Technologies to Maintain Biological Diversity

Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity

March 1987

NTIS order #PB87-207494 Recommended Citation: U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Technologies To Maintain Biologi- cal Diversity, OTA-F-330 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, March 1987].

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 87-619803

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402 The reduction of the Earth’s biological diversity has emerged as a public policy issue in the last several years. Growing awareness of this planetary problem has prompted increased study of the subject and has led to calls to increase public and private initiatives to address the problem, This interest in maintaining biological diversity has created a common ground for a variety of groups concerned with implications of a reduction or ultimate loss of the planet’s genetic, species, or ecosystem diversity, One major concern is that loss of plant, animal, and microbial resources may impair future options to develop new important products and processes in agriculture, medicine, and industry. Concerns also exist that loss of diversity undermines the potential of populations and species to respond or adapt to changing environmental conditions. Because humans ultimately depend on environmental support functions, special caution should be taken to ensure that diversity 1osses do not disrupt these functions. Finally, esthetic and ethical motivation to avoid the irreversible loss of unique life forms has played an increasingly major role in promoting public and private programs to conserve particular species or habitats, The broad implications of loss of biological diversity are also reflected in the different concerns and jurisdictions of congressional committees that requested or supported this study. Requesters include the House Committee on Science, Space, and Technology; Senate Committee on Foreign Relations; and Senate Committee on Agriculture, Nutrition, and Forestry. The House Committee on Foreign Affairs; House Committee on Agriculture; and House Committee on Merchant Marine and Fisheries endorsed the requested study. The task presented to OTA by these committees was to clarify for Congress the nature of the problems of reduction of the Earth’s biological diversity and to set forth a range of policy options available to Congress to respond to various concerns. The principal aim of this report is to identify and assess the technological and institutional opportunities and constraints to maintaining biological diversity in the united States and worldwide. Two background papers (Grassroots Conser- vation of Biological Diversity in the United States and Maintaining Biological Diver- sity in the United States: Data Considerations) and a staff paper (The Role of U.S. Development Assistance in Maintaining Bio]ogical Diversity in Developing Coun- tries) were also prepared in conjunction with this study. OTA is grateful for the valuable assistance of the study’s advisory panel, workgroups, workshop participants, authors of background papers, and the many other reviewers from the public and private sectors who provided advice and information throughout the course of this assessment. As with all OTA studies, the content of this report is the sole responsibility of OTA.

Director

{11. . . Advisory Panel Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity

Kenneth Dahlberg, Chair Major Goodman Department of Political Science Department of Crop Science Western Michigan University North Carolina State University Stephen Brush Grenville Lucas International Agricultural Development The Herbarium University of California, Davis Kew Royal Botanic Gardens Peter Carlson Richard Norgaard Director Department of Agricultural and Resource Crop Genetics International Economics University of California, Berkeley Rita Colwell Office of the Vice President for Academic Robert Prescott-Allen Affairs Partner University of Maryland, Adelphi PADATA, Inc. Raymond Dasmann Paul Risser Department of Environmental Studies Vice President for Research University of California, Santa Cruz University of New Mexico Clarence Dias Oliver Ryder President Research Department International Center for Law in San Diego Zoo Development Michael Soul& Donald Duvick Adjunct Professor Senior Vice President of Research School of Natural Resources Pioneer Hi-Bred International University of Michigan David Ehrenfeld John Sullivan Cook College Vice President of production Rutgers University American Breeders Service

NOTE: OTA appreciates and is grateful for the valuable assistance and thoughtful critiques provided by the advisory panel members. The panel does not, however, necessarily approve, disapprove, or endorse this report. OTA assumes full responsibility for the report and the accuracy of its contents.

iv OTA Project Staff Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity

Roger C. Herdman, Assistant Director, OTA Health and Life Sciences Division

Walter E. Parham, Food and Renewable Resources Program Manager

Analytical Staff Susan Shen, Project Director and Analyst

Edward F, MacDonald, Analyst

Michael S. Strauss, Analyst

Catherine Carlson, ’ Research Assistant

Robert Grossman,’ Anal~wt

Allen Ruby, Research Assistant

Contractors James L. Chamberlain David Netter Robert Prescott-Allen Bruce Ross-Sheriff Linda Starke’ and Lisa Olson, ’ Editors

Administrative Staff Patricia Durana,” Beckie Erickson,’ and Sally Shaforth,” Administrative Assistants Nellie Hammond, Secretary Carolyn Swann, Secretar&y

1 Th rough January 1986, 2’1’hrough August I $)8s, 3Summer 1985. 4Through August 1986. 5After August 1986, ~’17h rough July I !385, 7Thruugh Cktober 1 !]86, 8F’rom [)[1(:. 15, 1986, CONTENTS

Chapter Page l. Summary and Options for Congress ...... 3

Part I: INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND 2. Importance of Biological Diversity...... 37 3. Status of Biological Diversity ...... 63 4. Interventions To Maintain Biological Diversity ...... , ...... 89

Part II: TECHNOLOGIES 5. Maintaining Biological Diversity Onsite ...... 101 6. Maintaining Animal Diversity Offsite , ...... ,., ., . . . .137 7. Maintaining Plant Diversity Offsite ...... 169 8. Maintaining Microbial Diversity...... 205

Part III: INSTITUTIONS 9. Maintaining Biological Diversity in the United States ...... 221 10. Maintaining Biological Diversity Internationally ...... ,.....253 11. Biological Diversity and Development Assistance ...... , ..,285

APPENDIXES: A. Glossary of Acronyms ...... 311 B. Glossary of Terms . . . ., ., ., ., ., , ., ..., ...... , ...... 313 C. Participants of Technical Workgroups ...... 317’ D. Grassroots Workshop Participants...... , ...... 319 E, Commissioned Papers and Authors...... ,...... 320 Chapter 1 Summary and Options for Congress

. CONTENTS Page The Problem ...... 3 Interventions To Maintain Biological Diversity ...... 6 The Role of Congress ...... 8 Strengthen the National Commitment To Maintain Biological Diversity ...... 8 Option: Establish a National Biological Diversity Act ...... 11 Option: Develop a National Conservation Strategy ...... 12 Option: Amend Legislation of Federal Agencies ...... 12 Option: Establish a National Conservation Education Act...... 14 Option: Amend the International Security and Development Act ...... 14 Increase the Nation’s Ability to Maintain Diversity ...... I!i Option: Direct the National Science Foundation-To Establish a Conservation Biology Program ...... 16 Option: Establish a National Endowment for Biological Diversity ...... 17 Option: Provide Sufficient Funding to Existing Programs ...... 18 Option: Amend Legislation To Improve Onsite and Offsite Program Links ...... 18 Option: Establish New Programs To Fill Specific Gaps ...... 19 Enhance the Knowledge Base ...... ;...... ; ...... 19 Option: Establish a Small Clearinghouse for Biological Data ...... 2o Option: Fund Existing Network of Natural Heritage Conservation Data Centers ...... +.. 21 Support International Initiatives to Maintain Biological Diversity ...... 22 Option: Increase Support of International Programs ...... 23 Option: Continue To Encourage Multilateral Development Banks to Develop and Implement Environmental Policies...... 23 Option: Examine U.S. Options on the Issue of International Exchange of Genetic Resources ...... 25 Option: Amend the Export Administration Act ...... 26 Address Loss of Biological Diversity in Developing Countries...... 27 Option: Restructure Conservation~Related Sections of the Foreign Assistance Act...... 28 Option: Direct AID To Adopt Strategic Approach ...... 29 Option: Direct AID To Acquire Greater Access to Conservation Expertise ...... 30 Option: Establish a New Funding Account for Conservation Initiatives ...... 31 Option: Apply More Public Law 480 Funds To Promote Diversity Conservation ...... 31 Tables Table No. Page l-1. Examples of Management Systems To Maintain Biological Diversity . . . 6 l-2. Management Systems and Conservation Objectives ...... 6 l-3. Federal Laws Relating to Biological Diversity Maintenance ...... 9 l-4. Summary of Policy Issues and Options for Congressional Action Related to Biological Diversity Maintenance ...... 10 Box Box No. Page l-A. What Is Biological Diversity? ...... 3 Chapter 1 Summary and Options for Congress

Most biological diversity survives without hu- intervention by applying specific technologies. man interventions to maintain it. But as natural A spectrum of technologies are available to sup- areas become progressively modified by human port maintenance of biological diversity (de- activities, maintaining a diversity of ecosytems, fined in box l-A), species, and genes will increasingly depend on

Box I-A.—What Is Biological Diversity? Biological diversity refers to the variety and variability among living organisms and the ecological complexes in which they occur. Diversity can be defined as the number of different items and their relative frequency. For biological diversity, these items are organized at many levels, ranging from complete ecosystems to the chemical structures that are the molecular basis of heredity. Thus, the term encompasses different ecosystems, species, genes, and their relative abundance. How does diversity vary within ecosystem, species, and genetic levels? For example, ● Ecosystem diversity: A landscape interspersed with croplands, grasslands, and woodlands has more diversity than a landscape with most of the woodlands converted to grasslands and croplands. ● Species diversity: A rangeland with 100 species of annual and perennial grasses and shrubs has more diversity than the same rangeland after heavy grazing has eliminated or greatly reduced the frequency of the perennial grass species. c Genetic diversity: Economically useful crops are developed from wild plants by selecting valuable inheritable characteristics. Thus, many wild ancestor plants contain genes not found in today’s crop plants. An environment that includes both the domestic varieties of a crop (such as corn) and the crop’s wild ancestors has more diversity than an environment with wild ancestors eliminated to make way for domestic crops. Concerns over the loss of biological diversity to date have been defined almost exclusively in terms of species extinction. Although extinction is perhaps the most dramatic aspect of the problem, it is by no means the whole problem. The consequence is a distorted definition of the problem, which fails to account for many of the interests concerned and may misdirect how concerns should be addressed.

THE PROBLEM

The Earth’s biological diversity is being re- scapes. Such alterations can provide consid- duced at a rate that is likely to increase over erable benefits when the land’s capability to sus- the next several decades. This loss of diversity tain development is preserved, but compelling —measured at the ecosystem, species, and ge- evidence indicates that rapid and unintended netic levels—is occurring in most regions of the reductions in biological diversity are under- world, although it is most pronounced in par- mining society’s capability to respond to future ticular areas, most notably in the tropics, The opportunities and needs. Most scientists and principal cause is the increasing conversion of conservationists working in this area believe natural ecosystems to human-modified land- that the problem has reached crisis proportions,

4 ● Technologies TO Maintain Biological Diversity although a few remain skeptical and maintain that this level of concern is based on exagger- ated or insufficient data. The abundance and complexity of ecosystems, species, and genetic types have defied complete inventory and thus the direct assessment of changes, As a result, an accurate estimate of the rate of loss is not currently possible. Determining the number of species that exist, ] for example, is a major obstacle in assessing the rate of species extinction. But use of biological principles and data on land use conversions have allowed biologists to deduce that the rate of loss is greater than the rate at which new species evolve. Reduced diversity may have serious consequences for civilization. It may eliminate options to use untapped resources for agricultural, industrial, and medicinal development. Crop genetic resources have accounted for about 50 percent of productivity increases and for annual contributions of about $1 billion to U.S. agriculture, For instance, two species of wild green tomatoes discovered in an isolated area of the Peruvian highlands in the early 1960s have contributed genes for marked increase in fruit pigmentation and soluble-solids content H. currently worth nearly $5 million per year to A foggy, moss- and epiphyte-enshrouded tropical forest i n Ecuador is about to be cleared for local agriculture, the tomato-processing industry. Future gains a main cause of loss of diversity. will depend on use of genetic diversity. Loss of plant species could mean loss of billions of dollars in potential plant-derived phar- successful treatment of several forms of can- maceutical products. About 25 percent of the cer, including Hodgkin’s disease and childhood number of prescription drugs in the United leukemia. States are derived from plants. In 1980, their Although research in biotechnology suggests total market value was $8 billion. Loss of tropi- exciting prospects, scientists will continue to cal rain forests, which harbor an extraordinary rely on genetic resources crafted by nature. For diversity of species, and loss of deserts, which example, new methods of manipulating genetic harbor genetically diverse vegetation, are of material enable the isolation and extraction of particular concern. Consequences to humans a desired gene from one plant or organism and of loss of potential medicines have impacts that its insertion into another, Nature provides the go beyond economic benefits. Alkaloids from basic materials; science enables the merging the rosy periwinkle flower (Catharantus roseus), of desired properties into new forms or com- a tropical plant, for example, are used in the binations. Loss of diversity, therefore, may undermine societies’ realization of the technol- ‘Approximately 1.7 million species have been identified. Mil- ogy’s potential. lions more, however, have yet to be discovered. Recent research indicates that species of tropical insects alone could number 30 Another threatening aspect of diversity loss million. is the disruption of environmental regulatory

Ch. l—Summary and Options for Congress ● 5

tiatives to maintain diversity. Cultural factors, as reflected in the way Americans identify with the bald eagle or the American bison or how plants and animals form a fundamental aspect of human artistic expression, illustrate these values, Forces that contribute to the worldwide loss of diversity are varied and complex. Histori- cally, concern for diversity loss focused on commercial exploitation of threatened or endangered species. Increasingly, however, attention has been focused more on indirect threats that are nonselective and more fundamental and

” H sweeping in scope.

A dense stand of Zea dip/operennis in Sierra de Manantalan, Most losses of diversity are unintended con- Jalisco, Mexico. This ancient wild relative of corn could sequences of human activity. Air and water pol- be worth billions of dollars to corn growers around the lution, for example, can cause diversity loss far world because of its resistance to seven major diseases plaguing domesticated corn. from the pollution’s source, The decline of several fish species in Scandinavia and the near functions that depend on the complex interac- extinction of a salmon species in Canada have tions of ecosystems and the species that sup- been attributed to acidification of lakes due to port them. acid rain. Population growth in itseIf may not be intrinsically threatening to biological di- Diverse wetlands provide productive and pro- versity. A populous country like Japan is an tective processes of economic benefit. Millions example of how a high standard of living, ap- of waterfowl and other birds of economic value propriate government policies, and a predom- depend on North American wetlands for breed- inantly urbanized population can limit the rate ing, feeding, migrating, and overwintering. of ecosystem disruption. However, when pop- About two-thirds of the major U.S. commer- ulation growth is compounded by poverty, a cial fish, crustacean, and mollusk species de- negative impact is characteristic. In many trop- pend on estuaries and salt marshes for spawn- ical developing countries, high population growth ing and nursery habitat. Wetlands temporarily and the practice of shifting agriculture employed store flood waters, reducing flow rates and pro- by peasant farmers are considered the great- tecting people and property downstream from est threats to diversity, flood and storm damage, One U.S. Army Corps of Engineers’ estimate places the present value This report assesses the potential of diversity- of the Charles River wetlands (in Massachu- maintenance technologies and the institutions setts) for its role in controlling floods at $17 mil- developing and applying these technologies. lion per year. Although placing dollar values But maintaining biological diversity will de- on such ecosystem services is problematic and pend on more than applying technologies. Tech- reflects rough approximations, the magnitude nologies do not exist to re-create the vast of the economic benefit stresses the importance majority of ecosystems, species, and genes that of these often overlooked values. are being lost, and there is little hope that such technologies will be developed in the foresee- Humans also value diversity for reasons other able future. Therefore, efforts to maintain diver- than the utility it provides. Esthetic motivations sity must also address the socioeconomic, po- have played important parts in promoting ini- litical, and cultural factors involved. 6 ● Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity

INTERVENTION$ TO MAINTAIN BIOLOGICAL DIVERSiTY There are two general approaches to main- bination of the four systems and by improving taining biological diversity. It may be main- links to take advantage of their potential com- tained where it is found naturally (onsite), or plementariness. The objectives of the manage- it may be removed from the site and kept else- ment systems are summarized in table 1-2. where (offsite). Onsite maintenance can focus Maintaining plants, animals, and microbes on a particular species or population or, alter- onsite—in their natural environments—is the natively, on an entire ecosystem. Offsite main- most effective way to conserve a broad range tenance can focus on organisms preserved as of diversity. Onsite technologies primarily fo- germplasm or on organisms preserved as liv- cus on establishing an area to protect ecosys- ing collections. Table 1-1 lists examples of man- tems or species and on regulating species har- agement systems. These management systems vest. To date, the guidelines for optimal design have somewhat different objectives, but all four of protected areas are limited, however. are necessary components of an overall strategy to conserve diversity. Conservation objec- Offsite maintenance technologies are applied tives can be enhanced by investing in any com- to conserving a small but often critical part of

Table 1-1 .—Examples of Management Systems To Maintain Biological Diversity

On site Off site Ecosystem maintenance Species management Living collections Germplasm storage National parks Agroecosystems Zoological parks Seed and pol=n banks Research natural areas Wildlife refuges Botanic gardens Semen, ova, and embryo banks Marine sanctl]aries /n-situ genebanks Field collections Microbial culture collections Resource development Game parks and reserves Captive breeding programs Tissue culture collections planning Increasing human intervention * ~— Increasing emphasis on natural processes SOURCE Off Ice of Technology Assessment 1986

Table 1-2. —Management Systems and Conservation Objectives -- — Onsite Off site .— Ecosystem maintenance Species maintenance Living— collections Germplasm storage — Maintain: Maintain: Maintain: Maintain:

● a reservoir or “1 ibrary ” of ● genetic interaction be- s breeding material that can- . convenient source of genetic resources tween semidomesticated not be stored in germplasm for breeding species and wild relatives genebanks programs

● evolutionary potential . wi Id popu Iations for sus- . field research and develop- ● CO I Iections of germ plasm tainable exploitation ment on new varieties and from uncertain or threat- breeds ened sources

● functioning of various . viable populations of s off site cultivation and ● reference or type collections ecological processes threatened species propagation as standard for research and patenting purposes

● vast majority of known . species that provide i m- ● captive breeding stock of ● access to germ plasm from and unknown species portant indirect benefits populations threatened in wide geographic areas (for pollination or pest the wild cent rol)

● representatives of unique c “keystone” species with ● ready access to wild spe- “ genetic materials from criti- natural ecosystems important ecosystem sup- cies for research, educa- cally endangered species port or regulating function tion, and display SOURCE Off Ice of Technology Assessment, 1986 Ch. 1—Summary and Options for Congress ● 7 — the total diversity. Technologies for plants in- Determining the efficacy and appropriateness clude seed storage, in vitro culture, and living of technologies depends on biological, sociopo- collections. Most animals are commonly main- litical, and economic factors. Taken together, tained offsite as captive populations. Cryogenic these factors influence decisionmaking and storage of seeds, in vitro cultures, semen, or must be considered in defining objectives for embryos can improve the efficiency of offsite maintaining diversity and for identifying strat- maintenance and reduce costs. egies to meet these objectives. Microbial diversity is important for both its Biological considerations are central to the beneficial and its harmful effects, That is, mi- objectives and choice of systems. Only some crobes (e. g., bacteria and viruses) can present diversity is threatened; therefore, the task of serious threats to human health. By the same maintaining it can focus on elements that need token, these organisms are used in a range of special attention. A biologically unique species beneficial activities, such as for developing vac- (one that is the only representative of an entire cines or for treating wastes. genus or family) or a species with high esthetic Scientists are hampered in their storage, use, appeal may be the focus of intensive conserva- and stud~’ of microbial diversity by their in- tion management. ability to isolate most micro-organisms. For Political factors also influence conservation those micro-organisms that have been isolated objectives and management systems. Commit- and identified, offsite maintenance is the most ments of government resources, policies, and cost-effective technique. programs determine the focus of attention, and Links between onsite and offsite management to a large extent, such commitments reflect pub- systems are important to increasing the effi- lic interests and support. For example, a dis- ciency and effectiveness of efforts to maintain proportionate share of U.S. resources is devoted diversity. Some technologies developed for do- to programs for a few of the many endangered mesticated species, for instance, can be adapted species. Substantial sums have been spent in to wild species. Embryo transfer technologies 1 lth-hour efforts to save the California condor developed for livestock are now being adapted and the black-footed ferret, while other endan- for endangered wild animals. gered organisms such as invertebrate species receive little attention. The applicability of management systems also depends on economic factors. Costs of alternative management systems and the value of resources to be conserved may be relatively clear in the case of genetic resources. For example, the benefits of plant breeding programs compared with the cost of seed maintenance justify germplasm storage technologies, How- ever, cost-benefit analysis is more difficult when benefits are diffuse and accrue over a long period, And onsite maintenance programs compete with other interests for land, personnel, and funds. Photo credit B Dresser Staff of the Cincinnati Wildlife Research Federation Success in maintaining biological diversity working on an anesthetized white rhinoceros in an effort depends largely on institutions that develop and to develop embryo transfer techniques. Proper equipment apply the various technologies, Within the must be developed for COI Iect ion of embryos from the more common white rhino before it is tested on the United States, a variety of laws in addition to endangered black rhino. The white rhino would then public and private programs address various be used as a surrogate for embryos from black rhinos. aspects of diversity conservation, But while 8 Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity some aspects of diversity are covered, other tection approach to a more encompassing eco- aspects are ignored. Table I-3 lists major Federal system maintenance approach. mandates pertinent to diversity maintenance. Much of the work important to diversity main- Because U.S. interest in biological diversity tenance is done in isolation and is too disjunct extends beyond its borders, the United States to address the full range of concerns. And some subscribes to a number of international con- concerns receive little or no attention. For ex- servation laws and supports programs through ample, the objectives of the USDA’s National bilateral and multilateral assistance channels. Plant Germplasm System (NPGS) place primary However, many of these programs have too lit- emphasis on economic plants and little empha- tle support to be effective in resolving interna- sis on non-crop species. Similarly, programs tionally important problems. to protect endangered wild species direct attention away from species that are threatened Both domestic and international institutions but not listed as endangered. The lack of con- deal with aspects of diversity. Some focus at- nections between programs is another institu- tention exclusively on maintaining certain agri- tional constraint. Linkages help define common cultural crops, such as wheat, and others fo- interests and areas of potential cooperation— cus on certain wild species, such as whales and important steps in defining areas of redundancy, migratory waterfowl, A shift has occurred in neglect, and opportunity. recent years from the traditional species pro-

THE ROLE OF CONGRESS

Given the implications and irreversible na- For each issue, alternative or complementary ture of biological extinction, policymakers must options are presented. These range from legis- continue to address the problem of diminish- lative initiatives to programmatic changes ing biological diversity. A significant increase within Federal agencies. Options also define in attention and funding in this area seems con- opportunities to cultivate or support private sec- sistent with U.S. interests, in view of the bene- tor initiatives. In a number of areas, however, fits the United States currently derives from success will depend on increased or redirected biological diversity and the advances that bio- commitments of resources. Table 1-4 provides technology might achieve given a diversity of a summary of policy issues and options. genetic resources. In addition, enough information exists to define priorities for diversity maintenance and to provide a rationale for tak- Strongthon the National Commitment ing initiatives now, although further research To Maintain Biological Diversity and critical review of the nature and extent of The national commitment to maintain bio- diversity loss are also warranted, logical diversity could be strengthened. Despite OTA has identified options available to Con- society’s reliance on biological resources for gress. These options are discussed under five sustenance and economic development, loss of major issues: diversity has yet to emerge as a major concern among decisionmakers. About 2 percent of the 1. strengthening the national commitment, national budget is spent on natural resources- 2. increasing the Nation’s ability to maintain related programs, which include diversity-con- biological diversity, servation programs as one subset. 3. enhancing the knowledge base, 4. supporting international initiatives, and A number of government and private pro- 5. addressing loss of biological diversity in grams address maintenance of biological diver- developing countries. sity, but most programs have objectives too nar- Ch. l—Summary and Options for Congress . 9

Table l-3.— Federal Laws Relating to Biological Diversity Maintenance

Common name Resource affected U S, Code Onsite diversity mandates: Lacey Act of 1900 ., ., ...... , . wild animals 16 USC, 667, 701 Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918, ., ., ., ., wild birds 16 U.S,C 703 et seq. Migratory Bird Conservation Act of 1929, , .,, , .,..,,.,...... wild birds 16 USC 715 et seq. Wildlife Restoration Act of 1937 (Pittman-Robertson Act) ., ... . wild animals 16 U SC 669 et seq. Bald Eagle ProtectIon Act of 1940 ...... , ... wild birds 16 U S.C 668 et seq. Whaling ConventIon Act of 1949 .., . ., . . . . wild animals 16 U.S C. 916 et seq Fish Restoration and Management Act of 1950 (Dingell-Johnson Act) ... ., . . . . ., . . . fisheries 16 U S.C 777 et seq Anadromous Fish Conservation Act of 1965 (Public Law 89-304) ... fisheries 16 U.S. C, 757a-f Fur Seal Act of 1966 (Public Law 89-702)...... wild animals 16 U.S.C, 1151 et seq. Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972 .., ., ., . wild animals 16 U S.C, 1361 et seq Endangered Species Act of 1973 (Public Law 93-205) wild plants and 7 U SC, 136 animals 16 U.S.C. 460, 668, 715, 1362, 1371, 1372, 1402, 1531 et seq. Magnuson Fishery Conservation and Management Act of 1977 (Public Law 94-532)...... ,, ..,,.,, ,, .,, ,, ,, .., ,, fisherles 16 U.S C. 971. 1362, 1801 et seq. Whale Conservation and ProtectIon Study Act of 1976 (Public Law 94-532) ., ., . . ., ... ., ., ., wild animals 16 USC 915 et seq Fish and Wlldllfe Conservation Act of 1980 (Publtc Law 96-366) .,, ,. wild animals 16 U S.C 2901 et seq. Salmon and Steelhead Conservation and Enhancement Act of 1980 (Publlc Law 96-561 ),. .,, ,, ,,, fisheries 16 U.S C 1823 et seq Fish and Wildllfe Coordination Act of 1934 ., ... terrestrlal/aquatic 16 U SC, 694 habitats Fish and Game Sanctuary Act of 1934 .., ., ., sanctuarles 16 U.S.C 694 Historic Sites, Buildings, and Antiquities Act of 1935 natural landmarks 16 USC 461-467 Fish and Wildlife Act of 1956 ...... ,, wildllfe sanctuaries 15 U S C, 713 et seq 16 U S.C 742 et seq Wilderness Act of 1964 (Publlc Law 88-577) .,, ,,, .,,..,, wilderness areas 16 U S C. 1131 et seq National Wlldllfe Refuge System Admlnistratlon Act of 1966 (Public Law 91-135) .,, ,, .., ,, .,, ...... refuges 16 U.S C 668dd et seq Wild and Scenic Rivers Act of 1968 (Publlc Law 90-542) ...... river segments 16 U.S, C, 1271-1287 Marine Protection, Research and Sanctuaries Act of 1972 (Publlc Law 92-532) .. ...,, .,, .,, .., ,.. coastal areas 16 U,S.C 1431-1434 33 U,S.C. 1401, 1402, 1411-1421. 14411444 Federal Land Policy and Management Act of 1976 (Publlc Law 94-579) ., ., ., ...... public domain lands 7 U.s.c 1010-1012 16 U S.C. 5, 79, 420, 460, 478, 522, 523, 551, 1339 30 us c. 50, 51, 191 40 u s c. 319 43 U.S C, 315, 661, 664, 665, 687, 869, 931, 934-939, 942-944, 946-959, 961-970, 1701, 1702, 1711- 1722, 1731-1748, 1753, 1761.1771, 1781, 1782 National Forest Management Act of 1976 (Public Law 94-588) . . . . national forest lands 16 U.S.C 472, 500, 513, 515, 516, 518, 521, 576, 581, 1600, 1601-1614 Public Rangelands Improvement Act of 1978 (Public Law 95-514) . . public domain lands 16 U S C 1332, 1333 43 US C. 1739, 1751-1753. 1901-1908 Of/site diversity mandates: Agricultural Marketing Act of 1946 (Research and Marketing Act) ., agricultural plants 5 U,s.c 5315 and an finals 7 U,S.C. 1006, 1010, 1011, 1924-1927, 1929, 1939-1933, 1941-1943, 1947, 1981, 1983, 1985, 1991, 1992, 2201, 2204, 2212, 2651- 2654, 2661-2668 16 U.S.C, 590, 1001-1005 42 U.S.C, 3122 Endangered Species Act of 1973 (Public Law 93-205) ., ., wild plants and 7 U SC 136 animals 16 US C. 460, 668, 715, 1362, 1371, 1372, 1402, 1531 et seq Forest and Rangeland Renewable Resources Research Act of 1978 (Public Law 95-307), ., ., ., ...... tree germplasm 16 U.S.C 1641-1647 NOTE Laws enacted prior to 1957 are cited by Chapter and not Publ!c Law number SOURCE Off Ice of Technology Assessment, 1986 10 ● Techno/ogjes TO Maintain Biological Diversity — ———

Table l-4.—Summary of Policy Issues for Congressional Action Related to Biological Diversity Maintenance

Issue Finding Options Strengthen national commitment Adopt a comprehensive approach Establish a national biological diversity act to maintaining bio/ogica/ diversity Prepare a national conservation strategy Amend appropriate legislation of Federal agencies Increase public awareness of Establish a national conservation education act biological diversity issues Amend the International Security and Development Cooperation Act Increase ability to maintain /reprove research, technology Direct National Science Foundation to establish biological diversity development and application a conservation biology program Establish a national endowment for biological diversity Fill gaps and inadequacies in Provide sufficient funding for existing existing programs maintenance programs Improve link between onsite and off site programs Establish new programs to fill specific gaps in current efforts Enhance knowledge base /reprove data co//ection, Establish a clearinghouse for biological data maintenance, and use Enhance existing natural heritage network of conservation data centers Support international initiatives Provide greater leadership in the Increase support of existing international international/ arena programs Continue oversight hearings of multilateral development banks’ activities Promote the exchange of genetic Examine U.S. options on international exchange resources of germplasm Amend the Export Administration Act to affirm U.S. commitment to free exchange of germ plasm Address loss in developing Amend Foreign Assistance Act Adopt broader definition of biological diversity countries in Foreign Assistance Act Enhance capability of the Agency Direct AID to adopt strategic approach to for /nternationa/ Development diversity conservation Increase AID staffing of personnel with environmental training Estab/ish alternative funding Create special account for natural resources sources for biological diversity and the environment ~roiects Apply more Public Law 480 funds to effort ,. — — --—.. — SOURCE Off Ice of Technology Assessment, 1987

rowly defined to address the broad scope of 205), but no formal institutional mechanism ex- biological diversity concerns. Nor do the ad hoc ists for the thousands of plant, animal, and programs use coordination and cooperation to microbial species not listed as threatened or build a systematic approach to tackle the issue, endangered. Mandates for offsite conservation State and private efforts fill some gaps in Fed- are equally vague about which species they are eral programs, but they do not provide a com- to consider. For example, the Research and prehensive national commitment and thus leave Marketing Act of 1946 is intended to “promote many aspects of the problem uncovered. the efficient production and utilization of products of the soil” (7 U. S.C.A. 427), but it is inter- Federal agencies, for example, coordinate the preted narrowly by the Agricultural Research onsite conservation activities mentioned spe- Service (ARS) to mean economic plant species cifically in Federal species protection laws, and varieties. Thus, little government attention such as those under the authority of the En- has been given to conserving the multitude of dangered Species Act of 1973 (Public Law 93- wild plant species offsite, Even less attention Ch. l—Summary and Options for Congress “ 11 -— is given to offsite conservation of domesticated will be made to achieve a comprehensive ap- and wild animals. proach to maintaining biological diversity.

