The South African Functional Metropolis

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The South African functional metropolis – A synthesis

Herman Geyer, Philip Geyer & Manie Geyer 1. INTRODUCTION

Peer reviewed and revised Terms that are used to describe different forms of urban settlements have always been somewhat Abstract confusing. Terms such as village, Confusing usage of terms such as metropolis and metropolitan region in planning town, city and metropolis are usually policy in South Africa has led to the need for a fundamental investigation into the defined in terms of population size, morphological and functional properties of the country’s three largest cities. Using Gauteng, Cape Town and Durban as examples, the article distinguishes between areal extent, or density (Parr, 2012). different elements of functionality of metropolitan areas linking urban function Other researchers such as Parr to urban form. Starting at the global level and zooming in, the article examines (2007) use spatial relationships to metropolitan functional space at the national through the regional to the local level. define different parts of cities, while Semantically, it distinguishes between the terms metropolis and megalopolis; daily terms such as urban agglomeration, and weekly urban systems; and between urban monocentricism, multinodality conurbation, city region and mega- and polycentricism. Based on morphological differences, it classifies Cape Town, city define settlements by means of Durban, Pretoria and the Witwatersrand as metropolitan areas, but regards the sprawled urban agglomeration in Gauteng as a megalopolis. A case is also made the structure of aggregation. Then for greater recognition of the daily urban regions of the three primary cities of South there are terms defining urban Africa as part of the larger urban system of each. Planning has focused for too long settlements as subsets of greater on metropolitan space inside the urban edge and too little on those parts of the cities urban settlements such as central that lie outside the edge. business district, inner-city, suburbs, Keywords: Urban system, polycentrism, multimodality, urban function core nucleus, core city, and edge city, while terms such as multinodal DIE SUID-AFRIKAANSE FUNKSIONELE METROPOOL - ‘n SINTESE city, metropolitan region, polycentric city, megalopolis, ecumenopolis and Die verwarrende gebruik van terme soos metropool en die metropolitaanse streek in beplanningsbeleid in Suid-Afrika lei tot ‘n behoefte aan ‘n fundamentele ondersoek micropolis are overarching concepts na die morfologiese en funksionele eienskappe van die land se drie grootste stede. referring to the form and functioning Deur gebruik te maak van Gauteng, Kaapstad en Durban as voorbeelde tref die of the urban settlement. artikel ‘n onderskeid tussen verskillende funksionele elemente van metropolitaanse gebiede waarin stedelike funksie en stedelike vorm verbind word. Beginende by To some degree, each person has die globale vlak en deur in te fokus op die nasionale, streek- en plaaslike vlak word a personal interpretation of the daar in die artikel gekyk na metropolitaanse funksionele ruimte. ‘n Semantiese meaning of the terms, because the onderskeid word getref tussen die terme metropool en megalopool; daaglikse distinctions between these terms en weeklikse stedelike sisteme, en tussen monosentrisme, multinodaliteit en are not always clear or clearly polisentrisme. Gebaseer op morfologiese verskille word Kaapstad, Durban, Pretoria understood. However, using the en die Witwatersrand as metropolitaanse gebiede geklassifiseer, maar word die same term interchangeably in policy verspreide stedelike kompleks van Gauteng as ‘n megalopolis beskou. ‘n Saak word ook uitgemaak vir groter erkenning vir die daaglikse stedelike streke van die drie documents is not only confusing, primêre stede van Suid-Afrika as deel van die groter stedelike sisteem van elk. Vir te but could also be counterproductive. lank het die klem in beplanning op metropolitaanse ruimte binne die stedelike grens This particularly applies to the South geval en te min op die deel van die stede wat daarbuite val. African situation where there is an Sleutelwoorde: Stedelike sisteem, polisentrisme, multimodaliteit, stedelike funksie apparent confusion about the usage of the terms metropolitan area and metropolitan region in current urban policy documents. In some instances, the term metropolitan area is used, whereas the particular evolving urban pattern being described no longer resembles the generally accepted definition or description of that particular urban form while the term

