratio). For greater accuracy, dimensions were cropped to obtain reliable photographic method to estimate remain “unseen” due to leaf overlap, resulting additional photographs are taken at positions Crown Height and Crown Width in Pixels leaf area of typical, isolated urban trees in in an underestimation of actual leaf surface perpendicular to each another and of (at least) and Centimeters in the 72dpi picture and São Paulo we found an article by Peper and area, while inclusion of the stem results in an two individuals per specie. A reference poster- McPherson 2003, which compares methods overestimation (Peper & McPherson, 1998). board was positioned and tape measurements the Crown Frame Area picture saved for to estimate leaf area. The authors found that of the distance between camera and tree and image analysis) the most time and cost-efficient method is An experimental study was carried in of the crown diameter were executed. their self proposed lateral color digital image cooperation with Dr. Erik Johansson (Post- Step 6: The enlargement ratio was calculated processing CD method, originally developed doctorate of Lund University Sweden) and Step 2: Photos were printed on 10x15cm by dividing distance of camera from tree in 1998, and revised for digital photography Paula Shinzato (Master degree Student and scanned with 300dpi (dots per inch). divided by focal length
75 Step 7: To calculate Crown Frame Area CFA in cm² both dimensions were multiplied with the negative to picture scale and divided subsequently by the enlargement ratio (see step 6)
Step 8: The CFA picture generated in step 4 was loaded into Sigma Scan (Image Analyzing Software), set Colour Threshold and measure number of pixels using the pixel count function).
Step 9: The number of pixels of the CFA Fig. 4.17: Image of Pau Ferro (Caesalpinia leiostachya) taken in Ibirapuera Park on 07th of October 2006 at 20 meters distance (left), absolved and isolated in Photoshop (middle) and threshold/ pixel count of Silhouette Area in Sigma Scan to calculate Leaf Area (right) was the divided by the total number of pixels of the whole picture to obtain the Silhouette area (SA) ratio.
Step 10: Finally Leaf Area (LA) = % Silhouette Area (SA) x Frame Area of Crown (CFA) and the Average Leaf Index by dividing Leaf Area by Crown Projection Area (CPA) were calculated.
It was found in situ, that it is difficult to find urban trees in front of homogeneous light surfaces (or sky) without interferences of other urban elements e.g. tree canopies (Step 1). Further, executing picture analysis and calculations, that setting the colour threshold (see step 8) bears difficulties mentioned for other photographic methods. Although doubts remain about the exactness of this method the results can be regarded as reasonable estimations when compared to results obtained with other methods. Table 4.1: Results of LAI of 13 individuals (7 species) see also table 4.2 The results derived from this study and those derived from literature research on
76 THE ROLE OF URBAN VEGETATION
Brazilian experiences of measurements of typical street trees by Bueno et. al. (1998, 2001), Abreu (2008) in Campinas/ Brazil and by Pietrobon (1998) in Maringá are resumed in table 4.2. Leaf area index was calculated according to the Beer-Lambert law (1):
LAI = LN((100-y)/100)/-k where y is Attenuation in % and k the extinction factor (here assumed 0.5)
4.2.4 Leaf Area Density As pointed out by Bueno et. al (1998) measuring (and simulating) the microclimatic alterations caused by vegetation canopies is a difficult task. To model the influence of the Fig. 4.18: Example of LAD parametric profiles for trees, 10m high globe canopies with light canopy density, LAI 1 (left), mean canopy density LAI 3 (middle) and high canopy density LAI 5 (right) crown on the wind-field, sky view factor, and extinction factor of solar radiation (or light) within and below the canopy, dispersion of be considered an absolute value due to • Estimating the growth potentials approximately determined by natural pollutants, evapotranspiration rate etc. in seasonal changes (deliciousness) and plant according to genetic potentials of the logarithms. detail, spatial, a numerical description than growth, which must also be modeled (at species and individual local micro- leaf area becomes necessary. least at micro-scale). Generally limitations climatic conditions to predict future Another sophisticated growth model for and challenges of estimating leaf area are: benefits. Considering seasonal change typical species in the U.S. was created by Leaf Area Density in square meters leaf and growth of leaf area is important American Forests (2002). It is supported area per cubic meter tree crow (m²/m³) and • Heterogeneity of leaf distribution and especially to model direct benefits at by composite tree species database of describes the leaf area distribution within leaf angle within individual crowns micro scale. more than 13,000 trees and 264 species the canopy at usually at 10 heights (storeys). • Interferences between individual tree typical in North America. The model LAD profiles thus include indirectly) crowns Peper et. al. (2001) proposed a method allows dynamic growth modeling applying information about the crown shape. The LAI • Deciduous and semi-deciduous to calculate the growth of leaf area growth rate formulas linked to climate. is the sum of the values of each storey. species represent significant tempo- of typical street trees species in the It determines for example, the height spatial variations of leaf area (and U.S. by deriving regression formulas change by multiplying the number of 4.3 Limitations and the need thus transmission of solar radiation) and analyzing relationships between growth years by the height growth rate, for Growth Models throughout the year. Tropical biomes like tree height, diameter-at-breast-height while the diameter-at-breast-height (DBH) the Atlantic Forest biome include many (DBH), crown diameter an leaf area change is projected by adding the existing Aside from the need for metrics of urban evergreen trees which represent smaller of individual trees. Their results show diameter to the number of growth years green (Ong 2003) the leaf area can not variations (see e.g. Maass,et.al 1994). that growth is not linear but can be multiplied by the diameter growth rate.
77 78 79 5. COST-BENEFIT APPROACH
The aim of the proceeding chapters was to payments for damaged or felled tress in the natural resources) especially in the United For example, the Stern Review on the Economics better understand the complex mode of action United States. The calculations of these models States. Recently the scientific understanding of Climate Change (by Lord Stern of Brentford of urban vegetation while the following try were based on simple physical measures, such of the environmental functions of plants for the British government, 2006) alerted to estimate quantifications of the benefits as as size, age, trunk diameter at breast height allows numerical simulations1 and more exact (not only) economists to the importance of demanded by various authors (see chapter 1). DBH (at 1.3m) etc., which were applied as estimations (or prognostics) of environmental assigning monetary values to measurements direct value indicators (Detzel et. al. 1993). costs and benefits. of protection (or loss of resources) and to It seems that environmental services of Later quantitative and qualitative indicators incorporate the environmental aspect into urban vegetation are constantly either were combined in empirical formulas to assess The issue of assigning monetary values to economical considerations (on a global scale?). underestimated or highly overestimated by monetary values (Detzel et. al., 1993, Silva et. the results of environmental (or ecological) planners, occupants and decision makers. al., 2002). analysis emerged in the late 1980s with the But as Martínez Alier (2007) points out, it Therefore it is important to establish field of Ecological economics (Martínez Alier, is crucial to understand the limitations of approximated local values, to estimate Improved methods of measurements 2007), which proposes the internalization these concepts: In Ecological Economics the quantum change and to establish guidelines. of the complex plant-soil-atmosphere of external costs of damages and analyzes discussion about the immeasurability of interactions (see chapter 4 and Jones, 1992) concepts of utility, efficiency, quality of (certain) benefits is fundamental and makes Attempts to establish values for urban trees can led to the (improved but still approximated) life and cost-benefit through multi-criteria Ecological economics not a matter of value- be traced back to the end of the 19th century quantification of environmental (and in some analysis as tools for a paradigm changing free ‘hard science’ (as some researchers intend due to necessity to claim compensation cases social) benefits of plants (and other market approach. to conceptualize).
It should be pointed out that economics The biggest challenge of environmental depending on size, age and localization. Several attempts have been undertaken is considered in general a social science modeling is the (more complete) Abbud (2008) points out that planting to measure plant performances to and that the values assigned for of understanding, systemizing and modeling inadequate vegetation in inadequate estimate the environmental benefits goods or services depend however on of natural systems including the places can make the vegetation become and/ or to assign indicators and an overview of the scarcity (see Smith, interferences of and on human activities. rather a problem than a solution. monetary values. Vester (1986) was 1776) of these resources or services. Since the subsystems are highly dynamic among the first who measured and It was, for example, only possible to (and transgress political boundaries2), A tree-by-tree approach is only possible monetized environmental benefits of a establish a global carbon market (in the definition of the temporal and spatial if the urban forest structure is analyzed single 100-year old urban bleech tree the Protocol of Kyoto) because science boundaries of the models is important, through detailed and time-consuming (Fagus sylvatica) in Germany in detail. changed the view on the issue, while but difficult and further limited by street tree inventories (see Detzel et. In another Germany study Köhler for other benefits of urban vegetation, technological capacities, the complexity al., 1993, Silva et. al., 2002) because and Schmidt (1997) - recognizing that like stormwater management, improved (and price) of the models. the strong qualitative and quantitative noteworthy greening potentials are air quality or thermal comfort no real variations make generalizations like principally localized on the building markets do exist yet, which is why these Generally it is agreed that each tree as its the determination of a mean value per surfaces (their façades and rooftops) - markets are called virtual markets. own specific value (Silva, 2002), mainly urban tree difficult. monitored the environmental benefits
80 1 It can be assumed that these benefits were appreciated tacitly for centuries (if not millennia) in vernacular communities. 2 In fact some of the worst environmental degradation we face today occurs at scales that transcend political boundaries (American Forests, 2002) COST-BENEFIT APPROACH of (non-tree) urban vegetation during developed in the United States, which 6,851.29 per tree (for trees above 50 based on early American models. For twelve years in Berlin. assign US$ 21 and US$ 27 respectively years of age). individual tree value calculation the per square inch (6.45 cm²) bole inventory analyzes 28 parameters Subsequently in the United States intersection. The method assigns a Silva et. al. (2002) developed another concerning dimensions, location, biology extensive research on impacts of urban value for each tree is based on age, database for inventory system evaluation and interferences with infrastructure. vegetation has been carried out from specie, condition and localization in and management for urban street trees The values for the rarest tree individuals the 1990s on, mainly by urban foresters urban context varies between US$ in the town of Jaboticabal (São Paulo are highlighted and range between R$ Nowak, McPherson and others, for 59.40 (for a one year old tree) to US$ State), which is like Detzel et al. (1993) 71.005,66 to R$ 711.609,46 per tree. example in Chicago 1994 and 1999, in Modesto in 2002, in Brooklyn, New York in 2005 and comparatively in five U.S. cities (Fort Collins, Cheyenne, Bismarck, Berkeley and Glendale) also in 2005. These studies are seeking for a valorization of urban vegetation mainly based on the quantification of environmental benefits applying representative strata inventories (predominant species/ biodiversity, health, distribution etc.) measurements and environmental modeling.
In the United States the cost-benefit analysis has proved to be a powerful instrument to estimate a monetary relation between the costs/ risks and the benefits of urban vegetation, to support public policies and (in the past) to invalidate prejudices against the eventual political motivation of the protagonists of such “green” urban development.
In Brazil, Detzel et. al. (1993) carried out a monetary evaluation of individual street trees in Maringá, in the State of Paraná/ Brazil developing empirical indicators based on two methods
Table 5.1: Overview shortlist of costs and benefits, indication whether estimated or simulated and empirical estimate of importance of the impact on the cost/ benefit ratio 81 5.1 Overview for Indirect benefits in contrast are benefits summarized shortly in 5.3.1 • Planting (McPherson et. al. 2005) regional, citywide or even global because these will be analyzed (and The planting work in São Paulo is Estimations of benefits, less certain and consequently modeled or estimated respectively) in executed mostly by third party firms, Cost-Benefit Analysis less appreciated than direct benefits. more detail in chapter 6. but initiated by the sub-municipalities Indirect benefits of urban vegetation of each district and supervised by the The following resume attempts to give especially in predominantly hot locations 5.2 Costs a comprehensive overview (e.g for the are linked to urban development, the SVMA. Since planting is also allowed without consulting the SVMA, the elaboration of check lists), showing mitigation of the urban heat island 5.2.1 Planting and the complexity of the issue of urban (thus indirectly thermal comfort and secretary published graphic material vegetation. The price groups for tree energy efficiency but also to ecological Maintenance to indicate best practice, legislation, maintenance proposed by McPherson functions, biodiversity, hydrological practical planting questions like et. al. 2005 were adapted and indirect resources, air quality etc. indications of adequate species, costs (due to technical problems) • Planning and Administration planting on narrow sidewalks, below (McPherson et. al. 2005) electric wires etc. (SVMA, 2005). derived from various expert interviews The direct and indirect cost and However, whatever citizen has the carried out with specialists of the SVMA benefit classes of the overview table McPherson et. al. (2005) remind right to order an urban tree in front of São Paulo. The benefit groups were below were derived from literature that administration costs are often of their house from the SVMA. derived from literature research (various research (mainly McPherson et. al. the highest costs of urban street authors). 2005 and other sources indicated) and trees/ the urban forest (including all general observations which adapt the administrative, planning, research, • Pruning, removal, disposal Direct and indirect Benefits concepts to a tropical urban forest. educational etc. activities). In São (Velasco, 2003) It resumes the complex, sometimes Paulo administration is divided by 32 The pruning, removal and disposal Direct benefits are local, more certain beneficial and sometimes conflictive sub-municipalities and supervised by work in São Paulo is mostly executed and consequently more appreciated relations between urban vegetation the SVMA, while practice of planting by three part firms, but in special than indirect benefits. Local, direct and the other mostly technical urban and maintenance services mostly are cases (especially windbreak and benefits of vegetation are immediate infrastructures (like roads, and awarded to public sector contracts. case, linked to the electric wires, benefits to buildings and properties sideways pavements, wires and ducts). the electricity supplier Eletropaulo, (Akbari, 2001) like shade, thermal The list classifies environmental and Various plans and public policies as well as the fire brigade, are comfort, energy conservation, but social benefits, as well as maintenance, for urban greening exist in São officially permitted to execute this also highly subjective benefits like and environmental drawbacks (indirect Paulo and a tree inventory (SIGAL) work. According to Eletropaulo3 fatal aesthetics/ beauty, recreation and costs). is experimental phase. An improved accidents, close wires to, caused by hedonic satisfaction (Mota, 2006). revision and planning of the urban unprofessional pruning occurs. Further the direct use value describes The following section gives short landscape, a more evenly distributed the use of parts of the environmental comments on the direct and indirect greening of public spaces as well as • Irrigation resource, its raw material, e.g. costs for planting, maintenance and the strategic positioning of species wood, medical extracts and fruits. drawbacks (in 5.2) and of social and according to their leaf density, The need of watering plants is Direct benefits include also benefits environmental benefits (in 5.3). The growths etc. of vegetation would are rarely necessary in São Paulo. generated on private property indicated authors are (as in table 5.1) necessary to improve the quality and During most of the time of the year generated by both public and private preferably, local example authors. Of to maximize benefits of the urban the generous rain gauges, of the vegetation. special interest are the environmental vegetation. hot and humid climate overcomes
82 3 http://www.eletropaulo.com.br
evapotranspiration rates, so that Fig. 5.1: Urban water stress of plants (urban trees) tree used as a shelter place rarely occurs. However during the (left) and single aforementioned dry winters the need trees and green for irrigation becomes eventually areas are necessary (due to limited storage) abused to dump litter (right) when water stress is too high to (Photos by the guarantee the survival of the plants. author)
• Litterfall (Gouvêa , 2002) Since urban trees in São Paulo are mostly evergreen or semi-deciduous accumulated litterfall (like during the autumn in temperate climates) does not occur but taller leafs sometime cause blockage of drainage pits (especially in combination with garbage and street waste) and thus (indirectly) contribute to inundations leading to (increased costs) for regular urban cleaning (see Gouvêa , 2002) The crowns, aside from interferences A drawback with neutralizing Carbon hand it has also been suggested • Infrastructure and Liability with wires often do not warranted emission with urban trees is that that nocturnal street lighting could (Velasco, 2003) structural clearances for trucks and tree maintenance equipment such as stimulate photosynthesis even busses, due to ignored pruning chain saws, chippers and backhoes The integration of street trees with at night. Additional research on needs of street trees with high-crown emit carbon into the atmosphere. the urban infrastructures (pavements, metabolism for local species in urban bases. The interference of views like sewers, electricity, telephone, conditions is recommended. obstruction of traffic signs, nocturnal In studies conducted by Dr. David Nowak and internet, cable TV, gas) is the biggest street lighting etc. can further cause Dr. Greg McPherson of the U.S. Forest Service, obstacle and challenge in many cities. they have suggested that if urban trees are • Storm Damages and Accidents technical problems. The solutions of In São Paulo there are especially properly maintained during their lifespan, the (PNUMA, 2004) conflicts of branches with aerial the aforementioned problems depend carbon costs outweigh the benefits. Carbon electricity wires and of roots with mainly on the planning, planting of released from maintenance equipment and The São Paulo Geocities Report from decaying or dying trees could conceivably sidewalks and subterranean sewers the indicated species, vermin control (PNUMA, 2004, p. 109) contains and other sustained maintenances. cause a carbon benefit deficit if it exceeds in and cables. Many trees planted in São volume the amount sequestered by trees. statistical information about Paulo (like ficus benjamini) are species (sometimes fatal) accidents and with superficial and aggressive roots • Carbon Emissions for Ong (2003) reports that certain damage of property which occur
which destroy sidewalks and road Maintenance (Nowak and plants also emit CO2 and other gases through wind breakage which pavements. Rowntree, 1991) (biogenic) emissions, on the other occurs especially during torrential
83 stormwater events during the especially in very dense (verticalized) • Building moisture intrusion 5.3 Benefits summer, when it is not recommended urban areas are necessary to permit (Lawson and O’Callaghan, 1995) to frequent the public space and both sufficient isolation penetration Shade and decreased direct solar 5.3.1 Environmental to rather look for shelter. Storm (daylight) and air circulation, to radiation can lead to and increased damage is often caused when street facilitate the diffusion of pollutants. Benefits humidity and moisture intrusion trees are in unhealthy conditions when buildings (especially near The environmental benefits (or services • Decreased Daylight Levels (e.g. due to vermin) but also through the ground floor) are not drying from the human point of view) of urban (Pietrobon, 1999) the canalization of the wind in street out which again can lead to mould vegetation can mainly be summarized as canyons and increased wind-speeds Tree crowns decrease the heat/ fungus, weathering and spontaneous an improved equilibrium of the urban (squalls). However the mitigation cooling load by shading (low rise vegetation on buildings surfaces (see water and energy as well as carbon and of damages highly depends on or not greened high-rise) buildings fig. 3.29) nitrogen balance (and/or cycles) and maintenance. during the summer (which has a thus the mitigation of the phenomenon direct, positive effect on energy bills • Safety of the urban climate and/or heat island 5.2.2 Indirect Costs and in hot climates, due to decreased balancing/ mitigating the meteorological energy costs) on the one hand, but Due to the morphological factors (see chapter and figure 4.1). Drawbacks on the other e.g. evergreen tree transformation of the space due to especially dense vegetation covers canopies do also decrease day- • Thermal Comfort (see 6.2.1) tree lined streets are sometimes be lighting levels (and thus energy costs (Spangenberg, 2004, Ali-Toudert, • Decreased Dispersion of perceived as more dangerous due and inefficiency) in lower stories, 2005, Johansson, 2006) Pollutants (Oke 1987, Bruse 1999, especially during the winter, when to decreased daylight levels and Santos 2004). the solar path is low. Very dense at night, especially in streets were Principally the shading properties The roughness of permeable tree and low leaf-albedo crowns (e.g. street lighting is positioned above leads to the mitigation of heat stress these properties lead principally crowns leads to increased turbulence Ficus) decrease daylight factors and the canopies. during predominant hot periods to and so-called lee-eddies within thus decrease natural lighting in the Like in many cities world-wide thermal comfort, but it should be and towards the leeward side the surrounding indoor spaces increasing green spaces are also in São Paulo remembered that the mitigation of crowns, which decreases comfort- operation time and costs for artificial often places of drug abuse and climatic extremes due to vegetation supporting ventilation. Further it can lighting (Pietbon, 1999). prostitution (e.g. Parque da Luz, were during the summer may invert to lead to chocking, so that airborne measurements and interviews were disadvantages during the shorter pollutants circulate and remain • Winter Thermal Discomfort carried out in 2006), which is also tropical winters. Here strategic (Alucci, 2006) trapped, instead of being dispersed the reasons why urban parks in São planting of deciduous trees can in the upper atmospheric layers. This Aside from the desired tree shade in Paulo are fenced and closed at night. maximize benefits. phenomenon can occur especially during the summer during the winter Some interviewees stated that they along tree-lined bus corridors and tree shade can additionally lead fear bandits hiding in trees crowns. It The trees contribute to the shade avenues (see Santos, 2004, Oke, increased cold stress within limited was also observed that places below on streets and squares and planted 1982, Bruse, 1999). time-frames. This example shows street trees in São Paulo are often surfaces, e.g. flower beds or lawns that benefits of trees may at certain abused as litter dump (fly-tipping) (even though they do not provide Robba & Macedo (2002) point out, times of the year also become and that tree shelter is occupied by overhead shade) do not absorb or that the open spaces in hot cities drawbacks, if not properly planned. homeless people. irradiate as much heat as processed
84 5 Humidification control: Especially in São Paulo’s dry winter when air humidity reaches unhealthy values of less then 10% (with low air quality due to little gauges or no rain for longer periods) the increase of air humidity is urgently desired, but there may be little water availability for evaporation and irrigation required. COST-BENEFIT APPROACH
pavement, such as asphalt, concrete, cement (Robba and Macedo, 2002). Fig. 5.2: Sunflecking due to shading (in Araraquara- The main bioclimatic (regulation or SP) (above) and control) mechanisms of vegetation Evapotranspirational are (according to McPherson et al. cooling (in Paúba- 1994a, Akbari et. al. 2001): SP) as principal atmospheric cooling elements (Photos by Shading Keywords: Absorption, the author) transmission and multiple reflection of solar radiation | diffuse light | Blocking of heat (and light) | Keeping surrounding surfaces of urban construction materials cool | during most of the time increase of thermal comfort and energy conservation.
