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University of Warwick Institutional Repository University of Warwick institutional repository: http://go.warwick.ac.uk/wrap A Thesis Submitted for the Degree of PhD at the University of Warwick http://go.warwick.ac.uk/wrap/36097 This thesis is made available online and is protected by original copyright. Please scroll down to view the document itself. Please refer to the repository record for this item for information to help you to cite it. Our policy information is available from the repository home page. CHILD LABOUR IN ZAMBIA An Analysis of the Extent, Nature and Proposed Solutions to the Problem by Peter Matoka THESIS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY UNIVERSITY OF WARWICK DEPARTMENT OF SOCIOLOGY MAY 1994 DECLARATION The work of this thesis was carried out in the Department of Sociology at the University of Warwick and in the field in the Republic of Zambia, and has not been submitted for any other degree or diploma in any University. This is the original work of the author except where otherwise acknowledged in the text. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to record my deep gratitude for patience and assistance from my wife Grace, my son Kutenga and my daughter __Lukisa. My thanks also go to the following:- Dr Kenneth Kaunda, former President of the Republic of Zambia, for allowing me time off from cabinet responsibilities. Mr F.T.J. Chiluba, current President of the Republic of Zambia for his encouragement and moral support. Mr Peter Siwo, former Permanent Secretary for contributing ideas to my drafts. Dr C. Chibaye, Principal President Citizenship College, for contributing ideas to my drafts. Mr A.B. Chikwanda, Chief of Staff, State House, for moral support. Mr J. Wilson, , Former British High Commissioner to Zambia for moral support. Dr. L. Lawrence, Guardian to African Students at Warwick University. Finally, and most importantly my supervisors headed by • Professor Robin Cohen for long hours of critical guidance and encouragement to a man of my advanced age. LIST OF TABLES Table 1 Rural Urban Migration of 228 Respondents 1989-1992 Table 2 Duration of Work in present 229 occupation Table 3 Place of Residence .during 229 period of employment Table 4 Remuneration from work per month 230 Table 5 Level of education amongst workers 231 Table 6 Type of occupation involving children 232 in employment of adults Table 7 Working children still going to school 233 Table 8 Jobs in which children are self 234 employed Table 9 Expenditure of income 235 Table 10 Relations with Police 236 Table 11 Relations with Parents 236 Tz. '"1-1=2 12 Work at night 237 Table 13 Residing with whom at home 238 Table 14 Sector of work 239 Table 15 Sex of respondent 239 Table 16 Rural Reconstruction Centres (RRCs) 332 Table 17 Crop Area covered by RRCs 333 Table 18 Fruit Trees Planted by RRCs 334 ABSTRACT This thesis is centred on the problem of child labour in the urban areas of Zambia. The origins, types and context of child labour are extensively described as are the incidence and distribution of the problem by locality, trade and activity. The very definition of 'child labour' is uncertain with legal, historical, comparative, customary and academic definitions being somewhat contradictory. The differing notions are considered and reconciled. As child labour is mainly concentrated in the 'informal sector', the nature of this sector in Zambia and other poor countries is analysed. The limited opportunities for education, employment and productive and fulfilling self-employment in the informal sector are highlighted. An account of the historical origins and development of child labour in the pre-colonial and colonial periods is provided. An assessment of the measures designed to control or ameliorate child labour follows. This covers the work of international organisations, the colonial and post-colonial governments in Zambia, the voluntary sector and concerned individuals. The effectiveness and coverage of the relevant international conventions and local legal provisions and enforcement are evaluated. The consequences on child labour of more recent interventions by international agencies, for example the Structural Adjustment Program of the World Bank, are illustrated. Three main forms of analysis have been used in this thesis. First a descriptive account of child labour has been supplied using secondary accounts and unpublished reports. Second, the author has undertaken a comparative analysis, examining child labour in two other African countries as well as two countries in each of the continents of Asia and Latin America. Third, extensive interviews with child labourers themselves and those who are close to their plight have been undertaken, to provide the actor's own graphic and personal views on the issues discussed. The thesis concludes with an appraisal of the significance of the study, general prescriptive comments and some more specific policy recommendations designed to 'address and combat the incidence and worst features of child labour in Zambia. TABLE OF CONTENTS Declaration Acknowledgements List of