Mr Herman Geyer, Centre for Regional and Urban Innovation and Statistical Exploration (CRUISE), Department of Geography and Environmental Studies, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X1, Matieland, 7602, South Africa. 021 808 3104, email: Mr Philip Geyer, Centre for Regional and Urban Innovation and Statistical Exploration (CRUISE), Department of Geography and Environmental Studies, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X1, Matieland, 7602, South Africa. 021 808 3104, email: <[email protected]> Prof. Manie Geyer, (i) Centre for Regional and Urban Innovation and Statistical Exploration (CRUISE), Department of Geography and Environmental Studies, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X1, Matieland, 7602, South Africa. 021 808 9223, email: (ii) Unit for Environmental Sciences and Management, North-West University, Private Bag X6001, Potchefstroom, 2520, South Africa. 13 SSB/TRP/MDM 2015 (67) metropolitan region is used when network of cities. Due to faster cities in Africa usually represent it clearly means different things in access to information and easier lone standing Kilimanjaros in an different policy documents and in flows of goods and services in recent otherwise African economic and different policy contexts. decades, it is not only easier for innovation flatland (Van der Merwe, cities to engage a wider selection 2004; Onyebueke, 2011; Geyer, The purpose of this article is to of cities in the global urban network Geyer Jr. & Du Plessis, 2012; Geyer clarify some of this confusion by than in the past, but they are similarly Jr. et al. 2015). Historically, world first discussing different elements more readily impacted upon by the city research bears this out (Taylor, of functional metropolitan space. wider urban system (Castells, 1996; 1997, 2009). Johannesburg, Cape Town and Graham, 1998, 1999; Sassen, 2001; Durban – three primary cities in South To some extent, Johannesburg is a Geyer, 2007). Terms such as urban Africa – will be used as illustrations. In contradiction in the African continent. networks, systems, grids, hierarchies, pursuing greater clarity in the usage of It forms the centre of a network of webs, actors and relations, all point to terms such as metropolitan area and metropolitan areas – Pretoria, Cape the functional interconnectedness and metropolitan region, they will be linked Town and Durban. Functionally, this interdependence of cities globally. to concepts such as the urban edge, intertwined network of metropolitan megalopolis, polycentricism and daily However, as Ottaviano & Thisse cities undergirds Johannesburg and and weekly urban systems. (2004) convincingly argue, despite provides momentum as a lower order the freer flow of information, world city in the global city network. To deal with these terms in an economic space still tends to Without this extended network of orderly fashion, the role of the be linear rather than expansive cities, it is arguable that Johannesburg three metropolitan cities within the – spatially focused on arcs and – far removed from the business global context will be investigated, propagated along vertices. Despite highways of the world (Figure 1) – whereafter the article zooms in the freer flow of information and would not have qualified as highly as downwards through the national and goods and services, the location a world city as it presently does. regional contexts to the local and of a city relative to other prominent intra-city contexts. It is hoped that the cities in the global hierarchy is a introduction of these concepts will critical factor in the performance 3. METROPOLITAN broaden and enrich the current South of the city. The degree to which FUNCTIONAL SPACE – THE African planning policy lexicon. cities are integrated with the global NATIONAL CONTEXT economy depends on factors such Although the concept of a city region 2. METROPOLITAN as their locations relative to high is often applied in South African policy FUNCTIONAL SPACE – THE concentrations of economically documents, there is no universal SUPRANATIONAL CONTEXT advanced and innovative populations method to determine what a city and the degree to which they region is or is not. The Gauteng Although all urban settlements form integrate with the information and Growth Management Perspective part of the global urban network, business-networking highways of (GGMP, 2014) describes the Gauteng only those at the upper end of the world, as indicated in Figure 1. city-region as one that incorporates the global urban hierarchy play a City size, economic vibrancy and its the ‘three large metropolitan visibly meaningful role at that level. location relative to other economically municipalities’ and a range of World city network research gained vibrant cities in the wider global urban smaller centres ‘spread across the prominence and popularity with the network hold distinct advantages province and beyond the provincial establishment of the Globalisation for cities. Ceteris paribus, those borders’. The National Development and World Cities Research Network that are located in areas where high Plan simply mentions Gauteng city at the turn of the previous millennium. concentrations occur (see Figure 1A, region, without providing any specific Studies in this research network differ B and C) are potentially in a better information on what it is or how it on the selection of upper tier world position to benefit from regional is determined (NDP2030, 2011). cities, but most include Johannesburg economic spillovers than those that Gauteng 2055, a discussion document and Cape Town (and some also are located in the global periphery. on the long-term development plan Durban) as lower order world cities Prominent world cities, therefore, for the Gauteng city-region, calls (Beaverstock, Smith & Taylor, potentially benefit from close proximity the broader Gauteng city-region a 1999; Taylor, 1997, 2000, 2001). to other large vibrant cities in the continuous urban region surrounded Subsequent studies have confirmed global urban network. In the global by the wider urban region stretching this (Geyer Jr., Geyer & Du Plessis, economic landscape, imagined over a distance of one hundred and 2015; Onyebueke, 2011; Van der topographically, a city such as New fifty kilometres. The Gauteng Spatial Merwe, 2004). York would be a global economic Development Framework of 2011 Work in this field has demonstrated Mount Everest surrounded by other (GSDF) identifies the city region as that cities are not only integrated globally ranking economic peaks in several fast-growing areas linked with local, regional or national urban the economic Himalayan range of the by development corridors within the networks, but that functionally they Eastern Seaboard agglomeration, metropolitan built-up area in Gauteng. also form part of the wider global whereas, by comparison, prominent Similarly, the Draft Western Cape 14 Herman, Philip & Manie Geyer • The South African functional metropolis