FINDING 1: A comprehensive approach is Option 1.1: Enact legislation that recognizes the needed to arrest the loss of biological di- importance of maintaining biological diver- versity. Significant gaps in existing pro- sity as a national objective. grams could be identified with such an ap- Current legislation addressing the loss of bio- proach, and the resources of organizations logical diversity in the United States is largely concerned with the issue could be better al- piecemeal. Although many Federal laws affect located. Improved coordination could create conservation of diversity, few refer to it spe- opportunities to enhance effectiveness and cifically. The National Forest Management Act efficiency of Federal, State, and private pro- of 1976 is the only legislation that mandates the grams without interfering with achievement conservation of a “diversity of plant and ani- of the programs’ goals. mal communities, ” but it offers no explicit direction on the meaning and scope of diver- The broad scale of the problem of diversity sity maintenance. loss necessitates innovative solutions. Various laws and programs of Federal, State, and pri- Consequently, existing Federal programs fo- vate organizations already provide the frame- cus on sustaining specific ecosystems, species, work for a concerted comprehensive approach. or gene pools, or on protecting endangered At this time, however, few of these programs wildlife. Species protection laws authorize Fed- state maintenance of biological diversity as an eral agencies to manage specific animal popu- explicit objective. As a result, diversity is given lations and their habitats. Habitat protection cursory attention in most conservation and re- laws authorize the acquisition or designation source management programs. Some of them, of habitats under Federal stewardship. Federal such as the Endangered Species Program, ad- laws for offsite maintenance of plants author- dress diversity more directly but are concerned ize the collection and genetic development of with only one facet of the problem. Duplica- plant species that demonstrate potential eco- tion of efforts, conflicts in goals, and gaps in nomic value. geographic and taxonomic coverage are con- The Endangered Species Act authorizes pro- sequences. tection of species considered threatened or endangered in the United States, However, list- To resolve this institutional problem, a coming endangered species does not eliminate the prehensive approach to maintaining biological problem; efforts are hampered by slow listing diversity is needed. The implication is not that procedures, by emphasis on vertebrate animals all programs should address the full range of at the expense of plants and invertebrates, and approaches; rather, organizations should view by concerns about conflicts that endangered their own programs within the broader context status might create. of maintaining diversity and should coordinate their programs with those of other organiza- Congress could pass a National Biological tions. Programs and organizations would there- Diversity Act to endorse the importance of the by benefit from one another. Gaps could be issue and to provide guidance for a comprehen- identified and eventually filled, and duplicate sive approach. Such an act could explicitly state efforts could be reduced. And organizations maintenance of diversity as a national goal, could improve efficiency by taking the respon- establish mechanisms for coordinating activi- sibilities for which they are best suited. More- ties, and set priorities for diversity conserva- over, financial support for diversity maintenance tion. A national policy could bring about co- could be more effectively distributed. A step operation among Federal, State, and private in this direction has been taken in recent ini- efforts, help reduce conflicting activities, and tiatives, but congressional commitment to such improve efficiency and cost-effectiveness of an endeavor is necessary to ensure that efforts programs, 12 . Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity

To be effective, a new act would require a In developing a national strategy, such a com- succinct definition of biological diversity and mission could do the following: explicit goals for its maintenance. Otherwise, ● assess the adequacy of existing programs ambiguities would lead to misinterpretation to conserve biological diversity; and confusion. Diversity, for example, could formulate a national policy on mainte- be interpreted broadly when authorities and nance of biological diversity; funding are being sought and narrowly when ● identify measures required to implement responsibilities are assigned. Identifying goals the policy, any obstacles to such measures, is likely to be a long and politically sensitive and the means to overcome those obstacles; process. Decisionmakers and the public will ● determine how biological diversity main- have to determine if conserving maximum diver- tenance relates to other conservation and sity is the desirable goal. Finally, to be effec- development interests; and tive, the law must have both public support and ● include a public consultation and informa- adequate resources, or it would simply provide tion program to build a consensus on the a false reassurance that something is being content of the national conservation strategy. done. Another way to prepare a strategy is to tap the resources of an established government Option 1.2: Develop a National Conservation agency. An appropriate body could be the Strategy for U.S. biological resources. Council for Environmental Quality (CEQ), Another means of comprehensively address- which is part of the Office of the President. Cre- ing diversity maintenance is to develop a Na- ated by the National Environmental Policy Act tional Conservation Strategy (NCS). This strat- of 1969, CEQ already prepares annual reports egy could be developed in conjunction with, for the President on the state of the environ- or in lieu of, a mandate as suggested in the ment. In doing so, it uses the services of public preceding option. The process would initiate and private agencies, organizations, and indi- coordination of Federal programs. Program ad- viduals and hence has the experience and au- ministrators could identify measures to reduce thority to bring together various interest groups overlap and duplication, to minimize jurisdic- and expertise. On the other hand, CEQ, though tional problems, and to develop new initiatives. fully staffed in the 1970s with a range of environmental experts, now has only a small staff A national strategy could minimize potential of administrators. Coordinating and guiding the competition, conflict, and duplication among substantive development of an NCS is thus be- programs in the private and public sectors. In yond the council’s current capacity except addition, preparation of an NCS would strengthen through use of consultants. efforts to promote NCSS in other countries. Some 30 countries (mostly developing coun- Because the success of an NCS depends on tries, but also including Canada and the United participation of a broad spectrum of interest Kingdom) have initiated concrete steps to pre- groups, its preparation could be a daunting pare an NCS. U.S. action might reinforce the prospect. The number, size, and nature of U.S. momentum for NCSs in other countries. Government agencies and the different sectors involved could make preparation and imple- Congress could establish an independent mentation of a strategy difficult. commission to prepare the NCS. Members of the commission could serve part-time and be provided a budget for meetings and adminis- Option 1.3: Amend the Legislation of Federal agencies to make maintenance of biological trative support. The commission could include representatives from government, academia, diversity an explicit consideration in their activities. and the private sector. The Public Land Law Review Commission and the National Water Yet another means for Congress to encourage Commission are potential models. a comprehensive approach is to make mainte- Ch. l—Summary and Options for Congress ● 13 nance of biological diversity an explicit con- biologists but also social scientists and edu- sideration of Federal agencies’ activities. A cators working together. number of Federal programs affecting biological diversity are scattered throughout different Diversity loss has not captured public atten- agencies, but the lack of coordination results tion for three reasons, First, it is a complex con- in inefficient and inadequate coverage of the cept to grasp. Rather than attempt to improve problem. understanding of the broad issue, organizations soliciting support have made emotional appeals These amendments could involve the crea- to save particular appealing species or spection of new programs, or they could lead to tacular habitats. This approach is effective in modified objectives for existing programs. In the short-term, but it keeps the constituency and either case, the amendments should redirect the scope of the problem narrow. Second, the certain policies, consolidate conservation ef- more pervasive threats to diversity, such as loss forts, and provide criteria for settling conflicts. of habitat or diminished genetic bases for agri- An amendment for Federal land managing agen- cultural crops, are gradual processes rather cies, for example, could require that these agen- than dramatic events. Third, most benefits of cies make diversity conservation a priority in maintaining diversity are often diffuse, un- decisions relating to land acquisition, disposal, priced, and reaped over the long-term, result- and exchange, ing in relatively low economic values being as- Such amendments would probably be resisted signed to the goods and services provided. The by individual Federal agencies, which could ar- benefits of diversity, therefore, are not pre- gue that they are already maintaining diversity sented concretely and competitively with other and do not need more explicit direction from issues. Consequently, the public and policy- Congress, In addition, agencies could argue that makers generally lack an appreciation of pos- they could not increase their activities without sible consequences of diversity loss. new appropriations; otherwise, the quality of existing work could be compromised. Notwithstanding these difficulties, environmental quality has been a major public policy Before such amendments are written, a sys- concern since the 1970s, and it remains firmly tematic review of all Federal resource legisla- entrenched in the consciousness of the Amer- tion will be needed to determine how existing ican public. A 1985 Harris poll, for example, statutory mandates and programs affect the indicated that 63 percent of Americans place conservation of diversity and how they comple- greater priority on environmental clean-up than ment or contradict one another, and to desig- on economic growth. And because stewardship nate which programs are most in need of revi- of the environment includes maintaining diver- sion. Such a complex review will take time and sity, this predisposition of Americans could be money and is likely to be opposed by agencies. built onto develop support for diversity maintenance programs. FINDING 2: Because maintenance of biological diversity is a long-term problem, policy Biological diversity benefits a variety of spe- changes and management programs must be cial interest groups; its potential constituency long lasting to be effective. But, such policies is enormous but fragmented. It includes, for and programs must be understood and ac- example, the timber and fishing industries as cepted by the public, or they will be replaced well as farmers, gardeners, plant breeders, ani- or overshadowed by shorter term concerns. mal breeders, recreational hunters, indigenous Conveying the importance of biological diver- peoples, wilderness enthusiasts, tourists, and sity requires formulating the issue in terms all those who enjoy nature. The combined in- that are technically correct yet understand- terests of all these groups could cuItivate a na- able and convincing to the general public. To tional commitment to maintaining biological undertake the initiative will require not only diversity, if properly orchestrated. 14 ● Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity —

Option 2.1: Promote public education about bio- legislation would require additional appropri- logical diversity by establishing a National ations, and in a time of budgetary constraints, Conservation Education Act. funding requests for conservation education programs would probably be opposed. Just as sustaining support to enhance environmental quality required public education Option 2.2: Amend the International Security programs, so too will a concerted national ef- and Development Act of 1980 to increase the fort to conserve biological diversity require a awareness of the American public about in- strong public education effort. A National Con- ternational diversity conservation issues that servation Education Act could be patterned af- affect the United States. ter the Environmental Education Act of 1971 (Public Law 91-516), which authorized the U.S. Even more difficult than increasing the pub- Commissioner of Education to establish edu- lic’s awareness of domestic issues in biologi- cation programs that would encourage under- cal diversity is increasing their awareness of standing of environmental policies. z the relevance of diversity loss in other countries. In addition to humanitarian and ethical A new act could support programs and cur- reasons, maintaining diversity in other coun- ricula that promote, inter alia, the importance of biological diversity to human welfare. A tries benefits the United States by sustaining biological resources needed for American agri- small grants program could support research culture, pharmacology, and biotechnology in- and pilot public education projects. Funds dustries, and by sustaining natural resources could be made available to evaluate methods necessary for commerce and economic devel- for curricula development, dissemination of opment. curricula, teacher training, ecological study center design, community education, and ma- Maintaining biological diversity for security terials for mass media programs, The act could and quality of life enhancement, and the wis- support interaction among existing State envi- dom of incorporating such issues into U.S. for- ronmental education programs, such as those eign assistance efforts, are justification for Con- in Wisconsin and Minnesota, and encourage gress to promote public awareness of the global the establishment of new programs in other nature of the problem. States. The Department of Education could pro- Mechanisms for educating the public about vide consulting services to school districts to such international issues are already in place. develop education programs. Specifically, several nongovernmental organi- An attempt to establish additional environ- zations (NGOS) have international conservation mental education legislation might be opposed operations. A coalition of these groups actively because of the trend to reduce the Federal Gov- participated in the U.S. Interagency Task Force ernment’s role in education and to rely more on biological diversity that formulated the U.S. on State and private sector initiatives. There- Strategy on the Conservation of Biological Di- fore, it could be argued that private organiza- versity in Developing Countries. As a group, tions, such as the Center for Environmental they have identified public education as a ma- Education, are the appropriate agents to in- jor role for NGOs. crease public awareness. It could also be ar- The grassroots approach of NGOs is con- gued that Federal agencies are already educat- ducive to heightening public awareness, as il- ing the public about environmental issues and lustrated by the support for programs to allevi- could easily include biological diversity in their ate famine in Africa. Recognizing the potential programs without new legislation. Besides, new of NGOs to stimulate public awareness and discussion of the political, economic, technical, and social factors relating to world hunger and This act was repealed by Public Lawr 97-35 in 1981, and the I)epartment of Education has requested no funds for environ- poverty, Congress amended the International mental education in its 1987 budget. Security and Development Cooperation Act of Ch. I—Summary and Options for Congress 15

1980 with Title III, Section 316, to further the it. Progress is slow partly because basic re- goals of Section 103.3 search is poorly funded, and institutions are not organized to follow-up basic research with This amendment provides NGOs with Biden- synthesis of results, technology development, Pell matching grants to support programs that and technology transfer. The last reason im- educate U.S. citizens about the links between plies a need for goal-oriented research. American progress and progress in developing countries. The Agency for International De- All too often, the Nation’s current research velopment (AID) has used these grants mainly programs related to biological diversity do not to promote American understanding of the have a goal-oriented approach. Institutional re- problems faced by farmers in developing coun- ward systems and prestige factors deter many tries and how resolution of those problems ben- scientists from engaging in work that translates efits Americans. Recently, use of the grants has basic science into practical tools. Several Fed- been broadened to include public education on eral agencies support basic biology and ecol- international environmental issues, Congress ogy research, but too little support exists for could encourage this action by expressing its synthesis of the research into technologies. approval during oversight hearings or by fur- Improved links between research and man- ther amending the International Security and agement systems, that is, technology transfer, Development Cooperation Act specifically to can increase efficiency, effectiveness, and abil- authorize support for education programs on ity for maintaining diversity, For example, un- environmental issues, especially on biological derstanding how to maintain and propagate diversity. wild endangered species has been preceded by efforts to maintain domestic species. Perhaps Increase the Nation’s Ability To the most dramatic linkage is embryo transfer Maintain Biological Diversity technology developed for livestock now being adapted for endangered wildlife, Similarly, The ability to maintain biological diversity plant storage technologies developed for agri- depends on the availability of applicable tech- cultural varieties, such as cryogenics and tis- nologies that are useful and affordable and on sue culture, may be valuable tools for maintain- programs designed to apply these technologies ing rare or threatened wild plant species, even to clearly identified needs. Thus, increasing the if only as backup collections. Nation’s ability to maintain diversity will require an improved system for identifying needs FINDING 3: Current technologies are insuffi- and for developing or adapting technologies cient to prevent further erosion of biological and programs to address these needs. resources. Thus, increasing the Nation’s ability to maintain biological diversity will re- At present, technologies and programs are quire acceleration of basic research as well not sufficient to prevent further erosion of bio- as research in development and implemen- logical resources. The problem of diversity loss tation of resource management technologies. has been recognized relatively recently, and scientists have just begun to focus attention on Most resource management technologies were developed to meet narrow needs. Onsite technologies are generally directed toward a ‘Sm. 103, entitled ‘‘Agriculture, Rural De\’elopment and NLI- t ri t ion, re[;ognizes that the majority of people in de~’eloping particular population or species, and offsite (,ou nt rles 1 i~fe in rural areas and close to subsisten(;e. It author- technologies are generally directed toward iz(:s the I)resident to furnish assistance to alleviate hunger and organisms of economic importance. This re- mal nut rit ion, enharr(:e the capacity of rural people, and to he] p (. reate [) rod u(, t it’e on- and off-farm ern plojment. Sec, 315 en- stricted focus of basic research and technol- (:ourages pri i’at e a n[l k’ol LI n ta rk’ or~a n izat ions to fac I 1 i tate ti ] (1 [;- ogy development is not sufficient to meet the ~i)rea(l ~)uh] i{, (1 i s(; ussion, a nal}~ is, and re~’ie~~ of th[> issl}(;~ of broad goal of maintaining diversity, given the wor](] hunger, It espec ial]j’ (:a]]s for Increased pub] ic a~~’areness of th (; pol it i(, a 1, fx, ono rn 1(,, te(. hnl(:al, and so(:ial factors aff(!(,t- number of species involved and the time and ] ng h u ngt; r a n(l peter-t}. funds available. 16 . Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity

To accelerate research and application of Current funding for research and technology diversity-conserving technologies, a shift of em- development in conservation biology is negli- phasis is necessary in research funding. Agen- gible, in large part because NSF considers it cies that fund or conduct research (e.g., the to be too applied, while other government agen- National Science Foundation (NSF) and the cies consider it to be too theoretical. Congress Agricultural Research Service of the USDA) could encourage scientists to specialize in con- generally do not focus on applying research to servation biology by establishing within NSF technology development; they usually are ori- a separate conservation biology research pro- ented toward supporting basic research. For gram that would support the broad spectrum example, research funds are available for de- of basic and applied research directed at descriptive studies of population genetics but not veloping and applying science and technology for studies on applications of genetic theory to to biological diversity conservation. onsite population management. Scientists are To enhance interprogram links, this program rewarded for research that tests hypotheses could fund studies that integrate onsite and off- relatively quickly and for publication of re- site methods—at the ecosystem, species, and search results in academic journals. These in- genetic levels. Such a program would also bring centives discourage broad, long-term studies much needed national recognition, research and neglect analyzing research results to de- funding, and scientific expertise to the field of velop technology systems. conservation biology. This support would accel- Another avenue to increasing the ability to erate its acceptance and growth within the sci- maintain diversity is to encourage development entific community and the development of new and implementation of programs by private principles and technology, organizations, Although many private efforts Current statutory authority of NSF would are not defined in terms of diversity conserva- cover such a program, NSF programs are sup- tion per se, activities to conserve aspects of posed to support both basic and applied scien- diversity (i.e., ecosystems, wild species, agri- tific research relevant to national problems in- cultural crops, and livestock) have had signifi- volving public interest; the maintenance of cant impact. These efforts are not likely to re- biological diversity is such a problem. place public or national programs, but they could bean integral part of the Nation’s attempt NSF might resist establishing such a program, to maintain its biological heritage. because NSF views conservation biology as a mission-oriented activity. Since conservation Option 3.I: Direct the National Science Foun- biology includes technology development, NSF dation to establish a program for conserva- might view a diversity program as a potentially tion biology. dangerous precedent to its role as the Nation’s major supporter of basic research. Further- The field of conservation biology seeks to de- more, NSF might argue that a new research pro- velop scientific principles and then apply those gram is not needed because its Division of Bi- principles to developing technologies for diver- otic Systems and Resources already supports sity maintenance, Recently, the development of about 60 basic research projects that address this discipline has gained momentum through biological diversity issues. These projects, how- the establishment of study programs at some ever, largely ignore the social, economic, po- universities and the formation of a Society of litical, and management aspects of biological Conservation Biology, with its own professional diversity, and conservation is usually of sec- journal. Nevertheless, conservation biology is ondary importance to the projects, only beginning to be recognized by the academic community as a legitimate discipline. No An alternative to establishing an NSF pro- research funds support it explicitly. Therefore, gram could be to enhance or redirect existing few scientists can afford to conduct innovative programs in other agencies to promote research conservation biology research, in diversity maintenance. The Institute of Ch. l—Summary and Options for Congress 17

Museum Services (IMS), a federally sponsored genetic resources.’ Funding, however, is a program, already provides a small amount of major constraint for nearly all these private funding for research on both onsite and offsite activities. A program of small grants with a ceil- diversity maintenance. IMS supports activities ing of perhaps $25,000 per grant (similar to the from ecosystem surveys to captive breeding. grants awarded by IMS) could make a substan- However, the principal focus of IMS is public tial contribution to the shoestring budgets of education, and its small budget is spread over these small organizations and thus enhance na- a wide range of programs (e. g., art museums tional efforts to maintain biological diversity and historic collections), many of which are un- at relatively little cost. related to biological research. Thus, IMS would A National Endowment for Biological Diver- be unable, with its current funding, to take sity could provide funds to private organiza- greater responsibility for technology develop- tions to carry out the following: ment; new appropriations would be necessary. support research and application of meth- Development and application of diversity- ods to conserve biological diversity, conserving technologies could also be funded award fellowships and grants for training, through other Federal agencies’ research pro- foster and support education programs to grams. Congress could encourage appropriate increase public understanding and appre- agencies to increase emphasis on development ciation of biological diversity, and of diversity technology. One source of funding buy necessary equipment such as small is through the USDA Competitive Research computers. Grants Office (C RGO). At present, the only research related to genetic resources funded by This national endowment could be created by USDA-CRGO is in the area of molecular ge- amending the act that authorizes other national netics. As a result, little funding is available for endowment (of arts and humanities) programs. scientists seeking to conduct research in germ- The National Foundation on Arts and Human- plasm preservation, maintenance, evaluation, ities Act of 1965 (Public Law 89-209) declares and use. that the encouragement and support of national progress is of Federal concern and supports Option 3.2: Establish a National Endowment scholarships, research, the improvement of for Biological Diversity. education facilities, and encouragement of greater public awareness, Congress could establish a National Endow- ment for Biological Diversity to fund private A major constraint to establishing an endow- organizations in research, education, training, ment is the availability of funds during this and maintenance programs that support the period of severe budget cutbacks. However, conservation of biological diversity, Currently, even a small program could significantly en- no central institution funds such efforts. courage private sector initiatives in diversity maintenance. Thus, the total amount needed Efforts, however piecemeal, of private orga- for such an endowment could be modest, and nizations and individuals are currently mak- it might be feasible to use only startup funds ing significant contributions to the mainte- and a partial contribution from the Federal Gov- nance of the Nation’s diversity. Frequently, they ernment and raise the remainder of the endow- undertake activities that Federal and State agen- ment from private sector contributions, cies cannot or do not address. Through their special interests, these groups as a whole also play a major role in raising public awareness and concern about the loss of diversity. In this 4For further discussion, see U.S. Congress, Office of Technol- way, they increase the constituency backing ogy Assessment, Grassroots Conservation of Biological Diver- sity in the United States, Background Paper #1, OTA-BP-F-38 government programs that maintain natural (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, February areas as well as those that collect and safeguard 1986]. 18 ● Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity . —

FINDING 4: Many Federal agencies sponsor Similarly underfunded and understaffed is diversity maintenance programs that are well the Endangered Species Program of the Fish designed but not fully effective in achieving and Wildlife Service. A review of this program their objectives because of inadequate fund- shows a substantial and growing backlog of im- ing and personnel, lack of links to other pro- portant work. The rate of proposing species for grams, or lack of complementary programs the threatened and endangered list is so slow in related fields. that a few candidates (e.g., Texas Henslow’s sparrow) may have become extinct while await- Much is already being done to maintain cer- ing listing. Critical habitat has been determined tain aspects of diversity in the United States, for only one-fourth of the listed species, and but efforts are constrained by shrinking budgets recovery plans have been approved for only and personnel. And as noted earlier, the pro- some of the listed species. grams addressing biological diversity are piecemeal rather than comprehensive or strategic. Congress could provide adequate funding for Whether or not Congress chooses to promote these and other programs to achieve their goals a comprehensive strategy for diversity main- in maintaining diversity. NPGS could, as a re- tenance, specific attention is needed to remedy sult, increase the viability of stored germplasm the major gaps and inadequacies in existing through more frequent testing and regenera- programs. tion of accessions. NSSL could increase its efficiency by expanding storage capacity and Option 4.1: Provide increased funding to exist- adopting new technologies. For example, cryo- ing programs for maintenance of diversity. genic storage could be used to reduce maintenance cost and space, thereby enabling a larger A number of governmental programs for di- collection of germplasm. Likewise, the Endan- versity maintenance already exist, some be- gered Species Program would be able to assess cause of congressional mandates. Yet the full candidate species faster and to develop and im- potential of some of those programs has not plement recovery plans for those already listed been realized because funding is insufficient. species. Two such programs are the National Plant Germplasm System (NPGS) and the Endangered Species Program, though others would also ben- Option 4.2: Amend appropriate legislation to efit from higher levels of funding. improve the link between onsite and offsite maintenance programs. The NPGS of the Agricultural Research Serv- ice has functioned for years on severely limited Coordination between onsite and offsite pro- funds and, consequently, is in danger of losing grams is inadequate. By amending appropri- some of the storehouse of plant germplasm. ate legislation, Congress could encourage the This desperate situation is best illustrated by complementary use of onsite and offsite tech- the National Seed Storage Laboratory (NSSL], nologies. For example, the Endangered Species which is expected to exceed its storage capac- Act could be amended to encourage use of cap- ity in 2 years. At the same time, NSSL is being tive breeding and propagation techniques, Such pressured to increase collection and mainte- methods have been used with some endangered nance of wild plant germplasm. NPGS is at- species, such as the red wolf, whooping crane, tempting to respond to various criticisms about and grizzly bear. But for other species, such its effectiveness, but progress has been slow as the California condor, black-footed ferret, because of lack of funds and personnel. The and dusky seaside sparrow, recovery plans do 1986 appropriation for germplasm work is ap- not exist or were too long delayed, Recovery proximately $16 million, but to support current plans for endangered species seldom include programs adequately would cost about $40 mil- the use of offsite techniques, partly because cap- lion (1981 dollars) annua]ly. tive breeding and propagation are outside the Ch. l—Summary and Options for Congress 19 scope of natural resource management agen- (IBPGR). An IBAGR could set standards and cies; rather, they are in the province of zoos, coordinate the exchange and storage of germ- botanic gardens, arboretums, and agricultural plasm between countries and address related research stations. issues such as quarantine regulations. It could foster onsite management of genetic resources By mandating that recovery plans give spe- for both minor and major breeds. cific consideration to captive breeding and propagation, Congress could encourage links Another major gap is protection of U.S. eco- between separate programs. The approach system diversity. Numerous types of ecosys- could be broadened to encourage cooperative tems, such as tall grass prairie, are not included efforts between public and private organiza- in the Federal public lands system. Congress tions working offsite and onsite to conserve eco- could direct Federal land-managing agencies system and genetic diversity. A model for such to include representative areas of major eco- efforts exists in the emerging cooperation be- systems in protected areas. tween the Center for plant Conservation (net- One vehicle for this is the Research Natural work of regional botanic institutions) and NSSL, Area (RNA) system. Since 1927, the RNA system, with the cooperation of multiple Federal agen- Option 4.3: Establish programs to fill gaps in cies and private groups, has developed the most current efforts to maintain biological diversity. comprehensive coverage of natural ecosystem One of the most obvious gaps in domestic pro- types in the United States. RNAs, however, are grams is the lack of a formal national program small scale and are mainly established on land to maintain domestic animal genetic resources. already in public ownership. Therefore, the Congress could establish a program to coordi- RNA system, may not be able to cover the major nate activities for animal germplasm conser- ecosystems without some additional mecha- vation, thereby reducing duplication and en- nism to acquire land not already in the Fed- couraging complementary actions. Such a eral domain, possibly through land exchanges. program could be established through clarifi- Nevertheless, Congress could recognize the cation of the Agricultural Research Service RNA system as a mechanism and direct agen- mandate. An animal program could parallel the cies to work toward filling the program gaps. National Plant Germplasm System, but other structures should be explored as well. Alter- natively, a separate program established to be Enhance the Knowledge Base semi-independent from government agencies Developing effective strategies to maintain might serve a greater variety of interests. The diversity depends on knowing the components best structure for such a program is at present of biological systems and how’ they interact. In- unclear. formation on the status and trends in biologi- A congressional hearing could be held to cal systems is also needed for public policy. The identify the main issues in establishing an ani- first step in developing such information is fun- mal germplasm program and to discuss alter- damental descriptions of the \arious compo- native structures and scope of such a program, nents—species, communities, and ecosystems. Data can then be analyzed to determine how Coordination of international efforts is also best to maintain biological diversity. More spe- needed to preserve the diversity of agricultur- cifically, baseline data are needed for the fol- ally important animals. Some efforts have allowing activities: ready been made, and the concept of an international program is gaining support, Congress ● assessing the abundance, condition, and could encourage the establishment of an Inter- distribution of species, communities, and national Board for Animal Genetic Resources ecosystems; (IBAGR). This program could parallel the In- ● disclosing changes that may be taking ternational Board for Plant Genetic Resources place; 20 . Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversify

● monitoring the effectiveness of resource 4. The data must be legitimate; that is, it must management plans once they are imple- carry a widely accepted presumption of ac- mented; and curacy and authority. ● determining priorities for areas that merit Much information is already available but not special efforts to manage natural diversity in an assimilated form useful to decision- that would benefit from protection, and makers. Data on the status and trends of bio- that deserve particular attention to avoid logical diversity are scattered among Federal, biological disruption or to initiate mitiga- State, and foreign agencies and private orga- tive actions. nizations. Consolidation of these data is nec- To be effective and efficient, the acquisition, essary to identify gaps, to provide a compre- dissemination, and use of data must proceed hensive understanding of the status of the within the context of defined objectives. For Earth’s biota, and especially to define priori- the most part, biological data used in diversity ties for action. maintenance programs has been acquired without the direction of a coordinating goal. Not Option 5.1: Establish a small clearinghouse for surprisingly, these data are widely scattered data on biological diversity. and generally incompatible. Geographical and taxonomical data gaps exist. Some taxonomic The purpose of a clearinghouse would be to groups are ignored in field inventories, while coordinate data collection, synthesis, and dis- others, particularly plants and animals with semination efforts. It could serve government economic or recreational value, are monitored agencies, private organizations, corporations, extensively. Finally, there is little data on the and individuals, The clearinghouse could per- social, economic, and institutional pressures form the following functions: on biological diversity. Consequently, available ● survey and catalog existing Federal, State, data cannot be used easily in decisionmaking private, and international databases on bio- directed at maintaining biological diversity. logical resources; ● evaluate the quality of databases; FINDING 5: Congress and other policymakers ● provide small grants and personnel sup- need improved information on biological port services to strengthen existing data- diversity. Such information cannot be sup- bases; and plied without improvements in data collec- ● Publish annual reports on the status and tion, maintenance, and synthesis. needs of the biological data system. Policy makers need comprehensive informa- Success in these endeavors would accelerate tion on the ramifications and scope of diver- progress toward several objectives: sity loss. Information provided by the scientific community should be a basis for resource pol- 1. setting of priorities for conservation action; icy and management decisions. To serve in the 2. monitoring trends; context of public policy, data should satisfy four 3. developing an alert system for adverse criteria: trends; identifying gaps and reviewing needs to 1. The data must be of high quality; that is, 4. fill them; it must meet accepted standards of objec- 5, facilitating development of environmental tivity, completeness, reproducibility, and impact assessments; and accuracy. 6. evaluating options, actions, and successes 2. The data must have value; that is, it must and failures. address a worthwhile problem. 3. The data must be applicable; that is, it must As a data-coordinating body, the clearing- be useful to decisionmakers responsible for house could guide efforts to collect data on bio- making policy, logical diversity, which will provide a compre- —

Ch. l—Summary and Options for Congress c 21 hensive perspective that Federal agencies Option 5.2: Provide funding to enhance the ex- cannot supply because of their varied man- isting network of natural heritage conserva- dates. Access to previously inaccessible data tion data centers. would be facilitated, which should reduce A number of State governments, aided by The duplication of efforts. By evaluating the qual- Nature Conservancy (TNC), have already estab- it y of information, the clearinghouse could help lished a network of Natural Heritage Data eliminate a general distrust among users of Centers in many States and in some foreign other databases. Access to a diversity of databases means that no standardized system is countries. These centers collect and organize biological data specifically for diversity con- forced on data users, which has been a formida- servation. All centers use a standardized for- ble obstacle to database integration and use. mat to collect and synthesize data. The result The clearinghouse would not necessarily has been a vehicle to exchange and to aggregate maintain its own primary database. Commer- information about what is happening to bio- cial databases in the public domain could be logical resources at State and local levels and, included in the system, and proprietary and more recently, around the Nation and across other limited-access databases could be re- the Western Hemisphere. viewed regularly, with permission. Database enhancements to cover gaps could be funded Funding for these data centers comes from by small grants. The clearinghouse’s informa- a combination of Federal, State, and private (in- tion systems could be made available through cluding corporate) sources. Progress has been a library service and special searches. It could limited, however, by the amount of available charge appropriate fees for all its services. funds. Congress could enhance these efforts by The same clearinghouse could assess infor- providing a consistent source of additional mation on biological diversity in international funding. By increasing support for the Fed- databases. It could provide a small amount of eral-State-private partnership, the action by financial and personnel aid to help interna- Congress could reinforce the application of tional organizations improve their databases. standard methods, enhance interagency com- In addition, it could work with development patibility, improve the efficiency of biological assistance agencies to support the participation data collection and management, and facilitate of other countries’ national databases in such the free exchange of useful information, More- international and regional networks as the over, the partnership could accelerate the rate International Union for the Conservation of at which data centers spread to the remaining Nature and Natural Resources Conservation States and nations. Monitoring Center, the United Nations Educa- tional, Scientific, and Cultural Organization’s An appropriation of $10 million per year, for (UNESCO) Man and the Biosphere Program example, could be divided among several data (MAB), and The Nature Conservancy Interna- center functions: supporting central office tional. activities in research, development, documen- Possible objections to such a clearinghouse tation, and training; conducting taxonomic include the following: 1) that lack of a uniform work; and matching grants from States and system of data collection for the United States other participants, One source of funding could would hinder national data analysis and use, be the Land and Water Conservation Fund. Al- and 2) that evaluating the quality of other agen- though this fund is used mainly for land acqui- cies’ databases would be politically sensitive. sition, it could also support preacquisition ac- Questions such as the size, administrative struc- tivities such as identification of lands to be ture, and cost of a clearinghouse program must acquired. Data centers are key to such activities. be answered as well. Because it would not maintain its own primary database, however, such This option does not necessarily replace the a clearinghouse would not need to be a large- need for an information clearinghouse because scale operation. diverse databases and information systems will 22 ● Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity continue to operate. The two options could be sity. Obligations confirmed by international complementary. Some clearinghouse functions conventions provide conservation authorities might be handled by TNC, but others, such as with the justification frequently needed to facilitating improvement of and access to data strengthen their national programs. sources, could be best handled by a separate entity that functions much like a library. FINDING 6: The United States has begun to ab- dicate leadership in international conserva- Support International Initiatives tion efforts, with the result that international To Maintain Biological Diversity initiatives are weakened or stalled in the tropical regions where diversity losses are most Most biological resources belong to individ- severe. Renewed U.S. commitment could ac- ual nations. However, many benefits from di- celerate the pace of international achieve- versity accrue internationally. American ag- ments in conservation. riculture, for example, depends on foreign sources for genetic diversity to keep ahead of The United States has been a model and an constantly evolving pests and pathogens. And active leader in international conservation activ- many bird populations important to controlling ity. The movement toward establishment of na- pests in the United States overwinter in the tional parks worldwide grew out of the United forests of Latin America. States. In the early 1970s, the United States was a leader in international environmental and re- Solutions to problems that cause diversity loss source deliberations, notably in the 1972 UN- must be implemented locally, but many of these sponsored Stockholm Conference on the Hu- will be effective only if supported by interna- man Environment. U.S. leadership, for exam- tional political and technical cooperation. Ex- ple, played an important role in establishing amples of such problems include the interna- the United Nations Environment Programme tional trade in rare wildlife, the greenhouse (UNEP), and in securing the Convention on In- effect of carbon dioxide on the atmosphere, the ternational Trade in Endangered Species of effects of acid rain on freshwater lakes and Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) and the World forests, and damage to oceans by pollution and Heritage Convention, all important foundations overfishing. The United States has the politi- of current international efforts to support main- cal prestige needed to initiate international co- tenance of biological diversity. operation, and it leads the world in much of the technical expertise needed, such as funda- However, U.S. support for these kinds of ini- mental biology and information processing. tiatives has declined. The retrenchment in sup- Thus, the United States has both motive and port reflects austerity measures as well as dis- ability to participate and to provide leadership satisfaction with the performance of specific in international conservation efforts. international organizations. Effective international projects, such as UNESCO’s Man and The United States has historically played a the Biosphere Program, have suffered by asso- leading role in promoting international conser- ciation. vation initiatives, and precedence exists for extending this leadership to an international or U.S. support of international conservation ef- global approach for conserving biological diver- forts is pivotal in that the United States has sity. A variety of international conventions and greater resources and stronger technical abili- multilateral programs already specify biological ties than most other countries to address the diversity as an aspect of broader conservation complex issue of diversity loss. Without greater objectives (e. g., biosphere reserve program). initiative and access to resources, many coun- Such internationally recognized obligations can tries will be unable to arrest loss of diversity be important policy tools in concert with tech- within their borders. Under existing conditions, nical, administrative, and financial measures countries that harbor the greatest diversity are to encourage programs for conserving diver- expected to devote a large part of their national Ch. l—Summary and Options for Congress ● 23 resources to address the problem, even though was contributed. In fiscal year 1986, $250,000 benefits commonly extend beyond their coun- had been appropriated, but the amount was cut tries. It would seem equitable for those coun- to $239,000 under Gramm-Rudman-Hollings tries that benefit, including the United States, Balanced Budget and Emergency Deficit Con- to share more fully in efforts to conserve diver- trol Act. sity in countries otherwise unable to do so, Congress could maintain or increase U.S. support of international organizations and pro- Option 6.1: Sustain or increase support of in- grams in several ways. Congress could ensure ternational organizations and conventions. that these organizations receive adequate an- International conservation initiatives are im- nual appropriations and could conduct over- portant tools for long-term conservation of bio- sight hearings to encourage the Administration logical diversity. Yet, existing international to carry out the intent of Congress. agreements are often poorly implemented be- One possible drawback associated with con- cause of lack of adequate administrative ma- tributions to international intergovernmental chinery (e. g., adequately funded and staffed sec- organizations is their lack of accountability. retariats), lack of financial support for on-the- Relative to bilateral assistance channels, the ground programs (e.g., equipment, training, and United States has little control over how or to staf~, and lack of reciprocal obligations that whom intergovernmental organizations direct could serve as incentives to comply. their resources. The consequence is that U.S. An exception is CITES, which has mecha- funds go to countries that are unfriendly or even nisms to facilitate reciprocal trade controls and adversarial to the United States and its policies. a technical secretariat. The existence of this ma- It should be recognized, however, that many chinery in large part accounts for the relative international activities specific to maintenance success of this convention. The United States of biological diversity, especially activities of has been globally influential in supporting UNEP, UNESCO-MAB, and IBPGR, operate CITES and has reinforced it through national largely within scientific channels, which tends legislation that prohibits import into the United to reduce the political overtones inherent in in- States of wildlife taken or exported in violation tergovernmental organizations. Also, objec- of another country’s laws. The amendment to tivity can be enhanced in programs willing to the Lacey Act of 1900 (Public Law 97-79) in 1981 establish protocols. For example, establishing backs efforts of other nations seeking to con- criteria to determine which areas qualify for serve their wildlife resources, This law has been biosphere reserve status or which unique areas a powerful tool for wildlife conservation through- warrant (natural] World Heritage status pro- out the world because the United States is a ma- vides objectivity in directing resources. jor importer of wildlife specimens and products. Congress could also encourage or direct Fed- U.S. contributions to international conserva- eral agencies to assign technical personnel to tion programs have been diminishing recently. international organizations or to the secretari- The appropriation cycle for funding such pro- ats of the various conventions. This option grams has been an annual tug-of-war between could be difficult to implement without legis- Congress and the Administration. The budget lating special allowances for agency personnel of the World Heritage Convention in 1985 was ceilings and budgets. Otherwise, agencies will $824,000. The United States, one of the major be reluctant to assign personnel overseas in forces behind the Convention’s founding, usu- light of a shrinking Federal work force and ally contributes at least one-fourth of the bud- budget. get. In the fiscal years of 1979 to 1982, U.S. contributions averaged $300,000. But from fiscal Option 6.2: Continue to direct U.S. directors of year 1982 to 1984, the United States made no multilateral development banks (MDBs) to do contributions. But in fiscal year 1985, $238,903 the following: l) press for more specific and 24 . Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity

systematic MDB efforts to promote sound en- of Environmental Policies and Procedures Re- vironmental and resource policies akin to the lating to Economic Development,” and formed World Bank’s wildland policy, Z) work to the Committee on International Development make projects consistent with international Institutions on the Environment (CIDIE), un- and recipient country environmental policies der the auspices of the United Nations Envi- and regulations, and 3) seek to involve recip- ronment Programme. The agencies agreed to ient country environmental officials and non- systematic environmental analysis of activities governmental organizations in project formu- funded for environmental programs and proj- lation processes. ects. However, a subsequent study found that these policy statements by the MDBs were not A significant part of all international devel- effectively translated into action. Criticisms of opment assistance efforts are funded by the how well MDBs implement environmental pol- World Bank and regional MDBs. Thus, these icies remain strong. And it is too soon to deter- organizations are uniquely situated to influence mine the effectiveness of the World Bank’s wild- environmental aspects of development, includ- land policy. ing the maintenance of biological diversity. In fact, the MDBs’ priorities and policies can be The United States is limited in its ability to the single most important influence on the de- effect change at MDBs because the banks are velopment model adopted by developing coun- international institutions run collectively by tries. MDB agricultural, rural development, and member nations. Since the United States is a energy programs all have profound effects on large contributor, however, it does have con- biological resources in developing countries. siderable influence on bank policies, which are determined by boards of directors, In 1986, the World Bank promulgated a new policy on the treatment of wildlands in devel- The primary way Congress affects policies opment projects. The bank recognizes that al- of these banks is by requesting that the U.S. ex- though further conversion of some natural land ecutive directors—who are responsible to the and water areas to more intensive uses will be Secretary of the Treasury—carry out congres- necessary to meet development objectives, sionally approved policies. These requests may other pristine areas may yield benefits to be made at oversight hearings or in the language present and future generations if maintained of appropriation legislation, For instance, the in their natural state. These are areas that, for 1986 House Committee on Appropriations Re- example, may provide important environ- port stated guidelines for the U.S. executive di- mental services or essential habitats to endan- rectors (Sec. 539), which included the addition gered species. To prevent the loss of these wild- of relevant staff, development of management land values, the policy specifies that the Bank plans, and commitment to increase the propor- will normally decline to finance projects in tion of programs supporting environmentally these areas and instead prefer projects on al- beneficial projects. To continue this guidance, ready converted lands. Conversion of less im- Congress could require the U.S. executive di- portant wildlands must be justified and com- rectors of MDBs to encourage the adoption of pensated by financing the preservation of an a policy similar to the World Bank’s wildlands ecologically similar area in a national park or policy statement. nature reserve, or by some other mitigative measures. The policy provides systematic guid- FINDING 7: Constraints on international ex- ance and criteria for deciding which wildlands change of genetic resources could jeopardize are in need of protection, which projects may future agricultural production and progress need wildland measures, and what types of in biotechnologies. Such constraints are be- wildland measures should be provided. coming more likely because developing coun- In 1980, the World Bank, Inter-American De- tries with sovereignty over most such re- velopment Bank, Asian Development Bank, and sources believe that the industrial nations six other multilateral signed a “Declaration have benefited at their expense. Debates on Ch. l—Summary and Options for Congress ● 25 —

the issue could benefit from a more informed Genetic Resources. The undertaking proposed and less impassioned approach. an international germplasm conservation network under the auspices of FAO. It declared All countries benefit from the exchange of that each nation has a duty to make all plant genetic resources, Many of the major crops cur- genetic materials—including advanced breed- rently grown in various countries have origi- ing materials—freely available, IBPGR was to nated elsewhere. Coffee, for example, is native continue its current work, but it would be mon- to the highlands of Ethiopia. Yet, today, it rep- itored by FAO. resents an important source of income for farmers in other parts of Africa, Asia, and Latin FAO then established the Commission on America. Maize, originally from Central Amer- Plant Genetic Resources to review progress in ica, is grown as a staple crop in North Amer- germplasm conservation. The commission held ica and Africa, Countries continue to depend its first meeting in March 1985, with the United on access to germplasm from outside their States present only as an observer. Much of the borders to maintain or enhance agricultural discussion focused on the concerns expressed productivity. Political and economic consider- in the undertaking and on onsite conservation. ations, however, are now prompting national The continuing controversy includes charges governments to restrict access to their germ- that the current international system enables plasm, Behind these efforts is an implicit de- countries to restrict access to germplasm in in- sire by some countries to obtain greater com- ternational collections for political and eco- pensation for the genetic resources that are nomic reasons. Also of concern to some par- currently made freely available. ties is the impact of plant patenting legislation. The International Board for Plant Genetic Re- Current charges and arguments in the FAO sources (IBPGR) is the main international in- forum tend to oversimplify the complexity of stitution dealing with the offsite conservation how germplasm is incorporated into plant va- of plant genetic diversity. Established in 1974, rieties and to distort the actual nature of genetic it promotes the establishment of national pro- exchange between and among industrial and grams and regional centers for the conserva- developing countries. Restrictions on export of tion of plant germplasm, It has provided train- germplasm, for example, appear to be more ing facilities, carried out research in techniques common for developing countries. Neverthe- of plant germplasm conservation, supported less, the perception of inequity in the current numerous collection missions, and provided situation is real, and it could result in increas- limited financial assistance for conservation fa- ing national restrictions on access to and ex- cilities. However, it does not operate any germ- port of germplasm. Further, the issue of con- plasm storage facilities itself. trol over genetic resources could become a Due in part to the success of IBPGR in focus- significant stumbling block to establishing in- ing attention on the need to conserve genetic ternational commitment and cooperation in the diversity, the issue of germplasm exchange has maintenance of overall biological diversity. become embroiled in political controversy. Some critics regard the IBPGR as implicitly working for agribusiness interests of industrial Option 7.1: Closely examine the actions avail- nations, Central to the issue is a perception on able to the United States regarding the issue the part of many developing countries that they of international exchange of genetic resources. have been freely giving genetic resources to in- Efforts to address the conservation and ex- dustrial nations which, in turn, have profited change of plant genetic resources in the FAO at their expense. forum have been controversial. It is not yet ap- This controversy led the United Nations Food parent how the United States should act in this and Agricultural Organization (FAO] to spon- regard. Congress could give increased atten- sor an International Undertaking on Plant tion to determining what options are available. 26 ● Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity

One possible action is for Congress to request microbial resources. Such agreements could that an independent organization, such as the also define national and international obliga- National Academy of Sciences, study this is- tions to collect and conserve the germplasm that sue. In fact, NAS has already indicated inter- is being displaced by new varieties or by chang- est in investigating this as a part of its current ing patterns of agricultural developments. 3-year study of global genetic resources. Such Finally, U.S. representatives could consider a study could draw on other agencies and in- promoting a discussion of genetic resource ex- dividuals with interest and expertise in this area changes outside formal channels in an effort to define several general actions the United to separate the technical issues from emotional States might take in regard to international ex- ones, The Keystone Center, an environmental change of genetic resources and the conse- mediation organization, is exploring the pos- quences associated with it. sibility of conducting a policy dialog on this Another option is to favor the status quo, ig- topic in the near future. noring the criticisms and avoiding the risk that new political actions might disrupt effective sci- Option 7.2: Affirm the U.S. commitment to the entific working arrangements. A practical in- free flow of germplasm through an amend- ternational flow of germplasm is likely to con- ment to the Export Administration Act. tinue in the future, with or without the formal international arrangements envisioned by the Specific allegations have been made that the FAO undertaking. In time, the political issues United States has restricted the access to germ- may be resolved equitably without pushing na- plasm in national collections (at the National tions into conflicts over breeders’ rights or ac- Plant Germplasm System) for political reasons. cess to genetic materials. The government, however, maintains that it ad- heres to the principles of free exchange. , Another possibility would be for the United States to associate with the FAO Commission To reinforce recent executive affirmations of on Plant Genetic Resources. U.S. influence the free flow of germ plasm, Congress could ex- might strengthen the international commitment empt the export of germplasm contained in na- to free flow of germplasm and reduce the risk tional collections from Export Administration that germplasm will increasingly be withheld Act restrictions or political embargoes imposed for political or economic reasons. for other reasons. Comparable provisions are already included in this act with respect to Unless Congress chooses to restrict plant medicine and medical supplies (50 U.S. C. app. breeders’ rights in the United States, the U.S. sec. 2405 (g), as amended by Public Law 99-64, Government will be unable to join the under- July 12, 1985). Because this germplasm is a]- taking without major reservations. Such a ready accessible through existing mechanisms, change in domestic law seems politically un- such a provision would only reaffirm the U.S. likely, given domestic benefits provided by position and remove from the current debate plant breeders’ rights and the effective lobby- the allegations of U.S. restrictions of access to ing efforts of the seed industry. However, the germplasm. United States could consider renegotiating the FAO undertaking to require a commitment to On the other hand, the process of amending grant global access to genetic resources—with the act may generate support for restricting appropriate exceptions for certain privately germplasm—by excluding certain countries held materials—within the context of an inter- from such an exemption. Restricting access in nationally supported commitment to help coun- such a manner would likely lead to an interna- tries conserve and develop their genetic re- tional situation counter to U.S. interests. In sources. Parallel agreements also might be such a case, no action would be preferable to developed for domestic animal, marine, and an amendment. Ch, l—Summary and Options for Congress ● 27

Address Loss of Biological Diversity to initiate projects, and 3) an inadequate num- in Developing Countries ber of trained personnel to address conservation concerns generally. The United States has a stake in promoting the maintenance of biological diversity in de- Several questions arise in relation to the ca- veloping countries. Many of these nations are pacity and the appropriateness of U.S. commit- in regions where biological systems are highly ments to support diversity conservation efforts diverse, where pressures that degrade diversity through bilateral development assistance. First, are generally most pronounced, and where the it is unclear whether Section 119, as the prin- capacity to forestall a reduction in diversity is cipal legislation dealing with concerns over least well-developed, The rationale for assist- diversity loss outside the United States, defines ing developing countries rests on: 1) recogni- U.S. interests too narrowly. Second, it is un- tion of the substantial existing and potential certain how Section 119 relates to the principal benefits of maintaining a diversity of plants, goals of foreign assistance, as specified in sec- animals, and microbes; 2) evidence that degra- tion 101. Finally, questions remain concerning dation of specific ecosystems is undermining the commitment of resources and personnel to the potential for economic development in a address U.S. interests in maintaining diversity number of regions; and 3) esthetic and ethical in developing countries, motivations to avoid irreversible loss of unique life forms. FINDING 8: Existing legislation maybe inadequate and inappropriate to address U.S. in- The U.S. Congress, recognizing these inter- terests in maintaining biological diversity in ests, passed Section 119 of the Foreign Assis- developing countries. tance Act of 1983, specifying conservation of biological diversity as a specific objective of Maintaining diversity will depend primarily U.S. development assistance. The U.S. Agency on onsite maintenance. The “special effort” ini- for International Development (AID), as the tiatives identified in Section 119 are important principal agency providing development assis- components of a comprehensive program. What tance, was given a mandate to implement this is not clear, however, is whether the emphasis policy, which reads in part: is appropriate within the context of U.S. bilateral development assistance. That is, estab- In order to preserve biological diversity, the lishing protected areas and supporting anti- President is authorized to furnish assistance to poaching measures can have adverse impacts countries in protecting and maintaining wild- on populations that derive benefits from exploit- life habitats and in developing sound wildlife management and plant conservation programs. ing resources within a designated area. These Special effort should be taken to establish and populations are characteristically among the maintain wildlife sanctuaries, reserves, and “poorest majority” intended to be the principal parks; to enact and enforce anti-poaching meas- beneficiaries of U.S. development assistance ures; and to identify, study, and catalog ani- (Sec. 101). However, demands of local popula- mal and plant species, especially in tropical tions (e.g., for fuelwood or agricultural land) environments. may threaten diversity and even the sustainability of the resource base on which they de- A review of AID initiatives since 1983 sug- pend, It does, however, raise questions on the gests that despite the formulation of a number appropriateness of supporting activities that of policy documents, the agency lacks a strong could place increased stress on these popu- commitment to implementing the specific types lations. of projects identified in Section 119, This lack of commitment is due to several factors, includ- Second, existing legislation identifies con- ing: 1) a belief that the agency is already ad- cern over diversity loss separately from con- dressing biological diversity to the extent it version of tropical forests and degradation of should, 2) reduced levels of budgets and staff environment and natural resources (Sec. 118 28 ● Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity and 117, respectively). Clearly, these concerns One specific consideration could be to resolve are interrelated, although not synonymous. It potential conflicts of interests that exist in the is questionable whether such a distinction is language of Section 119—that of emphasizing appropriate within the context of development the need to establish protected areas and poach- assistance legislation. An argument can be ing controls without specific reference to im- made that U.S. development assistance should pacts on indigenous populations. Congress approach diversity maintenance within the con- could correct this potential conflict by adding text of conservation—that is, as a wise use of language to Section 119 such as, “Support for natural resources, as elaborated in the World biological diversity projects should be consist- Conservation Strategy. In doing so, the objec- ent with the interests, particular needs, and par- tives of diversity maintenance and development ticipation of local populations.” It is widely rec- interests could be made more compatible. ognized that the viability of protected areas is largely contingent on these provisions. Adding Finally, although Section 119 speaks of bio- such language would thus provide greater con- logical diversity, the thrust of the legislation ad- sistency within the objectives of FAA as well dresses a narrower set of concerns–that of spe- as specify criteria that heighten chances of cies extinction. While certainly a prominent project success. concern, and perhaps even the central motivation behind the legislation, it fails to address In addition, Congress could recast the Zan- the broader set of U.S. concerns over diversity guage of existing legislation to provide a fuller loss in developing countries. As noted earlier, accounting of U.S. interests in maintaining di- a focus on unique populations would be a more versity in developing countries. Such changes appropriate, though more problematic, ap- could expand from a focus on endangered spe- proach. This is particularly important with re- cies to the loss of biological systems, includ- gard to preserving genetic resources of poten- ing ecosystems and genetic resources. Such an tial benefit to agriculture or industry, which effort might also emphasize practical aspects is the most strongly argued rationale for con- of conservation initiatives of particular inter- serving biological diversity. Existing legislation est to developing countries and stress the goal does not specifically identify these interests. of promoting ability and initiatives of the countries themselves. Option 8.1: Restructure existing sections of the Finally, Congress could combine those sec- Foreign Assistance Act to reflect the full tions of FAA that deal with natural resources scope of U.S. interests in maintaining bio- and environmental issues to reflect the inter- logical diversity in developing countries. relatedness of these amendments. Provisions The U.S. Foreign Assistance Act (FAA) comes could be made to account for specific concerns up for reauthorization in 1987. Major restruc- over species extinctions currently emphasized turing of the act is already being considered. in Section 119. But approaches and concerns Revamping could provide an opportunity to re- reflected in these amendments are probably cast certain provisions of the legislation to bet- best considered together, Provision of funding ter account for U.S. interests in maintaining within such a restructuring would also be im- diversity in developing countries. portant. Providing for conservation of natural re- FINDING 9: AID could benefit from additional sources and the environment in general, and strategic planning and conservation expertise of biological diversity and tropical forests in in promoting biological diversity projects. particular, are important considerations in a restructuring of FAA. Less clear, however, is Congress has already taken steps to earmark whether the language and disaggregation of funds for biological diversity projects within these interests is appropriate in the context of AID’s budget. The existing mechanisms within bilateral development assistance. the agency to identify and promote diversity —.— —