Evapotranspirational cooling and lower air temperatures Keywords: Cool leaf surfaces | humidification of air | lower set point for air conditioning and less energy consumption for cooling | leading to formation of clouds)5
Secondary, indirect climatic control benefits are:
Windbreak Keywords: Turbulence | loss of kinetic energy | wind chill | equilibration of wind-speeds | increased thermal comfort in the winter
Carbon Sequestration Keywords: Decreasing global levels of greenhouse gases | Protocol of Kyoto | Growth Rates | Biomass and Wood production | Carbon Storage
85 • Energy efficiency (see 6.2.2) By absorbing and filtering out
(Akbari & Taha 1998, McPherson nitrogen dioxide (NO2), sulfur dioxide
1994, Ali-Toudert 2005) (SO2), ozone (O3), carbon monoxide (CO), and particulate matter less Buildings located closely to or below than 10 microns (PM10) through tree canopies benefit from indoor their leaves, urban trees perform thermal comfort and (potentially) a vital air cleaning and particle decreased energy use for cooling absorption service that affects the buildings due to lower set points well-being of urban dwellers and Fig. 5.3: of air conditionings. Indirectly the Democratic reduces respiratory diseases and carbon which would have been urban thus costs of the health system emitted for the energy production is spaces in (American Forests, 2002). São Paulo’s additionally avoided. Ibirapuera Park, Praça • CO Sequestration (see 6.3.3) (Ong • Stormwater Management (see 2 da Paz 2003) on 1st of 6.3.1) (Sanders 1984, Xiao et. al. September 1998). Plants are the only mean to 2007 sequester and store carbon (emitted (Photos by Vegetation retains rainwater on leafs, in excess to the atmosphere) and to the author) acting like a sponge, slowing runoff. liberate oxygen inhaled by animals Thus they contribute to flood and soil (and human beings), through the erosion control, improved water and photosynthesis which gives them the soil quality e.g. the protection and status of living machines. Further appreciation of natural resources, plants produce wood, leafs and fruits of waterways, lakes and reservoirs which can serve as food and biomass against contamination and pollution (as a renewable energy resource (Robba and Macedo, 2003). The and as well as a building material). unsealed soils associated to plants Both have an important future lead to a further improvement by prospective and trading CO2 credits draining water through permeable becomes an increasingly interesting surfaces that absorb part of the market (especially in Brazil, as a water, filter it and reduce the speed tropical threshold country). of its flow. Further vegetation acts as medium to trap water inside soil and plant and to evaporate it over long • Biodiversity and Wildlife Habitat periods of time. (DeGraaf 1985, Ong 2003) The provision of urban wildlife habitat • Improved air quality (see 6.3.2) and biodiversity is according to Ong (Smith 1990, Nowak 1994a, Klaus et (2003) a difficult parameter. Especially el. 1998) in tropical counties plants can attract
86 COST-BENEFIT APPROACH
through fruits and flowers eventually Through their leaf mass and 5.3.2 Social benefits to one of the most important social undesired poisonous animals (like the multiple reflection of noise benefits of green in megacities in snakes) or transmitters of severe between the leafs vegetation acts • Environmental Justice and Equity threshold and developing countries tropical diseases (like the dengue fever (to a limited degree) as a noise but the cities green areas are Since the socio-environmental transmitting Aedes aegypti mosquito). buffer or sound barrier absorbing difficult to reach and not well- disparities in megacities in emerging airborne sound. However the integrated with the public transport countries, like São Paulo, are often This is probably why wilderness, measurable noise buffering system. (selvagem) rather causes suspicion effect of vegetation is low but harsh, an increased environmental in tropical countries like Brazil than especially high frequencies can be equilibrium through broader public vegetation can help increasing public The amenities of living in well- in the temperate regions of Europe influenced favorably through tree greened neighborhoods in São Paulo and the North America were the plantations. More important seems safety, decreasing contrasts and crime rates (Martinez-Alier 2007, close to or within the central region perception might be more romantic to be psychological protection are restricted to the former Garden and/ or bucolic. effect of green which should Maathai 2006, Pedlowski 2002, Escobedo et. al. 2006). Neighbourhoods, the Morumbi not to be underestimated. The district and a few others mostly However it can generally be assumed out-of-sight-out-of-mind effect located in the south-west vector. In that an urban forest with a higher Kuo, et. al., (1998) found that the created by vegetation against loud the peripheries close to the edges of biodiversity could restore natural more trees and grass in the common expressways and to avoid visual more natural landscapes, green areas food-chains, allowing habitat spaces of inner-city neighbourhoods, pollution was reported for example are more accessible but pressure of the natural predators of the by Bistafa (2006). the more those spaces are used by on space in irregular settlements, aforementioned urban “pests”, like residents. The study also found that, although often peripherical, is so cockroaches, rats, doves, scorpions, “Tree plantings as noise barrier are an article compared to residents living near high that these areas rapidly become ants, termites and mosquitoes. of faith with many landscape professionals and barren spaces, those closer to green their clients. In fact the cut noise significantly sparse of vegetation and represent spaces enjoy more social activities, in terms of actual decibels, a band of planting clear boundaries between the “While desirable, neither a minimum at least 100 feet wide is required. These have more visitors, know more of settlement and the forest. benchmark nor how an acceptable balance plantings must include both, dense scrubs their neighbours, and have stronger can be achieved manually have yet been and trees; trees alone are ineffective. Even feelings of belonging. In other words, identified yet. Nature, of course, establishes in these widths and with appropriate species, • Green Jobs its own equilibrium and both enables and a tree barrier can reduce sound only about relationships between neighbours requires a high level of biodiversity to 3 to 5 decibels per 100 feet. Any effect from are made stronger simply through For example the Agenda 21 maintain this equilibrium. In the man-made smaller planted barriers is primarily out-of the presence of vegetation. (composed in Rio de Janeiro in landscape, it is not clear quantitatively how sight, out-of mind phenomenon – valuable biodiversity benefits the human environment. in its own way, but not actually decreasing 1992) mentions the need to create On the whole, the recommendation is towards physical noise. Except on very large properties In São Paulo especially large employments which foster more greater biodiversity and enabling a natural where a “noise forest” or extensive grading green areas and parks, like the sustainable cities. Green Jobs are for balance as much as possible. Connections might be used, neither planting nor physical aforementioned Ibirapuera Park, example employees which work with between green patches are useful in helping landscape construction offers particularly animal migration but also increase the risk of good possibilities for decreasing the actual are the cities most democratic tree planting, maintenance and to infection and contamination” (Ong, 2003). noise itself. This leaves two options for the urban spaces, where all social strata improve the health and safety of the landscape professional: screening or making meet in public spaces, especially urban forest. Recently some projects • Sound (and Vision) Barrier (Huang the perception of noise and lobbying for on weekends and where conflicts intend to employ e.g. local tree- policies that prevent or decrease noise at its et. al 1992, Long-Sheng et. al 1993, source. Make noise invisible” (Thompson and and contrasts apparently become godfathers in neighbourhoods on a Bistafa 2006) Soving 2000) almost invisible6. This aspect seems voluntary basis.
6 Similar phenomena are reported, especially from Rio de Janeiros beaches for example in Vaz, Knierbein and Welch Guerra (2006) 87 7 In his presentation in São Paulo on 2nd of March 2009 on São Paulo • Identity and Beauty (Robba and property (and housing) value. Some growing (also e.g. in combination Various authors report the decrease of Macedo 2003) cost-benefit models like the UFORE with small livestock breeding). Local stress-related illnesses due to contact and STRATUM models (USDA, 2006) food production is a retro-innovation with nature). For example Taylor, et. al. Although nature’s fragments inside consider the increased value of the (and was common in the past) and (2001) found that symptoms of children the metropolis are often perceived property due to tall trees applying food self sufficiency is an interesting with Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD) as left-overs of the urbanization an empirical formula derived in the option to exploit urban resources and are relieved after contact with nature. process, strange, alienated and United States. to increase quality of life especially The greener the setting, the more the even “foreign objects” they remain though more independency of the relief was reported. By comparison, important objects in the urban Anderson and Coredell (1988) found underprivileged urban population. activities indoors such as watching TV landscape, represent Nature and/or that each large front-yard tree was or outdoors in paved, non-green areas every-day Poetry (as Prof. Christian associated with 0.88% increased in leave ADD children functioning worse. Werthmann named it)7. Robba and Although unimportant yet in São sales price in the U.S. According to Macedo (2003) mention e.g. the blue Paulo, in Brazil various projects exist estimates by Morancho (2002), in Robba and Macedo (2003) mention flowers of the Jacarandá tree, or the for example in Sete Lagoas in the Spain each 100 meters further away e.g. that the solar protection of red, white and yellow flowered Ipês, State of Minas Gerais (Lutterbach, from a green area means a drop tree canopies could decrease skin as symbols of urban identity and 2007) were food is being cultivated of approximately 1,800 Euros, of cancer, due to decreased ultraviolet beauty in Brazil. on urban areas which were unutilized median housing price. In São Paulo, in the past. In São Paulo harvesting solar radiation in tree shaded public Giannasi (2007) reported that the “Open spaces bear symbolical importance the literally “low hanging fruits” of spaces. However, since natural as well because they become referential and values of apartments in residential fructiferous street trees is a quite landscapes in megacities like São scenic objects in the city landscape, fulfilling towers with views on Ibirapuera Park common activity, while the fruits Paulo are in many locations distant an important role in the identity of the are worth double than those without can, if not harvested be a problem. and/ or difficult and time and money neighborhood or streets. We have all used views on the extensive inner-city consuming to reach, the contact of “the square” or the “big tree in bloom” near our house as a reference to indicate the way green area. However, especially the roofs of city-dwellers with the nature is often or give directions. They are objects of our buildings as well as abandoned inner- limited to inner city urban vegetation urban embellishment, recovering the image However, it seems as if the urban city areas (brownfields) could in the (street trees and parks). of nature in the city. Green and landscaped residents perception of urban green spaces are progressively associated with an future be interesting options to lay in São Paulo was changing recently, oasis amid massive urbanization” Robba and out community gardens because • Recreation (Morancho, 2003). as various release handouts for Macedo, 2003 the synergetic effect which foster residential real estate enterprises Various authors mention the local food production, decrease which offer views on parks and importance of urban green for • Property increase (Escobedo et. al. transport cost, air pollution, increase forests (and/ or are well greened recreation, either in private gardens 2006, Anderson and Cordell 1988, independency, energy efficiency, themselves) collected between 2007 (see property increase) or in Morancho 2002) stormwater retention etc. influence and 2009 illustrate. parks and other green areas (see In cities with great socio-economical urban sustainability positively in Environmental Justice and Equity) contrast like São Paulo vegetation many ways. Hedonic approaches, which regard • Urban Agriculture cover can be indicator marginality “pleasure is the highest good”, principally in the peripheries. An increasingly researched and • Physical and psychological Health recognize urban vegetation as However in formal inner-city proposed form of urban vegetation (Ulrich et. al. 1991, Schroeder and something “right” because it causes neighbourhoods it tends to increases in the course of sustainability is crop Lewis, 1991) pleasure (see Morancho, 2003).
88 ENVIRONMENTAL MODELLING AND ESTIMATIONS 6. ENVIRONMENTAL MODELLING AND ESTIMATIONS
After looking into the history of massive work and is described in the following input parameters (such as leaf area or degrees of complexity had to be applied urban land-use change and consequently chapters. vegetation cover) and the feedback here. They range from detailed, dynamic the decrease of the vegetation cover of the atmosphere-soil system e.g. (local, micro-scale), static (regional in the São Paulo region due to a rapid Since the social benefits (summarized climate (output). Modelling - although scale) to a simple empirical models to urbanization process during the 20th in 5.3.2) are even more difficult to be signifying reduction, construction and estimate the benefit per tree on energy century (chapter 2), the climate regulating modeled and/or estimated/ valued, they abstraction - is the only feasible method consumption (McPherson et. al., 2005). functions of urban vegetation and metrics will be ignored in this part which deals to estimate environmental benefits of (and their tempo-spatial variations at with the modelling and the quantification urban vegetation for a metropolis of the Another advantage of models is that macro-scale and at micro-scale) for of only the environmental benefits. magnitude of São Paulo. they allow explications, prognostics and modelling (chapter 3), the approximation comparisons of various scenarios that on the cost-benefit relation (chapter 5) Generally the environmental models Since no comprehensive model exists yet include for example seasonal changes modelling of the environmental benefits are here applied as a methodology to simulate all important environmental and growth of the vegetation (density, of urban vegetation became aim of this to estimate the relations between benefits, different models with different size, etc.).
6.1 Approaches and Models representative strata (samples) of and was analyzed for this case study. The strong qualitative and quantitative the most abundant/ typical species, tools estimate annual environmental variations make generalizations like Among the various models analyzed for distribution, health state etc. within the benefits such as energy conservation, the determination of amean value per this study two scientific approaches to municipal boundaries and subsequent air quality improvement, CO2 reduction, urban tree difficult. model city-wide (and local) environmental extrapolations, which intend to reflect stormwater control and property value benefits of urban vegetation (and to the spatial structure and conditions of increase as a result of urban trees. While Silva et. al. (2002) recommended optionally assign monetary values for a the whole urban forest. the sampling of 30-70 randomly cost/benefit relation) were separated: Tree-by-tree approaches are only selected trees (eight measures The tools STRATUM (acronym for Street possible if the urban forest structure per tree) representing the most • Analyzing detailed Inventories Tree Resource Analysis Tool for Urban is analyzed through detailed and time- abundant species to analyze the urban of the Urban Forest Structure Foresters) and UFORE1 (acronym for consuming street tree inventories forest structure in smaller Brazilian (see USDA, 2006, Detzel et. al. 1993 Urban Forest Effects), (USDA, 2006), (see Detzel et. al., 1993 and Silva municipalities, the USDA indicates and Silva et. al. 2002). This approach applied e.g. by McPherson et al. (2005) et. al., 2002 for Brazilian examples sample inventories of 3.5% of all urban relies on citywide, randomly chosen, in five U.S cities, follow this approach applied in small cities) because the trees to obtain representative strata.
89 1 http://www.itreetools.org/stratum.shtm
90 2 An overview of Urban Climate Models can be found on http://www.stadtklima.de/EN/E_2TOOLS.HTM
simulating the effects of tree canopies Therefore the results of this study should was used to estimate the periods of be taken rather as approximations and improved thermal comfort. estimations (and not as definitive values) for the costs and benefits of urban • CITYgreen (American Forests, 2004) vegetation and as an indication that it is worth considering environmental services CITYgreen is an analysis tool for from it. ARCGIS (by ESRI) to estimate benefits Table 6.1: Overview of simulation tools applied and respective boundaries/ scales of urban vegetation from land-use A further limitation of this work is, that raster classification at regional and it analyses only the most important local scales. The analysis, also called environmental benefits (see tab. 6.1). Rapid Ecosystem Analysis, does not These are divided into the (more 6.2.1 Thermal Comfort However the direct benefit of shade is depend on individual tree inventories appreciated) direct benefits - which economically widely underrated. Trees are but analyses vegetation cover and type are interesting to planners, owners and One of the main direct, environmental often a crucial urban element to improve using regional remote sensing (satellite) occupants - and (less appreciated) indirect benefits of urban vegetation cover, the thermal quality in constructed tropical or aerial (plane) imagery classified for benefits, which should be recognized especially in predominantly hot environments. Periods of peak thermal land cover. According to the authors, especially by decision-makers and climates of low and mid (tropical discomfort occur (in tropical latitudes) “the strength of the software lies in its politicians, because they can probably and subtropical) latitudes is the mainly around (and principally after) noon ability to translate the once-intangible only be improved through environmental improvement of the quality of the time, in summer, when solar angles are 5 benefits of trees into real dollar legislation or incentives. public space due to the increase of highly inclined (zenithal on summer solstice). amounts that can be factored into thermal comfort6 during considerable policy makers’ balance sheets”. The 6.2 Direct, local Benefits timeframes (see Ali-Toudert, 2003, During these time frames overhead model estimates annual stormwater Spangenberg 2004, Johansson 2006). shading becomes crucial for outdoor retention, improvements of soil, water It is reminded that the direct environmental In the light global heating and urban thermal comfort, because otherwise and air quality and CO sequestering. benefits estimated here are local, sustainability thermal comfort must 2 important building shade is deniable more certain and consequently more be one of the main aims of the urban and because other horizontal shading However, one of the main challenges of appreciated than indirect benefits because transformations. elements are rare. The aspect of thermal this study is, that the models are applied they are immediate benefits to buildings comfort affects all users of public, open for the first time here in the context of and properties (Akbariet. al., 2001). These Of all benefits accessing thermal comfort spaces like pedestrians, car drivers and a citywide study are yet not calibrated benefits (like shade, thermal comfort, and energy efficiency is the most complex (motor) cyclists. (and not completely reliable), to exactly energy conservation) show especially very due to very strong temporal and especial predict the outcome of urban canopy high spatial variations within the various variations. Therefore this studies uses change (and thus e.g. on climate change). morphologies of São Paulo’s urban fabric simplifications (such as typical urban The shading coefficient (or the ratio the The local context of a tropical megacity which makes generalizations extremely tissues and a typical summer day) to between transmission and attenuation of with sparse vegetation located in an difficult. Generally it can be resumed that show tendencies and estimations. The solar radiation) of tree canopies (depending emerging country makes further made the direct benefits of urban vegetation are attribution of a monetary value was on leaf area density) is the most important it difficult to assign ranges of monetary higher in low-rise regions, (as long as high- solved applying a value derived from indicator for local peak heat stress mitigation values for benefits. rise buildings are not greened). another research. because direct solar radiation is the climatic
4 www.inmet.gov.br
92 ENVIRONMENTAL MODELLING AND ESTIMATIONS found that comfort leads to decreased All indices are composites achieved by numbers of work accidents (operational weighting the impact of the meteorological security), increased work efficiency and parameters. In open spaces comfort human performance, around an ideal air indices allow to calculate human temperatures of ca. 20ºC. biometeorological thermal comfort in the canyon air volume at near-surface 550 Criminality 140 35 height of usually at 1.1m to 1.50m above e Mendonça (2002) analyzed correlations 450 between monthly mean air temperature ground, which refers to the average height 30 and homicide rates in ten Brazilian cities of a standing person’s center of gravity in 350 25 and found for São Paulo a correlation with Europe (Matzarakis et. al. 1999). 120 Criminality 2 R = 0.56, indicating that thermal comfort 250 20 Air temperature (here also indicated by air temperature) The main variables to determine thermal may, during the temperate winter (or due comfort are 150 15 • Microclimatic variables (in order of Mean monthly air temperaturt to decreased urban temperatures) be Relative Frequency of accidents work 100 50 10 correlated to decreased urban violence. importance) 10 15 20 25 Jan Feb MarA br MayJun Jul Aug SepO ut NovD ec - Mean radiant temperature (MRT) Ambient temperature [°C]
It should be pointed out that these - Air temperature (Tair) Fig. 6.2: Relative frequency of accidents related to air temperature, Riveiro, (1985) (left) Correlation investigations based only on the one - Air velocity (Vair) between air temperature and urban criminality in São Paulo, analyzing mean air temperatures 1961-1991 and 1979-1995, Mendonça (2002) (right) mean meteorological parameter of air - Air humidity (RHair) temperature must be evaluated critically • Individual variables (metabolism rate, because air temperature can be used only clothing insulation and albedo) as an indicator since the radiation balance • Subjective perceptions (the is more significant for thermal comfort. preference of thermal sensations, e.g. “Some like it hot”) 6.2.1.1 Thermal Comfort Generally thermal comfort in open spaces City Indices is mainly influenced by (direct) solar radiation (increase of heat stredd) and Although thermal perception depends of air movement (ventilation, decrease Wind highly on the individual objectifyingthermal of heat stress) represent high variations comfort (or heat stress respectively) is especially (in tropical latitudes), while air possible by calculating the human energy temperature and humidity vary less and Air Temperature balance (gains and losses of energy) and are more homogeneous in spatial terms. calibrate indices in combination with surveys with locally adapted persons. In the following five indices to assess Humidity MAN COMFORT The empirical formulas can then predict thermal comfort in the tropical outdoor thermal sensations for the majority of the environments analyzed are shortly Fig. 6.3: Brainmap shows the complex interactions of microclimatic parameters and the urban environment necessary to be analyzed to assess thermal comfort in a simplified way population (up to 90%) and indicate more outlined. Three of them (according to sustainable urban morphologies. necessities of different models) will be
93 used as indicators to estimate thermal Fig 6.4: Meditating benefits of tree canopies (and urban man on Paulista Avenue in São Paulo, typologies). A more complete list of picture to illustrate calibrated of indices for São Paulo can be environmental found in Monteiro and Alucci (2005). and especially thermal discomfort (Advertisement 2006) PMV - Predicted Mean Vote Index (left) Scheme of impacts to calculate (Fanger, 1970) thermal comfort in urban situations near According to Bruse the index was surface (right) originally developed for indoor situations and subsequently adapted for outdoor climate by Jendritzky (1993, unpublished). PMV is still the base for ISO 7730 and ASHRAE standards. However various authors, like Grimme et al. (2003) and Spangenberg (2004) have pointed out that especially the Alucci (2005) for São Paulo climatic Perceptive (TEP) is the only locally cooling effect of air velocity is not dPET – Dynamic Physiologically conditions and occupants adaptation and calibrated indicator for climatic calculated in an appropriate way in Equivalent Temperature (Bruse, conditions in São Paulo yet and makes tropical situations. is being calibrated by Katzschner (2007) 2007) for various global places. The neutral an analogy to air temperature like PET. The index is originally named PET - Physiologically Equivalent temperatures given for temperate In a state-of-art approach Bruse (2007) climate in Kassel (Germany) are 15-22°C proposed multi-agent system for assessing Temperatura efetiva percebida. To Temperature (Höppe, 1999) calibrate the indicator Monteiro (2008) and for example 21-28°C for subtropical dynamical urban thermal conditions using carried out surveys of more than 2000 climate like Athens (Greece). the indicator PET (see above). The climBot The MEMI (Munich Energy Balance individuals in three locations: open model is a plug-in model for ENVI-met Model for Individuals) was developed for sky, overhead shading membrane and (applied here) which takes the thermal outdoor conditions and is fully described HL – Heat Load (Blazejczyk, 2002) overhead shading tree on the campus of 7 short term history of the individuals in the German VDI-Guidelines . The the University of São Paulo. approach calculates a temperature Blazejczyk (2002) also applies the MEMI moving in urban structures into account analogy, the perceived (or effective) (Man Environment heat exchange model, (heating and cooling of the human body, TEP=-3.777+0.4828* TAir +0.5172* MRT temperatures (given, like e.g. air see Höppe 1998) but with a modified clothing, metabolism rate, etc). +0.0802* RHAir -2.322* VAir (4) temperature, in °C). approach to take solar radiation into account. Because the concept of thermal where A common tool to calculate the comfort may be misleading Alucci and TEP - Temperature of Equivalent TAir = Air Temperature in ºC Physiologically Equivalent Temperature Monteiro (2007) also prefer the concept Perceptive (Monteiro, 2008) MRT = Mean Radiant Temperature in ºC of Heat Load, proposed in this concept is Rayman (Matzarakis, et. al 2002). RHAir = Relative Humidity of air in %
PET was calibrated by Monteiro and and applied in Tensil (Alucci, 2005). The indicator Temperature of Equivalent VAir = Velocity of air (m/s)
94 7 VDI 3787 Blatt 2 "Methoden zur human-biometeorologischen Bewertung von Klima und Lufthygiene für die Stadt- und Regionalplanung" Teil I: Klima. ENVIRONMENTAL MODELLING AND ESTIMATIONS
Figure 6.5: Hemispheric pictures of the sky view A sensibility study of TEP showed that monitoring were carried out on 19th of speed simultaneously at 1.10m height with fish eye lens for park (left), canyon (middle) decreases of 1.94°C MRT, 2.07ºC of air December 2006 in the central area of at the three locations (see fig. 6.5). All and open square (right). temperature and 12.5% of humidity are São Paulo (Neighbourhood Luz). This day measurements were recorded on data TEP in ºC Key English Key Portuguese necessary to lead to a decrease to an can be considered a typical hot summer loggers every ten minutes between > 50.0 extremely hot extremo calor increased comfort of 1ºC TEP, as well as an day and was used as a base case for 7:00h and 19:00h local daylight saving/ increase of wind speed of 0.43 m/sec. climate simulations. The main goal of summer time. 42.5 ~ 50.0 very hot muito calor these measurements was to create an 34.9 ~ 42.4 hot calor Since it was found that tree shade can reduce initial database for air temperature, On the square, additionally global 27.3 ~ 34.8 slightly hot pouco calor MRT by up to 16°C, while air temperature relative humidity, solar radiation, surface solar radiation was measured with a 25.4 ~ 27.2 very slightly hot leve calor and humidity is difficult to decrease, and temperature, wind direction and wind pyranometer. Surface temperatures 21.5 ~ 25.3 neutral neutralidade wind speed difficult to increase through speed for the summer period. of various construction materials and 19.6 ~ 21.4 very slightly cold leve frio the aerodynamic optimization of the urban natural surfaces were measured on the structure. Thus shade is the most effective 12.0 ~ 19.5 slightly cold pouco frio Three main typologies of urban spaces square using an infrared thermometer strategy to increase thermal comfort in were defined for the measurements: a TFA 31.1108 (see fig. 4.9). During the 4.4 ~ 11.9 cold frio predominantly hot cities. park, an open air square and an urban intervals of the measurements interviews 4.3 ~ -3.2 very cold muito frio canyon. Three meteorological stations with pedestrians regarding their thermal < - 3.2 extremely cold extremo frio 6.2.1.2 Modelling Methods (Huger WM 918 and 968, as well as comfort sensation and their opinion on Table 6.2: Interpretation ranges for Temperature of ELE MM900) were used to measure benefits and problems with vegetation in Equivalent Perceptive (TEP) by Monteiro 2008 On-site measurements and climate air temperature, humidity and wind the city were carried out.