A: Population distribution B: Economic production

C: Innovation D: Urbanisation

E: Aviation F: Internet connectivity Figure 1: Interrelated factors leading to the information, financial and business Source A, B, C: Florida, 2005

Provincial Spatial Development & Tonev, 2014; Kraft, 2014). It relates centres. Regional centres serve Framework (WCPSDF, 2013) to Friedmann & Miller’s (1965) urban as daily commuting centres in the identifies the city-region as a group of field (see also Friedmann, 1978), Fox extra-metropolitan hinterland, but are integrated functional regions. & Kumar’s (1965) functional economic dependent upon economic spillovers areas, Berry, Goheen & Goldstein’s provided by the large urban centres. However, South African city-regions (1969) daily movement systems, and have recently been linked to the To distinguish between the different Antikainen’s (2005) functional urban daily urban system concept (Geyer metropolitan regions in the provincial areas. A limit of one hour has remained Jr. & Geyer, 2015a). The term daily spatial development frameworks a fairly constant daily commuting urban system was coined by Doxiadis and the provincial growth and distance in different settings over the (1968) more than four decades ago development strategies of Gauteng, years (Newman, 2004; Marchetti, and has remained widely used ever Cape Town and Ethekwini, a 1994; Fox & Kumar, 1965). since (Berry, 1972, 1973; Bourne & distinction has been made between Simmons, 1978; Coombes, Dixon, Closely associated with the daily what are termed the daily and Goddard, Openshaw, & Taylor, urban system is the concept of the weekly metropolitan regions of 1979; Hall & Hay, 1980; Clay, 1998; weekly urban system (Hall & Hay, the metropolitan areas. The daily Bretagnolle, Paulus & Pumain, 2001; 1980) – an area containing regional metropolitan region boundary lies Pumain, 2002, 2004; Van Nuffel & centres that are within a weekly one hour away from Johannesburg, Saey, 2005; Erlebach, Klapka, Halás commuting distance from large urban Pretoria (Gauteng), Cape Town and 15 SSB/TRP/MDM 2015 (67)