Ch. l—Summary and Options for Congress ● 29

projects are not well established, however. Be- biological diversity. A PD would serve as a gen- cause funding is minimal, it is all the more im- eral statement that maintaining diversity is an portant to devise a strategy that allows priority explicit objective of the agency, In developing initiatives to be defined, a PD, AID should review provisions contained in the recent World Bank wildlands policy Environmental expertise within AID is slim. statement. In recent years, in-house expertise in this area has declined, and that which does exist has been Existence of a PD could mean that consider- severely overextended. Addressing biological ation of diversity concerns would, where appro- diversity will, therefore, require both increas- priate, become an integral part of sectoral pro- ing the number of AID staff with environmental gramming and project design, Further, it would training and an increased reliance on exper- require that projects be reviewed and evaluated tise outside AID, in other government agencies by the Bureau of Program and Policy Coordi- and in the private sector. AID has already taken nation for consistency with the objectives of steps to cultivate this environmental expertise, the PD. Because of the increase in bureaucratic but further actions could be taken. provisions this would create, the formulation of a PD on diversity probably would not be well received within AID. Option 9.1: Direct AID to adopt a more strategic approach in promoting initiatives for A second effort is to establish a centrally maintenance of biological diversity. funded project within AID’s Bureau of Science and Technology. AID has already developed The U.S. Strategy on the Conservation of Bio- a concept paper along these lines as a prelude logical Diversity: An Interagency Task Force to a more concrete project identification doc- Report to Congress was delivered to Congress ument, As conceived, the concept paper exam- in February 1985, in response to provisions in ines the possibility of establishing a biological Section 119. A general criticism of the docu- diversity project, One major benefit of such a ment was that although it contained 67 recom- project would be the establishment of a focal mendations, it lacked any sense of priority or point for coordinating funding and technical indication of funding sources to undertake assistance on biological diversity. The Science these recommendations. In an attempt to ap- and Technology Bureau’s emphasis on techni- ply the recommendations to specific agency cal assistance, research, training, and institu- programs, AID drafted an Action Plan on Con- tional development would make it the appro- serving Biological Diversity in Developing priate bureau for such a program. A constraint Countries (January 1986). Comments received to this approach is that biological diversity proj- from AID overseas suggest that problems exist ects may continue to be separate rather than in translating the general principles and rec- an integral part of development programs. ommendations of an agency plan into specific initiatives at the country level, The three regional bureaus of AID (i.e., Af- rica, Asia and Near East, and Latin America A more refined approach to addressing diver- and the Caribbean) could also prepare docu- sity interests within the agency may be re- ments that identify important biological diver- quired. Such an approach would seek to incor- sity initiatives in their regions, The Asia and porate biological diversity concerns into AID Near East Bureau, in fact, has already prepared development activities at different levels of the such a document that could be used in high- agency, ranging from general policy documents lighting regional priorities, A reluctance to di- at the agency level to more strategic efforts at rect scarce funds to diversity projects, at the the regional bureau and mission levels, expense of more traditional development proj- At least two efforts could be considered at ects, has limited the utility of the document to the agency level. First, Congress could direct date, Nevertheless, the development of such AID to prepare a policy determination [PD) on reports for each regional bureau is considered 30 ● Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity an effective way to identify priorities for exist- such as Participating Agency Service Agree- ing diversity projects, especially given the ear- ments (PASA) and Resource Services Support marking of funds, Agreements (RSSA) allow interagency exchanges of experts and services. AID currently The most important focus of biological diver- has a RSSA with Fish and Wildlife Service for sity strategies is at the mission level, where the services of a technical advisor to handle bio- projects are implemented. Congress has already logical diversity issues. These mechanisms mandated that Country Development Strategy could be used to facilitate further access to con- Statements and other country-level documents servation experts in other government agencies. prepared by AID address diversity concerns. Most missions, however, lack the expertise or A biological diversity program could be estab- adequate access to expertise needed to address lished within the existing Forestry Support Pro- this provision of Section 119 as amended. gram, for example. The Forestry Support Pro- gram is an RSSA between AID and the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) to provide Option 9.2: Direct AID to acquire increased con- technical assistance to AID in the area of for- servation expertise in support of biological estry and natural resources. A diversity pro- diversity initiatives. gram would likely be an RSSA between AID, The ability of AID to promote biological diver- the Department of the Interior, and USDA. sity in developing countries is seriously under- Such a program would provide AID missions mined by its lack of personnel trained in envi- with access to conservation expertise within ronmental sciences. While true at the agency the Department of the Interior, the USDA, and headquarters, the problem is particularly acute through a roster of consultants. in its overseas missions. Although AID desig- A constraint to the RSSA and PASA is agency nates an environmental officer at each mission, personnel ceilings and the limited number of the person usually has little professional experi- personnel with international experience, In ence or training in the area, Often environmen- light of a reduction of the Federal work force, tal duties are combined with numerous other agencies may be reluctant to devote their staff duties; few AID personnel are full-time envi- to nonagency projects. Although some Federal ronmental officers. Under these circumstances, programs have been successfully used in sup- it is difficult to envision how AID can effec- porting AID projects, expertise within the pri- tively promote biological diversity maintenance. vate sector will also be needed to address AID’s Congress could direct AID to recruit and hire requirements. additional personnel with environmental sci- The Peace Corps is also seen as having spe- ence backgrounds or at a minimum provide in- cial potential to support biological diversity creased training for existing staff The near- projects. Cooperative agreements with the Na- term prospects for AID, however, point to a re- tional park Service, Fish and Wildlife Service, duction in an already overworked staff, It seems The Man in the Biosphere Program, and World unlikely, therefore, that significant in-house Wildlife Fund/U.S. have increased the Peace conservation expertise will be developed. Con- Corps’ capacity and access to talent and train- sequently, addressing biological diversity ing in this area. Another area of potential col- within AID will depend on providing access laboration is between the Peace Corps and the to conservation expertise within other govern- Smithsonian Institution, especially given the ment agencies and in the private sector. Even Smithsonian’s newly established Biological drawing on outside expertise, AID will need Diversity Program. Precedence exists for such some increase in environmental officers to a cooperative relationship, in the form of the manage and coordinate projects. Smithsonian-Peace Corps Environmental Pro- AID already draws on other government gram, which was terminated in the late 1970s, agencies to participate in projects supporting With the emergence of special interests in diver- biological diversity maintenance. Mechanisms sity maintenance, Congress could direct both Ch. l—Summary and Options for Congress ● 31 agencies to investigate re-establishing a simi- Sections 117, 118, and 119 of FAA all define lar initiative focused on biological diversity congressional interest in conservation as an in- projects. tegral aspect of development. With the exception of the 1987 earmarking of funds for bio- Section 119 of FAA states: logical diversity, no formal funding source has whenever feasible, the objectives of this sec- been attached to these sections. The result is tion shall be accomplished through projects that support for conservation initiatives gen- managed by appropriate private and voluntary erally has been weak, Support has been further organizations, or international, regional, or na- eroded recently because those functional ac- tional nongovernmental organizations which counts used for conservation projects—Agri- are active in the region or country where the culture, Rural Development, and Nutrition; and project is located. Energy, Private Voluntary Organization, and A number of nongovernmental organizations Selected Development Activities—have re- (NGOs) are already working with AID in de- ceived disproportionate funding cuts, veloping capacity to maintain diversity in developing countries. These include important Congress could define its support for the im- initiatives in the areas of conservation data portance of conservation to development by centers, of supporting development of national establishing a separate fund, perhaps called an conservation strategies, and of implementing Environment and Natural Resources Account, field projects, AID is also using a private NGO that could be used by AID to support diversity to maintain a listing of environmental manage- maintenance activities. Concerns exist that ment experts. Such partnership could continue functional accounts generally tend to reduce to be encouraged by Congress through over- AID’s flexibility, and consideration has even sight hearings, for instance. Encouraging joint been given to eliminating them entirely. If estab- public-private initiatives through matching grants lished, however, an Environment and Natural should also be stressed. Resources account could be used to define congressional concerns in this area. Specific ear- FINDING 10: A major constraint to developing marking for biological diversity could be con- and implementing diversity-conserving proj- sidered within this new functional account. ects in developing countries is the shortage of funds. Present funding levels are insufficient to address the scope of the problem ade- Option 10.2: Amend the Agricultural Trade De- quately. velopment and Assistance Act of 1954 specifying that funds from the Food for Peace Pro- Recently passed legislation earmarked $2.5 gram (Public Law 480) could be used for million of AID’s 1987 funds for biological diver- projects that directly promote the conserva- sity projects. Given that this amount is intended tion of biological diversity. to be used to address diversity loss over three continents and is guaranteed for only 1 year, An existing source of funds for biological its adequacy can be questioned. Faced with diversity projects is Public Law 480 Food for prospects of further cuts in an already reduced Peace program. Titles I and III make commodi- foreign assistance budget and a shift in the com- ties available at confessional rates with long- position of this budget to proportionally less term, low-interest financing for debts incurred. development and food aid in favor of military Recipient countries resell the U.S. commodi- aid and economic support funds, it is difficult ties and are required by contract to apply part to see where further funding for diversity main- of the currency to self-help projects agreed on tenance could be derived. between the country and the AID mission. The country can eventually cancel some of its debt Option 10.1: Establish a new account within the by applying equivalent funds to long-term de- AID budget to support biological diversity ini- velopment projects. Title II provides U.S. com- tiatives identified in the Foreign Assistance modities to developing countries in cases of Act. emergency or for nutrition and development 32 ● Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity programs. This Food for Work program has conservation groups have proposed certain conducted reforestation and resource manage- ways to provide money for biological diversity ment projects in which laborers are paid with projects. One such mechanism is the use of eco- food and with wages generated from the resale nomic support funds for additional development of U.S. commodities. Hence, Public Law 480 assistance programs. Though primarily used funds are already being used to finance projects for other purposes, economic support funds are that promote diversity maintenance. More the most flexible of AID’s funds, with the fewest could be done if Congress amends Public Law restrictions on their use. Therefore, Congress 480 specifying that funds could be used for could direct the General Accounting Office to diversity conservation projects. examine such funding mechanisms and assess their feasibility as funding sources for mainte- Other existing funding mechanisms could be nance of biological diversity. redirected to include funding of diversity projects. In response to funding cuts at AID, Part I Introduction and Background Chapter 2 Importance of Biological Diversity CONTENTS

Highlights ...... ● ✌☛✎✎✎☛ ● ☛☛✎☛☛✎✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎☛✎✎☛✎✎☛ ✎☛☛✌✎✎✎ 37

Definition ...... ● ✌✎✎✎☛✌ ● 4...... ● *.*,**. .*,. ● .***** .*.* 37

Benefits to Ecological Processes ,*.* ● *****. , ● *****O ● .**.*.* ....**** ● *, 39

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Genetic Diversity ...... ,,,.,.. ● *.**.*. .,**.*,. .,.*.,*. *.,**** 43

Benefits to Research ...... ****..* ● ******.* .******** ● ..****** ● *.* 43

Ecosystem Diversity...... ,,..,., ● *,**,.* ...... ,,*,** 43 Species Diversity ...... ,***.** ***,**.* ● **.**.* ● *....*. ● ..***, 44 Gknetic Diversi~ ...... 45

Benefits to Cultural Heritage ● ****** ,***.*** ● ******* ...,*,*, ,.,,..., . . 46

Ecosystem Diversity. . .**.*** ● ******* 9******* ***.**** ● ****,** ● *.,.. 46 Species Diversity ...... ● ***,9* ● **,**.* ● .****** ● ..*..* 46

Genetic Diversity . . ● .*.*,, .*.**..* ..*,.*.. ● ..***** ..*,*..* O**,**.. 47 Benefits to Recreation and Tourism...... 48 Ecosystem Diversity...... ,**..* ● .****.. ● ..,,,** ..**.**, ,,,...... , 48

Species Diversity ● **,*...... 4. ● *.**.** ,.,,...... *.** .******. ,. 49 Genetic Diversity . . . . . ● **,*** ● *,.**.. ● ******* ..****** ● *,**.*. ● .**, 49 Benefits to Agriculture and Harvested Resources ...... 49 Ecosystem Diversity...... 49

Species Diversity ● ****** ..,.**** ● ****.** ***.*..* ● .****** ● *..*.** . . 50 Genetic Diversity ...... ● ****** ● .*.*.** .,..*.** ● ****.** ..**,*., .* 51 Values and Evaluation of Biological Diversity .**,**. ● ***,.*. ● *****.* ● ,* 53

Economic Value ...... ;...... ● ☛☛☛☛☛☛ ● ****’*. ● *****.* *.**. 53

Intrinsic Value . . ;...... ****** ● ****O*...... ,,,.,,. . 54

Constituencies of Diversity ...... ● .**.** .*...*** .,...,00 ..0.0 54

Public Awareness...... ● *****. .*..**** ● *.*,*** . . . . . 54

Balancing Interests and Perspectives . . . . ● ***.*. .***.*** ● ***.*.. ● ***. 55

Chapter preferences ...... ● .****** ..,..,.. ..*** 55

Table Tabie No. Page 2-1. Examples of Benefits From Ecosystem, Species, and Genetic Diversity ...... ,...0.. ● ..*.**, ● *.*,.*, ● *,,. 38

figure Figure No. Page 2-1. Krill:The Linchpin to the Antarctic Foodweb ...... 42

Boxes BOXNO. Page 20A. Components of Biological Diversity ● ****** ● .****** ● ****.** ● .***.*. 38 z-B. Scales of Ecosystem Diversity ● ● , . ● ● . . ● ● . ● . . . ● “* * # , ● , ● . . ● ● . , , , , , , ● ● 39 Chapter 2 Importance of Biological Diversity

Human welfare is inextricably linked to, and nomic uses range from subsistence foraging to dependent on, biological diversity. Diversity is genetic engineering. The essential services of necessary for several reasons: 1] to sustain and ecosystems, such as moderating climate; con- improve agriculture, 2) to provide opportunities centrating, fixing, and recycling nutrients; pro- for medical discoveries and industrial innova- ducing and preserving soils; and controlling tions, and 3) to preserve choices for address- pests and diseases are also dependent on bio- ing unpredictable problems and opportunities logical diversity. Finally, diversity has esthetic of future generations. Actual and potential eco- and ethical vaIues.

Biological diversity refers to the variety and The extreme effect of species diversity loss is variability among 1iving organisms and the eco- extinction—when a species no longer exists logical complexes in which they occur. Diver- anywhere. sity can be defined as the number of different Biological diversity is the basis of adaptation kinds of items and their relative frequency in and evolution and is basic to all ecological proc- a set (97). Items are organized at many levels, ranging from complete ecosystems to the chem- esses. It contributes to research and education, ical structures that are the molecular basis of cultural heritage, recreation and tourism, the development of new and existing plant and ani- heredity, Thus, the term encompasses the num- mal domesticates, and the supply of harvested bers and relative abundance of different eco- resources (table 2-1). The intrinsic importance systems, species, and genes. (Box 2-A describes of biological diversity lies in the uniqueness of major components of biological diversity.) all forms of life: each individual is different, as is each population, each species, and each Species diversity, for example, decreases association of species. Major functional and when the number of species in an area is re- utilitarian benefits of ecosystem, species, and duced or when the same number exists but a genetic diversity are described in the next five few become more abundant while others be- sections; evaluation of diversity and the con- come scarce. When a species no longer exists stituencies of diversity are discussed in the fi- in an area, it is said to be locally eliminated. nal sections. 37

38 ● Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity

Table 2.1 .—Examples of Benefits From Ecosystem, Species, and Genetic Diversity

Agriculture and Ecological Drocesses Research Cultural heritaae Recreation and tourism harvested resources Ecosystem diversity Maintenance of produc- Natural research areas; Sacred mountains and 700 to 800 million visitors Rangeiands for livestock pro- tivity; buffering environ- sites for baseline monitor- groves; historic landmarks per year to US. State and duction (e.g., 34 in the U.S.); mental changes; watershed ing (e.g., Serengeti National and landscapes (e. g., national parks; 250,000 to habitats for wild pollinators and coastal protection Park, Zambesi Teak Forest) Mount Fuji; Voyageurs Park, 500,000 visitors per year to and pest enemies (e.g., sav- Minnesota) mangrove forests in Ven- ing $40 to $80 per acre for ezuela grape growers) Species diversity Role of plants and animals Models for research on hu- National symbols (bald ea- 95 million people feed, ob- Commercial logging, fishing, in forest regeneration, man diseases and drug gles); totems; objects of serve, andlor photograph and other harvesting indus- grassland production, and synthesis (e.g., bristlecone civic pride (e.g., port orford wildlife each year; 54 mil- tries ($27 billion/year in U.S.); marine nutrient cycling; pine, desert pupfish, me- cedar, bowhead whale, Fi- lion fish; 19 million hunt new crops (e.g., kiwi fruit, red mobile links; natural fuel dicinal leeches) cus religiosa) deer, catfish, and Ioblolly stations pine) Genetic diversity Raw material of evolution Fruit flies in genetics, corn Breeds and cultivars of 100,000 visitors per year to Required to avoid negative required for survival and in inheritance, and Nico- ceremonial, historic, es- Rare Breeds Survival Trust selection and enhancement adaptation of species and tiana in virus studies thetic, or culinary value in the United Kingdom programs; pest and disease populations (e.g., Texas longhorn cattle, resistance alleles rice festivals (Nepal)) SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment, 19S6. Ch. 2—Importance of Biological Diversity ● 39

BENEFITS TO ECOLOGICAL PROCESSES

Ecological processes include— Box 2-B.—Scales of Ecosytem Diversity ● regulation: monitoring the chemistry and climate of the planet so it remains habitable; Several ways exist to classify the many ● production: conversion of solar energy and scales of ecosystem diversity. An example nutrients into plant matter; using the Pacific Northwest to illustrate four ● consumption: conversion of plant matter levels of ecosystems is shown below. Animal into animal matter; species characteristic of each level are noted. ● decomposition: breakdown of organic 1. Biome: temperate coniferous forest wastes and recycling of nutrients; –Rufous hummingbird -Mountain beaver ● protection processes: protection of soil by Z. Zone: western hemlock grasslands and forests and protection of -Coho salmon coastlines by coral reefs and mangroves, –Oregon slender salamander for example; and 3. Habitat: old growth forest ● continuation of life: processes of feeding, –Vaux’s swift breeding, and migrating. –Spotted owl ~. Microhabitat: fallen tree Knowledge of the relationship between di- –Clouded salamander versity and ecological processes is fragmentary, —California red-backed vole but it is clear that diversity is crucial to the func- The fallen tree component of old growth and tioning of all major life processes, for diversity mature forests illustrates the contribution of helps maintain productivity and buffers eco- ecosystem diversity to ecological processes. systems against environmental change. Diversity Fallen trees provide a rooting medium for within ecosystems is essential for protective, western hemlock and other plants that is moist productive, and economic benefits. Species enough for growth to continue during the sum- diversity is necessary for a stable food web. And mer drought, a reserve of nitrogen and other diversity of genetic material allows species to nutrients, and a source of food and shelter for adapt to changing environmental conditions. animals and micro-organisms that play key roles in redistributing and returning the nti- trients to the regenerating forest. For exam- Ecosystem Diversity ple, the rotten wood provides habitat for truf- Ecosystems are systems of plants, animals, fles, and the truffles are eaten by the California red-backed vole, which spreads the truffle and micro-organisms, together with the non- spores, so helping the growth of Douglas fir living components of their environment (45). trees, which require mycorrhizal fungi (such It can be recognized on many scales, from as truffles) for uptake of nutrients (56). biome—the largest ecological unit—to microhabitat (box 2-B). Ecosystem diversity refers to the variety that occurs within a larger landscape. Loss of ecosystem diversity can result the tropical dry forest and the dry season in in both the loss of species and genetic resources the rain forest, that is, summer in temperate and in the impairment of ecological processes. forest and winter in tropical forest. Others use different habitats within the same biome; for In eastern and southern Africa, for instance, example, leaf-eating primates and flower-pol- the mosaic of ephemeral ponds, flood plains, linating bats move from dry sites in the rainy and riparian woodlands enable antelope, ele- season to evergreen riparian trees in the dry phant, and zebra to survive long cycles of wet season (32,48). and dry years (16,23). On the American continent, many animal species cope with oscilla- Several types of ecosystems are closely asso- tions in weather and climate by migrating be- ciated with protective and productive processes tween biomes—spending the rainy season in of direct economic benefit. Cloud forests, for

40 . Technologies TO Maintain Biological Diversity example, increase precipitation, often substan- These wetlands also support most commer- tially (38). Watershed forests generally reduce cial and recreational fisheries in the United soil erosion and thereby help protect down- States. About two-thirds of the major U.S. stream reservoirs, irrigation systems, harbors, commercial fish, crustacean, and mollusk spe- and waterways from siltation (45). Coral reefs cies depend on estuaries and salt marshes for are productive oases in otherwise unproductive spawning and nursery habitat (88,90). Other tropical waters. Algae living inside coral polyps wetland services include water purification (by enable the corals to build the reefs (8,49). The removing nutrients, processing organic wastes, reefs, in turn, support local fisheries and pro- and reducing sediment loads), riverbank and tect coastlines. shoreline protection, and flood assimilation, Wetlands temporarily store flood waters, reduc- Wetlands are another example of an ecosys- ing flow rates and protecting people and prop- tem with protective processes linked to eco- erty downstream from flood and storm damage. nomic output. Millions of waterfowl and other birds of great economic value depend on the For example, the U.S. Army Corps of Engi- diverse North American wetlands—coastal tun- neers chose protection of 8,500 acres of wet- dra wetlands, inland freshwater marshes, prai- lands over construction of a reservoir or ex- rie potholes, coastal saltwater marshes, and tensive walls and dikes as the least-cost solution mangrove swamps—for breeding, feeding, mi- to flooding problems in the Charles River ba- grating, and overwintering. sin in Massachusetts, It was estimated that loss

Ch. 2—Importance of Biological Diversity ● 41 of the Charles River wetlands would have re- gernail clams, may fly larvae, and other river- sulted in an average of $17 million per year in bottom macro-invertebrates. These macro-inver- flood damage (80,88,90), (Data on wetlands eco- tebrates are still scarce, for river-bottom sedi- system losses are given in chapter 3.) ment is slow to recover from pollution, much slower than water quality, for example (44). Species Diversity Certain species have a greater effect on productive processes than is indicated by their po- Some species play such an important role in sition in a food web (figure 2-1). Earthworms, particular ecosystems that the ecosystems are for instance, improve the mixing of soil, in- named after them. Zambezi Teak Forest and crease the amount of mineralized nitrogen Longleaf-Slash Pine Forest are examples. But available for plant growth, aerate the soil, and the ecological processes that maintain domi- improve its water-holding capacity (98). Ants nant species often depend on other species. For also contribute to soil formation in temperate example, elephants and buffaloes make a cru- regions and the tropics. They contribute to the cial contribution to regeneration of Zambezi aeration, drainage, humidification, and enrich- teak by burying seeds, providing manure, and ment of both forest and grassland soils (99). destroying competing thicket species (72), In East Africa, species diversity increases the Depletion of species can have a devastating productivity of grasslands. For example, graz- impact higher up the food chain. For example, ing by wildebeest promotes the lush regrowth catches of common carp in the Illinois River eaten by gazelles (59,60). Similar interactions are one-tenth of what they were in the early have been observed in North American grass- 1950s. This decrease appears to be the result lands between prairie dogs and bison. Although of pollution-caused die-off in the 1950s of fin- the standing crop of grass in prairie dog towns

A Se / /o Cave National Park, South Dakota, contains a variety of wildlife elk, prairie dogs, prong horn. and deer Interactions between species such as dogs and bison increase the productivity of grasslands,

42 . Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity

Figure 2·1.-Krill: The Linchpin to the Antarctic Foodweb

KrIll . ,

Antarctic waters are among the most product ive in t he world. The main link in this food web is the small kri 11, shrimp-like creat ures that feed on plankton. Krill, in turn, support seabirds, fish, and squid, which are the mainstay of seals and whales. Ch. Z—Importance of Biological Diversity ● 43 is half that of grass outside, protein levels and and within species. Some groups of species ap- digestibility are significantly higher. In Wind pear to be more variable than others: reptile, Cave National Park, prairie dog towns occupy bird, and mammal species have less than half less than 5 percent of the area, but bison spend the genetic variation found in invertebrate spe- 65 percent of their time per unit area in the cies and less than a quarter of that found in towns, mostly feeding (28). many insects and marine invertebrates (34), Some species have an unusually prominent The greater the amount of genetic variation position in food webs, being major predators in a population, the faster its potential rate of of species on lower levels of the food chain and evolution (7). Certain genes are directly impor- major prey of species on higher levels. Arctic tant for survival (e. g., genes conferring disease cod, for example, feed on herbivorous and car- resistance), In addition, genetic diversity ena- nivorous zooplankton (amphipods, copepods, bles species to adapt to a wide range of physi- and decapods). Cod, in turn, is an important cal, climatic, and soil conditions and to changes food of many bird and marine mammal spe- in those conditions. Genetic diversity is posi- cies including gulls, narwhals, belugas, and tively correlated with fitness, vigor, and repro- harp seals (25), ductive success (7,85). Among marine animals, and probably among Genetic Diversity terrestrial animals as well, high genetic variability is associated with high species diversity, Intraspecific genetic diversity allows species which in turn is associated with a number of to adapt to changing conditions, thus sustain- spatially different microhabitats (e. g., tropical ing ecosystem and species diversity; it also and deep sea environments). It seems likely that helps produce plants and animals that will sup- the high genetic variability y provides the flexibil- port more productive agriculture and forestry, ity to make finely tuned adjustments to micro- Genetic diversity is distributed unevenly among habitats.