95 Since is was not possible to simulate the comfort. According to (Moffat and Schiller, additional local climate parameters to 1981) any use of vegetation for improving estimate the thermal comfort indicator of the microclimate has to exploit judiciously Perceived Effective Temperature (Monteiro these properties according to site comfort 2008) with ENVI-met air temperature and requirements. humidity data were taken from a study by Gouvêa using RAMS (Regional Atmospheric Mean radiant temperatures (MRT) Modelling System) in a citywide study for the same day. A critical issue in assessing the human comfort outdoors is the need for the mean Microclimate Simulation: ENVI-met radiant temperature (MRT) which sums up all short-wave and long-wave radiation To simulate the improvements of thermal fluxes absorbed by a human body (see comfort due the attenuation of vegetation comfort inices above). MRT is the key canopies (at peak thermal stress periods variable in evaluating thermal sensation in São Paulo) the microclimate simulation outdoors under sunny conditions tool ENVI-met (Bruse 1998). These regardless of the comfort index used (see Fig. 6.6: The method developed to estimate thermal comfort based on climate and urban morphology on a periods occur when the solar angle is Ali Toudert, 2005). day (19th of December) of peak thermal discomfort. almost 90º (vertical). Further the ENVI- met output data was used to derive a One of the strength of ENVI-met is that it leaf albedo, crown density and structure) underestimations of the summer comfort logarithmic formula which establishes an calculates good approximations of MRT. At between leafs inside of the tree canopies. improvements in the results (7.1.1.)
approximated relation between mean street level, Et(z) (total long-wave radiation summer leaf area, transmission of solar flux absorbed by a human body) ona Therefore this study needed to be limited Air Velocity radiation and thermal stress below typical standing person (cylinder-like shape) is to the indicator of the attenuation of the street trees in São Paulo (see table 4.2). assumed to originate as 50 % from the mean maxima of direct (global) radiation Traditionally people in tropical countries upper hemisphere (sky, buildings and in cloudless hours (during peaks of direct used manual fans/ blowers to increase skin The solar radiation was adjusted to 0.7, vegetation) and 50% from the ground.(Ali- radiation during midday), which were evaporation cooling the skin; therefore so that direct shortwave radiation meets Toudert, 2005, p. 71) derived hourly data from Meteonorm 5.1. considering natural ventilation is important 700 W/m² which refers (according to and (together with forced ventilation) an Meteonorm 5.1) to the ca. 100 hottest A limitation of ENVI-met 3.1 for this ENVI-met’s standard extinction factor was interesting low-cost option compared to hours of a typical standard year, when study is, that only the direct component calculated to 0.58, and refers to a high leaf lowering air temperatures and humidity radiation is >700 W/m², Solar angle >45º of shortwave radiation is attenuated by albedo of 0.5. According to the author of with air conditioners. and nebulosity < 2 octas. The canopy vegetation, while the diffuse component ENVI-met different to the direct shortwave transmittance (or the attenuation) of passes unattenuated, due to the highly radiation, the diffuse component (ca. It is further mentioned that only in direct radiation is the radiation fraction unavailability of a model to simulate the 14% diffuse sky radiation with input 0 rather unfrequented situations, when which has the highest impact on thermal complex multiple reflection (defined by octas) is not attenuated9 and leads to an solar radiation is reduced or absent (for
96 8 In topical locations leaf albedos are according to Oke (1987) lower, estimated between 0.1 and 0.2 (see chapter 4.1.4) 9 See A1. [CLOUDS]-Section of ENVI-met 3.1 help ENVIRONMENTAL MODELLING AND ESTIMATIONS example on cloudy days and at night) and to tropical climatic conditions (see air temperatures are low, air movement Spangenberg (2004, Johannson 2006, can also in the tropics lead to and increase Spangenberg et. al. 2007) without forcing12 cold stress, like common in temperate and the model with external data. Since is cold climates. was not possible to simulate the daily courses of air temperature and humidity, Wind is due to highly varying changes in parameters necessary to estimate the speed and direction difficult to simulate but thermal comfort indicator of Perceived an important parameter in hot climates, Effective Temperature (Monteiro 2008) because it air movement leads to increased with ENVI-met temperature, humidity evaporation and convection rates and thus data were derived from a study by Gouveâ energy savings and increased thermal for the same day. Fig. 6.7.: Output RAMS 4.3, Macroclimate (simulations by Mariana Lino Gouvêa) of shows that the comfort through the evaporation of skin differences of air temperature (left) and humidity (right) between the six analyzed tissues vary especially humidity and convection on building The atmospheric model RAMS (Regional during the cooling period at night envelopes. As discussed in 5.2.2 a drawback Atmospheric Modelling System, Pielke with urban trees is that they block the wind, et al., 1992, Cotton et al., 2003) it is a decreasing the dispersion of pollutants and numerical model of multiple purpose, thermal comfort. Ali-Toudert and Mayer designated to simulate atmospheric urban surface are replaced by vegetation, decreased (or no) energy consumption (2007) estimated that a deciduous tree may circulations at different scales (Freitas, reaching a maximum of 2.2 ºC when for cooling. Unfortunately the benefit is reduce wind speeds by 30-40%. 2003). The initial concept of the model 100% of the urban surface was replaced limited to low-rise (usually residential) was created by the University of the by vegetation cover. Compared to other buildings since greened buildings are yet Unfortunately the potential wind-energy State of Colorado (CSU - Colorado State studies, (e.g. Alexandri et al. 2006, see fig. exceptions in São Paulo. is low within the urban boundary layer if University), USA, in the 1980s and is being 6.11), which simulated a decrease in urban megacities due to their general roughness perfected along the years (Tremback and temperatures at city-wide scale by 10ºC Shashua-Bar and Hoffman (2000) (cubic morphology with sharp-edged Walko, 1997). It is being used broadly for São Paulo latitude if all buildings were estimated in Tel Aviv (N 32º), that shading buildings, closely spaced) which generates nowadays, as well for operational purpose greened, these values appear low. turbulence10 and a rapid loss of kinetic as for research (Gouvêa, 2007). was responsible to be at 80% of the cooling energy11. As mentioned before the impact effect of vegetation and evapotranspiration of tree shade is more effective on thermal Gouvêa (2007), also simulating the 6.2.2 Energy Conservation of cooling to only 20%. The same tendencies comfort than the drawback of decreased benefits of vegetation on air temperatures Buildings were shown in the micro- and macroclimate wind speed. showed in various experiments that studies (see preceding chapter) and the the urban surface turbulent fluxes (see Natural indoor thermal comfort is measurements at different scales presented Macroclimate Simulation RAMS especially the Bowen ratio latent/ sensible principally generated by tree shade and in table 3.1. for São Paulo. heat flux) are considerably changed secondarily due to local evaporation There are certain limitations of calibrating and that air temperatures are gradually cooling from vegetation. This combination They show, that neighbourhood the microclimate model ENVI-met reduced by up to 1.5 ºC when 50% of the leads to decreased cooling loads and thus evapotranspiration cooling decreases
10 The intensive mixture of air within the boundary layer, characterized by roughness and consequently turbulence dissipates energy, emitted from surfaces and which also dilutes air temperature measurements. Air movement carries masses of air, either heated up, or cooled down (advection) on highly complex paths (mainly horizontally). At a regional scale masses of air cooled by evaporative processes by vegetation or water can enter the city through so called “cold- air generation corridors”. 11 Recently several sustainable architecture proposals use its potential at high altitudes on high-rise buildings to generate energy (wind harvesting) (see e.g. Ken Yeang). 12 Applying the “forcing“ concept to ENVI-met remains future work. According to the author as a microscale model, ENVI-met does not have enough reliable information at its boundaries about mesoscale meteorological effects or general 97 weather dynamics outside its limited spatial region. To simulate specific meteorological conditions, it is possible to force the model with external data (e.g. atmospheric profiles). air temperatures up to reported limited of due to urban heat islands have an maxima of only 5°C, in neighbourhoods important negative impact on energy with a maximum greening degrees (like the consumption, while summer oasis Garden Neighbourhoods) and on lee sides islands decrease cooling loads through of larger urban on hot days, which results evapotranspiration cooling (see 4.1.4). generally results in energy efficiency but Since the electricity demand is highly the exact savings are difficult to obtain. sensitive to temperature (Rosenzweig et. al. 2001) the urban climate has an However, due to the aforementioned important negative impact on the energy contradiction between desired decrease consumption of buildings in warm and of cooling loads on one hand, but also hot locations (see Joyce et. al. 2001). an undesired decrease of lighting levels in the lower storeys on the other (see Ali-Toudert (2005) resumes that while Velasco, 2007 and Pietrobon, 1999) the in cold climates using the vegetation attenuation of radiation by vegetation as screen against high winds is more (and thus leaf density) should be limited. appropriate while in hot climates, the best Schoepfer and Lang (2005) point out use of the vegetation should profit from its the importance of “finding the right Fig. 6.8: Demand of electric energy in Brazil Projection from 2007 MPX Business Plan Brazil`s ONS. Energy shading property to mitigate the intense consumption will have been tripled in between 1997 and 2014 tree shadows” to establish an optimized solar radiation in the summer as the balance between shade and illumination overheating is mainly due to the storage Energy, material resources and strong impacts on climate due to land- - is one of the most important aims to of heat by the sunlit surfaces (McPherson climate were since the beginning the use change and because they emit large achieve energy efficiency of buildings, et. al. 1994b). especially in the tropics. industrialization the base of Brazil’s quantities of greenhouse gases because of development. Today the national energy internal vegetal decomposition. Especially the impacts of heat load and 6.2.2.1 Energy Matrix of matrix presents an exemplary energy-mix efficient use of natural light are due to due to the efficient use of the hydrological As a tendency the national energy matrix Brazil and CO2 Emissions be central key indicators for Brazil’s first potential. In 2008 still more that 90% of shifts towards non-renewable, CO2 (and voluntary) energy saving legislation, It is important to analyze briefly energy the national energy potential still was emitting facilities, but other renewable which takes also the National Bioclimatic production in Brazil because buildings produced by hydropower plants. energies like biomass and wind also play Zoning of the countries different climates are responsible for 45% of all consumed important roles in future scenarios and and radiation income into account (Silva energy mainly for artificial light and cooling But unfortunately the energy matrix is generally an increased energy efficiency et. al 1995). (Lamberts et. al. 1997). Urban trees changing towards a less sustainable one could be achieved in combination with improving energy efficiency of buildings which will burn more coal, mainly due to the aforementioned renewable energy According to ASHRAE (2004) set-points of thus have thus a secondary indirect limitation of access of the hydrological generation (principally decentralize solar, wind and biomass facilities) which could be cooling facilities inside of buildings can benefit: the avoidance of CO2 emissions potential and delays of environmental be determined by urban local ambient for energy production (see Joet. al. 2001), legislation and permission processes a sustainable and feasible strategy for Brazil. temperatures and humidity (without which points out again the reciprocal for barrages and storage lakes. It is also considering shading coefficients). Thus connection between energy development discussed that the large artificial water In the past the most densely populated each ºC of elevated air temperature and environment (see Goldemberg 1995). reservoirs of hydropower plants have regions of São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro have
98 ENVIRONMENTAL MODELLING AND ESTIMATIONS suffered from water and energy dropouts to Akbari et al. (2001) peak energy and restrictions, due to the failure of the demand in the United States rises 2–4% energy network. Ironically the urban water for every 1°C increase in maximum air networks also fail when torrential summer temperature above a threshold of 15 to rainfalls cause urban inundations due to 20°C. The additional air conditioning use soil sealing. However the dropouts led to is responsible for 5-10% of urban peak a certain sensitization of the population in electric demand at a direct cost of several terms of the limits of energy (and water) billion dollars in the U.S. annually. resources in 1994 and 2001. Another recent study found that planting As Brito (2008) reported the countries shade trees could reduce the need for Fig. 6.9: Air conditioning hours in the months of October and March in relation to percentage of vegetation energy matrix potential is delayed by one power plants. Data from California shows cover in three districts in São Paulo, derived from Velasco, 2007, (left) and Decrease of energy bill per tree Itaipú hydropower station (60MW) due to that 50 million shade trees planted in in US$ in 5 U.S. Cities according to latitude derived from McPherson et. al. 2005 (right) increasing the increasing consumption, strategic, energy-saving locations could especially in urban areas (and especially eliminate the need for seven 100-megawatt due to more air conditioners. Since supply power plants (McPherson and Simpson, 2001). A study of Chicago’s urban forest which one-third consisting in alignment of VisualDoe simulations and indicated energy is crucial for development the trees in urban streets. The vegetation leads a possible energy efficiency of 14% to underestimated proliferation of energy found that increasing tree cover by 10 per cent (an additional three trees per building) to the most energy savings if planned in 57% for school buildings, if the trees are efficiency is an important (but underrated) residential areas where the energy needs strategically positioned. support to avoid future energy crises. would reduce total heating and cooling energy use by 5 to 10 per cent. are high, i.e. yards or streets, from 50% to 65% of energy savings. Velasco (2007) analyzed the potential 6.2.2.2 Impact of Urban Shade and evapotranspiration cooling from of street trees to reduce energy use in Trees on Energy Efficiency trees have been found to reduce cooling McPherson and Simpson (1995) assessed tree low-rise districts in São Paulo (S costs by 20-50 percent (Dwyer, 1993; various trees’ properties on energy savings 23º), applying questionnaires on energy As mentioned, trees contribute to energy Laverne and Lewis, 1995). At a national finding that tree efficiency depends highly on consumption of households. The low- efficiency mainly in low-rise residential level, researchers estimate that planting orientation, which means that strategically rise residential neighbourhoods in areas, which cover ca. 9% of São Paulo’s three additional trees for each building in trees planted to shade homes can significantly Itaim (vegetation cover 3.71%), Moema municipal area, but the potential of the United States could save more than reduce their air conditioning bills. (vegetation cover 11.71%) and Campo a functional use of vegetation to cool US$2 billion in energy costs annually. Belo (vegetation cover 22.92%) showed greater regions if used in new but In Brazil the studies which analyze the maximum differences of air temperatures (retro-)innovative forms must not be In densely built environments, trees can impact of trees on energy consumption of 2.41°C and mean differences of only underestimated and will be discussed be located in places, parking areas, street are few. The aforementioned study 0.09ºC, but also an increase of the later (see 7.4). intersections or in rows along the streets. by Pietrobon (1999) carried out application of air conditioning equipment The usefulness of the latter solution measurements of transmission of solar which varied between 3.91 and 10 hours In various studies in the United States the should not be underestimated as reported radiation through tree canopies of four in March and 0 and 2.25 hours in October. impact of vegetation on energy efficiency by McPherson (1994) and McPherson et species located close to buildings during Thus a correlation between vegetation (for decreased cooling and for heating al. (1999). They found for Chicago large one year in Maringá (Parana State, S 23°). cover and open skies above the three loads has been analysed. According economies gained from green cover, from Pietrobon also applied thermo-luminous different urban tissues was found.
99 Energy Consumption of different are highly useful as planning tool in Typologies regions where a minimum heating of the urban structure is desired. The energy consumption of buildings in the tropics depends mainly on their In summary the energy consumption lighting and cooling. Finding a balance of buildings in the tropics depends to a between daylight access and the set- larger degree on the external urban - built point for cooling equipment (to remove and planted – and thus morphological the thermal load from the building) is one configurations than in the temperate of the most important aims to achieve climate zones. The aim in tropical regions energy efficiency of buildings. should be to optimize the Zero energy hours of buildings. While tree shading in open public spaces Crucial however is the climatisation leads beyond doubts to thermal and visual concept and the decision whether the comfort of occupants (see chapter 2.4) in building is public spaces, during daylight hours, but dense vegetation covers can also lead to • naturally ventilated (also called very low daylight levels an thus energetic bioclimatic), inefficiency (especially in the lowest two • sealed and air conditioned levels of a building) due to increased • mixed-mode artificial lighting. This decision certainly changes the relation In other words: It is surely one of the between the public and private space, the most important - and at the same time separation into indoor and outdoor space complex tasks - of climate responsive (and thus climate and energy use for architectural planning in the tropics to climatisation) (see 3.2) The Dutch urban find the ideal relation between daylight planner Kees Christianse focuses on these access (depending on urban geometry, sky questions in his Open City projects (see view factor SVF, vegetation (see fig. 6.5), Christanse, 200813). wall-window-ratio WWR and albedo) and passive cooling/ shading (depending urban In Brazilian cities air conditioning is mainly geometry, shading elements, vegetation). applied to sealed office buildings, which tend to have curtain walls (more or less Fig. 6.10: Tree-shaded low-rise residences in Admittedly the annual direct and from the period of the construction of São Paulo’s Garden indirect radiation (and illumination) Brasília), and often shading elements Neighbourhood Jardins changes and shade patterns within local (like brise soleil, introduced in Brazil by Le (above) and principle urban situations are by far too complex Corbusier in the late 1920s) were dispensed of folding horizontal vegetation cover (or to be generalized, but for planners because at the time of their construction “landscape”) into a considerations of solar path inclinations energy was cheap and abundant. This vertical direction
100 13 http://www.urban-age.net/0_downloads/pdf_presentations/SaoPaulo/_conf/035_KeesChristiaanse.pdf 14 The abbreviation PLEA stands for Passive and Low Energy Architecture http://www.plea-arch.net/PLEA/Home.aspx
15 http://www.esri.com/
buildings surrounding is important. CO2 sequestering and growth but they also • Cooling Cost To estimate the important (but less tend to be more vulnerable. Generally the (Associated with running an air However, it is difficult to make citywide appreciated) indirect, citywide and climatic influences (radiation and rainfall) conditioner during the summer) estimations of this benefit because it is regional benefits São Paulo’s urban are more abundant in São Paulo than in locally restricted and depends on too many forest, CITYgreen (American Forests, most U.S. locations and efforts were made • Roof Albedo parameters involving urban geometries, 2004) for ARCGIS 9.2 (ESRI, 2006) was to adjust the tool to Brazilian conditions (Black, Dark Gray, Light Gray, White) variations of diameters, shape and volume applied. The model allows citywide but further calibrations of the simulation of trees. Only a larger number of small area analysis based on classified vegetation tool for national Brazilian urban conditions • Roof Insulation local inventories and case studies based remote sensing data, combined with remains future work. (R-Value, a rating from 1-60) on randomly chosen representative strata local models derived by urban foresters investigations could bring meaningful in North America (see McPherson, Definition of Area of Interest • The Distance of the Tree from the results. In a megacity like São Paulo least forty Nowak and others). The model created (AOI) Building small area analyses would be recommended in the United States has therefore certain (Only trees at distance of up to to derive representative mean values for limitations when applied to Brazilian As mentioned before one of the most 10.50m or 35 feet are considered) annual energy savings per tree. urban-regional conditions. important steps of environmental
102 ENVIRONMENTAL MODELLING AND ESTIMATIONS
Fig. 6.12: City-wide regional ecosystem analysis Area of Interest (Municipality of São Paulo), Distribution of Vegetation Cover and Topography (Projected coordinate system in South American_1969_UTM_Zone_23S, without scale)
103 modelling is the definition the spatial area of the alternate day traffic system • the highest outmigration rates forested Cantareira Mountain Range boundaries, in the so-called area of (Rodizio) since 1997 was focused next, occurs and the southern districts into the interest (AOI), the temporal boundaries of until it became clear that analyzing only • the lowest vegetation indices are forested Costal Mountain Range) CITYgreen are defined by an annual basis. this area would socio-economically found into rural (non-urban) districts with Since this part of the study is - in contrast to and geographically not correspond large fractions of primeval forest, the local case studies on thermal comfort to the ideal principal of an equally The original idea was to estimate only the which leads to the aforementioned – a regional city-wide study, the possible developed concentric city because the benefits from urban vegetation (street distortions. On its western and boundaries were studied carefully. so-called Expanded Center stretches trees, parks etc.) excluding e.g. the forests eastern boundaries municipal area much further into the western region in the peripheries but the discussion on of São Paulo is directly connected Generally investigation boundaries bear than into the eastern. the boundaries shows the difficulties to other municipalities and densely the danger of distortions and inaccuracies, to define which vegetation is urban. urbanized areas. but are necessary to limit calculations. The • Ten Kilometre radius around the American Forests (2004) have pointed out, following boundaries were considered City Center that “some of the worst environmental The following data was used to estimate and analyzed to estimate benefits and the The following approach analyzed the degradations we face today occur at scales city-wide benefits of São Paulo’s urban value of urban vegetation within the city: central region within a radius of 10 that transcend political boundaries”, forest on stormwater retention, air kilometres around the City Center (Sé/ which is especially true on the boundaries pollution removal, soil quality and CO2 • City Center República), an area of 314.16 km², of the municipalities of the metropolitan sequestration: region of São Paulo, where urbananization Since the degraded central region of including the area of the alternate day spills over political boundaries. the city, the original CBD (consisting traffic system of 23 districts plus 22 1. The Limits of the Municipal Area of eight districts, or sub-municipalities districts (altogether 45 districts). (shapefile), boundary of the AOI, was It was concluded that choosing the around the Patio de Colégio, see fig. taken from Fundação Sistema Estadual whole municipal area (like in all the 17 3.3) represents the lowest fractions Generally this boundary (which de Análise de Dados (SEADE) online aforementioned U.S. studies) would of urban vegetation, it was first exceeds the municipal boundaries (also available on the annual Sensus be the best choice, also due to data considered to estimate indirect at two points in the South-East Data CDs). The analyzed area has a size and in the North East) represents availability, accepting that regional of 1509 km² and houses ca. 11 million benefits of urban vegetation, until it best the highly sealed land-use of benefits (which derive mainly from the inhabitants. became clear that the benefits are of metropolitan area with a diameter of peripherical forests) are included. The the sparse vegetation are very limited 20km because it excludes the forests advantage of this choice is that it alerts 2. The Distribution of Vegetation Cover and would not represent the role of in the peripheries. This core region is about the importance of the whole urban (geoTIFF) was kindly supplied by urban vegetation within the whole also the area where: forest and allows indications for the city Flavio Laurenza Fatigati specialist city. However, vegetation plays an government. with the SVMA. The classification important role in the revitalisation • the surface urban heat island was derived from remote sensing process of the center of São Paulo. (identified by remote sensing) is most • Municipal Area data of Landsat 7 ETM+ 03.09.1999 distinctive The municipal area of São Paulo has separating spectral properties of • Expanded Center • the socio-economical (and a size of 1509 km² but, according to vegetation cover and other land The so-called Expanded Center (also environmental) and UQL indicators the Environmental Atlas (2000), only use into eight classes and originally called Mesopotamia because it is are most rich in contrast 870km² of this area is urbanized. generated for the Atlas Ambiental limited by the rivers Pinheiros in the • the most intense fluxes of vehicles The municipal boundaries stretch (SVMA, 2000). The data has a spatial West and Tiête in the North and the occurs in their northern districts into the resolution of 30 x 30 meters.