Durban (Ethekwini), the core cities faster than the majority of towns and the three primary cities, the contours of the respective metropolitan areas, cities in the deeper periphery (see in all the diagrams tend to rise whereas the weekly urban system zones indicated in red on Figure 2). rapidly. The economic cones thus lies between one and two hours’ formed confirm the significance of Although Whites are leaving the drive from core cities. Respectively, the primary cities and the centres core cities of Gauteng and Durban, these limits are regarded as fair significant gains of this subpopulation within their daily and weekly urban representations of the daily and are recorded in the satellite city zone systems as collections of centres weekly urban reaches of the cities. and intermediate-sized cities around of attraction within the national To determine what role population the metropolitan areas. space economy. redistribution patterns played in To compare the spatial demographic the emergence of these regions, trends displayed in Figure 2 to spatial 4. METROPOLITAN municipalities were identified which, economic trends, contour maps FUNCTIONAL SPACE – THE cumulatively, have contributed 80% were drawn displaying impact of the REGIONAL CONTEXT of the net migration gain of the total economic weights of towns and cities Black and White populations over the In a recent study of functional expressed in terms of the Urban period from 2001 to 2011 (Geyer Jr. & subsets of the three core cities Function Index – i.e., the number of Geyer, 2015, 2015a). From a national of South Africa, metropolitan financial, commercial, service and perspective, the three primary cities, regions were broken down into industrial enterprises in towns and their satellite towns and the nearest the metropolitan inner cores; the cities in the country (Figure 3). intermediate-sized cities within suburban zones; the metropolitan the two-hour travelling range have At or around the positions of the fringes; the daily urban systems, collectively gained more migrants nearest intermediate-sized cities to and the weekly urban systems. The

Total Population Black Population

Primary cities Medium population influx Intermediate cities Low population influx Small cities Low population outflow High population influx High population outflow Daily and weekly commuting limits

White Population

Figure 2: Net migration gains of satellite towns and intermediate-sized cities around South African primate cities Source: Geyer Jr. & Geyer, 2015 16 Herman, Philip & Manie Geyer • The South African functional metropolis

A: Commerce B: Services

C: Finance D: Industries

Figure 3: Spatial distribution of business enterprises in South Africa, 2006 Source: Geyer, 2008

outer limits of the latter two zones 5. DISCUSSION urban core and its less populated were based on one- and two-hour surrounding territories, sharing commuting distances from the 5.1 Metropolis or megalopolis industry, infrastructure, and housing. inner cores centres, respectively Others (Morril, 1974; Abler, Adams & In view of the functional properties (Figure 4). Interesting patterns of Gould, 1972; Pacione, 2010) focus of the three South African core cities population change emerged. on its organisational peculiarities discussed earlier, three pertinent rather than its morphology – its The inner cores of all three cities questions arise. First, are Cape Town, tended to lose population from economic domination of adjacent Durban and the metros in Gauteng smaller nodes and its measure of 1996 to 2001 on an annual basis, all, morphologically, metropolitan? but started gaining population as self-sustainability, as one of them put Secondly, what are the limits of the it: its ability to survive from ‘washing of June 2001, mostly through the cities? What do they consist of? To in-migration of population groups its own linen’. Lloyd & Dicken (1972), answer the first, a distinction needs that previously were not allowed to Abler et al. (1972) and Guerois & to be made between the concepts live in the cities. National migration Pumain (2008) refer to the general metropolitan and megalopolitan. trends bear this out (Geyer Jr. & tendency of declining density at Views on the meanings of these Geyer, 2015a). increasing distance from the inner- two urban forms differ. Wells (1902) city even in instances where the was one of the first to foresee original core lost its dominance megalopolitan development. (Bertaud, 2004; Bertaud & Malpezzi, Mumford (1961) calls the metropolis 2003; Gordon & Richardson, 1996). ‘a formless city’. Haggett (1979) However, in all the discussions of the uses the two terms interchangeably. metropolis, a high level of interaction Squires (2002) regards it as a region between the core and its surrounding consisting of a densely populated satellite cities seems paramount – an 17 SSB/TRP/MDM 2015 (67)