BENEFITS TO RESEARCH Research may hold answers to many of the Ecosystem Diversity questions facing this complex world. The re- Many contributions of ecosystem diversity sults of research on the patterns and processes to global ecological processes, e.g., the role of of temperate forests have provided methods for wetlands in the Earth’s oxygen balance, have sustainable management of those ecosystems, yet to be demonstrated quantitatively, But the Knowledge of tropical rain forests will result research required to develop and test these hy- in similar strategies. Without diversity of species, researchers would not have the needed potheses depends on the full range of diversity. By studying natural ecosystems, scientists are plant material to develop many vaccines, intravenous fluid, or other medicines, The poten- better able to understand how the Earth works. tial for further advancement has not been fully Knowledge of the role of ecosystem diversity realized, yet a loss of species diversity will ad- in ecological processes is substantial and grow- versely affect future research. Protection of ing, largely because of the availability of natu- genetic diversity is equally essential, because ral research areas such as the Olympic National materials from plants and animals have pro- Park and the H.J, Andrews Experimental Eco- vided valuable knowledge on viruses, immu- logical Reserve in Willamette National Forest nology, and disease resistance. (42,81). Relatively undisturbed grasslands in the 44 ● Technologies TO Maintain Biological Diversity

Serengeti National Park (Tanzania) and Wind Species Diversity Cave National Park (South Dakota) provide research significant for range management. Re- Species diversity is the basis for many fields search includes, for example, studies of the ex- of scientific research and education. The ar- tent to which grazing intensity increases ray of invertebrates used in research illustrates primary production and the protein content and the importance of diversity to the advancement digestibility of grasses (28). Research on spe- of science. The 100 or so species of Hawaiian cies and natural gene pools also requires eco- picture-winged fruit flies are the organisms of system maintenance. choice for basic research on genetics, evolutionary biology, and medicine. Tree snails of Representative examples of major ecosystems Hawaii and the Society Islands provide ideal are used as reference sites for baseline moni- material for research on evolution and genetic toring on productivity, regeneration, and adap- variation and differentiation (57). tation to environmental change. In addition, evaluation of development projects to ensure Bristlecone pines, the oldest known living they are both economical and sustainable calls organisms and found only in the U.S. South- for assessment of, among other things, their west, are used to calibrate radiocarbon dates environmental effects measured against un- and hence, are important for archeology, pre- altered sites with similar vegetation, soils, and history, and climatology (62). Contributions of climate. plant and animal species to biomedical research The Zambezi Teak Forest ecosystem, for ex- and drug synthesis abound (63,71). Examples ample, which yields Zambia’s most valuable include: timber, is declining rapidly, due to excessive Desert pupfishes, found only in the South- logging, fire, and shifting cultivation. If present west, tolerate salinity twice that of salt- trends continue, this forest would effectively water and are valuable models for research disappear in 50 years. Attempts at artificial on human kidney disease (63). regeneration have met with little success. To Sea urchin eggs are used extensively in ex- improve understanding of natural regeneration, perimental embryology, in studies of cell an undisturbed tract of the forest in Kafue Na- structure and fertilization, and in tests on tional Park is being studied. Continued moni- the teratological effects of drugs (98). toring of the Kafue tract will provide data Medicinal leeches are important in neu- needed for assessing costs and benefits of any rophysiology and research on blood clot- silviculture system for the Zambezi Teak For- ting (98). est (72,74). An extract of horseshoe crabs provides the Ecosystems are also living classrooms. The quickest and most sensitive test of vaccines University of California’s Natural Land and and intravenous fluids for contamination Water Reserves System includes 26 reserves with bacterial endotoxins (98). representing 106 of the 178 habitat types iden- Butterfly species are used in research on tified for the State. The reserves are used for cancers, anemias, and viral diseases (82). instruction and research in botany, geology, The study of sponges is making substan- ecology, archeology, ethology, paleontology, tial contributions to structural chemistry, wildlife management, genetics, zoology, pop- pharmaceutical chemistry, and develop- ulation biology, and entomology (52). Enabling mental biology and has also resulted in the children and adults to experience different eco- discovery of novel chemical compounds systems is an effective way to teach ecological and activities. D-arabinosyl cytosine, an im- processes, genetic variation, community com- portant synthetic antiviral agent, owes its position and dynamics, and human relations development to the discovery of spongouri- with the natural world. dine, which was isolated from a Jamaican

Ch. 2—Importance of Biological Diversity ● 45

Cohen Zoo The armadillo is one of only two animal species known to contract leprosy. These animals now serve as research models to find a cure.

sponge. Three derivatives of this com- because of the great variation among its spe- pound have been patented as antiviral and cies (84). The varied reactions to specific viruses anticancer drugs (10). characteristic of many Nicotiana species provide a potential tool for separating and iden- Genetic Diversity tifying viruses, Nicotiana species have been involved in numerous discoveries of virus re- Genetic variability is one of the characteris- search (e. g., virus transmissibility, purification, tics of fruit flies, tree snails, and butterflies that and mutability) (35), makes them so useful for research. The unusual range of diversity among the races, varieties, Special genetic stocks are essential research and lines of corn contributes to its enormous tools. For example, inbred lines of chickens de- value for basic biological research. One exam- veloped at the University of California at Davis ple is the discovery and analysis of regulatory are used worldwide for research on immunol- systems that control gene expression, which ogy and disease resistance of chickens. Mutant added a new dimension to the study of in- stocks of chickens also serve as genetic models heritance (21). for scoliosis (lateral curvature of the spine) and muscular dystrophy in humans (58). The genus Nicotiana has also been used widely in genetic and botanical research largely

46 ● Technologies TO Maintain Biological Diversity

BENEFITS TO CULTURAL HERITA6E

Throughout history, societies have put great opening of the Midwest and West at Voyageurs value on physical features of their environment. Park in Minnesota; and combinations of wilder- In developed and developing countries, a diver- ness preservation and human occupation in- sity of ecosystems is a source of esthetic, his- cluding current subsistence-use at Kobuk Val- toric, religious, and ritualistic values. Species ley in Alaska (66,94). diversity assures people of national and state symbols, and many such symbols are protected. Species Diversity Genetic diversity continues in part because of the cultural value of plants and animals. Gar- Whereas the Continenta] Congress in 1782 deners around the world share seed material adopted the bald eagle as a national symbol; and ensuring genetic survival. Whereas the bald eagle thus became the sym- bolic representation of a new nation under a Ecosystem Diversity new government in a new world; and Whereas by that act of Congress and by tra- Natural ecosystems have great cultural (in- dition and custom during the life of this Na- cluding religious, esthetic, and historic) impor- tion, the bald eagle is no longer a mere bird of tance for many people. Mountains are the focus biological interest but a symbol of the Amer- of religious celebrations and rituals through- ican ideals of freedom . . . out the world: Mount Kenya, Mount Everest, –Bald and Golden Eagle Protection Act of 1940 Mount Fuji, Mount Taishan in China, and Black Mesa in Arizona. Forests also have great spiritual value: probably the only surviving examples of primary forest in southwestern India . are sacred groves—ancient natural sanctuaries where all living creatures are protected by the deity to which the grove is dedicated. Remov- ing even a twig from the grove is taboo (36). People who lead subsistence-based lives identify closely with the ecosystems on which they depend. Two examples are the Guarao people in the mangrove swamps and savannas of Vene- zuela’s Orinoco Delta (39) and the Inuit people in the tundra of the North American Arctic (9,24). The economic, social, and spiritual elements of the relationship between such peoples and the ecosystems that support them are in- separable. Ecosystems define and symbolize relationships between human beings and the natural world and express cultural and national identity, In the United States, the landscapes protected in wilderness areas, national parks, monuments, and preserves are full of historical meaning and show the close ties between Amer- National Federation ica the nation and America the land. Examples of these are pre-Columbian Indian habitations Cultural value of species is exemplified by the bald eagle, adopted by the Continental Congress as a at Mesa Verde in Colorado; symbols of the symbol of the United States. Ch. 2—lmporfance of Biological Diversity ● 47

When Congress adopted the bald eagle as a seek a management plan that would control log- national symbol, it was responding to an an- ging operations and restrict loggers’ access to cient human need to identify with other spe- some areas to reduce the spread of the fungus. cies, All over the world and throughout history, Scientists at the Forest Service and Oregon people have adopted animals and plants as em- State University are exploring the genetic diver- blems, icons, symbols, and totems and invested sity of the species in an effort to develop strains them with ideals and values, adopted them as resistant to the fungus (22), representations of particular characteristics of In South and Southeast Asia, trees, Asian their culture and society, sought the power and elephants, monkeys, cobras, and birds figure authority they stand for, or venerated them as prominently in tribal religions and have been embodiments of fruitfulness and life itself. taken into the pantheons of Hinduism and Bud- The endangered bowhead whale plays a piv- dhism. Certain tree species, such as Ficus otal cultural role in several Yupik and Inupiat religiosa, are sacrosanct and may not be cut Eskimo villages in northern Alaska, Bowhead down (2,20); political authorities often invoke whale hunting is the first and most important the sanction of animals to win popular support activity in the subsistence cycle. It is a major (61). Interspecific loyalties persist; the hornbill, social unifier, providing community identity central figure of the Gawai Kenya-lang or Horn- and continuity with the past, The division, dis- bill Festival of the Iban people in Sarawak, tribution, and sharing of bowhead whale meat Malaysia, is also the official emblem of the state and skin involve the entire community, strength- (50). ening kinship and communal bonds. Important In urban North America, species also express ceremonies, celebrations, and feasts accom- community identity. Inwood, Manitoba, pro- pany the harvest of a bowhead whale and the claims itself the garter snake capital of the distribution and sharing of its meat (4,5). world (after the mass matings of red-sided gar- Port Or ford Cedar (Chamaecyparis lawsoni- ter snakes that occur nearby) (67], and Pacific ance), prized for its cultural and economic Grove, California, dubs itself Butterfly Town, values, has become the focus of a recent con- USA (after the spectacular colonies of Monarch troversy. It grows only in a small area of south- butterflies that overwinter there) (98). These ern Oregon and northern California, where it actions are partly commercial acumen—the produces some of the area’s highest priced tim- phenomena are tourist attractions—but they ber. Top quality may cost as much as $3,000 also reflect civic pride and perhaps something per 1,000 board-feet. This price reflects demand deeper as well, from Japan, where it is used in homes and tem- ples as a substitute for the no longer available Japanese Hinoki cypress. It also has great cultural importance for Native Americans of the Hupa, Yurok, and Karok tribes in northwestern Many crop varieties and livestock breeds persist because they are culturally valuable to California, who regard it as sacred and use the wood in homes and religious ceremonies, Man- different societies, This group includes plants agement of remaining stands of the cedar has and animals with religious and ceremonial sig- become controversial, because mature trees are nificance—such as the festival rices of Nepal in short supply and threatened by a tree-killing and Mithan cattle in northern Burma and north- root-rot disease, spread partly by logging oper- eastern India (40)—as well as varieties valued ations (22). for their contribution to the traditional diet. Farmers in the Peruvian Andes commonly Native Americans seek to reserve all the Port plant their potato fields with many varieties Orford Cedar growing on formal tribal land– (often 30 or more), producing a mixture of now administered by the U.S. Forest Service— colors, shapes, textures, and flavors to enhance for ceremonial purposes. Other citizens’ groups the diet (14), In northwestern Spain, a mosaic

48 . Technologies TO Maintain Biological Diversity

of local varieties of beans and other legumes . is grown, each variety intended for a particular dish in the traditional cuisine (3). A growing number of Americans value traditional cuhivars and breeds for their history and for their esthetic and culinary qualities. Native Americans, helped by grassroots organizations, continue to grow traditional varieties of corn, chiles, beans, and squash (91). Hispanic-Ameri- can farmers in the Southwest prefer native corn for its texture, flavor, and color, even though its yield is only one-third to one-fourth of hybrid corn (64), The cultural value of rare livestock breeds is exemplified by Texas Longhorn cattle (which have a prominent place in Amer- ican history) and Navaho sheep (whose fleece is important to Navaho weaving). Gardeners have organized national and regional networks to conserve some plant varieties because they have better taste, have links with national, local, and ethnic history; are suitable for the home garden; and because of the abundance of colors and forms found among old and local varieties of potatoes, corn, beans, credit. G. and other crops (33,43,47,64,91). Hopi Indian garden of mixed crops illustrates ancient horticultural traditions that persist on this continent.

BENEFITS TO RECREATION AND TOURISM

Millions of people worldwide derive benefits Ecosystem Diversity from recreation and tourism provided by biological diversity. Without diverse ecosystems, State and National parks in the United States countries would lose tremendous amounts of attract 700 to 800 million visitors per year foreign exchange. Without wilderness areas, (73,74), and National Forests receive some 200 national parks, or national forests, city dwellers million visitors per year (93). One reason for would have no place to “escape” the daily pres- these visits—indeed, some surveys suggest the sures. Species diversity is essential to the mil- main reason—is to enjoy the variety of land- Iions of wildlife photographers, bird lovers, and scapes the parks and forests protect (83), Sight- plant and animal watchers. And without ge- seeing accounts for more recreation-visitor netic diversity, horticulturists, gardeners, ani- days (52 million) in National Forests than any mal breeders, and anglers would find little en- other recreation activity except camping (60 joyment in their avocations. million) (93). ———

Ch. Z—Importance of Biological Diversity “ 49

Ecosystem diversity is a significant recrea- Little data exist on wildlife recreational use tional asset in developing countries as well. In by people in developing countries, but for sev- Venezuela, the mangrove forests of Morrocoy eral nations wildlife-based tourism is big busi- National Park attract 250,000 to 500,000 visi- ness. The spectacular wild animals of east and tors per year (39); in Nepal, mountain land- southern Africa are the resource base of a tour- scapes, rhododendron forests, and fauna bring ist industry that brings millions of dollars in in foreign exchange (55), foreign exchange. In 1985, Kenya netted about $300 million from almost 500,000 visitors, making wildlife tourism the country’s biggest earner Species Diversity of foreign exchange (l). About 95 million Americans a year participate in nonconsumptive recreational uses of Genetic Diversity wildlife (observing, feeding, or photographing wild plants and animals); each year 54 million Millions of home gardeners and members of Americans fish and 19 million Americans hunt horticultural and animal breed associations de- for sport. In the process they spend $32.4 bil- rive recreational benefit from genetic diversity. lion per year (95). So, too, do millions of anglers who take advantage of stocking and enhancement programs. Surveys of American recreational uses of Tourism associated with genetic diversity in- wildlife reveal that a number of different spe- volves fewer people, although the Rare Breeds cies interest people. Recreational hunters in Survival Trust in the United Kingdom receives North America pursue some 90 species (73,74). 100,000 visitors a year. In North America, at Millions of Americans take time to observe not least 10 million people visit the some 200 liv- only birds and mammals, but also amphibians, ing historical farms—open-air museums that re- reptiles, butterflies, spiders, beetles, and other create and interpret agricultural and other arthropods (95), activities of a particular point in history (91).

BENEFITS TO AGRICULTURE AND HARVESTED RESOURCES

In agriculture, a diversity of ecosystems, spe- contain important nutrients for the adult stages cies, and genetic material provides increased of predatory and parasitic insects (37). Wild- amounts and quality of yields. In a world where flowers also support essential alternate hosts population is rapidly increasing, assuring a con- for parasites, especially in seasons when pests tinued increase in harvested resources is es- they prey on are not present, In California, for sential. Diversity in an agroecosystem provides instance, wild brambles (Rubus) provide an off- habitat for predators of crop pests and breed- season reservoir of prey for wasps, which con- ing sites for pollinators. Diversity of species can trol a major grape pest, This arrangement saves be a buffer against economic failure and can grape growers $40 to $60 per acre in reduced also play an important role in pest management. pesticide costs (6,54). Further, the use of genetic materials by breeders has attributed to at least 50 percent of the A variety of wild habitats also provides food, increase in agriculture yields and quality. cover, and breeding sites for pollinators. Wild pollinators (chiefly insects) make major contri- Ecosystem Diversity butions to the production of at least 34 crops grown or imported by the United States, with Both diversity and isolation affect the ability a combined annual average value of more than of pests to invade a crop. They also affect the $1 billion. They are the main pollinating agents supply of pests’ enemies, Uncultivated habitats in the production of cranberry and cacao, the next to croplands contain wildflowers, which propagation of red clover, and the production 50 Technologies to Maintain Biological Diversity and propagation of cashew and squash. They The commercial timber, fishery, and fur in- are also significant pollinators for such crops dustries obtain most of their resources by har- as coconut, apple, sunflower, and carrot. The vesting wild species, Harvested resources are abundance of wild pollinators is largely deter- also major contributors to the pharmaceutical mined by the availability of ecosystem diver- industry, and to many other industries as well. sity (woods, scrub, bare ground, moist areas, The average annual value of the wild resources patches of flowers) within flight range of the produced and imported by the United States crops to be pollinated (73,74). between 1976 and 1980 was about $27,4 billion, of which $23 billion was timber (73,74). permanent pastures and rangelands occupy one-fourth of the Earth’s land surface (31). Be- Many species are involved, but most of them cause they support most of the world’s 3 bil- are economically significant only to the trades- lion head of domesticated grazing animals (45), men involved. Even so, the number of harvested rangelands can be considered harvested eco- species might run up to more than a hundred. systems, where the nutrients and solar energy For example, it takes on average 70 species to of marginal lands are converted into meat, milk, make up 90 percent of the annual value of U.S. wood, and other goods, commercial fishery landings (74). In the United States, 34 rangelands are in- In agriculture, two types of diversity are use- volved and include plains, prairie, mountain ful in pest management programs: crop diver- grassland, and Texas savanna (93). Pastoral sity and pest enemy diversity, Crop diversity nomadism and migrations by wild herbivores (multiple cropping) can promote the activity of are traditional ways of using these resources. beneficial insects. For example, to attract Modern ways include hauling sheep between Lycosa wolf spiders, the main predators of corn summer and winter ranges, which may be 300 borers in Indonesia, farmers interplant the corn to 400 kilometers apart in the intermountain with peanuts (46). In California, lygus bugs, one region (12). of the main pests of cotton, are controlled somewhat by strip-planting alfalfa, which the bugs Species Diversity prefer to cotton (11). Pest enemy diversity includes introduced as well as native enemies. Diversity of harvestable species acts as a The Florida citrus industry saves $35 million buffer that allows people in fluctuating envi- per year by using three parasitic insect species ronments to cope with extremes. For instance, that were imported and established at a cost in Botswana, five wild plant species are exten- of $35,000. Some 200 foreign insect pests in the sively used by pastoralists and river people, but United States are controlled by introduced par- an additional 50 or more species are resorted asites and predators (63). to in times of drought (17). A long-standing use of wild species diversity Harvested species provide much of the sub- is as a source of new domesticates. In the sistence of indigenous peoples and rural com- United States, the combined farm sales and im- munities throughout the world. Wild bearded port value of domesticated wild species is well pig and deer contribute about 36,000 tons of over $1 billion per year. The domestication of meat a year to rural diets in Sarawak, Malay- two major groups of resources—timber trees sia. This amount of meat from domestic ani- and aquatic animals—has only begun and is at mals would cost about $138 million. (15). Per about the same stage that agricultural domes- capita consumption of harvested food by Inuit tications were some 5,000 years ago. But agri- in the North American Arctic averages annu- cultural and horticultural domestications are ally from 229 kg (504 lb) to 346 kg (761 lb). The still occurring. per capita cost of buying substitute food (usually of lower nutritional and cultural value) was Among the successful new food crops devel- estimated to be $2,1OO per year (1981 figures) oped this century are kiwifruit, highbush blue- (4,101). berry, and wild rice (most of the wild rice

Ch. 2—lmportnce of Biological Diversity ● 51

Two intercropping systems —fava beans and sprouts, and wild mustard and sprouts—demonstrate the benefits of diversity to agriculture. Both systems benefit the sprouts crop: wild mustard acts as a trap crop of flea beetles, and fava beans fix nitrogen with possible benefits to sprouts yields. produced in the United States is domesticated). VaZeriana wallichii) for example, and it is in- New and incipient forage crops include Bahia vestigating propagation of several other wild grass, desmodium, and several of the wheat- species that are sources of drugs, perfumes, and grasses, Red deer and aquiculture species such flavors for export, Scientists in Zambia and Bot- as catfish, hardshell clam, and the giant fresh- swana are working on the domestication of water prawn, are among the newly domesti- mungongo tree, whose fruits are used for food cated livestock. Loblolly pine, slash pine, and oil and whose wood is valued for carvings parana pine, and balsa are some of the new tim- (74), ber domesticates (73,74). Domestication of wild species increases the Genetic Diversity economic benefits of wild species by improving product quality and by raising yields. It can also Health and long-term productivity of wild re- make a valuable contribution to rural develop- source species—from game animals to timber ment in areas that are marginal for conven- trees to food and sport fish—depend on genetic tional crops and livestock. Nepal’s Department diversity within and among the harvested pop- of Medicinal Plants has organized the farming ulations, If the best individuals (biggest animals, of two native species IRauvolfia serpentine and tallest trees) are harvested before they repro-

52 ● Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity

stock. Use of genetic resources during this century has revolutionized agricultural productivity. In the United States from 1930 to 1980, yields per unit area of rice, barley, and soybeans doubled; wheat, cotton, and sugarcane yields more than doubled; fresh-market tomato yields tripled; corn, sorghum, and potato yields more than quadrupled; and processing-tomato yields quintupled (65,92). At least half of these increases have been attributed to plant breeders’ use of genetic diversity. The gain due to breeding is estimated to be 1 percent per year for corn, sorghum, wheat, and soybeans, due mainly to improvements in grain-to-straw ratio, standability, drought re- credit M sistance, tolerance of environmentaI stress, and Medicine from nature: sp., known as “sangre de grade” in the Peruvian Amazon. This tree produces a sap used for a variety of medicinal purposes. duce, then the productivity and adaptability of the population will progressively decline. In addition, certain populations are better adapted to particular locations than others. For example, chinook, coho, and sockeye salmon from different rivers are genetically distinct; these distinctions reflect differences in the physical and chemical characteristics of the streams in which they originated (69,70). Diver- sity needs to be maintained so that any restock- ing to compensate for overharvesting or habitat degradation can use populations that are adapted to the specific environmental conditions. In agriculture, genetic diversity in the form of readily available genes reduces a crop’s vulnerability to pests and pathogens. Resistance genes can be introduced as long as a high degree of genetic diversity is maintained in offsite collections, onsite reserves, and agroecosystems. U.S. plant breeders keep a substantial supply of diversity in cultivars, parental lines, synthetic populations, and other breeders’ stocks ready for use (13,26), The genetic variation in domesticated plants and animals and in their wild relatives is the Nat/ens—/d raw material with which breeders increase Plant breeders’ use of genetic diversity has significantly yields and improve the quality of crops and live- increased the productivity of crops such as wheat. Ch. 2—Importance of Biological Diversity ● 53 pest and disease resistance (18,27,79). Similarly, wild relatives as possible, because both crops the average milk yield of cows in the United have benefited from genes occurring in a sin- States has more than doubled during the past gle population and nowhere else, Asian rice cul- 30 years; about one-fourth of this increase is tivars get their resistance to grassy stunt virus, due to genetic improvement (89). a disease that in one year destroyed 116,000 hectares (287,000 acres), from one collection Developing countries have also achieved in- of Oryza nivara (53). The gene for a jointless creased production of major crops. The Green fruit-stalk (a trait that assists mechanized har- Revolution that has transformed heavily popu- vesting and is worth millions of dollars per year) lated Asian countries is founded on use of par- in tomato is found in a single population of a ticular genes. High-yielding varieties of rice, wild relative (Lycopersicon cheesmanii) unique for example, rely on a gene from a traditional to the Galapagos Islands (78), variety for the “dwarf” stature that enables the plant to channel nutrients from fertilizers into A variety of genetic resources is being used grain production without getting top-heavy and in the breeding of livestock, particularly cattle falling over before harvest time. Although the and sheep. Crossbreeding Brahman cattle with dwarfing trait is effective in many locations, Hereford, Angus, Charolais, and Shorthorn the high-yielding varieties need other genetic breeds has had a major impact on commercial characteristics from many different varieties, beef production in North America (30). A num- The rice variety IR36, used in many countries ber of African cattle breeds are notable sources to sustain yield gains, was derived by cross- of disease and pest resistance (West African breeding 13 parents from 6 countries (19,87). Shorthorn to trypanosomiasis, N’dama and Ba- ole to dermatitis, Zebu to ticks) (34), The Finn- progress in tomato improvement in the United ish landrace of sheep was almost lost before States has followed the use of exotic germplasm its high level of reproductive efficiency was dis- (traditional cultivars, wild forms of the domes- covered, It has now been incorporated into ticated species, and exclusively wild species). commercial mating lines in the United King- Fruit quality (color, sugar content, solids con- dom and North America (30). tent); adaptations for mechanized harvesting; and resistance to 15 serious diseases have been Yield and quality improvements can continue transferred to the tomato from its wild relatives. to be made and defended against pests and path- One researcher noted: ogens, provided plant and animal breeding continues to be supported and the genetic diversity to some of these diseases is man- Resistance that breeders draw on is maintained, Indeed, datory for economic production of the crop in California, and it is doubtful whether the State’s there is no option but to go on improving crops tomato industry would exist without these and and livestock if world agriculture is to respond other desired traits derived from exotics (77). successfully to economic and environmental changes and to the new strains of pests and dis- Rice and tomato illustrate the importance of eases that evolve to overcome existing re- maintaining as much of the genetic variation sistance. remaining within the domesticates and their

VALUES AND EVALUATION OF BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY

Biological diversity benefits everyone, is val- Economic Value ued by many (in a variety of ways), but is owned by no one. Thus, its evaluation is fraught with Economic evaluation potentially covers all complexity. There are two broad classes of functional benefits described in this chapter, value: economic and intrinsic. ranging from tangible benefits from harvested 54 “ Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity resources and breeding materials to spiritual Intrinsic Value and other cultural benefits. The ability to calculate these values varies, however. In the cases Intrinsic evaluation acknowledges that other where markets exist, calculations are easily de- creatures have value independent of human termined (at least $27,4 billion per year in the recognition and estimation of their worth. The United States for commercially harvested wild concept is both ancient and universal. A species, as noted earlier). In other cases, values spokesperson of the San people of Botswana are more difficult to calculate, and “shadow put it this way: prices” may be used to approximate values for Once upon a time, humans, animals, plants, such benefits as ecological processes and recre- and the wind, sun, and stars were all able to ation, For cultural and esthetic values, eco- talk together. God changed this, but we are still nomic valuation may be impossible, a part of a wider community. we have the right to live, as do the plants, animals, wind, sun, If humans interacted in a system with limited and stars; but we have no right to jeopardize resources, then markets would allow equilib- their existence (16). rium prices to emerge for all commodities, services, amenities and resources. These prices This preceding statement might be supported would reflect the relative values (including so- by Americans who believe in “existence values” cial values) of each item. The essential prem- —values that are defined independently of hu- ises for economic valuation are utility and scar- man uses (68). This belief implies a human obli- city (75). gation not to eradicate species or habitats, even if doing so harms no human. A 3-year study But for most benefits of biological diversity, of American attitudes toward wildlife found free market principles do not apply. Mainte- that the majority seemed willing to make sub- nance of biological diversity is a “nonrival” stantial social and economic sacrifices to pro- good (it benefits everybody), and it is a “nonex- tect wildlife and its habitats (51). Advocates of clusive” good (no person can be excluded from wildlife protection maintain that “it makes me the satisfaction of knowing a species exists), feel better to know there are bears in the area, as are many of its benefits (research and edu- even though I’d just as soon never run into one” cation, cultural heritage, nonconsumptive rec- (76). Proponents of biological diversity argue reation, use of genetic resources). And it is not that even if diversity is functionally redundant clear that market-oriented logic is adequate to or has no utilitarian worth, it should be main- deal with two cardinal features of biological tained just “because it is there. ” diversity: its potential for indefinite renewabil- ity (long-time horizon) and for extinction (ir- reversibility) (75).

CONSTITUENCIES OF DIVERSITY

Biological diversity benefits a variety of in- Public Awareness terest groups, so its constituency is enormous but fragmented by the interests of particular A major obstacle to promoting effective and groups. Each group may appear small com- long-term maintenance of biological diversity pared with the Nation as a whole. Collectively, is the lack of awareness on the part of the gen- however, these groups and their combined con- eral public of the importance of diversity (in cern amount to the national interest in main- the broader sense). It is easy to understand why taining biological diversity. the loss of biological diversity has difficulty cap- Ch. 2—importance of Biological Diversity 55 turing public attention. First, the concept is Balancing Interests and complex to grasp. For this reason, efforts to so- Perspectives licit support have appealed to emotionalism associated with the loss of particularly appeal- In assessing the level of public resources to ing species or spectacular habitats (86), Al- be directed toward maintaining biological though effective in many cases, this approach diversity, it is important to maintain a frame has the effect of limiting the constituency and of reference of how, when, and for whom bio- the boundaries of the problem. A second reason logical diversity is important. Such a perspec- is that the more pervasive threats to diversity, tive should consider: such as habitat loss or narrowing of agricultural crop genetic bases, are not dramatic events 1. varying perceptions on the value of biologi- that occur quickly. The difficulty is one of recal diversity and threats to it; sponding to a potentially critical problem that, 2. an awareness that only some diversity can for the average person, seems to lack immediacy. be or probably will be saved; and 3. a recognition that resources available to Finally, promoting the case for biological address efforts are limited. diversity maintenance is also difficult because of the proliferation of environmental problems As mentioned earlier, biological diversity is brought to public attention in the last decade not at present a pervasive concern for many or two, including acid rain, ozone depletion, people, or at least there is no consensus that the greenhouse effect, and loss of topsoil. “All as much diversity must be conserved as possi- these environmental problems have the apoca- ble. While earlier sections of this chapter iden- lyptic potential to destroy, yet in every case the tified large constituencies that value biologi- cause, imminence, and scope of that power are cal diversity, some elements of society remain subject to polarizing (and eventually paralyz- apathetic to the issue, and others support ef- ing) interpretation” (29). forts to eliminate various components of diver- Notwithstanding these difficulties, the envi- sity. For example, considerable resources are ronmental movement of the 1970s elevated directed to reducing populations or even elim- environmental quality to a major public policy inating entire species of pests, pathogens, or concern. Although the momentum of public at- predators that threaten agriculture and human tention may have slowed in the 1980s, it is clear health. In terms of public policy, such efforts that concern for the environment remains imply a need to recognize that in some cases firmly entrenched in the collective conscious- diversity maintenance and other human inter- ness of the American public. A 1985 Harris poll, ests can conflict. It should be noted, however, for example, indicated that 63 percent of Ameri- that conflicts stem less from the existence of cans place greater priority on environmental diversity than from the altered abundance of cleanup than on economic growth (41). particular species.