104 17 Fundação Sistema Estadual de Análise de Dados - SEADE http://www.seade.gov.br/projetos/eatlas/downloads.php?PHPSESSID=e15528b27a409bb6369c82f31388ad02 ENVIRONMENTAL MODELLING AND ESTIMATIONS
Limitations classes are recommended by American east zone (SVMA, 2000) CITYgreen classification: Trees: Forests to increase the exactness of CITYgreen classification: Impervious Impervious understory Acquiring classified data of São Paulo’s the Rapid Ecosystem Analysis with Surfaces: Buildings/ structures: All urban vegetation cover suitable for this CITYgreen allowing a more exact other buildings 5_Vegetation 1 (Light Green) analysis was difficult. Classifying land- determination of the vegetation Description: Urban Parks and Bosks use on the base of satellite images is cover of even isolated trees. The 3_Urban_2 (Pink) Examples: Parks (Parque Do Estado, a highly sophisticated process because existing file allows distinguishing Description: Regions with dense Ibirapuera, Carmo etc.) (SVMA, 2000). thresholds of pixel-values have to urban greening degrees of e.g. Garden urbanisation and sparse of vegetation. CITYgreen classification: Open Space - be defined according to wavelength Neighbourhoods but not single tree Differs from Urban_1 through Grass/ Scattered Trees: Grass cover < 50% and reflection values which include crowns. the predominance of condensed fuzziness and need professional horizontal residential neighbourhoods. 6_Vegetation 2 (Dark Green) adjustment. For this classification The following section describes how Roads with few street trees and also Description: Rural Zone including, (according to the authors) all areas the original land-use classification of few squares and residential gardens. jungle, reafforestation and agriculture were considered vegetated which the SVMA (2000) was re-classified Examples: Standard met principally in (Floresta ombrófila mista Secundária showed spectral responses of in CITYgreen to carry out the the consolidated urbanisation on the Inicial (capoeira) vegetation including not only trees but calculations. Note that the classes peripheries of the municipality (SVMA, Examples: Cantareira, Environmental also scrub and grasses. 1-3 describe urban tissues with a 2000). Protection Area (APA) of Capivari- minimum greening degree, while 4-7 CITYgreen classification: Urban: Monos etc. (SVMA, 2000). Higher resolutions and more recent data have vegetation cover but different Residential: 0.125ac Lots CITYgreen classification: Trees: Grass/ would be desirable, since the vegetation understory properties. turf understory: Ground cover 50% - 75% cover of the municipal area of São Paulo 4_Urban_3 (Yellow) decreased significantly (by ca. 10%) 1_Shadow (Black) Description: Intensively greened regions 7_Vegetation 3 (Very dark green) during the last decade. The more recent Description: Most verticalized regions (Garden Neighbourhoods) and areas of Description: Conifers and Broadleaf land-use classification by EMPLASA with great concentration of buildings urban expansion (SVMA, 2000). Floresta ombrófila mista Secundária Tardia (2006) was analyzed but could not be Examples: Old Center, principally the Note: Especially for this layer a higher (capoeirão) Floresta ombrófila mista densa used because the data was ground- districts República, Sé, Brás e Santa resolution would be desirable, since it Montana Atlântica (capoeirão) Floresta truthed excluding vegetation cover. Cecília, also along Paulista Avenue captures only vegetated areas larger ombrófila mista densa Alto Montana and State avenue (Avenida do Estado) than 900m² (groups of 9-12 large trees). (Nebular) (capoeirão) The spatial resolution of the Landsat (SVMA, 2000) In order to substitute all the inner-city CITYgreen classification: Trees: Forest image captures only vegetation CITYgreen classification: Urban: vegetation (1.5 million street trees) it litter understory: No grazing, forest fragments larger than 900m² (30m Commercial/ Business was considered as 100% covered. litter and brush adequately cover soil x 30m). The indicator therefore Examples: Garden Neighbourhoods: cannot be read as an equivalent of 2_Urban_1 (Red) Jardins, Alto de Pinheiros e Alto da 8_Water (Blue) the existence of whatever green area Description: Densely urbanized area Lapa, Granja Julieta, Interlagos etc. Description: Water reservoirs, lakes, in the city because it does not detect with sparse vegetation. Great quantity Áreas of urban expansion: Distrits rivers small areas or isolated street trees. of buildings, roads with few street trees Pirituba, Jaraguá e Perus ao Norte; Examples: Water reservoirs Billings, and few squares and private gardens Guaianazes, Cidade Tiradentes, São Guarapiranga, Rivers Tietê, Pinheiros, Although valid, generally higher Examples: Concentrated in the Rafael e Iguatemi a Leste; Parelheiros Lakes in parks, etc. resolutions and more vegetation expanded center, stretches into the and Grajaú ao Sul (SVMA, 2000). CITYgreen classification: Water area
105 Fig. 6.13: Quantification of the eight vegetation density classes of the City of São Paulo (SVMA, 2000) and re-classification in CITYgreen
3. The Topography Model (level curves coupled in CITYgreen and ARCGIS 9.2 each 5 meters) was derived from with further input data to estimate data kindly made available by the (quantify) decreased costs for Laboratório de Sensoramento Remoto stormwater management, air pollution of the Department of Geography removal and carbon sequestration of (FFLCH) of the University of São Paulo. the urban forest within São Paulo’s Level curves above 1000 and below 500 municipal area. and the geographic coordinate systems were adjusted. The raster topography 6.3.1 Stormwater Retention DEM-Model was generated with the The water cycle is intimately linked same grid size as the GeoTIFF of the with the energy cycle, triggers and vegetation cover with 30x30 meters. enables bio-physiological processes Levels above sea level within the like photosynthesis, evapotranspiration municipal area are ranging from 59 m etc. resulting in plant growth. Water in the district Marsilac (in the extreme availability is like solar radiation crucial south) up to 1209m (Pico de Jaragúa). for the survival of all life forms: plants, Fig. 6.14: Stormwater events in São Paulo animals and humans (see Kravcík, sometimes causing death victims (Cenofanti Subsequently the three datasets were et. al., 2007). Plants retain water on and Brancatelli, 2006)
106 ENVIRONMENTAL MODELLING AND ESTIMATIONS leafs, absorb rainwater from the soil about three times higher than in the their excellent guide book Sustainable through their roots retain the water temperate climates. Apart from being Landscape Construction – A Guide to their in structures and subsequently frequent the number of exceptional Green Building Outdoors, as a result, evapotranspirate it through leaf thunderstorm events increase in the controlling water quality and runoff stomata. metropolis due to the urban heat island. damage “is most easily achieved if Stormwater management is therefore a stormwater management starts at the The evapotranspiration of water from priority issue and fabricated solutions point that water contacts the earth” plant surfaces and soils is interlinked like grass and/or porous pavers or with the formation of clouds the permeable asphalt are recommended In the United States extensive research most important regional (and global) in São Paulo. of the role of urban vegetation on cooling mechanism, (see 4.1.4.) and urban water balance was carried subsequent rainfall itself has as well An improved stormwater management out. According to American Forests important cooling (and air cleaning, (in combination with sanitation) has (2004) city public works departments see following chapter) functions. But also positive effects on erosion and spend millions of dollars annually in impervious cities the evaporation drinking water quality and is one of on stormwater retention facilities. cooling potential is not well utilized the most important issues and which By reducing peak flow that occurs due to rapid runoff of the rainwater causes high direct and indirect costs in immediately following storm events, on impervious surfaces and reduced São Paulo. urban tree canopy is a less utilized but retention in (unsealed) soils and on integral component of a successful leaf surfaces. According to Robba and Macedo (2003) stormwater management system. at present due to massive processes An improved stormwater management that render the soil impermeable, According to MacDonald (1996) in is especially important in megacities cities face problems that may be Milwaukee (N 43°), where urban trees in tropical latitudes like São Paulo, minimized with proper policies of cover about 16 per cent of the city, were inundations are common during implementation and distribution of trees reduce stormwater flows by 22 per and after torrential stormwater events permeable areas. The authors point cent. The city saves an estimated $15.4 in the summer, due to impervious out that landslides and washouts may million by avoiding the construction of surfaces, quick runoff and topography/ be prevented by not leaving the soil additional retention capacity. In Austin hilliness. Retention and drainage of exposed to the effects of rain and that (N 30°), heavy rains make stormwater Fig. 6.15: Permeable pavements: grass pavers (above) and permeable paver (below) the stormwater on vegetation covers planted surfaces help to avoid erosion management also an important issue. and associated open soils are a and mountain-slides through roots Austin’s tree canopy almost twice that comprehensive alternative to retention and structure. of Milwaukee’s at approximately 30 facilities like stormwater retention per cent, reduced stormwater flow by basins/ french drains (picinões). São When rain cannot infiltrate the ground 28 per cent, providing the city with an Paulo’s legislation forces owners to where it falls, it turns into runoff. Speed estimated $122 million in savings. retain rainwater on the property. and volume give water its erosive force, as well as the ability to carry sediments Similar to solar radiation (see chapter Analyzing climate data from São Paulo over long distances. As recommended 4.1.1) precipitation is partly and especially showed that maximum rain gauges are by Thompson and Soving (2000) in during the beginning of a stormwater event
107 attenuated, which means that is retained on from plants and difficult to measure due leaf surfaces and branches and conducted to high tempo-spatial variations. towards the stem (stem-fall) and the roots and drained. Depending mainly on leaf 6.3.1.1 Modelling Method area and canopy density respectively the fraction which is not retained intercepts to According to American Forests, (2004) the the ground (through-fall). American Forests Urban Hydrology for Small Watersheds (2004) affirm that vegetation decreases model TR-5518 (developed by the USDA stormwater-runoff by retaining rainwater Natural Resources Conservation Service, on it’s leafs delaying the infiltration to the NRCS) is incorporated into the program urban sewerage system through drip off. CITYgreen; The TR-55 model was designed to analyze runoff patterns during a typical The water balance of vegetation 2 year, 24-hour single storm-event and Fig. 6.16: The impacts of urban vegetation on an improved stormwater management are reducing the runoff by increasing retention and improved water quality through filtering on leafs and soils corresponding to a unit value can be includes also a water quality model. described as the rain gauge equal to evapotranspiration, retention, superficial The model assesses how land cover (and runoff, infiltration and water storage inside thus vegetation cover), soil type, slope, and the plant. Evapotranspiration defined precipitation affect stormwater runoff volume, as the sum of evaporation (from water time of runoff concentration, and runoff bodies, soils, leafs) and the transpiration peak flows. It determines runoff volume
Fig. 6.17: Impact of the vegetation cover on through-fall of Chameecyparis lawsoniana, Pinus negra and Wuerus rubra (Robinette, 1972 in Mascaró, 1996 p. 81) The relationship between surface runoff and percentage vegetation by Ong (2003) based on data extracted from Pauliet and Duhme (2000).
108 18 http://www.wsi.nrcs.usda.gov/products/W2Q/H&H/Tools_Models/WinTR55.html
109 20 based on data from the National Institute of Meteorology and the Center for Emergency Management However the general benefits of vegetation be developed. In tropical environment canopies high concentrations especially developed a methodology to assess (or to absorb gases and particulate matter shade trees to generate thermal comfort of ozone can occur, which indicates the better estimate) the air pollution removal from the surrounding urban air mass to lower the metabolite rate play a crucial importance of restricting the density of capacity of urban forests with respect to (or atmosphere) remain unquestioned, role for such development. However the urban vegetation canopies (as well as the pollutants in 55 U.S. cities, depending especially because other methods which hilly topography of São Paulo demands fluxes of vehicles). forest canopy coverage on the site and on could substitute vegetation here are sparse. an integrated citywide planning e.g. along the urban forest structure. level curves. 6.3.2.2 Modelling Method The emissions caused by vehicles burning • Planting urban trees to absorb the The methodology determines a pollutant fossil fuel is (also in São Paulo) slowly being emissions According to American Forests (2004) removal rate or flux by multiplying the recognized as the main obstacles to render urban trees perform a vital air cleaning deposition velocity by the pollution cities more sustainable and livable and that 6.3.2.1 Dispersion of service that affects the well-being of concentration. The pollutant flux is then this problems needs to be attacked in of big urban dwellers. The software estimates multiplied by the area of the surface cities worldwide and in particular in tropical Pollutants the absorption and filtering of nitrogen over periods in which the pollutant metropolises. Aside from air pollution also Emissions of air pollutants, air circulation dioxide (NO2), sulfur dioxide (SO2), is known to exist over that surface in soil sealing, noise emissions, exposure of and the dispersion and absorption of the ozone (O3), carbon monoxide (CO), and order to estimate total pollutant flux by pedestrians and (direct) traffic deaths etc. are pollutants is a highly complex issue which particulate matter less than 10 microns hour for that surface. Hourly fluxes can be summed to estimate daily, monthly, important issues linked to individual transport. must be considered when planting urban (PM10), (as well as CO2 in another module, trees in a proper way is carried out. These see following chapter) through vegetation or yearly fluxes. Currently, air pollution Actually the are only few strategies to solve aspects can be treated here only in a cover or leaves respectively. estimates generated from CITYgreen are the severe problem of bad air quality in cities: resumed way. designed for urban and suburban forests. In order to calculate assign a monetary • Cleaner burning of fuels (e.g. One drawback with trees (in hot climates values for these pollutants, economists The megacity of Los Angeles (California), through the emission control vehicle also on thermal comfort) is that they block calculate according to American Forests - rated the most air-polluted city inspection) the wind; a deciduous tree may reduce (2004) “externality” costs, or indirect costs in the United States - was chosen • Alternate fuels, like alcohol or wind speeds by 30-40% (Ali-Toudert and (see chapter 5) borne by society for rising as reference/ surrogate city for the hydrogen Mayer, 2007). Contradictory it was found health care expenditures and reduced calculation of removal of pollutants in • Fostering of public transport, which is the by means of microclimate simulations that tourism revenue. For this study it needs to São Paulo because it is assumed that most indicated solution but on the other wind-speeds increase below isolated trees be pointed out, that the actual externality its indices best represent (although hand diesel buses in São Paulo e.g. would (see chapter 6.2.1). costs for various air pollutants are set in even underestimates) the high pollution need to become a lot cleaner. According the U.S. by the Public Services Commission indices in São Paulo. Another argument to Viera (2007) in São Paulo 70% of the The decrease of the dispersion of in each state, which means here the for this choice was that Los Angeles is a surveyed citizens by Ibope would change pollutants through vegetation wind state of California because as a reference subtropical climate of the city, which is, from individual car to public transport if obstacle were analysed by Santos et. (“surrogate”) city Los Angeles is chosen as as recommended by American Forests (in it was better developed. al. (2004) and Bruse (2002) using ENVI- a hot and most air polluted city in the U.S. their yet unpublished paper International • Fostering individual bicycle locomotion met. Especially on greened large avenues Users’ Guide for CITYgreen) also crucial is another highly sustainable solution for (or bus corridors) with strong pollutant CITYgreen’s Air Pollution Removal when it comes to choosing a reference/ which an integrated cycle path network of emissions from cars and in garden Module is based on research conducted surrogate city that matches for the air green corridors (linear parks) which should neighbourhoods with dense vegetation by Nowak (2003, unpublished), who pollution removal calculations.
21 UNEP/ UN-HABITAT (2006) Climate Change-The Role of Cities - http://www.unhabitat.org/pmss/getPage.asp?page=promoView&promo=2226
The Brazilian Nation is a major CO emitter, firms which neutralize carbon footprint. Emerging and developing countries, like 6.3.3 Carbon Sequestration 2 which annually “exhales” 49 billion tons Emissions of 2.07 tons per year, for a Brazil, not have obligations to limit their and Storage of greenhouse gases (published by the middle class resident in São Paulo are emission limits during its first phase Although the impact of atmospheric Ministerio da Ciência e Tecnologia, 2002) equivalent to ca. 14 new trees per year. of the Protocol of Kyoto (2005-2012), th carbon dioxide (CO ) on climate change is and ranks internationally on the 8 position, On a citywide scale 80 - 220 million developing and threshold/ do but have 2 of the nations with the highest greenhouse still discussed its impact on temperature trees needed to be planted annually to ratified the protocol due to the interesting emissions behind Germany (ISA, 2008). neutralize the megacity’s carbon footprint. increase is considered “very probable”. business options of being allowed to trade Carbon dioxide is considered a heat- carbon credits, generated by avoiding or Different from (so-called) developed However as a comparison the global trapping greenhouse gas, which absorbs sequestering carbon emissions elsewhere. industrial countries in Brazil nationwide mean annual emission also called carbon infrared radiation and is capable to alter the larger part of CO emissions is assigned footprint is according to Wacknagel and global climate21. Its rather homogeneous 2 6.3.3.1 Trading Carbon-Offset to (slash-and-burn) deforestation and Rees (1992) circa 7 tons of CO but depends concentration, accumulated and 2 land-use change, (70%) and to a much highly on life style and consumption which with urban Trees increasing in the Earth’s atmosphere is lesser part to energy consumption (30%) highly varies especially in cities like São traced back to the global human activities (Houghton et. al. 2000). Paulo and/ or countries like Brazil. In Brazil voluntary large-scale tree of burning of fossil fuels, since the planting programs mainly in non-urban beginning of the industrial revolution, degraded areas of the Atlantic Forest are In the context of (mega-)cities this Protocol of Kyoto to deforestation and land-use change relation inverts due to elevated energy replanted with native vegetation by NGOs 24 (also due to urbanisation) worldwide and consumption for mainly transportation, In 1997, five years after the 1992 summit like Green Initiative, SOS Mata Atlântica increased from 300ppm to ca. 385ppm illumination and cooling buildings etc. in Rio de Janeiro, the majority of the global etc. (in some cases in combination with since the beginning of the industrial According to an inventory on the emission community’s leaders signed the Protocol bank initiatives). These are considered revolution. of greenhouse gases of the City of Sao of Kyoto which’s aim is to decrease carbon legitimate tools in the national carbon Paulo (SVMA, 200723) 15,738,241 tons footprint and emissions of atmospheric reduction program. According to McHale There are only five prime ways to reduce greenhouse gases (such as carbon dioxide) et. al. (2007) CO sequestered by urban of CO2 were emitted in the year 2003 2 the effects of global warming resumed (Carranca, 2007). In 2007 the Estado stepwise to mitigate global climate change, trees can also be traded but the success (among others) by the Brazilian NGO (non- de São Paulo published an estimate of but until today global carbon emissions are of such programs depends on urban forest governmental organization) The Green 32,548,000 tons for the year 2008. still increasing constantly. management, latitude and the future Initiative22: price development of the sequestered • Replacing fossil fuels by renewable In contrast to the national emissions most of Again different from some developed carbon on the market. sources (e.g. by burning the the urban emissions are provoked by energy industrial countries, located in the methane greenhouse gas emitted by use (ca. 75%) mostly burning fossil fuels and temperate climates, in emerging tropical A drawback was shown by studies landfills, like São Paulo’s Aterro das waste (ca. 24%). According to the report countries like Brazil more heat and conducted by Nowak, McPherson and Bandeirantes, to produce energy). less than 0.5% (51,000 tons) are results of outcomes of global heating which are others (1994) which indicate that if urban • Increasing the efficiency of energy and changes in the soil and forest utilization difficult to predict must be considered trees are properly maintained over their water consumption within the municipal area of São Paulo. highly undesired (see Lovelock, 2006). lifespan, the carbon costs outweigh the • Subterraneous storage of compressed Especially in cities the overlay of benefits. This is because tree maintenance
CO2, (although a doubtful solution) According to Carranca (2007) an average (greenhouse) effects leads to the clearly equipment such as chain saws, chippers and • Reduce deforestation and reforestation of five to seven annually planed trees negative impacts described in the backhoes emit carbon into the atmosphere. of degraded areas is considered by Brazilian NGOs and preceding chapters. Carbon released from maintenance
111 24 http://www.sosmatatlantica.org.br/
112 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 7. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The large variety of costs and benefits research (data and models) and monetisation In the following the results (estimations) of to rather underestimate than overestimate. introduced and discussed in chapter 5 shows of the benefits is both controversial1 and the environmental benefits (see chapter 5.3) The social benefits (outlined in chapter 5.3.2) that a complete cost-benefit analysis of São difficult, because it depends on auxiliary derived from modeling are presented and remain neither quantified (nor monetarily Paulo’s urban vegetation is virtually impossible. comparison models to estimate the avoidance discussed. It is pointed out that all estimates are valorized) because they are considered benefits The quantification is difficult due to the state of of damage etc. concerned conservative estimates which tend beyond conceivability or immeasurable.