100%

80%

60%

40% 01-11 20% 96-01 0% Inner Core -20% Intermediary Satellite Fringe Suburbs cities towns (Daily) (Weekly) -40% Cape Town -60%

100% 80% 60% 40%

20% 01-11

0% 96-01 -20% Intermediary Satellite Fringe Suburbs Inner Core cities towns (Daily) -40% (Weekly)

-60% Gauteng -80%

100% 80% 60% 40%

20% 01-11

0% 96-01 -20% Intermediary Satellite Fringe Suburbs Inner Core cities towns (Daily) -40% (Weekly)

-60% -80% Durban

Figure 4: Population change in the functional zones of the three core cities of South Africa, 1996 to 2011 Source: Author’s own analysis underlying issue which this article 1938, 1961; Doxiadis, 1974; becoming sufficiently prominent to also attempts to bring to light. RPA, 2014; Harrison & Hoyler, 2015). take on a morphological form that The meaning of the term In this article, a distinction similar resembles the former morphological ‘megalopolis’, which was first used to that of Doxiadis is followed. form. At the lower end of the a century ago (Geddes, 1915), has A metropolis is regarded as an scale, there are micropolitan areas changed over time from merely expansive multinodal city, either (US Census Bureau, 2013) that are a historical urban phenomenon formed by (once individual) adjacent smaller (emerging) versions of the (Mumford, 1961) to smaller cities that have coalesced, or an larger metropolitan morphological (Doxiadis, 1974) and larger versions expanding city in which secondary form, while the megalopolis is simply thereof (Gottmann, 1961; Mumford, nodes developed, some of them a larger version of the phenomenon. 18 Herman, Philip & Manie Geyer • The South African functional metropolis

The latter is formed when two or a metropolitan core. Polycentrism spatially focused. However, continuing more metropolitan areas coalesce applies to the latter urban scale. market forces caused some local over time (Doxiadis, 1974). governments to reconsider this policy To determine where the metropolis (see, for instance, GSDF, 2011). As Viewed from these angles, it could begins, the urban edge concept Perroux (1950) very convincingly be said that, individually, Cape needs to be brought into the demonstrated, based on historical Town, Durban, Pretoria and the discussion. Differences in the fused cities along the Witwatersrand efficiency-equity debate continue evidence, economic forces always are all metropolitan areas of one to be drawn along ideological lines tend to be stronger than administrative of the two kinds explained earlier. (Żylicz, 2013). In these exchanges, forces because, in Berry’s (1964: 235) However, together, the sprawling city neoliberals traditionally argue that words: “cities are systems, operating of Gauteng – i.e., Johannesburg, efficiency is necessary to sustainably within systems of cities”. Ekurhuleni, and the West Rand, as achieve equity, whereas Marxists It can be concluded from this that, well as Tshwane as metropolitan argue that equity comes before economically speaking, people who areas – qualifies as a megalopolis efficiency (Bontje, 2001). Linking live in towns and cities within the (see Gottmann’s view in this regard social and economic issues of daily urban system, but work in the as long ago as 1976, Figure 1). The inequality in cities with environmental metropolis are just as much part Vereeniging-Vanderbijlpark area in concerns related to climate change, of the metropolis as those living Gauteng, however, could be regarded urban policymakers subscribing to inside the city (see Figure 5 for as a micropolis. the latter school of thought have, an indication of daily and weekly in recent decades, sought spatial urban space in the cases of Cape 5.2 Where does the metropolis solutions through strategies of urban Town and Gauteng). Systemically, begin? densification, land-use integration a metropolitan core, its suburban and the geographical restriction To answer the questions regarding subcentres and its surrounding of urban expansion. It has since the structure of the core cities satellite towns form an economic become a popular policy approach and where they spatially begin, whole. The daily commuting in many parts of the world (Geyer Jr. the meaning and relevancy of the distance, therefore, forms the & Geyer, 2015a). The declaration of following related terms need to outer limit of the metropolis. That urban edges is often considered an be discussed: metropolitan core; is where the metropolis begins. effective policy instrument to achieve suburban areas; metropolitan fringe; Planners need to recognise this these goals (Geyer, 2009). multinodal city; polycentric city, fact. Metropolitan planning based on as well as daily and weekly urban This also applies to South Africa. areas of jurisdiction that exclude the systems. Normally, a metropolitan Since the end of apartheid, integrated daily urban system is bound to be area is composed of a dominant urban development and urban systemically deficient. To illustrate metropolitan core, suburban areas, densification have become central the point: Paarl and Stellenbosch and a metropolitan fringe. Combined themes in the policy lexicon of urban are just as much part of Cape Town they form a multinodal city. To planning in the country. Urban edges as Somerset-West and Strand – all qualify as a megalopolis, at least were widely regarded as an effective of them satellite cities – and yet only two metropolitan areas should have policy measure to curtail urban sprawl the latter two officially form part of the coalesced, each one containing and to force policymakers to remain metropolis. A regional approach to