CHAPTER 2 REFERENCES

1. Achiron, M., and Wilkinson, R., “Africa: The plasma por el Noroeste de Espana, ” Plant Ge- Last Safari?” Newsweek, Aug. 18, 1986, netic Resources Newsletter 53:41-43, 1983. 2. Agrawal, S, R., “Trees, Flowers and Fruits in 4. Alaska Consultants and Stephen Braund & Indian Folk Songs, Folk Proverbs, and Folk Associates, Subsistence Study of Alaska Es- Tales, ” Glimpses of Indian Ethnobotany, S.K. kimo WhaZing ViZZages (Washington, DC: U.S. Jain (cd.) (New Delhi, Bombay, Calcutta, India: Department of the Interior, 1984). Oxford and IBH Publishing Co,, 1981). 5. Alaska Eskimo Whaling Commission, Alaska 3. Alaman Castro, M. C., Casanova Pena, C., and Eskimo Whaling (Barrow, AK: 1985). Bueno Perez, M. A., “La Recognida de Germo- 6. AliNiazee, M. T., and Oatman, E. R., “Pest Man- 56 ● Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity

agement Programs, ” Biological Control and In- “The Conservation and Use of Rice Genetic Re- sect Pest Management, D.W. Davis, et al. (eds.) sources,” Advances in Agronomy 35:37-9I, (Oakland, CA: University of California, Divi- 1982. sion of Agricultural Sciences, 1979). 20. Chaudhuri, R. H. N., and Pal, D. C., “Plants in 7. Ayala, F. J., “The Mechanisms of Evolution, ” Folk Religion and Mythology, ” GZimpses of In- Scientific American 239(3):56-69, 1978. dian Etlmobotany, S.K. Jain (cd.) (New Delhi, 8. Basson, P. W., Burchard, Jr., J. E., Hardy, J. T,, Bombay, Calcutta, India: Oxford and IBH Pub- and Price, A. R. G., Biotopes of the Western Ara- lishing Co., 1981), bian Gulf.” Marine Life and Environments of 21. Coe, E, H., and Neuffer, M. G., “The Genetics Saudi Arabia, Aramco Department of Loss Pre- of Corn, ” Corn and Corn Improvement, 2d cd., vention and Environmental Affairs (Dhahran: Monograph 18, G.F. Sprague (cd.) (Madison, 1977). WI: American Society of Agronomy, 1977). 9. Berger, T. R., Village Journey: The Report of 22. Cohn, L., “The Port Orford Cedar, ” American the Alaska Native Review Commission (New Forests, July 1986, pp. 16-19. York: Hill & Wang, 1985). 23. Cooke, H. J., “The Kalahari Today: A Case of 10. Berquist, P. R., “Sponge Chemistry—A Re- Conflict Over Resource Use, ” The Geographi- view, Colloques Internationaux du CNRS cal Journal 151(1):75-85, 1985. 291:383-392, 1978, 24. Damas, D. (cd.), Arctic, Volume 5: Handbook 11. Bishop, G. W., Davis, D. W., and Watson, T. F., of North American Indians (Washington, DC: “Cultural Practices in Pest Control,” Biologi- Smithsonian Institution, 1984). cal Control and Insect Pest Management, D.W. 25. Davis, R. A., Finley, K. J., and Richardson, W. J,, Davis, et al, (eds.) (Oakland, CA: University of The Present Status and Future Management California, Division of Agricultural Sciences, of Arctic Marine Mammals in Canada (Govern- 1979). ment of Northwest Territories, Yellowknife: 12. Box, T. W., “Potential of Arid and Semi-Arid Science Advisory Board, 1980). Rangelands,” Potential of the WorZd’s Forages 26. Duvick, D. N., “Genetic Diversity in Major for Ruminant Animal Production, 2d cd., R.D. Farm Crops on the Farm and in Reserve,” Eco- Child and E.K. Byington (eds.) (Morrilton, AR: nomic Botany 38(2):161-178, 1984. Winrock International Livestock Research and 27, Duvick, D. N., “Plant Breeding: Past Achieve- Training Center, 1981). ments and Expectations for the Future, ” Eco- 13, Brown, W. L., “Genetic Diversity and Genetic nomic Botany 40(3):289-297’, 1986. Vulnerability—An Appraisal, ” Economic Bot- 28, Dyer, M. I., Detling, J. K., Coleman, D. C., and any 37(1):4-12, 1983. Hilbert, D. W., “The Role of Herbivores in 14, Brush, S. B., Carney, H. J., and Huaman, Z., Grasslands,” Grasses and Grasslands: Sys- “Dynamics of Andean Potato Agriculture, ” tematic and Ecology, J,R. Estes, R.J. Tyrl, and Economic Botany 35(1):70-88, 1981, J.N. Brunken (eds,) (Norman, OK: University 15. Caldecott, J., and Nyaoi, A., “Hunting in of Oklahoma Press, 1982). Sarawak,” report prepared for the Ad hoc Sub- 29, Ebisch, R., “A Layman’s Guide to Modern committee on Mammals and Birds of the Sara- Menaces, ” TWA Ambassador, 18(10):49-58, wak State Legislative Assembly Special Select October 1985. Committee on Flora and Fauna, Sarawak For- 30, Fitzhugh, H. A., Getz, W,, and Baker, F. H., “Sta- est Department, Kuching, Malaysia, 1985. tus and Trends of Domesticated Animals, ” 16. Campbell, A. C., “Traditional Wildlife Popula- OTA commissioned paper, 1985. tions and Their Utilization, ” Which Way Bot- 31. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of swana WiZdZife? proceedings of the Sympo- the United Nations, 1984 FAO Production sium of the Kalahari Conservation Society, Yearbook, FAO Statistics Series 38 (Rome: Gaborone, Botswana, Apr. 15-16, 1983. 1985). 17. Campbell, A. C., The Use of Wild Food Plants 32. Foster, R. B,, “Heterogeneity and Disturbance and Drought in Botswana (Gaborone, Bot- in Tropical Forest Vegetation, ” Conservation swana: National Museum, no date). Biolog: An Evolutionary-Ecological Perspec- 18, Castleberry, R, M,, Crum, C. W., and Krull, C. F., tive, M.E. Soulb and B.A. Wilcox (eds.) (Sunder- “Genetic Yield Improvement of U.S. Maize land, MA: Sinauer Associates, 1980). Cultivars Under Varying Fertility and Climatic 33. Fowler, G., “Report on Grassroots Genetic Environments,” Crop Science 24(1):33-36, Conservation Efforts,” OTA commissioned pa- 1984. per, 1985. 19, Chang, T, T., Adair, C. R., and Johnston, T. H,, 34, Frankel, O. H., and SOU16, M, E., Conservation Ch. 2—importance of Biological Diversify ● 57

and Evolution (Cambridge, MA: Cambridge 46. IRRI Cropping Systems Program, 1973 Annual University Press, 1981). Report (Los Banes, Philippines: The Interna- 35 Fulton, R. W., “Nicotianas as Experimental Vi- tional Rice Research Institute, 1973), rus IIosts, ” ,\’icotiana: Procedures for Experi- 47. Jabs, C., The Heirloom Gardener (San Fran- mental Use, Technical Bulletin 1586, R.D. Dur- cisco, CA: Sierra Club Books, 1984). bin (cd. ) (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of 48. Janzen, D. H., “Guanacaste National Park: Agriculture, 1979). Tropical Ecological and Cultural Restoration, ” 36< Gadgil, M., and Vartak, V. D., “Sacred Gro\res project report to Servicio de Parques Nacion- of Maharashtra: An Inventory, Glimpses of ales de Costa Rica, Fundacion de Parques Na- [ndian Ethnobotan~, S.K. Jain (cd.) (IXew Delhi, cionales de Costa Rica, Fundacion N’eotropica, Bombay, Calcutta, India: Oxford and IBH Pub- Nature Conservancy International Program. lishing Co,, 1981). Department of Biology, University of Pennsyl- 37. Hagen, K. S., and Bishop, G. W., “Use of Sup- vania, Philadelphia, 1986, plemental Foods and Behavioral Chemicals to 49 Kaplan, E. H., A Field Guide to Coral Reefs of Increase the Effectiveness of Natural Ene- the Caribbean and Florida Including Bermuda mies, ” l?io]ogica] control and Insect Pest .Vlan- and the Bahamas (Boston, MA: Houghton Mif- agement, D,W, []avis, et a], (eds) (Oakland, CA: flin, 1982). University of California, Division of Agricul- 50 Kavanagh, M., “Planning Considerations for tural Sciences, 1979). a System of ~National Parks and Wildlife Sanc- 38 Hamilton, L. S., and King, P. N., Tropical ~or- tuaries in Sarawak, ” Sara~ak Gazet/e 61 :15- ested Watersheds: HtiVdrologic and Soils Re- 29, 1985. sponse to Major Uses or Conversions (Boulder, 51. Kellert, S. R., “Americans’ Attitudes and CO: Westview Press, 1983), Knowledge of Animals, ” Transactions of the 39. Hamilton, 1.. S., and Snedaker, S.C. (eds.), 45th North American Wildlife and Natural Re- Handbook for ,blangro~~e Area Management sources Conference, 1980 (Washington, DC: (Honolulu, HI: East-West Center, 1984). Wildlife Management Institute, 1980]. 40. Harlan, J, R., crops and Man (Madison, WI: 52. Kennedy, J. A., “Protected Areas for Teaching American Society of Agronomy, 1975), and Research: The Universit~’ of California Ex- 41 Harris, I.., “Current Public Perceptions, Atti- perience, ” National Parks, Conservation, and tudes, and Desires on Natural Resources Man- De\’elopment: The Role of Protected Areas in agement, ’ Transactions of the 50th North Sustaining Society, J.A. McNeely and K.R. American Wild]ife and Natura] Resources Con- Miller (eds.) (Washington, DC: Smithsonian In- ference [Washington, DC: Wildlife Manage- stitution Press, 1984). ment Institute, 1985), pp. 68-71. 53. Khush, G, S., Ling, K. C., Aquino, R.(; ., and 42. Harris, 1,. D., The Fragmented Forest: Island Aguiero, V. M., “Breeding for Resistance to Biogeographic Theory and the Preser~’ation of Grassy Stunt in Rice, Plant Breeding Papers Biotic Di~ersit~ (Chicago, IL, and London: l(4b):3-9, 1977. Universit~r of Chicago Press, 1984). 54. Kido, H., Flaherty, D, L,, Bosch, D. F., and 43. Henson, E. L., “An Assessment of the Conser- Valero, K. A., “Biological Control of Grape \’ation of Animal Genetic Diversity at the Leafhopper, California Agriculture 37:4-6, Grassroots Level, ” OTA commissioned paper, 1983, 1985. 55 Lucas, P. H. C., “How Protected Areas Can Help 44, Illinois Natural History Survey, “Slow Growth Meet Society’s Evolving Needs, ” National and Short I,ife Spans of Illinois River Carp, ” Parks, Conservation, and De~elopment: 7’he The Illinois .%ratural History Survey Reports Role of Protected Areas in Sustaining Societ~’, 257, 1986. J.A. McNeely and K.R. Miller (eds.] (Washing- 45. International Union for Conservation of Na- ton, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1984). ture and Natural Resources (IUCN], World 56. Maser, C,, and Trappe, J.M. (eds. ), The Seen Conser~ation Strateg~: Living Resource Con- and Unseen World of the Fa]]en Tree, General servation for Sustainable Development (Gland Technical Report PNW-164 (portland, OR: U.S. and Nairobi: International Union for Conser- Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pa- vation of Nature and Natural Resources-United cific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Nations Environmental Program-World Wild- Station, 1984). life Fund, 1980). 57. ,Ntayr, E., The Gro\~’th of Biological Thought: 58 ● Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity —

Diversity, Evolution, and Inheritance (Cam- 72, Piearce, G. D., “The Zambezi Teak Forests: A bridge, MA, and London: Belknap Press of Case Study of the Decline and Rehabilitation Harvard University Press, 1982). of a Tropical Forest Ecosystem, ” prepared for 58, McGuire, P. E., and Qualset, C.O. (eds.), Pro- the 12th Commonwealth Forestry Conference, ceedings of a Symposium and Workshop on Victoria, BC, Canada, Division of Forest Re- Genetic Resources Conservation for California, search, Kitwe, September 1985. Napa, Apr. 5-7, 1984. 73. Prescott-Allen, C., and Prescott-Allen, R., The 59. McNaughton, S. J., “Serengeti Migratory Wilde- First Resource: Wild Species in the North beest: Facilitation of Energy Flow by Graz- American Economy (New Haven, CT, and ing, ” Science 191:92-94, 1976. London: Yale University Press, 1986). 60. McNaughton, S. J., “Grazing as an Optimiza- 74. Prescott-Allen, R., “National Conservation tion Process: Grass-Ungulate Relationships in Strategies and Biological Diversity, ” a report the Serengeti, ” American Naturalist 113:691- to International Union of Conservation of Na- 703, 1979. ture and Natural Resources, Conservation for 61. McNeely, J. A., and Wachtel, P. S., Power, Pol- Development Centre (Gland, Switzerland: Sep- itics, Religion, Nature, and Animals: How the tember 1986), Coalition Has Worked in Southeast Asia 75, Randall, A,, “An Economic Perspective on the (Gland, Switzerland: International Union for Valuation of Biological Diversity, ” OTA com- Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources missioned paper, 1985. and World Wildlife Fund, 1986). 76. Randall, A., “Human Preference, Economics, 62, Mirov, N. T., and Hasbrouck, J., The Story of and the Preservation of Species, ” The Preser- Pines (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University vation of Species, B. Norton (cd. ) (Princeton, Press, 1976]. NJ: Princeton University Press, 1986]. 63. Myers, N,, A Wealth of Wild Species: Store- 77. Rick, C. M., “Collection, Preservation, and Use house for Human Welfare (Boulder, CO: West- of Exotic Tomato Genetic Resources, ” Pro- view Press, 1983). ceedings of a Symposium and Workshop on 64. Nabhan, G., and Dahl, K., “Role of Grassroots Genetic Resources Conservation for California, Activities in the Maintenance of Biological Napa, P.E, McGuire and C,O, Qualset (eds.], Diversity: Living Plant Collections of North Apr. 5-7, 1984. American Genetic Resources, ” OTA commis- 78. Rick, C. M,, and Fobes, J. F., “Allozymes of Ga- sioned paper, 1985. lapagos Tomatoes: Polymorphism, Geographic 65. National Plant Genetic Resources Board, Plant Distribution, and Affinities, ” Evolution 29:443- Genetic Resources: Conservation and Use 457, 1975. (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agricul- 79. Russell, W. A,, “Dedication: George F. Sprague, ture, 1979). Corn Breeder and Geneticist ,“ PZant Breeding 66. The Nature Conservancy, Preserving Our Nat- Reviews. Volume Z, J. Janick [cd.) (Westport, ural Heritage, Volume I: Federal Activities CT: AVI Publishing Co., 1984). (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the In- 80. Saenger, P., Hegerl, E. J,, and Davie, J. D. S., terior, National Park Service, 1977). Global Status of Mangrove Ecosystems, Com- 67, Nikiforuk, A., “Secrets in a Snake Pit, ” A4ac- mission on Ecology Papers 3 (Gland, Switzer- ]ean’s, May 28, 1984. land: International Union for Conservation of 68, Norton, B., “Value and Biological Diversity, ” Nature and Natural Resources, 1983). OTA commissioned paper, 1985. 81, Sedell, J. R., Bisson, P. A., June, J. A., and 69, Okazaki, T., “Genetic Study on Population Speaker, R. W., “Ecology and Habitat Require- Structure in Chum Salmon (Oncorhynchus ments of Fish Populations in South Fork Hoh Keta), ” Bulletin of Far Seas Fisheries Research River, Olympic National Park, ” EcoZogicaZ Re- Laboratory 19:25-116, 1982. search in National Parks of the Pacific North- 70. Okazaki, T., “Genetic Structure of Chum west: Proceedings, Zd Conference on Scientific Salmon (Oncorhynchus Keta) River Popula- Research in the NationaZ Parks, 1979, E.E. Star- tions,” BuZZetin of the Japanese Society of Sci- key, J,F, Franklin, and J.W. Matthews (eds.), entific Fisheries 49(2):189-196, 1983. Oregon State University, Forest Research Lab- 71. Oldfield, M, L., The VaZue of Conserving Ge- oratory, Corvallis, 1982. netic Resources (Washington, DC: U.S. Depart- 82. Smart, P., The Illustrated Encyclopedia of the ment of the Interior, National Park Service, Butterfly World (London: Salamander Books, 1984). 1976). Ch. 2—/mportance of Biological Diversity ● 59

83. Smith, G. C., and Alderdice, D., “Public Re- 93< U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Serv- sponses to National Park Environmental Pol- ice, An Assessment of the Forest and Range icy, ” Envjronrnent and ~ehat~or 11(3)329-350, Land Situation in the United States, Forest Re- 1979. source Report 22 (Washington, DC: 1981). 84, Smith, H. H., “The Genus as a Genetic Re- 94, U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park source, Nicotiana: Procedures for Experi- Service, Index: National Park System and Re- mental Use, Technical Bulletin 1586, R.D. Dur- lated Areas as ofJune 1, 1982 (Washington, DC: bin (cd.) (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of 1982). Agriculture, 1979). 95, U.S. Department of the Interior and U.S. De- 85< Soul;, M. E., “Thresholds for Survival: Main- partment of Commerce, U.S. Fish and Wild- taining Fitness and Evolutionary Potential, ” life Service and U.S. Bureau of the Census, Conser~ation Biolog: An Evolutionary-Ecolog- 1980 National Survey of Fishing, Hunting, and ica] Perspective, M. E. Soule and B.A. Wilcox Wildlife-Associated Recreation (Washington, (eds.) (Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates, DC: 1982). 1980). 96. Vartak, V. D., and Gadgil, M., “Studies on Sa- 86, Stanfield, R. L., “In the Same Boat, ” National cred Groves Along the Western Ghats From ~ourna~, Aug. 16, 1986, pp. 1992-1997. Maharashtra to Goa: Role of Beliefs and Folk- 87. Swaminathan, M. S., “Rice, Scientific Amer- lores, ” Glimpses of Indian Ethnobotan~r, S.K. ican January 1984, pp. 81-93. Jain (cd.) (New Delhi, Bombay, Calcutta, India: 88. Tiner, R. W., Wetlands of the United States: Oxford and IBH Publishing Co., 1981). Current Status and Recent Trends (Washing- 97 Webb, M,, Environmental Affairs Office, ton, DC: U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish World Bank, Washington, DC, personal com- and Wildlife Service, 1984]. munication, June 1986. 89 U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assess- 98 Wells, S. M., Pyle, R. M., and Collins, N. M., The ment, Impacts of Applied Genetics: Micro- IUCN Invertebrate Red Data Book (Gland, organisms, Plants, and Animals, OTA-HR-132 Switzerland: International Union for Conser- (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing vation of Nature and Natural Resources, 1983). Office, April 1981). 99, Wilson, E. O., The Insect Societies (Cambridge, 90. U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assess- MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University ment, Wetlands: Their Use and Regulation, Press, 1971]. OTA-O-206 (Washington, DC: U.S. Govern- 100. World Resources Institute/International Insti- ment Printing Office, March 1984). tute for Environment and Development, World 91. U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assess- Resources 1986 (New York: Basic Books, Inc., ment, Grassroots Conservation of Biological 1986). Diversit~ in the United States—Background Pa- 101 Worrall, D., A Baffin Region Economic Base- per ,#1, OTA-BP-F-38 (Washington, DC: U.S. line Study: Economic De~’elopment and Tour- Government Printing Office, February 1986). ism (Yellowknife: Government of the North- 92. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural west Territories, Department of Economic Statistics 1981 (Washington, DC: U.S. Govern- Development and Tourism, 1984). ment Printing Office, 1981). Chapter 3 Status of Biological Diversity CONTENTS

Page Highlights, ...... 63 Introduction ...... 63 Diversity Loss ...... 64 Ecosystem Diversity...... 66 Species Diversity ...... 68 Genetic Diversity ...... 75 Causes of Diversity Loss ...... 78 Development and Degradation. ....,.,...... 78 Exploitation of Species ...... 79 Vulnerability of Isolated Species, ...... 80 Complex Causes...... 80 Conclusion ...... 82 Circumstantial Evidence ...,...... 82 Data for Decisionmaking ...... 83 Chapter 3 References ...... 83

Tables Table No. Page 3-1. Status of Animal Species unselected Industrial Countries ...... 72 3-2. Summary of Data From Endangered Plant Species Lists ...... 73 3-3. Data unthreatened Plant Species of Selected Oceanic Islands ...... 73 3-4. Endangered African Cattle Breeds ...... 75 3-5. Crops Grown or Imported by the United States With a Combined Average Annual Value of $l00 Million or More...... 77 3-6. Oceanic Islands With More Than 50 Endemic Plant Species...... 81 Figures Figure No. Page 3-1. Currently Described Species ...... 64 3-2. Changes in Wetlands Since the 1950s. ....,...... 66 3-3. Past and Projected World Population ...... 82

Box-

BOX NO, Page 3-A. Biological Concepts ...... 65 3-B. Typical Excerpts From Development Assistance Agency Reports Addressing Environmental Constraints to Development ...... 69 3-C, Definitions of Threatened Status ...... 70 Chapter 3 Status of Biological Diversity

● A general consensus exists that biological diversity is being lost or degraded in most regions of the world, but acute threats are largely localized. Despite a weak knowledge base and lack of precise measurements, enough is now known to direct activities to critical areas. ● Concern over the loss of diversity have been defined almost exclusively in terms of species extinction. Although extinction is perhaps the most dramatic aspect of the problem, it is by no means the whole problem. The consequence is a distorted definition of the problem, which fails to account for the various interests concerned and may misdirect how concerns should be addressed. ● The immediate causes of diversity loss usually relate to unsustainable resource development, but the root causes for such development are complex issues of population growth, economic and political organization, and human attitudes. The complexity of the causes implies a need for multi-faceted approaches that deal with both the immediate and the root causes of diversity loss.

Since life began, extinction has always been It is estimated that the world contains 5 to 10 a part of evolution. Mass extinctions occurred million species, and many of these have hun- during a few periods, apparently the results of dreds or even thousands of distinct genetic relatively abrupt geological or climatic changes. types. A recent inventory of insect species in But in most periods, the rate of species forma- the canopy of a tropical forest suggests that tion has been greater than the rate of extinc- many more insect species may exist than pre- tions, and biological diversity has gradually in- viously thought, pushing the estimate for the creased. Recently in evolutionary history, the total of all species to as high as 30 million (14). human species has derived great economic Understanding of biological diversity issues value from ecosystem, species, and genetic has improved in recent years, in terms of know- diversity and recognized the intrinsic values ing the extent of diversity and understanding of diversity. But now that the values are being the causes and consequences of changes. Enough recognized, there is evidence that the world information is available in all regions of the may be entering another period of massive re- world to intervene in the processes that cause duction in diversity. This time, humans are the diversity loss. cause, and it appears that the consequence will be loss of a substantial share of the Earth’s val- Drastic reductions in populations of wild ani- uable resources. mals and plants are not new and have long been recognized as consequences of over-intensive Diversity is abundant at a global level. About hunting, fishing, and gathering. For example, 1.7 million species of plants and animals have great bison herds of North America were de- been named, classified, and described (57). (De- pleted in the 19th century, as were stocks of scriptions are only superficial for most of these.) various whales and bird species (52). The now The remainder are still unidentified (figure 3-I). barren hills of southern China’s coasts and is-

63 64 ● Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity

Figure 3-1 .—Currently Described Species Chesapeake Bay over the past two decades is an example well known to Congress, which has 3°/0 Vertebrates 2°/0 Bacteria supported several initiatives to improve under- and protozoa standing of the complex syndrome of overfish- 8°\0 Other / invertebrates ing, pollution, and hydrologic changes related to the region’s development. Acceleration of resource degradation and diversity loss is partly a consequence of population growth, especially in rural areas of developing countries, where compound growth rates are often more than 1 percent per year. fungi, &Id ferns It is also a consequence of technologies developed over the past century that have enabled humans to devastate natural ecosystems even where population densities or growth rates are moderate. For example, modern drainage tech- 140/0 F niques and market conditions make accelerated plants wetland drainage possible in the United States, Of the currently described species, insects make up more than half the total. The number of flowering plants described and veterinary drugs and modern well-drilling are less than one-third of the percentage of insects. machinery enable African farmers to build live-

NOTE” Percentages rounded to nearest whole number stock herds above the natural carrying capac- SOURCE Office of Technology Assessment, 19S6. ity of their rangelands, Accelerated loss of diversity is also caused by modern transportation, which reduces the lands were deforested 1,000 years ago (22). Ero- effect of geographic barriers important in the sion from the deforested and overgrazed Arme- evolution of diversity. Exotic species, diseases, nian hills, which eventually led to the demise and pests were for centuries carried across of productive agriculture in Mesopotamia, ap- oceans, mountains, and deserts by hundreds parently began over 2000 years ago (21). These of people traveling in ships and on foot, but now kinds of changes undoubtedly caused local and they are carried by hundreds of thousands of regional losses of diversity, people traveling in trucks and airplanes. What is new today is the scale on which re- Biologists and agriculturalists have thus be- source degradation is occurring and thus the come alarmed about the scale of plant and ani- rate at which diversity is apparently being re- mal resource degradation during the last two duced. Fishing, hunting, and gathering beyond to three decades. The alarm stems from obser- the capacity of ecosystems continues today, but vations of extensive reductions in habitat, cou- the effects are being greatly exacerbated by pled with a growing understanding of how such degradation of ecosystems and significant re- changes adversely affect diversity. (Key con- ductions in natural areas. The decline of fish- cepts that have aided this understanding are eries and sharp reduction of diversity in the described in box 3-A.)

DIVERSITY Loss

The problem of diversity loss is broader than ● Ecosystem diversity: A landscape inter- extinction of species because diversity occurs spersed with agricultural fields, grasslands, at each level of biological organization. and woodlands has more diversity than the Ch. 3—Status of Biological Diversity 65

Box 3-A.-Biological Concepts Trends in changing biological diversity cannot be eqsured directly; so many species exist that costs of inventories would be too high. Rather, trends.~~ be inferred by applying biological concepts and by observing changes in habitats. Several biological concepts ‘are relevant: - ● Species-area relationship: Large sites tend to have more species than smail sites. [So] When the areas of diverse natural ecosystems are reduced by land development or by degradation, diversity is reduced. From analysis of many sets of empirical data, scientists have derived a mathematical equation that can be used to predict the decrease in number of species that can be expected following a reduction in habitat area (5). ● Provinciality effect: Diversity of species and populations separated by geographic barriers, usually increases over time. But when species or varieties are carried across these barriers, as with the introduction of an exotic organiwn, provinciality is abruptly lost. Rapid loss of diversity can follow if native species have no defense against a exotic pathogen or pest, or if the exotic organism competes more aggressively for habitat (44) Examples include the introductions of Dutch elm disease to the United States, of cattle to California, of the paperbark tree to Florida, and of goats to many oceanic islands. ● Narrow endemism: Some species recur only within very restricted geographic ranges. This group includes many species that have evolved on islands, in mountaintop forests, in isolated lakes or other aquatic zones such as coral reefs, in areas with Mediterranean climates, including California, Western Australia, the Cape of South Africa, Chile, and the Mediterranean Ba- sin countries. Areas with a high proportion of narrow endemic species contribute to global diversity more than other areas with similar numbers of species but less endemism. Thus, biological degradation in such areas reduces diversity more than it would elsewhere. ● Species richness: Some ecosystems have many more species than others. Generaily, species richness is greatest in equatorial regions, and it decreases toward the poles. It is generaliy greater in warmer or wetter places than in colder or drier places. Thus, the hot, wet tropical forests, which cover only 7 percent of the Earth’s land area may have about half of the Earth’s terrestrial plants and animals (30). ● Species interdependence: Interdependence can take a variety of forms. Symbiosis occurs when one or both of two species benefit from association. Mutualism occurs when neither species can survive without the other under natural conditions. Commensalism refers to associations in which one benefits and the other is unaffectad. ● Natural vulnerability: Vulnerability to extinction varies with several factors. Narrow endemics are perhaps most vulnerable. Rare-species maybe less susceptible to catastrophe if widely dispersed, but dispersion may lessen their chances for successful mating. Other species relatively vulnerable to extinction include the following: top-level carnivores, species with poor coloniz- ing ability, those with colonial nesting habits; migratory species, those that depend on unreliable resources, and species with little evolutionary experience with perturbations.