Tables Abstract iv Contents vi Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION 1 Introductory Remarks 3 The Problem 7 Hypotheses 8 Definitions of Child and Labour 9 Methodology 14 Concept of Child Labour and Review of Literature 20 Laws against Child Labour 36 Significance of Study 41 Conclusion 44 Chapter 2 ORIGINS AND TYPES OF CHILD LABOUR 47 Poverty in Developed Countries 49 Poverty in Developing Countries 51 Kinship 55 Religion 57 Tied and Bonded Labour 58 Types of Child Labour 58 Comments on types 68 The Informal Sector 72 Conclusion 79 Chapter 3 DEVELOPING COUNTRIES 82 Introduction 83 India 86 Philippines 97 Brazil 105 Mexico 113 Kenya 116 Nigeria 125 Conclusion 128 Chapter 4 THE COLONIAL PERIOD : 1924-1964 137 Introduction 138 Events 141 Child at Work 163 Conclusion 166 Chapter 5 POST INDEPENDENCE PERIOD : 1964-1992 168 Economic Background and Rural-Urban 169 Migration Supportive Youth Institutions, 175 Production Units, Rural Reconstruction 175 Centres and Education Reforms Forms of Child Labour obtaining in Zambia 190 Effectiveness of the Laws 207 Conclusion 216 Chapter 6 FIELD WORK 219 Introduction 220 Questionnaire 224 Tables 228 Extracts From Interviews 240 Outstanding Personalities 277 Conclusion 293 Chapter 7 , THE SEARCH FOR A SOLUTION 296 Introduction 297 World Summit on the Child 298 UNICMUNDP Input 304 DAPP 317 Rural Reconstruction Centres as a tool 322 for employment and development Dr. Mushota's Study 340 Conclusion and Evaluation 352 Chapter 8 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 356 Summary and Conclusion 357 Bibliography 373 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION i. Introductory Remarks ii. The Problem iii. Hypotheses iv. Definitions v. Methodology vi. Concept of Child Labour and Review of Literature vii. Laws against Child Labour viii. Conclusion 2 #4*********************************************************** CHAPTER 3. INTRODUCTION ************************************************************ 3 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTORY REMARKS The most precious and yet vulnerable groups in human society are children. As early as 1919, the International Labour Organisation (ILO) at its conference that year adopted the minimum age (Industry) convention (No.5) to get member states to ratify the age of 14 years as a minimum for admission to employment in Industry. The response was generally good but the convention did not go far enough as it was limited to industry. In 1973, a general instrument aimed at the total abolition of child labour was adopted by ILO. It was called the comprehensive minimum age convention 1973 No. 138. This convention is now ratified by most member states of the United' 4 Nations Organisation (UNO) who have adopted laws and regulations governing the minimum age for admission to employment in all sectors of the economy. A U.N. decade for children was observed from 1979 to 1989. One U.N. convention _ on the rights of the child, 1989 was adopted by most member states, September 1990 saw the holding of a World summit on the child at U.N. Headquarters. Resolutions of the summit are now being implemented by many countries. In spite of the above achievements, child labour is still a very big problem in many parts of the World. The developing countries are the most affected, the ILO estimate is that about 50 million children of the World are actively involved in this scourge (Blanchard 1983). The agricultural sector is where most of these children are concentrated, next are small-industry workshops, retail stores, restaurants, small establishments, street trade and the domestic service. Child work takes many shapes. It is found in rural agricultural enterprise like farming, pastoral work, agro- industries and in urban domestic jobs and industries. In many respects, children work with, and for their parents. This work by children forms part of their training for adult responsibilities. It is a process of socialisation (De Souza 5 1979, Fyfe 1989, Rodgers and Standing 1981). Many more writers on the subject agree with this stand. They are also unanimous on the view that work performed by children (as a cheap substitute for adults) in hazardous conditions, depriving them of leisure, education and training, is child labour which should be condemned'. Child labour has become a problem in most developing countries. Its eradication is not in sight. National Legislatures have passed laws against this practice. It is obvious that the practice of child labour is continuing in the developing world in spite of national laws and ILO conventions that have been adopted against it. According to authorities on the subject, poverty is the root of child labour; Tripathy (1989 p 26); Beguele and Boyden (1989 p 85); ILO Director General's report, 69th Session (1983 p 18) of extract edition. The question is; Is it possible to stop child labour before we remove the main cause, poverty? The economies of most developing countries are poverty stricken. In Africa many countries have sunk economically since the Africans themselves took over the reigns of power.
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