Figure 5: The daily and weekly metro regions of Gauteng and Cape Town

19 SSB/TRP/MDM 2015 (67) metropolitan planning would obviate centres (Parr, 2004). However, Viewed from this angle, the term these kinds of inconsistencies in functionality does not imply a fixed ‘polycentricity’ is usually only metropolitan planning practice. It is state or condition. High levels of relevant at the megalopolitan level. this aspect of the economic space of interaction do not necessarily imply In the South African context, this cities that has made the functional polycentricism. As research on world applies to Gauteng. The Gauteng urban region (FUR) concept just as cities shows, cities can be physically megalopolis is centred around relevant in planning policy as the remote and still display high levels of two core cities – Pretoria as a edge-defined city has become in economic interaction. This includes government and administrative recent years. centre specialisation, which is often centre and Johannesburg as a regarded as a popular signpost of diversified manufacturing, retail and service centre. There has been a 6. POLYCENTRICITY polycentricism, but which easily occurs irrespective of polycentricism, powerful historical or urban economic To understand polycentrism responding instead to local economic interdependency between the two. requires an understanding of its conditions. Proximity, therefore, could In terms of morphological distribution, origin. Inadequacies of the initial enhance polycentricity (Parr, 2004). monocentric model led to increasing Gauteng displays complex spatial dissatisfaction with the unreality of To tie these loose ends together, this distribution patterns. Population the basic tenet of a lasting single article makes a technical distinction concentration adds further levels of dominant city centre (Richardson, between the terms multinodality complexity: population concentrations 1988). The advent of modern and polycentricity. In the case of demonstrate the same spatially transport allowed the decentralization the former, the suffix refers to a heterogeneous distribution, and not only of labour, but also of metropolis (or smaller city) consisting they do not necessarily correspond business, while still retaining many of a dominant primary and one or to economic concentrations. of the benefits of agglomeration more secondary suburban nodes. Certain regions demonstrate high (Bruegman, 2005; Musterd & Van The suffix of the latter refers to a concentrations of wealth with low Zelm, 2001), resulting in multinodal (morphologically and economically) population densities, while others cities. Differences of opinion remain more advanced state of urban demonstrate the opposite pole of as to what the concept really implies development, i.e., where, in addition dense impoverished populations (Musterd & Van Zelm, 2001; Bailey & to secondary nodes, two or more (Figure 6). Turok, 2001). rivalling primary nodes or cores exist, Commuting patterns have long been each one serving as a competitive Parr (2004) presents an overview of an important measure of functional primary nodal force of attraction reasonable conditions that define a polycentricism (Burger & Meijers, within the larger urban structure. As polycentric city. These conform to two 2012). GCRO has performed in the distinction between the terms basic tenets, namely morphological surveys of commuting patterns in metropolitan and megapolitan earlier, and functional. Morphologically, it the Gauteng region, but, due to multinodality is associated with a is defined as a plurality of centres. weighting problems, it