same landscape after most of the wood- greatly reduced the frequency of the peren- lands are converted to grassland and nial grass species. cropland. ● Genetic diversity: Economically useful Species diversity: A rangeland with 100 crops are developed from wild plants by species of annual and perennial grasses selecting valuable inheritable characteris- and shrubs has more diversity than the tics. Thus, the wild ancestral plants con- same land after grazing has eliminated or tain many genes not found in today’s crop 55 . Technologles TO Ma!ntaln Blologlcal D\versity

plants, A global agricultural environment cupied by natural vegetation; rather, it indicated that includes domestic varieties of a crop the areas whose uses remain unchanged. Also, (such as corn) and the crop’s wild ances- the study was unable to consider some impor- tors has more diversity than the same envi- tant ecosystem types, such as riparian and wet- ronment after the wild ancestors are elim- land areas, which are not included in the PNV inated to make space for more domestic categories (26). crops. Wetlands inventories are conducted by the The quality of information used to assess the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, The estimated loss of biological diversity varies greatly for total wetland area in the conterminous States different ecosystems and different parts of the in presettlement times was 87 million hectares. world. In general, both data and theories are This amount was reduced to 44 million by the better developed for temperate than for tropi- mid-1950s and to 40 million by the mid-1970s cal biology; better for birds, mammals, and (figure 3-2), Thus, half the Nation’s wetland area flowering and coniferous plants than for other was lost in about 400 years, and another 5 per- classes of organisms; and better for the few ma- cent was lost in the following two decades. jor crop and livestock species used in modern Drainage for agricultural development has been agriculture than for the many species used in the main cause of wetland ecosystem loss (48). traditional agriculture. Riparian ecosystems are generally too small to be included as PNV types in major analyses. Ecosystem Diversity However, riparian areas contribute dispropor- Natural ecosystem diversity has declined in tionately to biological diversity, especially in the United States historically (26), and no evi- the Western States, where they provide luxuri- dence suggests that this long-term trend has ous habitats compared with the adjacent up- been arrested. By comparing a nationwide eval- lands (9). Further, their maintenance is impor- uation of potential natural vegetation (PNV) tant to biological diversity in the streams and with data on existing land uses from the 1967 lakes they border. Natural riparian (mostly Conservation Needs Inventory, scientists esti- streamside) vegetation in the United States has mate what portion of land in the United States is still occupied by natural vegetation (26). This Figure 3-2.—Changes in Wetlands Since the 1950s study estimates a percent change in area for (percentage of total) each ecosystem type (each PNV) since presettle- Wetlands lost ment times. 14 ”/0 The greatest area reduction was 89 percent \ for the Tule Marsh PNV in California, Nevada, New wetlands 3.4 ”/0 and Utah, mainly due to agricultural develop- \ ment. Twenty-three ecosystem types that once covered about half the conterminous United States now cover only about 7 percent. The agricultural States of Iowa, Illinois, and Indiana have lost the highest proportions of their natural terrestrial ecosystems (92, 89, and 82 percent, respectively), States with the lowest losses were Nevada, Arizona, and New Hampshire (4, 7, and 12 percent, respectively), This assessment does not imply that 96 percent of Nevada is in the same condition that it was 400 years ago, The study SOURCE: Data from Fish and Wlldllfe Service’s National Wetland Trends Study, did not assess degradation of areas still oc- 1982. Ch. 3—Status of Biological Diversity 67 been reduced some 70 to 90 percent during the Where such development failures occur, res- last two centuries (46,54). In the Sacramento toration of more diverse farming systems can Valley of California, for instance, the estimated be difficult, because topsoil, water resources, loss of riparian vegetation areas is 98.5 percent; germplasm, or knowledge of traditional farm- for Arizona, the estimate is 95 percent (45). ing methods have been lost (11,25). The diversity of agricultural ecosystems, or Most countries do not have detailed informa- agroecosy stems, is also being reduced. System tion on changes in ecosystem diversity. The diversity is high in regions where agricultural greatest concern on a global scale is for reduc- land is divided into relatively small holdings tion of natural areas in the tropical regions, and each farm uses a variety of crop and live- where ecosystems are least able to recover from stock species. As indicated in the preceding degradation. Data on deforestation from many chapter, such landscapes support natural ene- tropical countries indicate that the closed- mies of crop pests and are likely to contain canopy tropical forests are being reduced by species and varieties that can resist disease about 11 million hectares each year. (The outbreaks and survive abnormal weather. How- deforestation rates are discussed in some de- ever, on the fertile land of temperate-zone farm- tail in ref. 54.) ing regions, where modern machinery and agri- Few data are available for the developing cultural chemicals are used with crop varieties countries on degradation of biological diver- and where livestock are bred to maximize pro- sity and other resources within the areas that duction, farmers can achieve substantial econ- remain classified as forest. Nor are data avail- omies of scale on large holdings that specialize in relatively few crops or breeds. These less able on changes in area or quality of grasslands, wetlands, open-canopy forests, riparian and diverse agroecosy stems are more productive coastal zones, or aquatic ecosystems. Never- and more profitable than the older systems (36). theless, compelling anecdotal evidence indi- As yet, relatively little scientific effort is being cates widespread degradation of all types of made to determine how biologically diverse ecosystems in developing countries. In Sri farming could be made more profitable. Thus, Lanka, for example, removal of coral reefs for the continuing loss of agroecosy stem diversity production of lime has had several conse- in the United States and throughout the world quences: seems to be a function of both economic development and research priorities (10). the disappearance of lagoons important as Time-series measurements of agroecosy stem nursery areas for fish, diversity are lacking, as is an understanding the collapse of a fishery, of the advantages and disadvantages of diver- reduction of mangrove areas, sity. There is also a delay between the loss of erosion of cultivated coconut land, and diversity and consequent increased or de- salivation of wells and soil within half a creased profits. Therefore, it seems likely that mile of the shore (41). agricultural system uniformity may continue Documents from development assistance to increase beyond its economic optimum. agencies, such as the U.S. Agency for Interna- Then, a period of restoring some diversity may tional Development (AID), the World Bank, the occur. This process may be underway in some areas of the United States, where multiple crop- United Nations Development Programme, and the U.N, Food and Agriculture Organization ping, crop rotations, and restoration of shelter- abound with observations of resource degra- belts are becoming more popular practices (51). dation in developing countries. Evidence of Attempts to increase farm profits by meth- ecosystem degradation is found in the environ- ods that reduce diversity may fail where severe mental profile series that AID has been pre- droughts or soil erosion are common and where paring since 1979, Usually the evidence is a hot temperatures and high rainfall have resulted description of problems caused by resource in soils with little capacity to hold nutrients. degradation rather than a report from careful 68 . Technologies TO Maintain Biological Diversity monitoring of resource changes. At present, Even for conspicuous species that have been reports are available on about 67 developing named, a considerable delay is involved in countries, and nearly all describe ecosystem recording an extinction. For example, the U.S. degradation. In some places the problems are Fish and Wildlife Service conducted a status the longstanding effects of unsustainable re- review in 1985 for the ivory-billed woodpecker, source development; in others, the degradation whose last accepted sighting had been in the has increased dramatically over the last dec- early 1950s, Had extinction been confirmed, ade and is constraining economic development then the lag between extinction and confirma- (see box 3-B). tion of loss could have been 30 years (16). The status of this species remains in doubt, however, because a sighting was reported in 1986 $pecies Diversity (2), Data to document changes in numbers and Indirect methods must be used to estimate distribution of species are scarce. To document changes in species diversity, because complete an extinction, the species must be named and inventories of ecosystems would be too expen- described taxonomically and accurately ob- sive, and because little is known of many spe- served at least once, then the loss must be cies and the genetic attributes of populations. recorded, Most documented extinctions have Methods include: been of large terrestrial birds, mammals, and “ preparing lists of species threatened with conspicuous flowering plants in the temperate extinction and monitoring those species; zone and on tropical islands. ● monitoring populations of relatively well- Modern taxonomic description goes back to known “indicator species” where habitats 1753, but most recognized species were de- are being changed and inferring that other scribed much more recently, and the majority species in the same ecosystem are experi- of species have yet to be described and named. encing similar changes (indicator species For most of the estimated 385,000 living plant are commonly trees, birds, large mammals, species, not much more is known than can be butterflies, or flowering plants); and discerned from one or a few pressed, dried her- ● using mathematical models of species-area barium specimens. Nevertheless, personnel and relationships to project extinction numbers financial support for the taxonomic work done likely to result from various levels of habi- in museums, herbarium, universities, and tat reduction. wildlife agencies around the world are being reduced (8). Lists of Threatened Species Biologists estimate that at least two-thirds of Lists of threatened animal species are pre- all species live in the tropics. For example, a pared by the Species Conservation Monitoring single tree in the Peruvian Amazon rain forest Unit (SC MU) of the International Union for the was found to harbor 43 species of ant belong- Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. ing to 26 genera, That is a species richness about For the United States, endangered animal lists equal to the ant fauna of the entire British Isles are prepared by the Endangered Species Of- (27). But two-thirds of the named species are fice of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service in the temperate zone. This disparity reflects (FWS/ESO). For both the SCMU and the the historical distribution of taxonomists. In the FWS/ESO, the information is better for temper- United States, for example, about 500 plant tax- ate than for tropical species; better for terres- onomists work with 18,000 species—a ratio of trial than for aquatic species; and better for 36 species to 1 taxonomist. Tropical vascular birds and mammals than for reptiles, amphib- plant species number about 190,000; about 1,500 ians, fish, and invertebrates (16). Terms used taxonomists worldwide have expertise in trop- in describing the status of threatened species ical plants, yielding a ratio of 125 to 1 (8). are defined in box 3-C. Ch. 3—Status of Biological Diversity “ 69

.1 Box 30B.-Typicd Exmwpts From llwekp~f ‘%$abt#nce Agency Reports Addressing l!hmironmmtul ; , ~ : ~. Oev@loPm@nt India/Pakistan IJorder Zumds in tk [24] TIM predmninant natural tamatrhd in tie region ~ppears to be a low, open-type of drytropicaithmm fo~ interspersed Due to thelong and pervading influence of man arid grazing stock, the present is ,Sently} ‘ta highly degraded form of low and S~HW xerophytic scrub. . ,. The Indus delta ia a cAtical area and productivity. Mangrove zone creeks and mudflats hold crustaeeans,ara populations, and are a fisheries center of locaI and international sigti-ficam%. b subject to reduced freshwater input, increased salinity, overfisbin~, and en ~ Honduras (49) . . . Deforestation by shifting @is dmmatic and well publicized. The human tragedy is even more serious% fwnilies living on degraded lmds in tie chol~t~a Vldky %$@dw&N!. The forest cover has been peeled back leaving a qmw pat

Mechanized farming adversely affaatttwl the cmvirc&&mt through encouraging soil erosion and dwmtification, especially ,,in areas & itwdm$,ia~ The P1’e$811t million hectares ofenvironnmtal —. .2%-’..,.. ? Y!* ;,~.~ ~ . .-

The SCMU data are gathered from an inter- 3-I summarizes some of the data on threatened national network of correspondents identified animals. from research papers. For example, the person compiling data on mammals has about 5,000 Since the mid-1970s, numerous lists of threat- informants and contacts worldwide (16), The ened plant species have been prepared. Because lists, organized by classes of animals in geo- these are so new and most tropical regions do graphic regions (e.g., New World mammals), not have such lists, the data cannot yet indi- are revised on roughly a lo-year cycle, Table cate rates of extinction. For the temperate zone, 70 ● Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity

Box 3-C.-Definitions of Threatened Status Two sets of definitions are used to classify the status of threatened species. Definitions based on the Endangered Species Act of 1973 are used in the United States. All other countries’ lists of endangered species follow the definitions promulgated by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN). The two sets of definitions are technically not compatible mainly because of differences in the concept of extinction and the IUCN inclusion of taxa rather than species. Three technical definitions are used for classification of status in the United States: 1. An endangered species is in danger of extinction throughout all or a significant portion of its range. 2. A threatened species is likely to become an endangered species within the foreseeable future throughout all or a significant portion of its range. 3. Critical habitats are areas essential for the conservation of endangered or threatened species. The term may be used to designate portions of habitat areas, entire areas, or even areas outside the current range of the species. The IUCN categories include five definitions: 1. Extinct taxa are species, or other taxa such as distinct subspecies, that are no longer known to exist in the wild after repeated search of their type localities and other locations where they were known or were likely to have occurred. 2. Endangered taxa are in danger of extinction and their survival is unlikely if the factors causing their vulnerability or decline continue operating. 3. Vulnerable taxa are declining and will become endangered if no action is taken to intervene. 4. Rare taxa are so rare that they could be eliminated easily but are under no immediate threat at present and have populations that are more or less stable. 5. Intermediate taxa belong in one of the above categories, but information is not sufficient to determine exactly which one (47). SOURCES: M.L Been. The Evolution of NationaJ Wiklfife Law [New York: Prawer Publishers, 19S3): H. %mze, “Status and Trends of Wild Pl&t Species,” OTA commissioned paper, 1WH5. -

however, the numbers of threatened species do row endemism of many species in the Medi- give some indication of the scope of the terranean countries. Data from the Soviet problem. Union emphasize horticultural plants and are Nearly all industrial countries now have lists less complete than for Europe. For temperate- zone Southern Hemisphere countries, the lists of threatened plant species. In Europe, all but five countries have such lists, and four of those are also dominated by narrow endemic plants from the Mediterranean climate regions (47). five will have them soon (47), In the United States, many lists and reports cover both the Nation and individual States. Table 3-2 sum- Oceanic islands, because of geographic isolation during the millennia of evolution, typi- marizes some information from the endangered cally have a very high proportion of endemic plant species lists. species. These areas are particularly vulnerable, In North America, about 10 percent of the because they are not adapted to animals and plant species are listed as rare or threatened. aggressive weeds that may be introduced by Many are plants endemic to small areas in Cali- humans, Lists of threatened plants have been fornia. A higher proportion of species are listed prepared for many such islands, Table 3-3 in- in Europe because of extensive threats to vege- dicates how severe the threats are for islands tation in the northern countries and the nar- with 50 to 1,000 endemic species.

Ch. 3—Status of Biological Diversity ● 71

For 50 years, the trend in striped bass commercial harvest was upward, from around 2 million pounds landed in 1924 to 14.7 million pounds in 1973. Then, the trend reversed. B}T 1983, the catch had plummeted by 90 percent to 1.7 million pounds. The decline was believed to be due to a combination of overfishing and chemical contamination of the species’ hahi- tat (18]. Thus, a reduction in populations of other species could be inferred from the striped bass trend. Inference from this indicator species was confirmed in 1982 when a 7-year Environmental protection Agency study indicated the extent of the decline in the bay. Subaquatic vegetation had declined 84 percent since 1971. Areas suffering from lack of dissolved oxygen had increased fifteenfold since 1950, and in Baltimore Harbor at least 450 organic compounds, mostly toxins, were identified. Corresponding dramatic George Laboratory declines were documented in native animal spe- The ivory-billed woodpecker is presumed extinct in the cies of the bay, including oysters, shad, and yel- United States (last sighting occurred in 1971) low perch (53). and was thought to be extinct worldwide until the discovery of at least two specimens in the The spotted owl is an indicator species for spring of 1986 i n eastern Cuba. diversity in old-growth forests of the Pacific Northwest. The owl feeds primarily on flying squirrels and other rodents of old-growth hab- Among tropical countries, Brazil has a list- itat. Its decline in a region is considered a sig- ing project under way. Lists covering parts of India have been prepared and indicate about 900 threatened plant species. The Malayan Na- ture Society is preparing a database on threat- W ened plants for the Malaysian peninsula. List- * -. ing projects are also complete or under way in .— some nontropical developing countries, such - . . “ , as Chile, Pakistan, and Nepal (47).

Monitoring Indicator Species and Habitats Inferring trends in biological diversity from changes in the status of indicator species is a method that relies on time-series data assembled for management of economically significant species or species of special esthetic interest. For example, striped bass (known locally as rockfish) has been a highly valued species credit Chesapeake Bay f/on since precolonial times on the east coast of the United States, and commercial harvest data once abundant the Chesapeake, have been exploited and are now endangered in many areas of the have been tabulated for areas like the Chesa- estuary. The in population of this highly valued peake Bay since 1924, species has been attributed to overfishing and pollution. 72 ● Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity

. ..0 -K .rm & cum

Cclh Coco.mf= l-- mim”m-

. .

C9mcomm V3* m l-n

al — Ch. 3—Status of Biological Diversity ● 73

Table 3-2.—Summary of Data From Endangered Plant Species Lists

Rare and Country/region Species threatened species Extinct taxa Endangered taxa Australia ...... 25,000 1,716 117 215 Europe a ...... 11,300 1,927 20 117 New Zealand ...... 2,000 186 4 42 South Africa ...... 23,000 2,122 39 107 U.S.S.R...... 21,100 653 =20 =160 United Statesb ...... 20,000 2,050 90 7 aExclydes European U.SSR , Azores, Canary islands, and Madeira b Excludes Hawall, Alaska and puerto RICO SOURCE S Davis et al Plants in Danger What Do We Know~(forthcomlng) as clted in H Synge, “Status and Trends of Wild Plants “ OTA commissioned paper 1985

Table 3-3.— Data on Threatened Plant Species systems are exceedingly species-rich, contain of Selected Oceanic islands areas of narrow endemism, and are undergoing extensive and rapid conversion to other Number of endemic Number listed as Island speciesa rare or threatened uses, Because they typically have erosion-prone Azores ... . 55 30 (55”/0) soils incapable of holding many plant nutrients Canary Islands ... 569 383 (670/o) and occur where rain and heat are especially Galapagos . . . 229 150 (66”/0) intense, these forest ecosystems are highly sus- Juan Fernandez ... 118 95 (81 0/0) Lord Howe Island . . 75 73 (97”/0) ceptible to degradation. In fact, the undevel- Madeira ...... 131 86 (66”/0) oped forests are so diverse, and the deforested, Mauritius ., ... . 280 172 (61 0/0) degraded landscapes to which they are often Seychelles . . 90 73 (81 0/, ) Socotra...... 215 132 (61 0/0) converted support so few species, that the aEndemlc means the species occurs only On the Island models used to estimate extinction rates gen- SOURCE S Davis, et al P/ants In Danger What Do We KrIow7 (forthcoming), erally treat the diversity of deforested land- as cited In H Synge ‘Status and Trends of Wtld Plant s,” OTA com m!ssloned paper, 1985 scapes in the moist tropics as negligible (43). A recent projection of bird and flowering- nal that its prey and other species associated plant extinctions that could be caused by con- with the habitat are also in decline (3). tinued deforestation in tropical America is based on a mathematical model of the species- Diversity losses due to pollution may be in- area relationship (see box 3-A). About 92,000 dicated by animals’ food chains, such as the flowering plant species have been described for bald eagle and other fish-eating birds. Plants regions where the forested area for recent susceptible to air pollution, such as lichens, may human-caused deforestation was about 6.9 mil- also be useful indicators. Extensive records of lion square kilometers (43). Over the next 15 observations on smaller animals of long-stand- to 20 years, the forested area will be reduced ing interest to professional and amateur biolo- to about 3,6 million square kilometers if the rate gists can also gauge diversity change, The of deforestation remains at the level of the decline of Bay Checkerspot butterflies, for ex- 1970s. The mathematical relationship between ample, is taken as an indication of decline of area and species numbers, derived by analysis many associated organisms in the San Fran- of some 100 empirical data sets (5), indicates cisco Peninsula area (13). that this reduced forest could be expected to support about 79,000 species. Thus, a 15-per- Models of Species-Area Relationships cent reduction in numbers of species is pro- The scale of diversity reduction can be esti- jected for the near future. mated for most tropical countries only by in- Deforestation is expected to continue for ferences from the reduction of habitat. Nearly more than 20 years, however, and it seems likely all attempts to estimate global extinction rates that it will accelerate as the rapidly growing focus on the tropical moist forests, These eco- human populations of tropical American coun-

74 ● Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity

tionship as used for plants, a 60-percent reduction of the original forest area over the next 15 to 20 years could be expected to cause eventual extinctions of 86 bird species. The worst- case calculation, with reduction of the Ama- zon forest to the area of already established national parks, projected that 487 types of birds, or about 70 percent of the species, could become extinct (43). Several assumptions tend to underestimate extinction rates. For example, extinctions resulting from reduced provinciality are ignored in the calculations, as are effects of the narrow endemism that occurs in several parts of tropical American forests. On the other hand, the assumption that none of the plant and bird species will find habitats they need after deforestation seems an exaggeration. Such projections may be helpful in stimulating institutional responses to prevent the worst cases from occurring. Many nations’ governments have begun to take steps in the past decade to protect endangered habitats. The worst-case calculations are thus not predictions, but indications of the direction and scale of the projected trend.

Distracting Numbers Game Projections of alarming losses in species diversity have attracted attention to this issue, But discrepancies among the estimated extinc-

U S and Service tion rates have called into question the credi- bility of all such estimates. In one sense, the Northern spotted owl requires large tracts of Pacific Northwest old-growth forest as habitat. If harvesting numbers themselves have become an issue, con- of old-growth continues at current rate, the habitat for fusing policy makers and the general public and this species could disappear within the next possibly detracting from efforts to deal with the two decades. causes and consequences of diversity loss (28), This numbers game also has defined the problem of loss mainly in terms of species extinc- tries need more rapid resource development. tion, which may be the most dramatic aspect A “worst-case” calculation indicates that if the of the diversity question, but it is only part of forests were reduced until they covered only the problem. Further, global and national data National Parks and their equivalents that had and projections may mask the localized nature been established by 1979 (about 97,000 square of resource degradation, diversity loss, and the kilometers), then the final effect could be as high consequences of both. Large inaccessible areas as a 66-percent reduction (43). of forest, for example, may make the global About 704 species of land birds have been deforestation rate seem moderate, but destruc- described in the Amazon region of tropical tion of especially diverse forests in local areas America. Using the same mathematical rela- of Australia, Bangladesh, India, the Philippines, Ch. 3—Status of Biological Diversity ● 75 —

Brazil, Colombia, Madagascar, Tanzania, and greatest for those species in which artificial in- West Africa proceeds at catastrophic rates (32). semination is widely used, and it is particularly a problem with cattle, for which over 270 dis- Genetic Diversity tinct breeds exist. For farmers with only a few cows, artificial insemination is cheaper than Ideally, concern about loss of biological diver- keeping a bull. But developing countries lack sity should be focused on genetically distinct facilities to collect and freeze semen from lo- populations, rather than on species (13,16,34). cally adapted breeds, so semen is usually im- But with so little information available about ported from commercial studs in industrial the majority of wild species, this seems im- countries. Threatened breeds include the cri- practical. O11O of Latin America and the Sahiwal and several others from Africa (see table 3-4) (15). For agricultural species, on the other hand, the concern is mainly about genetic diversity. Llama and alpaca—as well as vicuna and The species do not seem to be in danger of ex- guanaco, their wild relatives—are South Amer- tinction, but the variety of genes in many crops ican species used for meat, as beasts of bur- and livestock breeds is being reduced (39). den, and for their hair and pelts. Numbers of Many distinct types are being eliminated as im- all four species have declined sharply since the proved breeds and varieties that are genetically Spanish conquest of the Incan empire, and loss similar are gaining more widespread use. Iron- of genetic diversity has almost surely occurred, ically, success in exploiting genetic resources though it is unmeasured (15). for agriculture threatens the genetic diversity on which future achievements depend. Poultry and swine breeds are also moving toward genetic homogeneity, because con- With livestock, the principal diversity loss in- trolled breeding has been rapid and intensive volves developing-countries’ breeds being to produce varieties suitable for modern com- replaced by imported ones, The threat seems mercial production. Poultry breeding has been

Table 3-4.—Endangered African Cattle Breeds — Breed Location Purpose Reasons for decline in number Advantages Mutura ., ., Nlgerla ‘- Meat, draft Civil war, crossbreeding, lack of Trypanotolerant ,a hardy, good draft interest by farmers as tractors animal, low mortality become available Lagune ... . Benin, Meat Crossbreeding, lack of interest by Trypanotolerant, adapted to humid Ivory Coast farmers because of small mature environment size (125 kg) and low milk yields Brunede I’Atlas, Morocco, Meat Crossbreeding to imported breeds Adapted to arid zones Algeria, Tunisia Mpwapwa ., .Tanzania Milk Lack of sustained effort to develop Adapted, dual-purpose and maintain new breed Baria, ., . . . . Madagascar Milk, meat Crossbreeding Adapted, dual-purpose Creole . . . Mauritius Milk, meat, Crossbreeding Adapted, multiple-purpose draft Kuri ., . ., Chad Milk, meat Political instability, numbers High milk production, ability to float reduced by rinderpest and and swim in Lake Chad, tolerant drought of heat and humidity Kenana. ., . Sudan Milk Crossbreeding (artificial High milk potential; adapted to hot, insemination) to imported dairy dry environment breeds, loss of major habitat to development scheme Butana . Sudan Milk Crossbreeding High milk potential; adapted to hot, — semiarid environment aAblllty to survive Trypanosome In feet Ion (spread by tsetse fly), which normally causes African slee Ping sickness In cattle SOURCE Adapled from K O Adenlj[ Prospects and Plans for Data Banks on Animal Genetic Resources, An/ma/ Genetfc Resources Conservation (Rome Food and Agriculture Orgamzatlon, 1984) as cited In H Fltzhugh et al “Status and Trends of Domesticated Antmals, ” OTA commissioned paper, 1985

dominated by a few companies (probably fewer tinue to use many species. But modern agri- than 20 worldwide) (15). These firms typically culture produces most human sustenance, retain a number of breeds from which to make plant-derived fibers, and industrial materials selections and crosses, but they do not find it from only a few species, Three-quarters of hu- cost-effective to retain stocks that might prove man nutrition is provided by just seven species: useful more than 10 years in the future (7). Mean- wheat, rice, maize, potato, barley, sweet potato, while, breeds adapted to traditional farm con- and cassava (31). Within the United States, the ditions are becoming rare in industrial coun- top 30 crops account for $57.7 billion in farm tries, because fewer farmers want them and the sales and imports annually, which is 60 per- number of small hatcheries producing them has cent of the combined value of all U.S. agricul- declined sharply. Poultry breeds from indus- tural plant resources (see table 3-5) (39). trial countries are being exported to urban mar- Within these 30 crops, modern varieties have kets in many developing countries, but no evi- replaced traditional ones, reducing diversity dence exists that these have affected the genetic between and within agricultural sites and ge- diversity of poultry in rural areas of develop- netic populations. The narrow ing countries. species and genetic base of modern agriculture generates two Hundreds of plant species have been domes- distinct concerns: 1) the extinction of genes, ticated, and traditional farming systems con- which reduces opportunities to produce new Ch. 3—Status of Biological Diversity ● 77

Table 3-5.—Crops Grown or reported by the varieties better suited for production at particu- United States With a Combined Annual Value of lar sites; and 2) the increased uniformity of $100 Million or More (average 1976 to 1980) crops, which makes them more vulnerable to Average annual value ‘- pests and pathogens. Of these two, extinction (U.S. $ millions) Crop of genes is the greater problem. For annual 11,278 Soybean crops, uniform genetic vulnerability can be 10,412 Corn quickly corrected as long as a high degree of 6,475 Wheat 4,233 Cotton genetic diversity is maintained for the crop 3,925 Coffee somewhere. Gene extinction, however, cannot 2,851 Tobacco be reversed. 1,723 Sugarcane 1,525 Grape 1,206 Potato Published information on status and trends 1,163 Rice of crop diversity usually consists of impressions 1,150 Sweet orange by plant breeders and others on the loss of cul- 1,147 Sorghum 1,054 Alfalfa tivated varieties or threats to wild relatives of 1,051 Tomato crops, such as: “it may not be long before land- 1,016 Cacao races are irretrievably lost” or “many locally Apple 815 adapted varieties have been replaced by mod- 760 Beet crops 747 Peanut ern varieties” (39). Such reports have been col- 706 Rubber lected and evaluated by the International Board 672 Barley 527 Lettuce on Plant Genetic Resources (IBPGR). IBPGR’s 517 Common bean information has stimulated conservation action 393 Sunflower and has helped to determine general collect- 368 Banana ing priorities for protection of genetic re- 365 Cole crops 355 Almond sources. 349 Peach 314 Coconut Plant breeders and germplasm collectors gen- 304 Oats erally concur that crop genes have been lost 287 Onion 252 Strawberry and that losses are still occurring rapidly and 219 Grapefruit widely in many crops (39), in spite of progress 198 Chrysanthemum with collection and offsite maintenance pro- 192 Cucumber 189 Melon grams (see ch. 6). Three problem areas include: 186 Pineapple 179 Roses 1, crops that have low priority for IBPGR but 167 Celery are of major economic importance to the 164 Walnut United States (e.g., grape, alfalfa, lettuce, 158 Peppers/c hilis 156 Jute sunflower, oats, and tobacco); 155 Plum/prune 2. crops that despite being a high interna- 148 Sweet cherrylsour cherry tional priority still lack adequate provision 146 Pear 144 Olive for long-term conservation (including those 143 Oil palm maintained as living collections rather than 142 Carrot as seeds, such as cacao, rubber, coconut, 142 Pea 136 Lemon coffee, sugarcane, citrus, banana); and 130 Bermudagrass 3. wild relatives of major crops, which, ex- 128 Tea cept for sugarcane and tomato, are repre- 116 Watermelon 116 Cashew sented in collections by extremely small 110 Sweet potato samples. 102 Pecan 100 Azalea/rhododendron Detailed assessments of the status and trends SOURCE C Prescott-Allen and A Prescott-Allen, The Ffrsf Resources W//d Spe- of genetic diversity are lacking, even for crops c~es IrI the North Arner/can Economy (New Haven, CT, and London Yale Unlverslty Press, 1986) whose collection is well advanced, such as rice, 78 ● Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity -—

maize, potato, tomato, and bean. Such assess- pools for these species are being gradually ments are needed to understand the dynamics altered (19). of crop genetic change and its relationship to The genetic resources of commercial trees social and economic change (39). and other economic plants and animals in de- The status of diversity conservation for eco- veloping countries are being eroded by conver- nomically important timber trees lies between sion of forest areas to agriculture or grazing that of wild plants gathered for economic use use. An international panel recently identified and that of agricultural plants. Some commer- some 300 tree species or important tree popu- cial tree species are protected by parks and lations (presumably with unique genetic char- other protected natural areas, and the diver- acteristics) that are endangered (17), Thus, in sity of some is at least partially captured in the United States and developing countries offsite seed collections. In many extensively where U.S. agencies provide assistance, pro- managed forests, commercial tree species re- tection of natural gene pools of commercial generate naturally after logging, fire, or other trees and other nondomesticated economic spe- disturbances, and local genetic diversity is cies could become an objective in development maintained. However, replanting with stock planning (see ch. 11). At present, economic spe- propagated from selected parents and from cies not used in agriculture or horticulture are tree-breeding programs is a common practice poorly represented in genetic conservation with some trees, such as Douglas fir, and gene programs.