7.1 Results of thermal comfort and an increase of Combining the database for tree canopies of 0.8 m/s) the simulated perceived heat stress. (see table 4.2) with approximately temperature below the tree was 8.69ºC 7.1.1 Thermal Comfort and calibrated micro- and macro-scale climate lower than in the direct sun aside of the This means that comfortable zones are data for the typical summer day allowed crown, while the air temperature varied Energy Conservation actually visually recognizable especially experiments combining both scales only 0.1ºC, humidity by 5% within the Within different urban structures great during the summer due to shadowplay allowing estimations of the magnitude model domain. The wind speed was also tempo-spatial variations in terms of thermal (darker, cool zones) and is comprehensible of thermal comfort, pointing towards influenced only slightly and was increased comfort (or stress and perceived temperature empirically and probably influences energy efficiency. Definitive statements below the single tree crown, proliferating TEP) were simulated. It was found that decisions were to circulate in open, public which allowed assigning a monetary value comfort slightly. the distinct spatial variations of direct spaces (see dPET, chapter 6.2.1.1). to thermal comfort remain future work, solar radiation and shade are principally mainly due to unavailability of a model at Another interesting finding is, that the responsible for the variations of thermal During the midday hours of the summer this moment. However a general guideline comfort above the canopy improves comfort while air temperature, humidity and months, with no or little obstruction by estimation per tree will be assumed at the slightly (TEP decreases) due to the high speed are less significant indicators. clouds and with high solar inclination and end of the chapter. fraction of absorbed radiation and the low magnitude building shades loose their fraction of reflected radiation. In outdoor environments the local positive impact on comfort that they have Tendencies perceived temperature (TEP or PET) in the morning and as well in the afternoon. It is remembered that here all impacts depends rather on the complex and During these hours - which represent the The impact of a single urban tree canopy of the crown on micro-climate and changing overlay of shading patterns of peak hours in terms of thermal discomfort (density LAI 4) on thermal comfort (TEP) thermal comfort are simulated (including buildings, trees and other obstacles than - typical urban geometries and the users at mirco-scale was visualized carrying out evaporation cooling) since McPherson on the actual ambient air temperatures. of the public space receive strong vertical a high resolution ENVI-met study (with and Simpson (1995) had pointed out that Stepping out of shaded areas into sunlit radiation which heats up skin and cloths improved version 3.1 Beta II, 2009). On the shading effect can easily be estimated areas (were the air temperature is the immediately, causing discomfort. Due to the typical summer day 19th of December for a single tree, while the cooling by same as in the shade) on clear days results multiple reflection sunrays get trapped in at 15h (with air temperature of 32ºC, evapotranspiration is more difficult to in tropical latitudes in an abrupt decrease street canyons and heat up their surfaces. relative humidity of 40% and wind speed assess because the fresh air generated is
113 1 The monetisation of the benefits can lead e.g. to the commoditization of the tree itself, as discussed by some authors rapidly diffused in the air volume which Although the logarithmical relation traverses the tree crown. It was found that varies with for example with leaf albedo the simulated positive effect (of ca. 0.1°C) and crown shape (assumed here was on the lee-side of the crown is negligible an extinction factor of 0.5) and solar for single trees. angle (daytime), the relation presented above shows a mean approximation of In the following the impact of tree canopies the relation between crown density and (10m height and diameter) on surface shade coefficients. temperature (dry asphalt), mean radiant temperature (MRT), daylight levels, sky Another study analyzes the daily view factor and perceived temperature variation of thermal comfort (applying (TEP) was analyzed below LAI 1 (very light PET calibrated to São Paulo conditions by crown) to LAI 10 trees (very dense crown) Monteiro and Alucci, 2007) in a typical at 1.5m height and at solar noon (13h, narrow street canyon in Luz with no local time with vertical solar incidence). vegetation cover (actual situation) and two tree canopies, of which one is light The results show that all indicators Fig. 7.1: The attenuation of direct solar radiation by the tree leads to increased comfort and lowered TEP decrease with increasing canopy density (LAI 1) and the other very dense (LAI 5) quantified here for 15h air temperature 32°C, humidity 40%, speed 0.8 m/s according to natural logarithms. (see Spangenberg et. al, 2007)
These results underline and quantify the The indicator PET indicates a maximum benefit of tree-shade on thermal comfort (perceived) difference of 12ºC between but do also show the rapid decrease of the street canyon with no shading daylight levels below very dense crowns element and a dense LAI 5 tree and 8°C which can (close to buildings) lead to between no shade and light density tree. increased energy consumption for artificial Generally the trees are overhead shading lighting (see chapter 5.2.2 and 6.2.2.2). elements mitigating thermal stress significantly making peak heat stress The differences per increase in leaf area situation more tolerable. Their effects are index show that the strongest increase important especially between 11h and of comfort can be achieved with low leaf 16 h in the summer, while (depending on area indices, while the benefit decreases verticalisation) building shade generates with higher LAIs according to the critical comfort before and after the midday relation between daylight access and heat period of thermal stress. load. The results show that while mean radiant temperature (crucial for comfort) The results show that peak thermal decrease by 15ºC, luminance decreases discomfort on 19th of December tends to low levels below very dense canopies to occur in the afternoon at around 15h of less than 300 lux at midday below very when direct radiation still penetrates the Table 7.1.: Simulated impact of LAI 1 to LAI 10 canopies on thermal and luminous quality below the canopies, the perceived temperature lowers by one range from hot to slightly hot (p. 141) Difference per dense canopies. canyon, when the surfaces are heated increase leaf area index (above)
114 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION up and the air temperatures reach their at peak hours instead of almost 50ºC) Fig. 7.2: The relation maxima. Additionally it was found that underlining the benefits of vegetation to between Leaf Area Index (LAI) and because of the lower solar angles larger mitigate stress due to overhead shading. the attenuation of parts of the bodies of users are exposed the vertical solar to direct radiation than at midday, when The study shows that the microclimate radiation at solar only head and shoulders are attained. of a place (and thus its thermal comfort) noon (zenithal angle) under clear sky highly depends on its sky view factor (SVF) conditions (direct In the following the same climatic especially in predominantly hot climates radiation > 85%). conditions of the 19th of December were were thermal and discomfort comfort is tested for six parameterized typical urban determined by radiation during daytime. tissues (150 x 150m each) with different Especially during summer midday when spacing, building heights, population maximum heat stress occurs small sky densities, with and without vegetation view factors increase thermal comfort cover (LAI 3) and consequently different (while large sky view factors decrease sky view factors. Further all tissues were thermal comfort. all rotated 45º out of the North-South- Axis, to visualize and maximize the benefit It was further concluded that the of building shade (and its limitations). climatically most adapted urban form (at least during the summer) is the Jardim The original tissues which inspired the Paulista Neighbourhood (due to the parametric surrogate tissues distributed overlay of tree shading plus overshading throughout the central region of São of the buildings). Interestingly this Paulo. The respective citywide RAMS typology is also the one with the highest Fig. 7.3: Interpolated mean semi-deciduousness (of the local Atlantic forest biome, derived from master results (see fig. 6.7) were combined with potential population density and can thus plant database, table 4.2) shows that LAI tends to oscillate throughout the year between LAI 2.35, the local ENVImet simulation data to be considered a sustainable form which attenuation of 59.91% in winter and LAI 4.28, attenuation 85.29% in summer calculate TEP. offers qualified density.
It should be pointed out that only ca. Although this typology could be the 9% (see fig. 6.13) of the municipal area one which generates most cold stress are represented by urban tissues with during the short winter (which could be vegetation cover (right), while those with mitigated by planting deciduous trees) no or sparse vegetation represent more the aforementioned follows the strategy than 50% of the municipal area (left) (see necessary for predominantly hot and fig. 6.13). The distribution of pleasant and sunny climates of tropical latitudes. unpleasant places (in terms of thermal comfort) of the morphologies shows, that To estimate the time frames in which the tissues with tree covers are perceived vegetation cover improved thermal Fig. 7.4: Daily variation of thermal comfort without, climatically considerably more modest by comfort in São Paulo a modified version below light and below more (perceived temperatures of 35ºC of the software URBCON 2010 (based on dense vegetation covers
115 Tensil 1.2 by Alucci 20052) was applied. The program simulates the thermal indicator Heat Load (Blazejcyk, 2002) in local outdoor situations for 12 typical monthly days below open sky, fabrics (tent roofs). As pavement concrete was chosen, and a standing person as user, which is using mean albedo cloths (“intelligent user”)
The calculation using the comfort indices (HL and STI) did not represent the effects of tree canopies on thermal comfort precisely. Since the microclimate simulations showed an increase of thermal comfort below mean density tree canopies by one interpretation range – this empirical result was visualized for a typical year.
The estimated differences of heat load (during 4380 annual daylight hours) between an open urban location and a location covered by a mean semi- deciduous tree (10m height and 10m diameter) indicate that heat stress below trees is mitigated during ca. 1885 hours per year (21.5%) from hot (H) to neutral (N) increasing neutral daylight hours from 25% to 65%.
During peak heat stress hours (occurring in ca. 17% of daylight time) very hot (VH) sensations are mitigated to hot (H) Fig. 7.5: Perceived sensations while it is assumed that trees temperature in six typical urban tissues during the peak have little influence on the increase of thermal stress period and after thermal stress during very cold (VC) cold sunset on the typical summer (C) periods which occur in São Paulo day. Sections indicating sky usually when the user receives no direct view factors (buildings and vegetation) (above) and floor radiation because the sun is close toor plan at pedestrian height below the horizon. (1.50m) (below)
116 2 Tensil 1.2 - Coberturas têxteis: determinação das características térmicas e luminosas Online: http://www.usp.br/fau/pesquisa/laboratorios/labaut/conforto/index.html < access on 01st of July 2009> RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Yet another direct benefit of trees is increased natural thermal comfort inside of buildings, which leads to decreased cooling loads, cooler building surfaces and thus less (or no) energy consumption for the cooling of buildings located close to (or below) canopies.
Trees are (according to American Forests) most effective when located to shade air conditioners, windows, or walls and when located on the side of the building receiving the most solar exposure (maximum shade). The west side is indicated as the most valuable, followed by the east. In the Southern hemisphere/ Brazil however not the south side (like in the Northern Fig. 7.6: Mitigation of heat stress: Annual analysis of heat load in São Paulo and below hemisphere/ United States) but the north open sky (left) and empirical estimate below shade tree of mean density (right) side is more recommended than the south side, were planting should be avoided. local urban climate located in São Paulo benchmark of energy saved per tree Eletropaulo, 20083) only for each of increasing thermal comfort in open spaces because the climate of the city is also the 1.5 million inner city street trees Thus on the North side, the benefits are and decreasing energy consumption predominantly hot and similar to that of (Gregório, 2006) results in a benefit of R$ slightly offset by the negative effects of in buildings further investigations are São Paulo 23ºS. Since solar radiation is less 27.55 per tree and a total annual benefit obstruction in the winter, so that evergreen of R$ 41,325,000 for all street trees, trees should not be planted on north necessary, which remain future work. intense in Berkeley (according to latitude) sides in São Paulo. Further McPherson this means probably an underestimation while the much larger number of forest and Simpson (1995) mentioned that two Due to the multitude of highly varying of the real energetic benefits of trees in and park trees are we not considered in trees are about five times more effective parameters within the urban fabric, São Paulo. this estimation, since they do not directly than one isolated tree and that one tree especially sky view factor and leaf area shade buildings. located for shading a west facing wall is as and the costs to carry out a representative On the other hand mainly greened low-rise efficient as two identical trees on the east stratum of small area studies (e.g. with regions, which represent only ca. 9% of the 7.1.2 Stormwater Retention pointing out, that the optimal location of CITYgreen 5.0) an empirical approach was municipal area of São Paulo benefit more the vegetation is a crucial planning and chosen to value the direct benefit of urban from shading benefits than verticalized Generally urban trees decrease the design criterion. trees to regulate climate and to increase regions but it is remembered that this also total stormwater volume helping comfort and decrease energy consumption. intends to valorize the benefits of increased (especially tropical) cities to manage Benefit and value thermal comfort in open spaces their stormwater and decrease A value of 95 kWh per tree (derived by detention costs. The CITYgreen model However to define the capacity (and value) McPherson et. al. (2005) in Berkeley/ Assuming a mean annual benefit of 95 assesses how land cover, soil type, and of single typical urban tree to mitigate the California, 37°N) is assumed here as a kWh at a cost of R$ 0.29 per kWh (see precipitation affect stormwater runoff
117 volume. It calculates the volume of Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) runoff in a 2-year 24-hour storm event and Purdue University’s L-thia spreadsheet that would need to be contained by water quality model, American Forests stormwater facilities if the trees were developed the CITYgreen water quality removed. The curve number (calculated model. The model estimates the change by the model) range from 30 to 100 and in the concentration of the pollutants in are indicators for run-off. The higher runoff during a typical storm event given the curve number the more runoff will the change in the land cover. occur. The CITYgreen simulation for São Paulo showed a high curve number of The model estimates the Event Mean 90 for the existing land cover conditions Concentrations of Nitrogen, Phosphorus, indicating high run-off. Suspended Solids, Zinc, Lead, Copper, Cadmium, Chromium, Chemical Oxygen CITYgreen estimated the benefits Demand (COD), and Biological Oxygen of the existing urban vegetation on Demand (BOD). The pollutant values are stormwater savings management to shown as a percentage of change. US$ 2,225,951,969 pointing out that an additional stormwater storage volume of The promising results show, why an Fig. 7.7: Percent Change in Contaminant Loadings 26.5 million cubic meters is needed. The integrated stormwater management and annual costs for additional french drains environmental planning which considers based on payments over 20 years at 6% interest rates were calculated to US$ 194,068,636 per year.
Water Quality and improvement of Contaminant Loading
According to American Forests (2004) cities in the U.S. must comply with Federal clean water regulations and develop plans to improve the quality of their creeks, streams and rivers. Trees filter surface water and prevent erosion, both of which maintain or improve water quality. In Brazil similar regulations are due to be issued within the next decade. Fig. 7.8: Some literally green designs have been proposed to transform São Paulo’s river banks into more attractive and accessible for public use and infiltration CITYgreen using values from the US areas again, see Master Plan Strategies-Reconstruction of Marginais by Leite/ Spadoni (2002) and “Reflooding São Paulo” by Sagree Sadia (2006)
118 3 http://www.eletropaulo.com.br
4 A conversion rates of 1.83 Brazilian Real R$ per US$ and 1.47 Euro per US$ correspond to the average exchange rate of the base year 2008 http://www.acinh.com.br/cotacao.asp and http://www.yahii.com.br/euro.html
120 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
It must be pointed out that urban sidewalks for green fascades or roofs • Climate adaptation though shade: • Prefer and invest in sustainable vegetation cannot to be regarded as the is more stimulating than requirements, The functional use of horizontal and transport linked to green: Looking solution of urban problems (discussed in bans and rules and could incorporate vertical vegetation canopies as shading at the existing (constructed) city this work) but that it plays a key role to an economical valorization of trees in elements to increase energy efficiency and its massive transportation mitigate many of the aforementioned public policies. Soares (2007) mentions of buildings as well as thermal comfort problems (including those linked problems (and especially those of climatic e.g. the application forImposto Predial outdoors by protecting urban surfaces to it) it must be pointed out, that a nature). The following strategies should e Terretorial Urbano (IPTU) in the city and users against solar radiation. In high density can only be a successful be considered in addition to the existing of São Paulo. hot environments evaporating leaf and sustainable concept when public public policies. surfaces are more efficient (cooler) transport is well developed. Ground- • Stimulating the Participation and than any other shading element. If the based bus-rapid transit corridors • Environmental Education, Collaboration of the Citizens (in overhead shading element consists of concentrated with expressways and/ Communication and Art: One of the combination with environmental evaporating (cool) leaves the shade or situated along rivers tend to cut most important actions, even more education) through voluntary activities will be cheaper and more efficient (on connections between quarters, so important than the actual planting and especially the collaboration with the long run), then if it was created by that cross-fluxes need to be well- seems to be environmental education NGO’s is important. However it must any conventional shading elements developed (Green/ living bridges). because it decreases vandalism, not be forgotten that planting and which reflect or absorb (heat up), need As mentioned before only light increases acceptation, participation, maintenance of the urban forest is more maintenance etc. vegetation should be planted along survival rates of newly planted trees originally a matter of public realm the corridors, in order to permit the and the tacit understanding of the which must be approached and • The improvement of the natural dispersion of pollutants. benefits and necessity of urban supervised at a citywide planning scale urban ventilation: By planning green greening. Here Urban Environmental by a public organ. corridors which allow ventilation, • Built an integrated Green Art may be an interesting link between evaporation cooling, shade, bicycle Infrastructure Network: The the population and its stakeholders. • Maintaining a maximum of existing and pedestrian paths etc. and development of an integrated vegetation on-siteavoiding the common fostering more organic built forms citywide (literally) green transport • Preserving and maintaining the slash-and burn tabula-rasa, focus on (because these decrease urban network which seeks to strategically remaining Vegetation Cover e.g. tax incentives for maintenance roughness and improve ventilation) interconnect the existing fragments, especially in the peripheries avoiding rather than on compensation plantings different aims of more efficient use of parks etc. A shade infrastructure further deforestation to maintain the (TCA). The Term of Environmental public urban floor space. will foster alternative locomotion original forest and its unrecoverable Compensation Termo( de compensação like walks by foot, jogging, cycling, ecosystems. Further urban sprawl ambiental – TCA) is a useful instrument • Desealing of soils: Rendering soils skating etc. which is emission free and should be avoided mainly by changing but it substitutes mature trees by young more permeable allows infiltration health supporting. Especially in hot municipal social housing policies, trees which take years to substitute of absorption of stormwater urban environments shade trees are seeking for affordable qualified density the environmental benefits of the avoiding inundations and allowing crucial design elements to accompany with environmental quality and thus mature. Generally the Green Plot Ratio evapo(trans)piration (when linked infrastructure for pedestrian and green space within the central region GPR (Ong, 2003), see chapter 4.2.3, to planting) decreasing surface cycling paths, streets, central reserve, e.g. by recycling brownfields and other can be an interesting indicator to find temperatures and mitigating urban linear parks etc. urban voids with green developments. an equilibrium between constructed heat island(s), increasing thermal • Financial incentives like lowering and natural urban environment, but it comfort. Permeable side-walks, • Re-implanting (or “interweaving”) taxes for maintaining trees on should be developed further. parking-lots, gardens etc. street tree cover into existing dry
121 6 Parts of these findings may also be transferable to other big cities in similar latitudes urban fabrics: Most important in the public and the private. This form of radiation balance through ground shading. improve solar access in Manchester (51º terms of urban climate is to cover large delimiting property could be discussed in Analogies between cities and living beings N) based on Ralph Knowles Solar envelope open asphalted areas (such as parking megacities as an important benchmarks. like “urban metabolism” (Pauliet and Duhme, and “natural forest gap algorithms” in an lots) and broad streets (avenues and 2000) are common and the idea of an “Urban “intensified light stratified system”. expressways) with tree which have a • Every little helps - Everything counts Jungle” or “Asphalt Jungle” is apparently horizontal spreading character that even in small amounts which is true globally understood today, making part of The climatic adaptation of a city tropical provides shade to the surroundings. for damages and benefits, as they sum the global conscience. In Brazilian Portuguese (or a place in a tropical city) highly For replanting within city, the urban up and/or multiply. In other words: e.g. the term “Selva da Pedra”7 (Brick forest) depends on the local sky view (see fig. 6.5) climate map (see fig. 3.25) indicates the “Collectively we must come to the is used for São Paulo and in German “(Gross-) and orientation since shade is the most districts with the highest necessity to realization that there is no exterior to our Stadtdschungel” are widely understood. important property for thermal comfort. modify the summer heat island climate ecology. There is only one environment Especially over-head shading devices, towards an urban forest/ oasis climate and everything is entered on the balance An interesting question here is, in how far such as trees and solar sails are crucial for (principally the eastern districts). sheet. Every positive. Every negative. the city of São Paulo is similar to a real the generation thermal comfort in tropical Everything counts” (Mau and The forest in morphological terms? In how far latitudes due to zenithal altitudes of the • Mind the Gap: Literally any urban void Institute without Boundaries, 2004) can (or must) the tropical city approximate sun at critical hours about noon when the no matter the size bears chances for morphologically to a tropical forest? buildings cast no shadows. urban interventions; any open space • Verticalisation and Stacking of Tay (1989, cited by Ong 2004) proposed within the urban fabric (especially Vegetation since floor space is limited as an ideal morphology for the tropical The forested natural landscapes of the São brownfields) can turn a green space, with and occupied while noteworthy greening megacity to replicate the tropical forest, Paulo region were usually closed (had a associated environmental services and potentials in many places are principally additionally cooled by plants, finding the low sky view factor) just as many regions quality. Especially the degraded historical localized on the building surfaces. balance between light (solar access) and in the city have today due to densification, downtown of São Paulo possesses almost Especially the introduction of green roofs shade; McDonough and Braungart (2002) verticalisation and deep street canyons. no vegetation and offers interesting over the existing structure, covering city make a very similar analogy: “A city like a However open (desert) landscapes, horizon options. Planting in São Paulo’s often buildings in vegetation – creatinggreen “ forest, cool and quiet” (p.14) and “the city views, farsightedness and hugeness of the narrow street canyons is certainly a difficult roofs and walls” seems to be one of the is a forest, the building a tree”. sky are important perceptions (if not myths) task but could help to improve comfort few options to introduce more vegetation In the 2007 film Bem Vindo a São Paulo often associated with the New World (see and quality. Accessible by generating in megacities which do not have much (Welcome to São Paulo) (Mostra Filmes/ e.g. Williams, 2005 on Brasília). As mentioned dignified, central and sustainable popular room for lots of additional trees. Since Video Filmes 2007) Brazilian poet Caetano in São Paulo the higher the storey of an housing within the central region (e.g. on according to Scott (2006) light-colored Veloso8 (citing his poem Concreto9) apartment in residential high-rise buildings brownfields) is highly recommendable roofs only partially reduce urban heat and reads out names of residential high-rise the higher its value. Buildings seem, like trees, instead of in peripherical areas (like many in no way reduce runoff, just one option buildings in São Paulo baptized after tree to compete for light while it is in fact the best CDHU projects). remains: vegetation-covered roofs. species of the nativeAtlantic forest biome views into the urban landscape. in Guarani-Tupi- language: “Jacaranda, • The integration of natural elements The “Urban Jungle” morphology Caiua, Paraparai, Urucum, Ibirapitanga, However the most significant with man-built elements to generate and analogy Orabuta, Ibirapita - Pau Brasil)” morphological difference between qualified density: This strategy can the urban structure of São Paulo and attack especially the reduction of social As mentioned before land-use and form Martin and Keefee (2007) propose a the original Atlantic Forest biome is contrasts in a diplomatic, non-aggressive (morphology and sky view factor) shape the methodology to derive urban form from that overhead shade (which leads to way creating fuzzy boundaries between (micro)climate of a place by modifying the a forest-growth inspired methodology to thermal comfort around midday) is rare.