is difficult to Due to factors influenced by friction monocentric city structure, in which draw any meaningful conclusions of distance, there are obvious a single dominating primary node from this data beyond the statistical justifications for some kind of exists, surrounded by secondary spread. However, one may tentatively viable maximum distance limit. nodes, whereas polycentricity implies conclude that they do indicate more The insistence of size and spatial more than one functionally linked significant commuting patterns distribution often appears in literature monocentric city. The latter can between centres than from the rest of (cf. Kloosterman & Musterd, 2001; either emerge from a single city, in the region (Figures 7 and 8). which one or more former secondary Parr, 2004); yet it is usually justified Commuting patterns, however, nodes developed to such an extent only on normative, not necessary can be indirectly measured. Three that they start rivalling the original absolute grounds. examples of these are transportation city centre, or it can consist of two or infrastructure development, axial In terms of functionality, defining more functionally related contiguous development, and labour versus polycentricism is problematic. or adjacent monocentric cities. Similarly, there needs to be a minimal economic concentration disparities. In distance required to ensure that Functionally, the polycentric city terms of transportation infrastructure, centres are sufficiently distinguishable is likened to Boudeville’s (1967) it can be inferred that if transportation for polycentricism in order to become polarised or multinodal region, i.e., a infrastructure between centres is meaningful. In addition, in terms region consisting of an urban network more extensive than beyond the of size, it makes sense to limit that displays a certain functional centres, this indicates a certain centres to a minimum size to ensure coherence, an interdependence of proportion of inter-urban interaction significant results. Linking distance parts resulting in more interaction volume. For instance, on examining to functionality complicates the issue, with one another within the region the north-south transportation lines because functional polycentrism than with urban centres outside. between the Vaal Triangle and is commonly defined in terms of Without this cohesion, polycentricity, Johannesburg, there are two class the level of interaction between conceptually, falls apart. U1 urban arterials, one class U2 20 Herman, Philip & Manie Geyer • The South African functional metropolis urban arterial, and one class R1 in carrying capacity: 40-120K for U1, 252.5K), and 11-175K beyond the rural arterial. Southward, beyond 20-60K for U2, 5-100K for R1, and Vaal Triangle (average 93K). The the Vaal Triangle, there is one class 2-25K for R2 (Committee of Transport traffic volumes between Pretoria R1 rural arterial and three class R2 Officials, 2012). Based on these and Johannesburg are even higher, rural arterials. Based on the average values, one can infer a traffic capacity with three U1 and three U2 urban annual daily traffic specifications of 105-400K between the Vaal arterials versus one R1 and four R2 AADT, one can estimate differences Triangle and Johannesburg (average rural arterials, adding up to 180-540K

Figure 6: Core-peripheral areas in Gauteng Source: GCRO, 2010

Figure 7: Internal-external commuting patterns in different parts of the megalopolis Source: GCRO, 201

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Figure 8: Black-White commuting patterns in Gauteng Source: GCRO, 2014