7 Literally “Brick forest”, reference to a the Brazilian Telenovela 1972 & 1986 122 8 Caetano Veloso (1947 - ) is a reknown popular singer and songwriter of the tropicalismo movement 9 Conceto = Concrete RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Therefore at neighbourhood scale, for • Bioclimatic Urban Typologies: The (to maintain illumination levels and island) are secondary for the generation of master-planning and concerning built development of naturally ventilated, attenuate enough solar radiation to thermal comfort, as shown in chapter 7.1.1. form (morphologies) the following issues permeable structures, which integrate generate thermal comfort. They are less should be considered to generate high natural and man-built elements, private of an obstacle for the wind and generate The concept of “light shades everywhere”, performance urban landscapes with and public space and use, incorporating ‘cushions’ not ‘lee eddies’ (Oke. p. 214) could focus mainly on overhead shading maximum thermal comfort: climate-sensitive design like sky elements like trees (especially because gardens, green roofs and fascades etc. • Benefits generally tend to increase the bear other benefits) and should be put • Consider Typography: Prefer hilly seems important, but only possible with diameter-at-breast height (DBH), on the regional agenda of predominantly regions or river valleys for plantations if urban noise and air pollution from age, size and leaf area (and decreased hot, subtropical megacity like São Paulo. to maximize canopy rainfall retention traffic in the future city was possible to transmission) but leaf area (density) and root erosion control of the be mitigated. This could result in a new should be limited due to decreased As mentioned the leaf density of urban increased stormwater runoff and tropical building style or paradigms light transmission and dispersion of forests is important for their performance, speed caused by the typography. which unites landscape and building pollutants. Plant (and maintain) local, but it must be pointed out that this does incentivizes new forms of urban native (costal rainforest biome), low to (at street canyon scale and context) does • Consider Building Height and Shade: vegetation (especially urban farming10 mid-density, semi-deciduous species not necessarily mean that the higher the verticalized, highly dense fabrics with etc.) which are innovate solutions for because they are climatically most leaf area the higher the benefits: Contrary deep narrow canyons (low h/w ratios) urban environmental problems. adapted and resistant against heat and the “light” shade should be cast not very and sky view restricted by buildings water stress (low stomata resistance) dense trees because dense canopies depend less on tree shade than low- At micro scale it is important to consider as well as against vermin. decrease the wind velocity, the dispersion rise regions with high sky view factors. canopy and root structure, which depends of pollutants and daylight access (and thus Therefore (densely populated) low-rise mainly on the genetic information of the • In areas in which fast urban change are drawbacks which generate indirect regions should be preferred because species and the microclimatic situation. Here happens e.g. due to real estate costs, see table 5.2.2). tree-shade is more important due to the following guidelines should be considered: speculation plant fast growing trees large SVF and because trees can shade (Pioneer species) together with slower Limitations roofs of low rise buildings (e.g. east • Avoid to plant species with aggressive growing (secondary) species are zone of São Paulo). roots and very dense crowns (like recommended to improve the chances It was not possible, as initially planned, Ficus) in order to permit daylight of the latter to survive. to estimate the environmental benefits • Consider Orientation of the Grid:It was transmission and dispersion of of a mean urban, isolated tree (as many found in the microclimate studies (see pollutants through ventilation. 7.5 Final Considerations American studies try), because this would chapter 7.1.1) that urban grids rotated be a helpful measure for planners. This is out of the east-west axis are preferable • Prefer species with small leafs and In the light of global heating the strategy due to the heterogeneous distribution of because the urban geometry generate deep roots (e.g. Pau Ferro etc.). A of “Shade everything, including buildings, vegetation fragments, street trees etc. in more self shading during the summer, medium shade generates most efficient especially the sidewalks” created in the São Paulo’s large municipal area, the large especially when buildings are high. comfort, allowing light transmission Lessons from Brisbane/ Australia (see chapter number of parameters per individual which The most recommendable angle is and the dispersion of pollutants due to 2.4) seems particularly interesting strategy needed to be considered to simulate and 45º. In master-planning and in case of the more laminar wind-flux. for cities located in hot climates to deal with calculate mean benefits and the method new land divisions orientate the grid climate change at reasonable costs: shade applied, which regards land-use and 45º to the North-South & East-West • Plant See-through-Trees Mid-to-low mitigates peak thermal discomfort, while vegetation cover and is not based on large orientation axis. density trees transmit enough sunlight air temperatures (and thus the urban heat numbers of street tree inventories.
123 10 see e.g. http://www.verticalfarm.com/Designs.aspx
124 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Fig. 7.9: Turn urban non-places (see fig. 2.7) into collective (green) spaces which invite for stop-bys and temporary stays and foster urban quality of life and sustainability
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139 A I - INTERVIEW WITH ARCHITECT OSCAR NIEMEYER
Brazil’s most famous architect Oscar Niemeyer, then ninety-nine years old and considered a living legend, was interviewed for this work because he cites Nature (and landscape, see Andreas, 2003) as most important inspirations for his typical walk-in concrete sculptures. On the other hand some of his works have been criticized for being sparse of vegetation. Niemeyer’s answers were received in Portuguese via email on Thursday, 23rd of Aug 2007 15:12:40 -03:00h and translated by the author.
Spangenberg: Regarding urbanization in megacities like São Paulo you said: “How to improve São Paulo? Only by knocking down about two blocks and making a garden. That is to recover lost space” and “It is important to be modest. It is the way of looking upward and to notice that nothing is so important. If we believe in nature and that everything comes from nature and everything transforms through her.... “ (Revista Bravo! September 2003 “Pessimismo Humanista”)
I would like to verify the relationship between nature and your architecture Fig. A1: Literally green references in Niemeyers oevre -Palácio Itamataí in Brasília (above left), (remembering Le Corbusier’s words: Casa das Canoas in Rio de Janeiro (above right) and Bath in Potsdam (below) “Oscar, you have the mountains of Rio
140 ANNEXES in their eyes” and your narrative on the Spangenberg: Thank you very much! subterrâneas, etc. Muitas vezes, ou quase Botanical Garden of Rio): The nature in sempre, um terreno mais acidentado nos (your) architecture today is purely formal [Translated by the author] leva a uma solução diferente que destaca or also integrated with the physical a obra arquitetônica e a valoriza. environment? Spangenberg: A respeito da urbanização em megacidades como São Paulo o Senhor Na casa que projetei para mim no Rio, Niemeyer: For me architecture has to take falou: “Melhorar São Paulo, como? Só na estrada das Canoas, foi possível, sem the nature that it involves into account. pondo abaixo uns dois quarterões e fazendo alterar as inclinações do terreno, prever The areas, the spaces closest of the um jardim. Isso é recuperar o espaço as salas em cima e os quartos embaixo. architecture are part of it. The nature of perdido” e “E importante ser modesto. É the soil, the inclinations that appear at the o jeito de olhar para cima e perceber que Spangenberg: O senhor acha que uma place where a building should be built, are nada é tão importante. Se a gente acredita integração entre as construções humanas also part of the architecture, in my view. na natureza e que tudo veio da natureza e e a natureza (em forma de vegetação) que todo nela se transforma....” (in Revista seria viável hoje para criar conjuntos mais Then to avoid, to the maximum, in the BRAVO! Setembro de 2003 “Pessimismo humanos e menos técnicos no Brasil? O buildings that I project, cuts in the terrain, Humanista”) senhor pode descrever ou desenhar uma underground areas, etc. Many times, or idéia a respeito disso? almost always, a more uneven terrain Eu gostaria de confirmar a relação entre leads us to a different solution that a natureza e a arquitetura do Senhor Niemeyer: É claro que sim. Nas detaches architectural work and values it. (lembrando das palavras de Le Corbusier: construções junto ao mar, mesmo quando In the house that I projected for me in Rio, “Oscar, você tem as montanhas do Rio se trata de vários edifícios, o panorama at Canoas Road, it was possible, without nos seus olhos” e os seus contos sobre existente é tão bonito que a preocupação altering the inclinations of the terrain, to o Jardim Botânico do Rio): A natureza na é sempre procurar uma solução que project the living rooms on top and the (sua) arquitetura hoje seria puramente permita a todos dele usufruir. rooms below. formal ou também integrada ao meio físico? Spangenberg: Muito obrigado! Spangenberg: Do you think integration between the human constructions and Niemeyer: Para mim a arquitetura tem de [Original] nature (in the form of vegetation) would levar em conta a natureza que a envolve. it be viable today to create groups of As áreas, os espaços mais próximos da buildings that are more human and less arquitetura dela fazem parte. technical in Brazil? Can you describe or draw an idea regarding that? A natureza do solo, as inclinações que aparecem no local onde deve ser Niemeyer: Yes, of course. In the construído um edifício fazem parte constructions close to the sea, even when it também, a meu ver, da arquitetura. is several buildings, the existent panorama is so beautiful that the concern is always to Daí evitar, ao máximo, nos edifícios seek a solution that allows all to enjoy it. que projeto, cortes no terreno, áreas
141 A II - INTERVIEW WITH SOPHIE BONJOUR (WHO)
Dear Sir,
Concerning your enquiry about the existence of a reference for the WHO recommendation on the “12 m² green space per inhabitant”:
We are aware this has been quoted before, however, we do not know the source. Our in-house experts in the field have never been able to find out where it comes from, and this is not a WHO recommendation they would be aware of.
Hope it helps,
Kind regards
Sophie Bonjour
Dr Sophie Bonjour Department of Public Health and Environment World Health Organization 20, av. Appia CH-1211 Geneva phone: +41 22 791 3722 fax: +41 22 791 1383 email: [email protected]
142 ANNEXES A II - ENVI-MET VEGETATION MODEL
This annex is a translation of chapter 5 Besides from the interfaces which all per m³ crown volume]. In the ground, his conifer, grass) for the definition of the (“Das Vegetationsmodell” - The Vegetation objects in ENVI-met possess with their concept was assumed analogously, so that leaf geometry Model) of an updated version (reviewed surrounding, the vegetation model the Root Area Density RAD becomes the • Leaf albedo in the short-wave area
24th of April 2004) of PhD dissertation provides the following information: main parameter. The parameters of density range af of Bruse, M. (1999): Die Auswirkung at 10 base-height-points each, are z/zp = 0.1, kleinskaliger Umweltgestaltung auf das • Temperature of leaf surfaces 0.2 ..1.0 and z/zt = -0.1,-0.2. - 1.0 within the Other factors, like the emissivity of Mikroklima (The Impact of small-scale • Turbulent exchange of sensitive heat plant column which become, considering leafs and the fractions of the radiation environmental design on the micro- between atmosphere and leaf surface the real plant height and root depth pre- transmitted through the leaf are set climate). The original available on the • Vapor flux (transpiration and determined in the area input file (.in), the constant. All plant parameters referring to internet on the page http://www.envi- evaporation as well as condensation) at corresponding grid-boxes in the model. plants are composed in one data base and met.de/documents/Envimet30.PDF the leaf surfaces For big plants, like for example trees, a are coupled at the start of the simulation (Document Title: Bleeding Edge ENVImet • Interception of liquid water in the standardized plant profile is assigned to with the pre-determined configuration. 3.0) According to the author certain foliage as well as dripping of excessive various grid-points in the model, while with sections may be out of date. water on the soil surface very small plants, like for example grass, Table 6 shows a selection different several data points fall into one grid box. The vegetation types: trees (T1-T7), hedges 5. The vegetation model 5.1 Parameterizations in the LAD-values defined in the area input file (.in (H) and Grass (G). This data was taken micro-climate model are assigned. from Groß (1991) and Mix. al. (1994) or The integration of vegetation into estimated. The profile of the Root Area micro-scale grid models like ENVI- The vegetation module developed here In order to improve the resolution of Density is set to 0.1 for all plants in the met necessitated some expansions of simplifies a plant to a one-dimensional small plants the lowest grid-box of the data base due lack of better information. the model concept. In contrast to the column with standardized height and/ or atmospheric sub-model is divided into 5 As already indicated, these data does afore defined surfaces, on with which depth respectively. The area of z/zp = [0,+1] partial boxes with ΔZ = 0.2Δz. Through this not yet contain any information on the essentially the local atmospheric frame describes the part of the plant above ground procedure, it as also is big possible, to deal respective plant height. The absolute conditions control the condition of the part (canopy) of the plant, while the area z/z with as well with very small plants as with height for the different plants is stored as surface and the exchange processes r = [-1, 0] describes the part which lies below large plants within a uniform model scheme. additional information in the data base. with the surroundings, the biological the ground (roots). The most important behavior of the organism of plants parameter for the description of the real Beside of the general plant geometry, for 5.2 Determination of the turbulent is an additional control mechanism. plant shape alongside with the absolute each plant type a series of physiological parameters must be given: fluxes of the leaf surface Therefore it is not possible, to consider plant height zp and the root depth - zr is the the individual grid boxes with vegetation density distribution of the leafs, as well as 5.2.1 Turbulent impulse exchange separately from each other, instead the the density distribution of the roots in the Among these are: reference to the respective plant must ground. The leaf distribution is represented • minimal stomata-resistance rs,min The impulse loss of leafs is already be maintained. by the Leaf Area Density LAD [m² leaf surface • type of the plant (deciduous tree, considered in the flow model through
143 between leaf surface and the air is more Δq between the saturation q* at leaf
complex than the determination of the temperature Tf and the moisture of the
heat transfer, because the vapor flux is ambient air qa has to be calculated:
split into an evaporation term Jf,evap and a (5.7) transpiration term Jf,trans:
(5.4) The proportion of the moist leaf area of the total leaf area is calculated according Hereof, the former depends only on the to Deardorff (1978): moisture difference between leaf surface Table 6: Composition more different vegetation types used in the model. Modified after Groß (1991) and and the ambient air, while the latter Mix et al. (1994).Type: LB=deciduous tree, NB=conifer, L=deciduous scrub, G=grass, D: m=mean density, (5.8) d=dense, sd= dense, K/S:.=none Differentiation trunk and crown tree, • = distinguished crown tree additionally depends on complex plant- physiological processes. On the other hand it is possible to parameterize both terms based This function considers that (liquid) water W forms droplets on the leaf surfaces, additional sink terms. Therefore on the The resistance ra is represented according on the transfer resistance. The following dew side the vegetation model no further to Braden (1982) as a function of the expression stands for the evaporation and/ that this water is not equally distributed on treatment is the impulse flux is necessary. wind velocity and two vegetation-specific or condensation respectively: the available surfaces and that it comes to parameters A and D: the formation of moistened and dry areas (on the leaf surfaces), if Wdew,max (=LAD 5.2.2 Turbulent exchange of (5.5) -2 Δz*0.2 kgm ) was below the saturation sensitive heat (dew point). The application of f in (5.5) w If Δ > 0 (Evaporation) provides that the evaporation occurs only The temperature flux between the leaf (5.3) If Δ < 0 (Condensation) from the moistened proportion of the leaf surface and the surrounding air is a -1 surfaces, while transpiration occurs only function of the temperature difference For deciduous trees and grasses A=87 √sm , The aerodynamic resistance r applied -1 a from the dry parts of the leaf surfaces. and the aerodynamic resistance of the leaf for conifers A=200 √sm , is applied, D stands here corresponds with the resistance surface r . This concept corresponds to the for the average leaf diameter and is 0.02 m for a value calculated in (5.3). The stomata resistance r describes the conifers and grasses and 0.15 m for deciduous s approach applied in section 3.3.5 S.40 after regulating influence of the stomatous cells trees (Schilling, 1990; Naot und Mahrer, 1989). Monin-Obhukov. Between the aerodynamic The transpiration flux is additionally on the vapor exchange with the air. The resistance ra and the drag coefficients exists regulated by the leaf stomata and results real value of r at a certain moment is a For windless situations r is not defined s the following linear relationship: a in the formula: complex function of different parameters with, therefore the minimal wind speed like solar radiation, water availability, the -1 is set to 0.05 ms . A formulation for free composition of the air and the general (5.1) convection on vegetation elements is not physiological condition of the plant available at the moment. (5.6) (compare Mihailovic und Rajkovic , 1994).
With a given leaf surface temperature Tf, if Δq > 0 (Transpiration) the turbulent flux of sensible heat is: 5.2.3 Turbulent vapor flux if Δq < 0 In the vegetation model this influence spectrum is limited and simplified to three (5.2) The calculation of the vapor exchange In both cases the moisture difference factors: the current short-wave solar radiation,
144 ANNEXES the water availability in the ground and the are always shaded or exposed to extreme Here the proportion of the root surface, in Vegetation Albedo af rs,min solar radiation the stomata will show a general condition of the plant. In a future the layer n, of the total root area is applied Corn/ crop (young) 0,30 200 version this module will be replaced by different behavior in reality. as weighting factor. N is the number of the Corn/ crop (old) 0,25 400 more complex approaches which can better ground layers within the root area and RAI describe the stomata behavior (Jones,1992). 5.2.3.2 Influence of the is the Root Area Index with Sugar cane 0,20 200-400 Conifer stands 0,15 600
The current stomata resistance can season on rs Deciduous forest 0,25 400 consequentially be calculated in the following (5.11) Grass general 0,20 200 The factor fs describes roughly, whether way (see for example, Deardorff, 1978): leafs still actively participate in the water Swamp 0,20 200 exchange or whether they do not transpire Since plants are interpreted as vertical columns, it also is feasible to define Table 7: Albedo and minimal Stomata resistance of anymore due to general condition of different vegetation types (after Tjernström,1989) the plant. During of the growth season vegetation above sealed surfaces. Hereby, (5.9) f =0, in autumn, for grasses late summer for example, overhanging tree crowns can s be simulated. In these cases the root area respectively, sf =1. Where rs,min, is the minimal stomata is associated below the sealing layer and resistance which varies that from plant to locally appropriated. plant and from season to season. In table 5.2.4 Influence of soil-water case of full irrigation, is set equal to the 7 some example resistance values for saturation degree of the substratum η . availability for plants on rs 5.2.5 Special case roof s different vegetation types are compiled. of the lowest grid box in the soil model. In the vegetation model it is assumed that Another important influence on the greening (Version V2.5) The selection of the reference box is it only depends on the plant type and as transpiration of the plant is the availability arbitrary, since also the field capacity η From version 2 onward, it is possible wilt of soil water in the root area (fwilt). If the is defined on the basis of this box. It must well that rs,min has no seasonal variations. water content approaches the permanent to define plants also on roofs. Since no only be guaranteed merely that no sealing wilting point, it becomes increasingly appropriate soil model is available for the material was defined in the selected 5.2.3.1 The Influence of the difficult for the plant to withdraw water water availability which mostly depends box, which is most probably given in the from the soil through osmotic suction on external irrigation the factor f wilt in radiation on sr deepest ground layer. pressure, so that transpiration has to be these cases must be defined in another The maximal available short-wave incoming decreased for the lack of water supply. way. To achieve this, an external Irrigation radiation kw,max R is defined in the model as Factorwater is defined, which can vary 5.2.5.1 Distribution of the the radiation, which incidences at midday The parameterization of this relationship between 1 (full irrigation) and just above liquid water on the plant on a non-shaded, randomly orientated is carried out calculating the relation of 0 (extreme dryness). The integration into leaf. Rkw is the short-wave radiation which the current water content of the soil η and the model is through the allocation: The current water amount Wdew on leaf effectively incidences on the leaf incident surfaces required in (5.6) can change the permanent wilting pointwilt η . Here and consequently depends on the position a weighted mean is calculated over the during the course of the simulation of the sun and shadowing. whole root area (zone). time through drying, dew moistening or dripping of water. Consequently it is This parameterization of radiation can (5.12) necessary, to update the proportion of only approximately reflect the behavior the liquid water on the leaf surfaces in of the stomata. Specifically leafs which (5.10) Here, the fictitious soil moisture, in the periodical intervals.
145 The water balance of a one-dimensional For the determination of the energy the internal energy storage in the leaf The source term for the vapor flux is
plant layer with the thickness of Δz balance of the single leaf, initially the cormus Qs. Inclán et al. (1996) assert that yields from the balance from the water short-wave radiation fluxes at a height the internal heat storage of the leaf is gains through vapor condensation z need to be calculated as described an important component of the energy (5.20) and additionally supplied drip water in chapter 3.4 p. 48ff. The short-wave balance, especially during sunrise and Or respectively P↓ (rainwater or runoff from higher radiation absorbed at the leaf surface sunset. However, for this no suitable
vegetation layers) minus the water loss Rkw,net is: parameterizations do exist and the through evaporation, or drip water influence on the overall results appears if Δq ≥ 0 (5.21) running off into deeper layers P↓. marginal, so that simplified if Δq < 0 (5.16) 5.5 Coupling with the soil model where trf is the radiation share, transmitted (5.18 (5.13) through the leaf. According to Oke (1984) is assumed. The water transpired by the plant must 0.3 can be applied as a mean value over be withdrawn from the ground. Therefore If the water share on the leafs in one box all wavelengths. The factor F describes the Numerical studies with the model have the hydrological part of the soil model influence of the leaf orientation on the exceeds the maximum value of Wdew,max, shown that the calculation of the leaf possesses the local sink terms Sη. The total quantity of the absorbed radiation and is amount of water transpired by the plant Wdew = Wdew,max, and the water in excess surface temperature responds sensitive is transferred to the lower vegetation set to 0.5 for randomly orientated leafs. The to different radiation parameterizations. results from the vertical integral of the layers, applying the drip water term P↓. long-wave radiation balance of the leaf is: Especially the calculation of the long-wave predicted transpiration fluxes from the In the lowest vegetation layer the residual exchange processes between buildings, different vegetation layers. water rest is conducted to the soil. vegetation and atmosphere during the night has shown very susceptible (5.17) 5.3 Determination of the leaf towards marginal changes so that finally (5.22) the parameterization was chosen which surface temperature The different components of the long- produced the most plausible results. According to Hillel (1980), a maximum of wave radiation were already introduced 1% of the transported water is incorporated The energy balance of a single leaf can be and considered in the sections 3.4.3 and within the plant, so that is assumed that a described as: 3.4.4 according to the situation, also the 5.4 Coupling with the balance between the transpired water and radiation exchange with subsequent atmosphere model the water absorption through the roots exists. upward and downward vegetation layers The water withdrawal in the soil is weighted (5.14) and/ or shielding buildings. The heat and moisture flux at the leaf by the respective root area (surface) in the surface is connected through the source depth of -z. As an additional weighting factor The sensitive and latent heat flux on the The emissivity of the leafs ε is kept terms Q and Q with the prognostic f θ q the hydrological diffusivity of the soil η D is leaf surface emerges from (5.2) as well as constant with a mean value of 0.96 (Pielke, equations of the atmospheric model. For considered (Pielke, 1984) The demanded (5.4) and (5.5): the prognostic temperature equation 1984). The albedo of the leafs varies from water withdrawal Sη at the depth -z then is: plant to plant and is readout from the data results: (see table 7).
(5.15) As last unknown term in (5.10) remains (5.19) (5.21)
146 ANNEXES A IV - ARTICLE 1: THE IMPACT OF URBAN VEGETATION ON MICROCLIMATE IN HOT HUMID SÃO PAULO By Jörg Spangenberg1,2, Paula Shinzato1, Erik Johansson1,3 and Denise Duarte1
ABSTRACT: Field monitoring in a park, a square vegetation is scarce in many tropical cities. an urban canyon were compared in order to one with less dense street trees (T1) and and a street canyon on a summer day in São The main benefits of vegetation in hot examine the effect of the park’s vegetation. another with a much denser tree canopy Paulo, Brazil, showed that the park was up to climates are reduced solar radiation and Three meteorological stations (Huger WM (T2). The leaf area indices (LAI) for T1 and 2K cooler than the square and the canyon. lower air temperature due to shading 918 and 968, as well as ELE MM900) were T2 were 1 m²/m² and 5 m²/m² respectively The effect of adding shading trees to the and evapotranspiration [2]. Lower air used to measure air temperature, humidity Both tree types were 10m high with street canyon was simulated for the same day using the numerical model ENVI-met. The temperatures are essential both to improve and wind speed simultaneously at 1.10m canopies covering the entire street. Both simulations showed that incorporating street thermal comfort conditions of pedestrians height at the three locations. parametric tree models had ellipsoid leaf trees in the urban canyon had a limited cooling and to limit energy use for cooling. area distributions with maximum Leaf Area effect on the air temperature (up to 1.1K), but The urban canyon, which is located in a Densities (LAD) located in the middle of the led to a significant cooling of the street surface This paper shows results from an ongoing dense area with an average height-to-width crowns. The attenuation of solar radiation at (up to 12K) as well as a great reduction of study of the benefits of vegetation in the ratio of 2.2 and almost devoid of vegetation, midday was 39,3% for T1 and 91.9% for T2. the mean radiant temperature at pedestrian city of São Paulo, Brazil. This 19 million was chosen for a parametric study using height (up to 24K). Although the trees lowered sprawling metropolis is characterised by a the microclimate model ENVI-met [3]. The The aim was to evaluate how the LAD of the wind speed, the heat stress was mitigated ENVI-met model, which was chosen due to considerably as the physiologically equivalent heterogeneous urban structure as well as by the two tree canopy types influenced air temperature (PET) was reduced by up to 12K, an uneven distribution of urban green. It is its advanced approach on plant-atmosphere temperature, surface temperature, humidity, mainly due to shading. located at 23°32’S, 46°37’W, 60km from the interactions, was carefully calibrated with wind speed and, consequently, thermal sea at 720-850m altitude. The city’s summer the measurement results by adjusting comfort. The Physiologically Equivalent Keywords: urban vegetation, urban microclimate, climate is hot and humid with mean various input parameters related to local Temperature (PET) was applied to this study. numerical simulation, pedestrian comfort temperatures between 22oC and 30oC, but climate and urban surface properties so This comfort index was calibrated by Monteiro temperatures above 30oC are common. that similar daily temperature and humidity and Alucci [4] for open spaces in the city of 1. INTRODUCTION curves were achieved. The comparison São Paulo interviewing approximately 2.000 2. METHODOLOGY between measured and simulated air people adapted to local conditions. Vegetation is an important design element in temperature is shown in Figure 1. improving urban microclimate and outdoor Climate monitoring was carried out on 19th of 3. RESULTS thermal comfort in urban spaces in hot December 2006, a typical summer day, in the In addition to the actual situation, two climates [1]. Due to urbanization, however, central area of Luz. An 8 ha park, a square and different greening scenarios were simulated, The simulated results are shown for the
1Laboratory of Environment and Energy Studies (LABAUT), University of São Paulo, Brazil 147 2Bauhaus University, Weimar, Germany, 3Housing Development & Management, Lund University, Sweden crossing between the east-west and 3.4 Surface and Mean Radiant form of trees has a great potential of improving north-south oriented street canyons. Temperatures (MRT) the microclimate and mitigate heat stress in a hot humid climate. We observed a clear 3.1 Measured air temperature During the hours when the street receives tendency of PET to decrease with increasing and humidity solar radiation (from 12:00 to 15:00), the leaf area, at least up to a LAI of 5 m²/ m². Thus, trees have a great impact by lowering the even in the 21st century, vegetation remains Comparing the measured cooling effect of surface temperature by up to 5K and 12K an irreplaceable, sustainable urban element, the park with the treeless street canyon (see for the low-density (T1) and high-density especially in (sub-)tropical cities. Fig. 1), ambient air temperature profiles in tree canopy (T2), respectively. the park were, on average, 1.5K cooler with ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS peaks up to about 2.5K at around noon. The The mean radiant temperature is the relative humidity was about 10% higher in parameter mostly affected by shading trees. This research was supported by Holcim the park than in the other two sites. The vegetation has a huge impact by lowering Foundation for Sustainable Construction the MRT by up to 11K and 24K for the low- (J. Spangenberg), Fundação de Amparo à 3.2 Simulated air temperatures density (T1) and high-density canopy (T2), Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo – FAPESP respectively. The reduction in MRT through (P. Shinzato) and Swedish International Figure 1 shows that the canyon covered shading includes both less received direct, Development Cooperation Agency – Sida with less dense (T1) and dense tree diffuse and reflected short-wave radiation (E. Johansson). canopies (T2) have, on average, 0.5K and from the sun and lower surface temperatures 1.1K lower air temperatures respectively and thereby lower thermal (long-wave) REFERENCES than the case without trees. radiation from urban surfaces. [1] J. Spangenberg, Improvement of Urban 3.3 Humidity and wind speed 3.5 Physiologically Equivalent Climate in Tropical Metropolis – A case study in Maracanã/ Rio de Janeiro M. Eng. Thesis, Temperature (PET) Figure 1 (left): Simulated air temperature for the The relative humidity rises only slightly due to University of Applied Sciences, Cologne, street canyon without trees, with low-density the incorporation of trees in the street canyon PET is highly influenced by the presence of 2004 http://www.basis-id.de/science tree canopy and high-density tree canopy. The (less than 5%). The high-density canopy causes shading trees. Figure 2 shows how PET varies at [2] H. Akbari, M. Pomerantz and H. Taha, measured air temperature of the canyon is also a 1-2% higher RH than the low-density canopy. pedestrian height for the three cases (no trees, Cool surfaces and shade trees to reduce shown. low-density canopy (T1) and high-density energy use and improve air quality in Figure 2 (right): Simulated PET for a street with no The wind speed simulated by ENVI-met canopy (T2)). Similarly to the MRT, PET reaches urban areas, Solar Energy, vol. 70 (2001), vegetation, low-density tree canopy (T1) and high- is clearly affected by the trees. Although highly uncomfortable conditions between pp. 295-310. density canopy (T2). The PET limits for “neutral”, the studied trees have no leaves between 12:00 and 15:00. The peak is considerably [3] M. Bruse, ENVI-met v. 3, http://www. “slightly warm”, “warm” and “hot” are shown. ground level and 3 m height, the wind speed lowered by a low-density canopy (T1) and envi-met.com, 2006 at pedestrian height (1.5 m) is reduced from virtually erased by a high-density canopy (T2). [4] L.M. Monteiro and M.P. Alucci, about 0.86 m/s (no trees) to about 0.80 m/s Calibration of outdoor thermal comfort (low-density canopy T1) and to 0.47 m/s 4. CONCLUSIONS models. In: R. Compagnon, P. Haefeli and (high-density canopy T2), respectively. Thus, W. Weber (eds.), Proc. of 23rd PLEA Conf., canopies with low LAD reduce wind speed The results from the simulations presented in Geneva, Switzerland, 2006, vol. I, pp. 515-22 considerably less than trees with high LAD. this study clearly show that vegetation in the of vegetated areas is highly dependant on
148 ANNEXES A V - ARTICLE 2: Simulation of the influence of Vegetation on Microclimate and Thermal Comfort in the City of São Paulo By Jörg Spangenberg1,2, Paula Shinzato1, Erik Johansson1,3 and Denise Duarte1
ABSTRACT physiologically equivalent temperature resfriamento da temperatura do ar em até comfort conditions during daytime are The microclimates of a park, a square and a (PET) was reduced by up to 12°C. 1.1°C e, por outro lado, uma diminuição often far above acceptable comfort street canyon were measured on a summer da temperatura superficial do pavimento standards due to intense solar radiation day in the city centre of São Paulo, Brazil. Keywords: urban vegetation, urban (até 12°C), bem como uma considerável and high solar elevations (Ali-Toudert and The field monitoring showed that the park microclimate, numerical simulation, redução na temperatura radiante média Mayer, 2007; Johansson, 2006). While the was up to 2°C cooler than the square and pedestrian thermal comfort no nível do pedestre (até 24°C). Apesar urban heat island is less of a problem in the canyon. The effect of adding shading da diminuição da velocidade do vento em temperate climates, it is unwanted in low trees to the street canyon was simulated RESUMO até 45% nos valores máximos, o conforto and mid latitude cities as it contributes to for the same day using the numerical Durante o verão, foram realizadas medições térmico teve uma melhora considerável, increase the cooling load and results in model ENVI-met. The simulations showed das condições microclimáticas existentes uma vez que a temperatura fisiológica increased energy use (Taha, 1997). that incorporating street trees in the urban em um parque, uma praça aberta e um equivalente (PET) foi reduzida em até Vegetation is an important design canyon had a limited cooling effect on the canyon urbano na cidade de São Paulo. 12°C. element in improving urban microclimate air temperature (up to 1.1°C), but led to Os resultados do monitoramento de and outdoor thermal comfort in urban a significant cooling of the street surface campo indicaram que o parque apresenta Palavras-chave: vegetação urbana, spaces in hot climates (Spangenberg, (up to 12°C) as well as a great reduction temperaturas do ar até 2°C mais baixas microclima urbano, simulação numérica, 2004). Due to urbanization, however, of the mean radiant temperature at do que na praça e no canyon. O efeito conforto térmico dos pedestres. vegetation is scarce in many tropical pedestrian height (up to 24°C). Although de novas árvores no canyon urbano foi cities. There has often been a tendency to the trees lowered the wind speed up to simulado por meio do modelo ENVI-met INTRODUCTION replace natural vegetation and permeable 45% of the maximum values, the thermal na mesma data da medição. Os resultados soils with impervious surfaces such as comfort was improved considerably as the das simulações mostram o efeito do In the tropics, the outdoor thermal asphalt and concrete, which leads to more
149 sensible than latent heat flux (Emmanuel, the wind; a deciduous tree may reduce Urban vegetation in São Paulo, 23°32’S, 46°37’W, 60km from the sea. The 2005). In urban streets, vegetation is often wind speeds by 30-40% (Ali-Toudert and Brazil altitude varies between 720m and 850m. considered a problem for several reasons. Mayer, 2007). Trees with large canopies The city’s climate is characterised by hot, For example, trees are costly to maintain, will also reduce nocturnal cooling as they This paper shows preliminary results humid summers with air temperatures their canopies often interfere with block some of the net outgoing long-wave from an ongoing study of the benefits of varying between mean minima of 22°C overhead telephone and electric lines and radiation. vegetation in the city of São Paulo, Brazil. and mean maxima of 30°C and mild their roots may destroy pavements and Several recent studies have shown The research includes field measurements winters with temperatures between mean underground sewers. that vegetation is beneficial in lowering during the hot humid summer to compare minima of 10°C and mean maxima of 22°C. air temperatures, in providing shade the microclimates of a park, a square and São Paulo is a sprawling South American The use of vegetation in hot and in improving thermal comfort. an urban canyon as well as numerical megacity, which’s metropolitan area climates Field measurements by Shashua-Bar simulations of the effect of vegetation houses almost 19 million inhabitants, and Hoffman (2004) showed that some on microclimate using ENVI-met (Bruse, distributed in an area of 8051km2. The main benefits of vegetation in tree-aligned streets and boulevards in 2006). There are several recent studies Based on reports from the Municipal hot climates are reduced solar radiation the Tel-Aviv area, Israel, had 1–2.5°C simulating the effect of vegetation in warm Environmental Agency (SVMA, 2004), São and lower air temperature due to lower air temperatures than non- climates with ENVI-met. These studies Paulo’s economy represents 31% of the shading and evapotranspiration. Lower vegetated streets at the hottest part have, however, been either focussing on national Gross Domestic Product (GDP). air temperatures are essential both to of the day (15:00 h). Applying the air temperature in warm and dry climates However, this economic development improve thermal comfort conditions of simulation software ENVI-met (Bruse, (Ali-Toudert and Mayer, 2005; Ali-Toudert has led to a significant degradation of the pedestrians and to limit energy use for 2006) to the climate of Thessaloniki, and Mayer, 2007; Chatzidimitriou et al., urban environment, a common situation in cooling. According to Akbari et al. (2001) Greece, Chatzidimitriou et al. (2005) 2005) or only treated effects on the air many large cities in developing countries. peak energy demand in the USA rises found small temperature decrease for temperature and not thermal comfort Today, São Paulo is characterised by a 2–4% for every 1°C increase in maximum tree-aligned streets (less than 1°C), but itself (Jusuf et al., 2006; Spangenberg, heterogeneous urban structure, which air temperature. up to 20°C lower surface temperatures 2004; Yu and Hien, 2006). has been caused by the rapid growth of Among other factors, the effect of and more than 40°C lower mean radiant The objective of this research is to study the city during the last century. One of vegetation on the microclimate depends temperatures. The cooling effect was the effect of shading trees with different the effects of this growth is the social on the size of the vegetated area. While found to increase with rising number of leaf densities on the microclimate and conflict and contrast of high-rise office the cooling effect on the air temperature trees. In the hot dry climate of Ghardaia, outdoor thermal comfort in public spaces. towers close to poor informal settlements is limited for a single tree or a small group Algeria, Ali-Toudert and Mayer From the output data provided by ENVI- (favelas). According to the architect Oscar of street trees (Oke, 1989), larger areas (2007) found that shading trees could met it is possible to estimate thermal Niemeyer, “The first lesson São Paulo such as parks can have a significant cooling improve the thermal comfort in streets comfort by calculating the Physiologically offers is that no city should grow so effect (Yu and Hien, 2006). The evapo considerably. In another simulation Equivalent Temperature (PET). arbitrarily” and “the second lesson of São transpiration of vegetated areas is highly study of different greening scenarios Paulo is that its people, and the people of dependant on soil humidity; for dry soils, using ENVI-met in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, Materials and Methods cities in poor countries elsewhere, should which are common in urban areas due to Spangenberg (2004) found that an have the right to a habitat that is more sealing of the ground, evapotranspiration increased amount of urban green (tree Area of Study graceful” (Romero, 2000). cooling will be limited (Oke, 1989). cover of 30% of the ground and 100% The distribution of vegetated areas There are also negative effects of green roofs) could nearly re-create the The city of São Paulo is non-uniform in the city. Only the vegetation in warm climates. One comfortable conditions of a natural wealthiest boroughs are characterised drawback with trees is that they block forest. The city of São Paulo is located at by large amount of vegetation and tree-
150 ANNEXES aligned streets, while the downtown by the local government. The recent areas of Brás and Santa Cecília are almost initiatives show the special interest to devoid of vegetation (SVMA, 2004).The promote a public discussion for possible Environmental Atlas of São Paulo (SVMA, transformations of the existing urban 2004) includes a map showing surface structure. One of them is the project Nova temperatures in the city of São Paulo. The Luz (New Luz), which intends to implement highest temperatures were found in the new commercial and residential buildings central area without green areas and the on the one hand and preserve the existing lowest in urban parks. Similar temperature architectural patrimony on the other patterns were found by Duarte and Souza hand. However, vegetation does not play (2005). a major role in this renewal process. To improve the situation, the City Hall This study focuses on the area of Luz is investing in tree planting programs and (Figs. 1 and 2), which is situated in the city several linear parks, intending to increase centre. the vegetated areas. Since 2004, LABAUT has been studying the central area of the city as part of a On-site Measurements partnership with University of Cambridge and University of East London (LABAUT, The central area of São Paulo is formed 2006). The project Sustainable Urban by the Old Town (Sé), the New Town Spaces has explored new environmental (República) and another 10 boroughs approaches for the revitalization of (Meyer et al., 2004). In the downtown abandoned parts in central areas. area, there are seven urban parks. For decades, downtown has suffered Methodology a continuous degradation process and has gradually been abandoned by its On-site Measurements residents. The metropolitan area of São Climate monitoring was carried out Figure 1. a) Street life in the Luz area (photos of Paulo experiences simultaneously massive on 19th of December 2006 in the area square, left, and street canyon, right). urban sprawl in its peripheries and of Luz (Figs. 1 and 2). This day can be b) The measurement equipment used in the urban canyon. Source: LABAUT population decrease in its central parts considered a typical hot summer day: (the population of the central borough clear sky conditions in the morning, partly of República diminished by 28% between overcast sky in the afternoon and rain in 1980 and 1999). Today, some downtown the evening (see Fig. 4). The main goal districts have a population density of less of these measurements was to create than 70 inhab/ha (IBGE, 2000) in spite of a an initial database for air temperature, high built density. relative humidity, solar radiation, surface To change this negative trend, downtown temperature, wind direction and wind has been the focus of revitalization efforts speed for the summer period. with several urban projects organized Three main types of urban spaces
151 were defined for the measurements: a Figure 2. Location of park, an open air square and an urban the three measurement points in Luz borough. canyon. These three areas were chosen considering the main characteristics of the site and its surroundings (Fig. 2). The particular interest was to compare the effect of vegetation in the park with the other two situations. The sky view factor, that is, the amount of the sky seen from a point on the ground, of the three sites varies considerably (Fig. 3).
Point 1 = park, point 2 = canyon and point 3 = square. Source: Google Earth
(1) (2) (3) Figure 3. Hemispheric pictures of the sky view taken with a Nikon 4500 equipped with a 180° fish eye lens for park (1), canyon (2) and open square (3). Source: LABAUT
152 ANNEXES
The canyon is located in a dense area benefits and problems with vegetation in to position of the sun, urban geometry, reliable. In the preliminary simulations, with 5-10 storeys high commercial the city were carried out. vegetation, soils and various construction both the average air temperature and the buildings. The street has an intense flux materials by solving thermodynamic and diurnal amplitude were underestimated. of vehicles and pedestrians attracted by Thermal Comfort Surveys plant physiological equations. Therefore, some of the input data the local commerce of electro-electronics The building section of the model has had to be adjusted to achieve better devices (Fig. 1a). In addition to this critical To support a study aiming at developing shown some limitations, since the same correlation with the measured results. situation, the thermal comfort is poor. The a local comfort index for São Paulo, properties (such as albedo and U-value) The temperature course of the model average block size in Luz is 60m by 100m. surveys on the subjectively perceived are applied equally to all walls and roofs has shown significant sensibility to wind The street canyon has an average width of outdoor thermal comfort were executed respectively. Further, the heat storage speed. The diurnal amplitude tends to 12m and the building height is on average in the three aforementioned locations. term for the buildings, which calculates increase with decreased wind speed. The 26m (corresponding to eight-storey Since this study is not concluded yet, the the time lag, is not included in the energy measured wind speed varied strongly in buildings) which gives a height to width Physiologically Equivalent Temperature balance of the building surfaces. Due direction and speed throughout the day. ratio (H/W) of 0.5. There are very few (PET, Höppe, 1999) was adopted in this to this fact, the thermal mass of vertical The average mean wind speed measured trees in the street due to narrow sidewalks paper to evaluate and compare the constructions, which causes delayed heat was 1.6m/s, but 0.8m/s was adopted in and problems with aerial electric cables results. PET, which is designed for outdoor dissipation, is not taken into account for order to adjust the temperature curve. The and telephone lines. The open square, conditions and is based on a steady-state buildings, as it is for ground paving and initial temperature was increased by 1°C which has white stone paving (Portuguese heat balance equation of the human body, soils. in order to approximate to measured peak pavement), is more exposed to direct takes all environmental parameters that The input data for the simulations are values, resulting in a limited correlation solar radiation than the other sites due to affect thermal comfort – air temperature, shown in Table 1 and the input area file is between measured and simulated lack of vegetation and shading. mean radiant temperature, humidity shown in Fig. 4a. The solar radiation, which temperature curve in the morning (7:00 – Three meteorological stations (Huger and wind speed – into account. Personal is calculated depending on latitude, was 9:00 h) and in the evening (17:00 – 20:00 WM 918 and 968, as well as ELE MM900) factors such as clothing insulation and the slightly over-estimated by ENVI-met for h). were used to measure air temperature, level of activity are, however, not included. São Paulo conditions and was humidity and wind speed simultaneously PET has recently been calibrated against therefore decreased to 90%. Atmosphere at 1.10m height at the three locations (Fig. subjective comfort votes in the climate of The only additional climate Start of simulation (h) 7:00 1b). All measurements were recorded on São Paulo by Monteiro and Alucci (2006) data (not derived from local Wind speed at 10 m above ground level [m/s] 0.8 data loggers every ten minutes between measurements) was that for who interviewed approximately 2.000 Wind direction 170 7:00 and 19:00 local daylight saving/ people adapted to local conditions. specific humidity at 2500m, summer time. which was obtained from local Initial temperature of the atmosphere [in degrees Kelvin] 297 Specific humidity at 2500 m [g Water/kg air] 9.0 On the square, additionally global Microclimate simulations airport soundings at Campo solar radiation was measured with a de Marte (ca. 3.3km North of Solar adjustment factor 0.9 pyranometer. Surface temperatures The micro scale model ENVI-met (Bruse, the site), available from the Relative humidity at 2m [%] 70 of various construction materials and 2006) was chosen for this study due to its homepage of University of Soils natural surfaces were measured on the Wyoming (UWYO, 2007). advanced approach on plant-atmosphere Relative humidity in all layers [%] 25 square using an infrared thermometer As recommended (Bruse, interactions in cities. The numerical model Buildings TFA 31.1108. During the intervals of simulates aerodynamics, thermodynamics 2006), 48 hours simulations Albedo of walls 0.4 the measurements interviews with and the radiation balance in complex were used to pass the initial pedestrians regarding their thermal urban structures with resolutions (grid- transient time in order to Albedo of roofs 0.3 comfort sensation and their opinion on obtain results that are more sizes) between 0.5m and 10.0m according Table 1. Input configuration data applied in the ENVI-met simulations.