(average 360K) between the cities proceed through different stages: the poles (Brand & Geyer, 2014; Pilay and 13-200K (average 106.5K) an infant stage, where there is little & Geyer, 2014). beyond. Even with a large margin of development between growth poles; Lastly, another important indicator of error, these values still imply a major a mature stage, where subcentres polycentricism is the heterogeneous increase in traffic above the external form along the corridor, and an distribution of economic versus incoming traffic volumes between advanced stage, where polarisation population densities. Implicitly, this the main urban centres. This implies reversal occurs and subcentres grow means that there will be significant significant interaction and, therefore, faster than the centres themselves polycentric interactions between functional polycentricism between (Geyer, 1989). labour and employment centres these major urban areas. A clear north-south development (Champion, 2001). In Gauteng, as The development axes themselves with many developing countries, there axis is visible between the three constitute important indicators are significant spatial inconsistencies main centres. As the urban land of functional polycentricism, as between economic and population cover maps show, there is a near development axes typically only form concentrations. Poverty leads continuous line of built-up land along corridors where high amounts to density, in order to maximise extending between the main centres of interaction occur. In these terms occupation of land at locations where and beyond, extending beyond then, the degree of development land is cheap, remote from economic along a corridor is a strong indicator provincial boundaries extending centres. This drives up land-value of the amount of interaction between almost two hundred kilometres differences, leading to high spatial two growth poles. Development from north to south. The Pretoria- segregation of population. axes form over time in relation Johannesburg section is the most to the population and economic developed of the two axes, with 7. CONCLUSION concentrations at either of their poles, clear signs of the mature stage of the amount of interaction between development and perhaps even of Various functional elements of the the poles, and the distance between the advanced stage, with growth three core cities of South Africa the poles. Development axes within subcentres exceeding that of are discussed in metropolitan and 22 Herman, Philip & Manie Geyer • The South African functional metropolis provincial planning policy documents At the metropolitan regional level, question of functional polycentrism is of Gauteng, Cape Town and Durban. a functional link was established complicated by the multidimensional From the use of terminology related between the core cities and centres complexity of functionalism. But to urban functionality, it is clear that within their associated daily and perhaps the most significant different meanings are sometimes weekly commuting areas. Centres problems are those of measuring and attached to the same terms in these that fall within their daily urban understanding polycentrism. documents. The term metropolitan economic space are regarded as Polycentrism is a complex concept region, in particular, is sometimes satellite centres and functionally form and, therefore, displays many of the used inconsistently. This article part of the core cities. People living in attempted to bring more clarity and the satellite centres and working and problems inherent to the application consistency to the use of concepts shopping in the core cities are also of simplified abstract theoretical that are related to metropolitan economically just as much part of the models onto heterogeneous realities. functionality in these documents. core cities as those living inside them The obvious answer of increasing the complexity of measurement Zooming in from global to local, the and vice versa. methodologies and/or theoretical case was made that, as a premier At the local level, a distinction was models carries its own pitfalls: higher city of Africa, Johannesburg is a made between concepts such as levels of complexity in data gathering global city. Its prominence is not only core centre, suburban areas, and and analysis increase the unreality and reinforced by its location relative to core fringe, as well as between inaccuracy of results, and increasing other centres within the megalopolis in multimodality, monocentricity and theoretical complexity enhances which it is embedded, but also by its polycentricity. As monocentric cities, location and functional relationships the degrees of inconsistency and individual metropolitan centres are decreases their usefulness. Rather a with Cape Town and Durban as the multinodal. Morphologically, Pretoria consensus will have to be reached on other two primary centres. and Johannesburg form the cores the degree of abstraction inaccuracies of a polycentric urban structure. It Nationally, the three centres under acceptable, in order to construct is not entirely certain to what extent investigation are without question the a variety of concepts that balance most dominant economic nodes in they also functionally represent a relevance with utility. the country, each serving a significant polycentric city. Determining how part of the country economically. functional interactions manifest A diagrammatic representation of From the regional to the local levels across space first requires the functional classification of South of spatial aggregation, several layers determining inter-centre spatially African metropolitan cities and subsets of functional space were identified. relevant urban functionality. The of the cities would be the following:

SCALE SPATIAL SIGNIFICANCE Zone Planning Terms Zones represented G N R L 1 Inner core centre 1 2 Suburban areas 2 3 Metropolitan fringe 3 4 Satellite urban system 4 5 Surrounding Intermediate-sized cities 5 6 Daily Urban System 1-4 7 Weekly Urban System 1-5 8 Contiguous metropolitan city (Built-up area) 1-3 9 Functional metropolitan boundary 1-4 10 Multinodal city 1-3 11 Polycentric city Functionally multi metro 12 Megalopolis Spatially mulit metro 13 World city Globally significant metro G=GLOBAL N=NATIONAL R=REGIONAL L=LOCAL

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