153 After the calibration process, similar daily temperature and humidity curves 35 were achieved. The comparison between measured and simulated air temperature is 33 ) C
shown in Fig. 4b. The calculated coefficient ° ( e
of determination, R², between measured r 31 u t a
and simulated air temperature, based on r e
79 values, was found to be 0.7487. p 29 m e
T Measured - no vegetation To a large extent the urban geometry of a 27 city is characterized by a repetitive element Simulated - no vegetation called the urban canyon (Emmanuel, 2005). 25 Consequently, an urban canyon was chosen 07:00 09:00 11:00 13:00 15:00 17:00 19:00 Figure 4. a) Input area domain for simulations with for a parametric study and the simplified Local Time trees (including nesting area). b) Comparison between model is shown in Fig. 4a. In addition to measured and simulated air temperature for the Clear Partially Overcast existing street canyon. The changing sky conditions the actual situation, two different greening Overcast shown in the figure refer only to the measured data scenarios were simulated, one with less and cannot be simulated with ENVI-met yet. dense street trees (T1) and another with a of the measurements gave important much denser tree canopy (T2). The leaf area information about the microclimatic indices (LAI)5 for T1 and T2 were 1 m²/m² differences among the three urban sites and 5 m²/m² respectively. Both tree types were 10m high with canopies covering the (Fig. 6a). The ambient air temperature profiles show that the cooling effect of Plant Name: T1 Plant Name: T2 entire street. Both parametric tree models 10 10
the park is on average 2°C compared to ] had ellipsoid leaf area distributions with 8 ] 8 6 the open square with peaks up to 6°C. maximum Leaf Area Densities (LAD) located 6 6 in the middle of the crowns. The attenuation Compared to the canyon, the temperature 4 4 Height [m of solar radiation at midday was 39,3% for T1 of the park is about 2.5°C lower around Height [m 2 2 and 91.9% for T2. The aim was to evaluate noon. The relative humidity was about 10% higher in the park than in the other 0 0 how the attenuation of solar radiation 0.0 0.51 .0 1.52 .0 0.0 0.51 .0 1.52 .0 of the two tree canopy types influenced two sites (Fig. 6b). The absolute humidity Leaf Area Density [m²/m³] Leaf Area Density [m²/m³] Total: 10.44 m²/m³ Total: 6.87 m²/m³ air temperature, surface temperature, (g/m³) is about 1g/m³ higher in the humidity, wind speed and thermal comfort. park. The lower temperature and higher Figure 5. LAD (Leaf humidity in the park is due to shading and Area Density) (m²/ m³) in 10 layers of the Results and Discussion evapotranspiration. two tree models T1 and T2. T1 has 20% of the Leaf Area Density Measurement Results Simulation Results (LAD) of T2. The results shown at Local Time (in The results are shown for a point in the this case equal to daylight saving time) crossing between the east-west and north-
154 5 The Leaf Area Index (LAI) is defined as the total one-sided leaf surface area (m²) per unit ground area (m²) 6 The Leaf Area Density (LAD) is defined as the total one-sided leaf area (m²) per unit layer volume (m³) in each horizontal layer of the tree crown. ANNEXES south oriented street canyons. All results Figure 6. a) 100 20 38 are shown at Local Time, which in our case Results of air temperature 90 18 36 is equal to daylight saving time (summer distribution for time), that is LST+1 h.Air temperatures. the park, the 80 16 34 open square 70 14 In Fig. 7a the simulated air temperature 32 and the canyon. is shown for the three cases no trees, 60 12 b) Results 30 trees having a high-density canopy (LAI=5) of relative 50 10 and trees having a low-density canopy and absolute 28 40 8 humidity (LAI=1). The canyons covered with less (°C) Temperature 26 Temp Park
distribution for 30 6 (g/m3) Humidity Absolute dense (T1) and dense tree canopies (T2) (%) Humidity Relative the park, the RH Park RH Canyon 24 Temp Canyon 20 4 have, on average, 0.5°C and 1.1°C lower open square and RH Square Abs. hum. Park Temp Square 10 2 22 air temperatures than the case without the canyon. Abs. hum. Canyon Abs. hum. Square tree, respectively. 0 0 20 The fact that street trees have only 7:00 9:00 11:00 13:00 15:00 17:00 19:00 7:00 9:00 11:00 13:00 15:00 17:00 19:00 a limited cooling effect on the air Local Time Local Time temperature agree fairly well with both field measurements (Shashua-Bar and 34 50 Hoffman, 2004) and simulation studies (Ali-Toudert and Mayer, 2005; Ali-Toudert 32 45 and Mayer, 2007; Chatzidimitriou et al., 2005). The effect found in this study is, 40 30 however, less than that reported by Ali- Toudert and Mayer (2005; 2007), who 35 28 found cooling effects of up to 1.5°C for a (°C) Temperature 30 Simulated - no vegetation (°C) Temperature hot-dry city. The reason may be that the No vegetation 26 High-density canopy (LAI=5) High-density tree canopy air was dryer in their study and hence 25 Low -density tree canopy the cooling effect of evapotranspiration Low -density canopy (LAI=1) higher. 24 20 07:00 09:00 11:00 13:00 15:00 17:00 19:00 07:00 09:00 11:00 13:00 15:00 17:00 19:00 Local Time Local Time Surface temperatures Figure 7. a) Simulated air temperature for the street canyon without trees, with trees having a high- Fig. 7b shows the surface temperature density canopy and with trees having a low-density canopy. b) Simulated street surface temperature for of the asphalted street for the three cases treeless street, street with high-density tree canopies and street with low-density tree canopies. (no trees, low-density canopy and high- density canopy). During the hours when the street receives solar radiation (from 12:00 to 15:00), Fig. 7b shows that the trees have a huge impact on the surface temperature of the ground. The less dense
155 tree (T1) lowers the temperature by up to Humidity 5°C and the high-density tree (T2) by up to 12°C. The relative humidity rises only slightly The results agree well with due to the incorporation of trees in the Chatzidimitriou et al. (2005), although street canyon (less than 5%). The high- they report even higher reduction in density canopy causes a few per cent surface temperatures. The reason may higher RH than the low-density canopy. be that they studied a shallower canyon The absolute humidity is, however, similar (H/W = 0.5) and thus the temperature of for all cases and very stable, varying from their treeless case was higher than in this about 12 to 14 g/m³ during the day. The Neutral study where the canyon is relatively deep insignificant effect on tree evaporation (PET 17 - 26°C) (H/W = 2.2). on humidity found here agrees well with other studies (Ali-Toudert and Mayer, 2005; Ali-Toudert and Mayer, 2007). Mean Radiant Temperature (MRT) Wind speed 70 The wind speed simulated by ENVI-met The mean radiant temperature (MRT) is 60 the parameter mostly affected by shading is clearly affected by the trees. Although the studied trees have no leaves between trees. Fig. 8a shows how the MRT varies 50 at pedestrian height for the three cases ground level and 3 m height, the wind speed at pedestrian height (1.5 m) is (no trees, high-density canopy and low- MRT(°C) 40 density canopy). During the hours when reduced from about 0.86 m/s (no trees) to about 0.80 m/s (high-density canopy) No vegetation the street receives solar radiation (from 30 High-density canopy (LAI=5) 12:00 to 15:00), Fig. 8a shows that the less and to 0.47 m/s (low-density canopy), respectively. Thus, canopies with low LADs Low -density canopy (LAI=1) dense (T1) and dense (T2) tree canopies 20 lower the MRT by up to 11°C and 24°C reduce wind speed considerably less than 07:00 09:00 11:00 13:00 15:00 17:00 19:00 respectively. The high-density canopy is trees with high LADs. Local Time considerably more efficient than the low- Figure 8. a) Simulated MRT for treeless street, density canopy. Physiologically Equivalent street with high-density tree canopies and street The reduction in MRT through shading Temperature (PET) with low-density tree canopies. b) Simulated PET includes both less received direct, diffuse for treeless street, street with high-density tree and reflected short-wave radiation from The thermal comfort, expressed as the canopies and street with low-density tree canopies. the sun and lower surface temperatures physiologically equivalent temperature and thereby lower thermal (long-wave) (PET), was calculated based on simulated radiation from urban surfaces. values of air temperature, MRT, relative The reductions in MRT found in this study humidity and wind speed (however, the are less than found by Chatzidimitriou simulated wind speed was increased again et al. (Chatzidimitriou et al., 2005). A to agree with the measurements). probable reason is that they studied a PET varies significantly between a shallower canyon as discussed above. treeless street canyon and a street covered
156 ANNEXES with tree canopies. Figure 8b shows how density (LAD) of the canopy proved to and citizens’ initiatives, could promote a To calibrate the model for the PET varies at pedestrian height for the be important metrics, which have a greener (well distributed vegetation in) conditions of the measurements we are three cases (no trees, high-density canopy significant influence on the microclimate. São Paulo and mitigation of the urban trying to overcome the missing impact and low-density canopy). Similarly to the The denser the tree canopy (higher LAI heat island. For this purpose, even in of heat storage by allocating materials MRT, PET reaches highly uncomfortable and LAD), the lower the air and surface the 21st century, vegetation remains an with increased thermal mass around the values between 12:00 and 15:00. This temperatures and the better the thermal irreplaceable urban element. Hence, it is buildings on the sidewalks according to a peak is considerably lowered by the less comfort for hot-humid climate. possible, nowadays, due to technological method proposed by Johansson (2006). dense trees (T1) and virtually erased by In general, trees provide, under their advance to access, to analyse and better the dense shading trees (T2). Denser trees canopies (locally restricted), significant understand the impacts of vegetation ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS are thus more efficient although they improvements on thermal comfort with the aid of tools like ENVI-met. lower the wind speed more than the less principally during midday and in the This research was supported by Holcim dense trees. early afternoon as they provide overhead Planned Future Work Foundation for Sustainable Construction The reductions in PET found in this shading by attenuating the solar radiation. (J. Spangenberg), Fundação de Amparo à study (up to 12°C) are less than those The crucial benefit of shade, resulting Future studies include research on Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo – FAPESP presented by Ali-Toudert and Mayer (Ali- in considerably lower mean radiant different species of local urban street (P. Shinzato) and Swedish International Toudert and Mayer, 2005; Ali-Toudert and temperatures, has more influence on trees, on the importance of tree height, Development Cooperation Agency – Sida Mayer, 2007) who found reductions above the thermal comfort expressed in PET type of tree canopies, leaf area index (E. Johansson). The authors are grateful to 20°C. The reason may be that they had a than the decrease of the wind speed. (LAI) and leaf area density (LAD). Another Labaut staff, University of São Paulo, for larger proportion of direct solar radiation Moreover, trees increase the quality aim is to adapt the standard ENVI-met their assistance in the field measurements and thus the trees provided more efficient of the public space, also due to other plant database to a local plant database. and to IAG – Institute of Astronomy, shade. benefits, not included in this study yet, Moreover, the climatically strategically Geophysics and Atmospheric Sciences, positioning and grouping of trees will be like absorption of rainwater and CO2 and University of São Paulo for assistance with CONCLUSIONS other air pollutants uptake. studied. the simulations. Isolated trees and even rows of trees In future work, other types of urban The measurements indicated that the have a rather small impact on the decrease areas such as squares will be studied REFERENCES public Luz Park has a cooling effect with of air temperatures, and thus, apparently as well as different types of parks. In around 2°C lower temperatures than its a limited potential for mitigating air addition, the results of the questionnaire surroundings. The surface temperature temperatures of the urban heat island. surveys on subjective perception of the Akbari, H.; Pomerantz, M.; Taha, H. measurements also showed that natural Consequently the possibility to improve thermal environment will be part of the Cool surfaces and shade trees to reduce surfaces are considerably cooler than energy efficiency of buildings by thermal comfort studies. energy use and improve air quality in commonly used construction materials decreasing heat loads is limited. However, Since the boundary conditions of the urban areas. Solar Energy, Tampa, vol. 70, such as concrete and asphalt. the lower surface temperatures of roofs ENVI-met model can hardly be defined n. 3, p. 295-310, 2001. The results from the simulations and façades caused by the vegetation will correctly based on field measurements, presented in this study clearly show that contribute to lower cooling loads (Akbari investigations on corrections and nesting Ali-Toudert, F.; Mayer, H. Thermal vegetation in the form of trees has a great et al., 2001). with the meso-scale model RAMS (Freitas comfort in urban streets with trees under potential of improving the microclimate Only the implementation of city- et al., 2007) has been initialized. Forcing hot summer conditions. In: PLEA 2005 and mitigate heat stress in a hot humid wide changes (from groups of trees to the ENVI-met model may become – Passive and Low Energy Architecture, climate. large-scale green space interventions), necessary in future steps of the work 2005, Beirut. Proceedings PLEA 2005 – The leaf area index (LAI) and leaf area encouraged by modified building codes process. Passive and Low Energy Architecture,
157 Beirut: PLEA International, 2005, p. 699- Höppe, P. The physiological equivalent Monteiro, L. M. and Alucci, M. P. In: PLEA 2007 – Passive andLow 704. temperature – a universal index for the Calibration of outdoor thermal comfort Energy Architecture. 2007, Singapure. biometeorological assessment of the models. In: PLEA 2006 – Passive and Proceedings PLEA 2007 – Passive and Ali-Toudert, F.; Mayer, H. Effects thermal environment. International Low Energy Architecture, 2006, Geneva. Low Energy Architecture, Singapure: PLEA of asymmetry, galleries, overhanging Journal Proceedings PLEA 2006 – Passive and International, 2007. façades and vegetation on thermal of Biometeorology , Dordrecht , vol. 43, p. Low Energy Architecture, Geneva: PLEA comfort in urban street canyons. Solar 71-75, 1999. International, 2006, vol. I, p. 515-522. SÃO PAULO (cidade). Secretaria do Verde Energy, Tampa, vol. 81, p. 742-754, 2007. e do Meio Ambiente – SVMA. Atlas IBGE. Censos Demográficos, Instituto Oke, T. R. The micrometeorology of the ambiental de São Paulo, Prefeitura da Bruse, M. ENVI-met v. 3.0. Available at: Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística (IBGE), urban forest. Phil. Trans. Royal Society Cidade de São Paulo, 2004.
158 ANNEXES A V - Ehrenwörtliche Erklärung
Ich erkläre hiermit ehrenwörtlich, dass ich die vorliegende Arbeit ohne unzulässige Hilfe Dritter und ohne Benutzung anderer als der angegebenen Hilfsmittel angefertigt habe. Die aus anderen Quellen direkt oder indirekt übernommenen Daten und Konzepte sind unter Angabe der Quelle unmissverständlich gekennzeichnet.
Bei der Auswahl und Auswertung folgenden Materials haben mir die nachstehend aufgeführten Personen in der jeweils beschriebenen Weise entgeltlich/unentgeltlich geholfen:
1. Prof. Max Welch Guerra 2. Prof. Marcia Peinado Alucci
Weitere Personen waren an der inhaltlich-materiellen Erstellung der vorliegenden Arbeit nicht beteiligt. Insbesondere habe ich hierfür nicht die entgeltliche Hilfe von Vermittlungs- bzw. Beratungsdiensten (Promotionsberater oder anderen Personen) in Anspruch genommen. Niemand hat von mir unmittelbar oder mittelbar geldwerte Leistungen für Arbeiten erhalten, die im Zusammenhang mit dem Inhalt der vorgelegten Dissertation stehen.
Die Arbeit wurde bisher weder im In- noch im Ausland in gleicher oder ähnlicher Form einer anderen Prüfungsbehörde vorgelegt.
Ich versichere ehrenwörtlich, dass ich nach bestem Wissen die reine Wahrheit gesagt und nichts verschwiegen habe.
Weimar, den 21. Juli 2009
159 Curriculum Vitae
Jörg Spangenberg Dipl.-Ing. Architektur und Master of Engeneering Geboren am 07. Juli 1972 [email protected]
Berufserfahrung
2009 Direktor der NGO floresta urbana. Projektentwicklung von Stadtbegrünung des Linearen Parks der Favela Heliópolis, Cidade em Flor (Pflanzung von Stadtvegetation auf Plätzen und Strassen), Grüne Bushaltestellen (Städtebauliches Projekt für Bushaltestellen und Terminals in Kooperation mit SPTrans), Interventionen im öffentlichen Raum, Grüne Bauschuttmulden in São Paulo
Mentor des Harvard GSE Design Studios von Prof. Christian Werthman für Cantinho do Céu in São Paulo http://www.drclas.harvard.edu/brazil/gsd/studio2009_mentors
2008-2006 Revitalisierungsprojekt des Diagonal Sul Vektors in São Paulo Urban Age Project mit SECOVI und Mackenzie http://www.vitruvius.com.br/institucional/inst214/inst214.asp
Beratung für nachhaltiges Bauen inklusive thermodynamischen und aerodynamischen Gebäudesimulationen, Kosten/ Nutzen Analysen Arbeiten für und mit verschiedenen Architekturbüros, u.a Shieh Arquitetos (Medical Center Enkyo) FGMF Architekten (Living Steel) und Piratininga Arquitetos (Conj. Habitacional Comandante Taylor). http://www.livingsteel.org/case-studies/fgmf-protective-bubble
Lehrtätigkeit - Aufbaukurs Tópicos de Design Sustentável am Instituto Europeu de Design (IED) in São Paulo mit Prof. Carlos Leite
2006 Lehrtätigkeit im Fach Energieeffizienz des post-Graduierten Studiengangs der Schule Incursos in Brasília
2005 Mitarbeiter von SPG Architekten und Städteplanern in Bonn http://www.sgp-architekten.de/
Berater für nachhaltiges Bauen für die Architekten Una arquitetos, Mario Biselli, Prof. Bruno Padovano, ON arquitetos in São Paulo http://www.unaarquitetos.com.br/vp/projlista/projetos/41_ipe/projeto.htm
2003-2001 Mitarbeit im Büro Santos & Grimberg (Architektur & Innenarchitektur) in Köln (Werkplanung, Bauleiter) http://www.gabrielsantos.net/
160 ANNEXES
2000-1999 Mitarbeit im Büro Prof. Dr. Enno Schneider em Detmold http://www.ennoschneider-architekten.de/
1999-1998 Praktikum bei Oscar Niemeyer in Rio de Janeiro (Werkplanung) mit Stipendium der Carl-Duisberg-Gesellschaft/ InWent
1994 Praktikum bei Ricardo Julião Arquitetura e Urbanismo in São Paulo http://www.rjuliao.com.br/
Internationale Auszeichnungen und Vorträge
2008 Holcim Award Lobende Erwähnung für das Projekt Enkyo on São Paulo mit Shieh Arquitetos in Mexico City http://www.holcimfoundation.org/T824/A08LAack.htm
2007 Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule ETH - Zürich Schweiz
2007 Kongress Holcim Urban_Trans_Formation an der Tonji University in Shangai, China http://www.holcimfoundation.org/T485/PhD_Research_Grants_2007.htm
2005 Holcim Award Lobende Erwähnung für das Retrofit-Projekt Enkyo des Goetheinstituts in São Paulo http://www.holcimfoundation.org/T351/Ack-Goethe.htm
Promotion 2009-2006 Titel: Retroinnovating Nature in Megacities São Paulo/ Brazil - A Case Study, Modeling von Umweltnutzen städtischer Vegetation an der Bauhaus Universität in Weimar in Kooperation mit der Universität São Paulo, Stipendium der Holcim Foundation for Sustainable Construction
Master 2004-2001 Titel:Improvement of Urban Microclimate in tropical Metropolis´ Maracanã - A Case Study am Institut für Tropentechnologie der FH Köln in Kooperation mit der Pontefícia Universidade Católica in Rio de Janeiro, Stipendium des Deutschen Akademischen Austauschdienstes DAAD
Studium 1994-2001 Architekturstudium an der FH Lippe in Detmold
Spezialisierung 2008 Kurs zum Thema Indicatoren für Nachhaltigkeit an der Universität São Carlos, São Paulo
2007 Urban Design Studio MIT+FAUUSP+Mackenzie in São Paulo http://stellar.mit.edu/S/project/saopaulo/materials.html
161 Liste der Veröffentlichungen
Spangenberg, J., Shinzato, P., Johansson, E., Duarte, D. (2008) Simulation of the influence of vegetation on microclimate and thermal comfort in the City of São Paulo, Revista da Sociedade Brasileira de Arborização Urbana ISSN 1980-7694 Online: http://www.revsbau.esalq.usp.br/volume3numero22008/artigos_cientificos.php
Spangenberg, J. (2008) Retroinovação – Enverdecimento Urbano: Uma Antítese ao Aquecimento (Revista AU, Ed. Pini, No. 167, Fevereiro de 2008) Online: http://www.revistaau. com.br/arquitetura-urbanismo/167/artigo72655-1.asp
Hepner, A.,Montes, A., Spangenberg, J., Zumthor, C. (2007): Green Worm, In: Designing at the Edge of the Center (MIT+MACKENZIE+FAUUSP) Imprensa Oficial Online: http://stellar. mit.edu/S/project/saopaulo/materials.html
Spangenberg, J., Shinzato, P, Johansson, E., Duarte, D. (2007) The Impact of Urban Vegetation on Microclimate in Hot Humid São Paulo (PLEA2007 - The 24th Conference on Passive and Low Energy Architecture, Singapore, 22-24 November 2007)
Fretin, D., Bedendo, I., Szabo, L., P., Amodeo, W., Benites, H., Spangenberg, J. (2006): Investigations on a natural ventilation System using the Structure Design of a Building (PLEA2006 - The 23rd Conference on Passive and Low Energy Architecture, Geneva, Switzerland, 6-8 September 2006)
Spangenberg, J. (2005): Simulation of Urban Microclimate in tropical Metropolis´ – Maracanã/ Rio de Janeiro -A Case Study (Kongress Rio5, World Climate & Energy Event, Rio de Janeiro/ Brasil)
Spangenberg, J. (2004): Improvement of Urban Microclimate in tropical Metropolis´ (Melhoramento de clima urbano em Metrópole tropical) Online: www.basis-id/science
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