CAUSES OF DIVERSITY LOSS

Forces that contribute to the worldwide loss start a self-reinforcing cycle of degradation, For of biological diversity are varied and complex, example, soil erosion reduces soil fertility, and stem from both direct and indirect pres- which in turn can reduce growth of plants for sures. Historically, concern has focused on the cover, leading to more soil erosion and to rapid commercial exploitation of specific threatened depletion of diversity as the site becomes suit- or endangered species. But now attention is also able, for fewer and fewer species (51). Other being focused on indirect threats more sweep- causes of site degradation include grazing pres- ing in scope (30). sures, unnatural frequency or severity of fires, and excessive populations of herbivores (such Development and Degradation as rabbits) where predators are eliminated. Arid and semiarid sites are especially susceptible to Economic development usually entails mak- degradation from such pressures. Species may ing sites more favorable for a manageable num- be reduced by one-half to two-thirds without ber of economic activities. Consequently, the outright conversion of the land use (33). changed landscape has fewer habitats and sup- Modernization of farming systems is also a ports fewer species. Habitats may be affected cause of diversity loss. Such systems often in- by offsite development too—by pollution, for clude many species of crops and livestock; example, or changed hydrology. Some devel- genetic diversity is typically high, because cul- opment, such as logging in a mosaic pattern tivars and breeds adapted to the vagaries of site- through a large forested area, mimics natural processes and may result in a temporary in- specific conditions are used. To achieve productivity gains, however, traditional systems crease in diversity. are being replaced with modern methods. Cap- But poorly planned or badly implemented de- ital inputs, such as manufactured fertilizers and velopment, such as agricultural expansion with- feeds, are used to compensate for site-specific out investment in soil conservation, can se- differences, Thus, it is possible to replace tradi- verely disrupt biological productivity, and it can tional crops and livestock with fewer varieties

Ch. 3—Status of Biological Diversity 79

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Photo credff U N Phofo 152 843’/( Muldoon

Overgrazing In Burkina Faso—one major cause of diversity loss. bred to give high yields under more artificial trol a disease. Examples include traditional conditions. grain varieties that were replaced with modern ones in Africa when seed was eaten dur- The loss of traditional agroecosystems is not ing the recent famine, and local swine popula- restricted to developing countries. Native tions that were exterminated in Haiti and the American farming systems that interplant corn Dominican Republic to control a disease and with squash, numerous types of beans, sun- then replaced with modern breeds (15). flowers, and many semidomesticated species are reduced to isolated areas now and continue to be abandoned. These systems and crop va- Exploitation of Species rieties have been described in anthropological literature, but they are lost before being As noted earlier, concern with loss of biologi- scrutinized by agricultural scientists. cal diversity historically focused on extinctions or population losses that resulted from exces- Agricultural development may cause abrupt sive hunting and gathering. whales, cheetahs, disappearance of traditional varieties, as with passenger pigeons, bison, the North Atlantic the replacement of traditional wheat in the Pun- herring, the dodo, and various orchids are all jab region of India, or it may be gradual, as with examples of organisms hunted or gathered in fruit and vegetable varieties in the united States excess (30). and livestock breeds in Europe, Locally adapted varieties may become extinct in a single year Today the direct threat to wildlife remains. if germplasm for a traditional variety is lost be- Numerous monkeys and apes are endangered cause of a catastrophe or is destroyed to con- by overhunting, mainly to supply the demand

80 . Technologies TO Maintain Biological Diversity

from 71,000 to only about 13,500 today. The most spectacular decline has been that of the black rhino–from 65,000 to 7,000 in the past 15 years. Whole populations of black rhino have been almost totally eliminated over the past 10 years in Mozambique, Chad, Central African Republic, Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia, and An- gola. In the past 2 years, Mozambique has lost the white rhinoceros for the second time in this century—a dubious achievement indeed (29), The main reason for this catastrophic decline since 1975 is due to the illegal killing of the animal, mostly for its horn. In the early 1980s about one-half of the horn put onto the world market went to North Yemen where it is used for the making of attractive dagger handles, while the remaining half went to eastern Asia where it is used mostly to lower fever, not—as often supposed—as an aphrodisiac (6). Plant species are also subject to overharvest. A cycad plant species was reported eliminated in Mexico during just one year when 1,200 specimens were exported to the United States (55).

Vulnerability of Isolated Species

If the range of species is restricted to a rela- credit: D. tively small area, such as an island or a moun- The green turtle is an example of a species threatened taintop forest, a single development project or by direct factors, such as exploitation of adults and the introduction of competing or exotic species eggs, and by indirect factors, including nesting beach destruction, ocean pollution, and incidental catch in can lead to loss of diversity. Many recorded ex- shrimp trawls. tinctions have been animals and plants from oceanic islands (see table 3-6) (52). Some of these from medical research institutions. Some 108 areas, such as Haiti, are infamous for deforesta- primate species are hunted for an international tion and rapid rates of soil erosion. It may be trade worth about $4 million annually (30). For inferred that diversity loss has been and prob- many, perhaps most of these, the capturing ably continues to be especially severe on such process is very destructive. Apes such as the islands. gibbon are captured by shooting mother animals from the treetops and taking any infants that survive the fall. Many of the infants die Complex Causes while passing through the market system. Thus, Most losses of diversity are unintended con- the 30,000 primates sold in 1982 (30) actually sequences of human activity, and the species compose a much higher number killed to sup- and population affected are usually not even port the trade. recognized (30). Air and water pollution, for The rhinoceros has declined more rapidly example, can cause diversity loss far from the over the past 15 years than any other large mam- pollution’s source, Substantial gains in reduc- mal. From 1970 to 1985 there was an almost ing these pressures have been achieved in in- 80-percent decrease in the numbers of rhinos, dustrial countries, particularly in the United Ch. 3—Status of Biological Diversity . 81

a Table 3.6.—Oceanic Islands Climate change is apparently being caused With More Than 50 Endemic Plant Species by increased carbon dioxide and atmospheric .— Percentage dust, which result from fossil-fuel burning and Island Endemics endemism from the release of carbon stored in vegetation Madagascar ...... =9,000 when extensive areas are converted from for- Cuba ...... 2,700 46 est to cropland or sparsely vegetated grassland. New Caledonia ...... 2,474 76 Hispaniola b . ..., . . . 1,800 36 The expected consequences include significant New Zealand ..., ...... 1,618 81 changes in temperature and rainfall patterns, Sti Lanka...... =900 C Temperature rises seem likely to occur rapidly, Taiwan...... =900 Hawaii . . ..., ..., ..., . 883 91 at least in evolutionary terms, so diversity will Jamaica. . ..., ..., ..., . 735 23 probably incur a net loss during the next cen- Figi ...... =700 tury (38). Canary Islands .,.....,.. 383 Puerto Rico . . . . . 332 12 C In both industrial and developing countries, Caroline Islands. ,...,.. ., 293 Trinidad and Tobago, ...,, 215 diversity is lost as land is converted from for- Galapagos. . ..., ...... 175 25 est, grasslands, and savanna to cropland or pas- Mauritius...... , ..., ..., 172 C ture. If the land being converted will support Ogasawara-Gunto ..., 151 Reunion. ..., ..., ..., . =150 permanent agriculture with relatively high Vanuatu...... , . . . =150 yields, the effect on diversity is contained, Mod- Tubuai ..., ..., ..., ..., . . S140 erate areas of such land can support substan- Comoro Islands ..., ..., 136 Socotra ..., ..., ..., . 132 tial populations. But much of the newly cleared Bahamas, ...... 121 land is marginal or totally unsuitable for the Sao Tome ...... 108 cultivation or grazing practices being applied. Marquesas Islands ...... 103 Samoa ...... >100 As a result, extensive areas must be cleared, Juan Fernandez ..., ..., 95 especially where the land is so poor that it de- Cape Verde...... 92 grades to wasteland and is abandoned after a Madeira. . ..., ..., ..., . 86 Mariana Islands ..., . . 81C few years, which is typical in the moist tropi- Lord How Island . . ..., ,. 73 cal forest regions and in semiarid areas of both Seychelles ...... 73 — the temperate and tropical zones (30). aExcludes Australia, New Zealand, Borneo, New Gutnea, and Aldabra bHlspanlola comprises the natlonsof Haltl and the Domtnlcan Republlc comlts monocoyledons The underlying causes of inappropriate land

SOURCE AdaptedfromA H Gentry, ‘Endemism tnTroptcal Versus Temperate clearing are many and exceedingly complex. Plant Communltles;’ Conservation f3/o/ogy, M. Soule(ed )(Sunderland, Population growth, poverty, inappropriate agri- MA Slnauer Associates, lnc 1988), andH Synge, ’’Status and Trends of Wdd Plants’ OTA commissioned pape~ 1985 cultural technologies, and lack of alternative employment opportunities are all problems far too complex for biologists and conservationists States, since passage of the National Environ- alone to resolve. mental Policy Act, Population growth in itself may not seem in- Yet pollution remains a major threat to bio- trinsically threatening to biological diversity. Iogical diversity, because abatement is often ex- In some industrial countries, such as the United pensive and is sometimes a very complex or- States and Japan, disruption of ecosystems has ganizational task, especially when it depends been mitigated by urbanization, establishment on international cooperation. Acid rain is an of parks, and land use regulation (30). But the example. In Scandinavia, several fish species connections between affluent populations and have declined in numbers because of acidifi- their impacts on biological diversity are ob- cation of lakes; in eastern Canada, a trout spe- scured by the complexity of commerce. The Jap- cies has been placed in the severely threatened anese, for example, carefully protect the diver- category (37), International pollution by acid sity of their own remaining forests, but they rain has recently been reported to extend far use large quantities of timber from forests in from industrial regions into Zambia, Malaysia, other countries where controls are lax. Much and Venezuela, for example. has been written about the “hamburger con- 82 Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity

Figure 3-3.— Past and Projected World Population nection” by which U.S. and European beef consumers are said to be causing loss of diversity 10 in tropical countries where forests are converted to pasture. The very difficult task of iden- 9 tifying, measuring, and mitigating such nega- 8 tive economic-ecologic links between nations is increasingly important as the world economy becomes more and more international (30). 7 The causal link between human population 6 size and diversity loss is clearer in developing countries where population growth in rural 5 areas continues to be rapid, and land-use regu- Ri lations do not exist or are poorly enforced. Be- 5 n 4 tween 1980 and 2000, rural populations are expected to increase by 500 million in the 3 developing world (57) (figure 3-3). where these people continue to rely on extensive agricul- 2 ture, resource degradation and diversity loss can be expected to accelerate. The harmful im- . 1 pacts of population growth are also likely to be exacerbated by development programs that * I encourage large resettlements of landless peo- E AD ; 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2100 ple into deserts or tropical lowlands without Year providing the means to sustain agricultural If the current growth in population continues, by the year 2000 productivity in such difficult sites (42). more than 6 billion people will inhabit the world. With this growth, irreversible environmental degradation and loss of biological diversity can be expected. SOURCE World Resources Institute and InternationalInstitute for Environment and Development, World Resources 1986 (New York: Basic Books, 1986)

CONCLUSION Circumstantial Evidence The circumstantial case is based on the knowledge that each wild species and popula- Biological diversity is abundant for the world tion depends on the habitat to which it is as a whole. More than 10 million species may adapted. Diverse natural habitats are being con- exist, but after more than 2oo years of study, verted to less diverse and degraded landscapes. scientists have only named and described some On those sites, diversity has been reduced. The 1.7 million. Many of these species contain nu- sites that remain in a natural or nearly natural merous genetically distinct populations, each condition are often fragmented patches that will with a different potential for survival and utility. not support the diversity of larger areas. The abundance and complexity of ecosys- For domesticated agricultural plants and ani- tems, species, and genetic types have defied reals, the concern is genetic diversity, which complete inventory or direct assessment of must be maintained by active husbandry. Farm- changes. But from events and circumstances ing systems with high genetic diversity are be- that can be measured, it can be inferred that ing replaced by new systems with much lower the rate of diversity loss is now far greater than diversity, so husbandry of many genetic types the rate at which diversity is created. is abandoned. Thus, gene combinations that re- Ch. 3—Status of Biological Diversity ● 83 —

produce particular characteristics and took dec- pollution, and other programs that sustain bio- ades to develop may be lost in a single year. logical diversity. Opportunities to improve the The rapid rate and large scale of agricultural use of these data are discussed in chapter 5. modernization imply that genetic diversity losses are great, though quantitative estimates The situation is quite different in developing have not been made. countries. Circumstantial evidence of diversity loss is compelling, and many countries have designated parks and natural areas in recent Data for Decisionmaking years. But the available data are not adequate In recent decades, inventories and monitor- to support policy decisions to allocate enough ing of ecosystems, species, and genetic types funds and other resources to maintain diver- have improved, and the knowledge of what ex- sity. Both money and trained personnel are ists has greatly enhanced abilities to maintain needed to develop the necessary information. diversity. Biologists, resource managers, and Public and private funds that might be used conservationists concur that information avail- for conservation are extremely scarce. There- able now is adequate in virtually every coun- fore, a great need exists for good data and com- try to guide programs to maintain diversity. prehensive planning, so that whatever funds The circumstantial case for diversity loss in can be allocated will be used effectively. Orga- the United States and other industrial countries nizations such as The Nature Conservancy and is bolstered by abundant site-specific data as the IUCN are working to develop the data and well as by regional survey data on ecosystems local planning expertise needed to adequately and species. This information has moved pub- assess the status of biological diversity and lic and private organizations to allocate sub- prospects for its conservation. More concerted stantial resources to the establishment and man- support from public institutions is needed, how- agement of nature reserves, abatement of ever, both in the United States and abroad.

CHAPTER 3 REFERENCES

1. Adeniji, K. O., “Prospects and Plans for Data tribution of Wild Plants, ” OTA commissioned Banks on Animal Genetic Resources, ” Animal paper, 1985. Genetic Resources Conservation by 44/1 (Rome: 9, Crumpacker, D, W., “Status and Trends of Nat- Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United ural Ecosystems in the United States, ” OTA Nations, 1984). In: Fitzhugh, et al., 1985. commissioned paper, 1985. 2. Anonymous, “Ivory-billed Woodpecker Found, ” 10 Dahlberg, K.A. (cd.), New Directions for Agri- Bioscience 36(10):703, 1986. culture and Agricultural Research: Neglected 3. Barton, K., “Wildlife on Bureau of Land Man- Dimensions and Emerging Alternatit’es (Totowa, agement Lands, ” Audubon Wildlife Report, NJ: Rowman & Allanheld, 1986]. 1985 (New York: National Audubon Society, 11 Dasmann, R. F., Milton, J. P., and Freeman, P. H., 1985). Ecological Principles for Economic Develop- 4, Bean, M. J., The Evolution of National Wildlife ment (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1973). Law (New York: Praeger Publishers, 1983). 12. Davis, S., et al., Plants in Danger: What Do We 5, Connor, E. F., and McCoy, E. D., “The Statistics Know? (Gland, Switzerland: International and Biology of the Species-Area Relationship, ” Union for the Conservation of Nature and Nat- American Naturalist 113:791-883, 1979. ural Resources, forthcoming). In: Synge, 1985. 6. Crawford, M., “Rhinos Pushed to the Brink for 13. Ehrlich, P., and Ehrlich, A., Extinction (New Trinkets and Medicines,” Science 234:147, Oct. York: Ballantine, 1981). 10, 1986. 14, Erwin, T, L,, “Tropical Forest Canopies: The 7. Crawford, R. D., “Assessment of Poultry Genetic Last Biotic Frontier, ” Bulletin of the Entomo- Resources,” Canadian Journal of Animal Sci- logical Society of America 29(1):14-19, 1983. In; ence 64:235-251, 1984. In: Fitzhugh, et al., 1986. Myers, 1985. 8. Crosbv. M, R.. and Raven, P., “Diversitv and Dis- 15. Fitzhugh, H. A., Getz, W., and Baker, F. H., “Bio- g4 ● Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity

logical Diversity: Status and Trends for Agri- committee on Natural Resources, Agriculture cultural Domesticated Animals, ” OTA commis- Research, and Environment, Sept. 25, 1980. sioned paper, 1985. 30. Myers, N., “Causes of Loss of Biological Diver- 16. Flesness, N., “Status and Trends of Wild Ani- sity,” OTA commissioned paper, 1985. mal Diversity, ” OTA commissioned paper, 31. Myers, N. (cd.), GAIA: An Atlas for Planet Man- 1985. agement (Garden City, NJ: Doubleday & Co., 17. Food and Agriculture Organization of the 1984). United Nations, Report of the Fifth Session of 32. Myers, N., Conversion of Tropical Moist Forests the FAO Panel of Experts on Forest Gene Re- (Washington, DC: National Academy of Sci- sources (Rome: 1984). ences, 1980). 18, Fosburgh, W., “The Striped Bass, ” Audubon 33. Nabhan, G,, Assistant Director, Desert Botani- WiZdlife Report, 1985 (New York: National Au- cal Garden, Phoenix, AZ, personal communi- dubon Society, 1985). cation, May 16, 1986, 19. Franklin, J. F,, Chief Plant Ecologist, U.S. For- 34. Namkoong, G., “Conservation of Biological est Service, personal communication, May 26, Diversity by In-Situ and Ex-Situ Methods,” OTA 1986. commissioned paper, 1985, 20. Gentry, A. H., “Endemism in Tropical Versus 35. National Research Council, Staff Report: Envi- Temperate Plant Communities,” Conservation ronmental Degradation in Mauritania, Board on Biology, M,E. SOU16 and B.A. Wilcox (eds.) (Sun- Science and Technology for International Devel- derland, MA: Sinauer Associates, Inc., 1986). opment, Commission on International Relations, 21, Gill, V. G., and Dale, T,, Topsoil and Civilization National Research Council, National Academy (Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, Press, Washington, DC, 1981. 1974), 36. Oldfield, M. L., The Value of Conserving Genetic 22. Grant, C, J., The Soils and Agriculture of Hong Resources (Washington, DC: U.S. Department Kong (Hong Kong: The Government Printer at of the Interior, National Park Service, 1984). the Government Press, 1960), 37. Organisation for Economic Cooperation and 23. Institute of Environmental Studies, Preassess- Development, Report on the State of the Envi- men t of Natural Resources Issues in Sudan, ronment (Paris: 1985). University of Khartoum and the Program for In- 38. Peters, R. L., and Darling, J. D. S., “Greenhouse ternational Development, Clark University, Effect and Nature Reserves, ” Bioscience 35(1 1): Worcester, MA, 1983, 707-717, 1985. 24, International Union for Conservation of Nature 39, Prescott-Allen, C., “Status and Trends of Agri- and Natural Resources, A Preliminary Environ- cultural Crop Species, ” OTA commissioned pa- mental Profile of the India/Pakistan Border per, 1985. Lands in the Sind-Kutch Region, a report for the 40. Prescott-Allen, C., and Prescott-Allen, A., The World Bank prepared at the IUCN Conserva- First Resources: Wild Species in the North tion Monitoring Center, October 1983. American Economy (New Haven, CT, and Lon- 25, Klee, G.A. (cd,), World Systems of Traditional don: Yale University Press, 1986). Resource Management (New York: John Wiley 41. Salam, R. V., CoastaZ Resources in Sri Lanka, In- & Sons, Inc., 1980), dia, and Pakistan: Description, Use, and Man- 26. Klopatek, J, M., et al., Land-Use Conflict With agement, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Inter- Natural Vegetation in the United States, Pub- national Affairs Office, Washington, DC, 1981. lication No, 1333 (Oak Ridge, TN: U.S. Depart- 42. Saunier, R, E., and Meganck, R, A., “Compati- ment of Energy, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, bility of Development and the In-situ Mainte- Environmental Services Division, 1979). In: nance of Biotic Diversity in Developing Coun- Crumpacker, 1985. tries,” OTA commissioned paper, 1985. 27. Lewin, R., “Damage to TropicaI Forests, or Why 43. Simberloff, D,, “Are We On the Verge of a Mass Were There So Many Kinds of Animals?” Sci- Extinction in Tropical Rain Forests?” Dynamics ence 234:149-150, Oct. 10, 1986, of Extinction, D.K. Elliot (cd,) (New York: John 28. Mares, M. A., “Conservation in South America: Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1986). Problems, Consequences, and Solutions, ” Sci- 44, Simberloff, D., “Community Effects of Intro- ence 233:734-739, Aug. 15, 1986, duced Species,” Biotic Crises in Ecological and 29, Maruska, E. J., Executive Director, Zoological Evolutionary Time, M.H. Nitecki (cd.) (New Society of Cincinnati, presentation to the House York: Academic Press, 1981). Committee on Science and Technology, Sub- 45, Smith, F. E., “A Short Review of the Status of Ch. 3—Status of Biologica/ Diversity ● 85 —.

Riparian Forests in California, ” Proceedings: ment, Impacts of Technology on U.S. Cropland Riparian Forests in California—Their Ecologuy and Rangeland Productivity, PB 83-125 013 and Conservation S3~mposium, A. Sands (cd.), (Springfield, VA: National Technical Informa- University of California, Davis, Division of Agri- tion Service, 1982). cultural Sciences, May 14, 1977 (Berkeley, CA: 52. U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wild- 1980). In: Crumpacker, 1985. life Service, Recovery Plan for the Endangered 46. Smift, B. L., and Barclay, J. S., “Status of Ripar- and Threatened Species of the California Chan- ian Ecosystems in the United States, ” presented nel Islands (Portland, OR: 1984). at 1980 American Water Resources Association 53. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, The ~National Conference, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Chesapeake Ba~~ Program: Findings and Recom- Service, Eastern Energy and Land Use Team, mendations, September 1983. In: Fosburgh, 1980. 1985. 47. Synge, H., “Status and Trends of Wild Plants, ” 54. Warner, R,E. [recorder), Proceedings; Fish and OTA commissioned paper, 1985. Wildlife Resource Needs in Riparian Ecosys- 48. Tiner, R. W., ]r., Wetlands of the United States: tems Workshop, Harpers Ferry, WV, U.S. Fish Current Status and Recent Trends (Newton Cor- and Wildlife Service, Eastern Energy and Land ner, MA: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Habi- Use Team, Resources Analysis Group, May 30- tat Resources, 1984). In: Crumpacker 1985. 31, 1979. In: Crumpacker 1985, 49 U.S. Agency for International Development, 55. Wildlife Trade Monitoring Unit, A Perception Honduras Countr~~ Environmental Profile: A of the Issue of High-Trade Volume (Cambridge, Field Study, AID Contract No. AID/SOD/PDC- UK: Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1984). C-O247 (Arlington, VA: JRB Associates, August 56. World Bank, Sudan Forestry Sector Ret’iew, Re- 1982). port No. 5911-SU, 1986. 50. U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assess- 57. World Resources Institute and International ment, Technologies To Sustain Tropical Forest Institute for Environment and Development, Resources, OTA-F-214 (Washington, DC: U.S. World Resources 1986 (New York: Basic Bo~ks, Government Printing Office, 1984). 1986), S1. U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assess- Chapter 4 Interventions To Maintain Biological Diversity CONTENTS

Page Highlightts . . .***, ,* **,**.**.**.***.****.***.**,*."*****...*.,**,**** 89 Management Systems To Conserve Diversity...... 89

Onsite Ecosystem Maintenance ● e*****...,*******.**,*,,.,.*.,.*,,*,, 89

OnSite Species Maintenance ● **. ,****** **. ,.. **** **. **** *,*, ,* *m.**. 90 Offsite Maintenance in Living Collections. . ..*. @**? OOo. .o. ***. ***, e..* 90 Offsite Maintenance in Germplasm Storage ...... 91 Deciding Which Management System To Apply ...... 91 Complementariness of Management Systems ...... 92

Biological Linkages ● **0. .*. * * * 0 * . . * * * * * * * * . * * * * * * * * * * * * . * * .**.**.** 92 Technological Linkages...... 94

Institutional Linkages ● *.*, .**. **** *.** ***, **** .**. b*******..**..*.* 94

Chapter 4 References ● .*. ,.. **** ***. ***. *****v********.*****.,**.**.. 96 Tables Table NO. Page 4-1. Management Systems To Maintain Biological Diversity ., ...... , , . 90 42. Management Systems and Conservation Objectives ...... 92 Figure Figure No. Page 4-I. Transfers of Biotic Material Between Management Systems ...... 93 Chapter 4 Interventions To Maintain Biological Diversity

HIGHLIGHTS

● Four management systems are used to conserve diversity: 1) managing ecosystems, 2) managing populations and species in natural or seminatural habitats, 3) maintaining and propagating living organisms offsite as in zoos or botanic gardens, and 4) storing seeds or other germplasm, usually with refrigeration or freezing. ● The four systems for maintaining diversity are complementary, but linkages between the strategies (e.g., between zoos and nature reserves) are less well ✼ developed than they could be to maximize conservation efforts. ● Biological, political, and socioeconomic factors must be evaluated to choose the best mix of management interventions. Because the importance of maintaining diversity has only recently begun to attract widespread recognition, scientific methods for evaluating trade-offs are at an early stage of development. Methods for evaluating socioeconomic factors seem to la~ behind development of biological methods.

The majority of plants, animals, and microbes will increasingly depend on active manage- survive without any specific human interven- ment. A spectrum of technologies—broadly de- tions to maintain them, However, as natural fined to include management systems and other areas continue to be modified—through frag- means by which knowledge is applied—can be mentation of habitats, for example—their survival used to maintain diversity, and, in turn, maintaining biological diversity

Two general approaches are followed in proving the linkages between them to take advan- maintaining diversity: 1) onsite maintenance, tage of their potential complementariness. which conserves the organism in its natural set- Table 4-1 lists some technology programs ting; and 2) offsite maintenance, which con- associated with each management system. [n serves it outside its natural setting, Onsite main- general, the technologies on the right side of tenance can focus either on an entire ecosystem the table entail more human intervention, or on a particular species or population. And offsite maintenance can focus on living collections or on stored germplasm. These four broad Onsite Ecosystem Maintenance management systems are necessary components of an overall strategy to conserve diversity, Con- Where the conservation objective is to main- servation objectives can be enhanced by any tain as much biological diversity as possible, combination of the four systems and by im- the only practical and cost-effective approach

89 90 “ Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity

Table 4“1 .—Examples of Management Systems To Maintain Biological Diversity Onsite Off site Ecosystem maintenance Species management Living collections Germplasm storage National parks Agroecosystems Zoological parks Seed and pollen banks Research natural areas Wildlife refuges Botanic gardens Semen, ova, and embryo banks Marine sanctuaries /n-situ genebanks Field collections Microbial culture collections Resource development Game parks and reserves Captive breeding programs Tissue culture collections planning Increasing human intervention * - Increasing natural processes SOURCE Office of Technology Assessment, 1986

is to maintain ecosystem diversity. Offsite main- Because managing all species would be im- tenance cannot accomplish this objective be- possible, biological, political, and economic fac- cause many species cannot live outside their tors determine which species will receive di- natural habitats, An ecosystem approach allows rect attention. Preference is given to species processes, such as natural selection, to con- with recognized economic value, for example. tinue. Survival, for some species, depends on Noncommercial species that are rare and en- complex interactions with other species in their habitats. Maintaining diverse ecosystems also dangered also are given management attention continues ecological processes, such as nutri- to ensure survival of wild populations. Simi- ent cycling, that typically depend on the inter- larly, species that provide important indirect action of numerous species (5). benefits, such as pollination or pest control, may receive attention. Ideally, management programs to maintain a diversity of ecosys- should also focus on keystone species, i.e., those tems usually identify different ecosystem types with important ecosystem support or regula- and then attempt to preserve a sample of each tory functions. type (see ch. 5). Some types, such as cloud forests, are rare and confined to small areas. These are especially vulnerable and receive spe- Offsite Maintenance in cial emphasis in some conservation programs. Living Collections The ecosystem approach is used not only for Zoological parks, botanic gardens, arbore- natural areas but also for traditional agricul- tums, and field collections are common homes tural ecosystems, Pressures to modernize these for living collections. Living collections serve “agroecosystems” threaten the characteristi- several conservation objectives, Zoos and bo- cally high levels of crop and livestock genetic tanic gardens can propagate species threatened diversity these systems represent—and upon with extinction in the wild, sometimes enabl- which modern agricultural systems continue ing the repopulation of a newly protected or to depend. restored habitat. Arboretums and living collections kept at places like agricultural research Onsite Species Maintenance stations maintain the genetic diversity of plants not amenable for germplasm storage as well When the objective is to maximize direct ben- as numerous livestock varieties that are not efits from diversity, such as production of an commercial y popular but are culturally signif- optimal mixture of game, fish, timber, and sce- icant or are needed for research and breeding nic values, then the preferred approach is often programs. to manage particular species and their habitats. Managing at the population level is preferred The number of species maintained in living when the objective is to avert extinction of a collections is limited by the size of the facil- rare or threatened species or subspecies. ities and the relatively high maintenance cost Ch. 4—interventions To Maintain Biological Diversity 91

per species. Managers of offsite collections face cost-effective method to preserve the genetic the dilemma of maintaining populations large diversity of the thousands of agricultural vari- enough to ensure viability and at the same time eties and their wild relatives when biological providing refuge to as many species as possible. factors allow (5). As farmers increasingly abandon the traditional varieties in favor of geneti- Historically, the primary objectives of living cally uniform, modern ones, the preservation collections have been research and display, of diverse, locally adapted crops will depend However, growing concern over the loss of bio- heavily on offsite storage (l). logical diversity is leading to greater efforts to develop collections for their conservation po- The need to maintain a convenient source tential. Offsite facilities are also used to breed of germplasm for breeding purposes and the and propagate organisms, so they no longer rely ability to draw on germplasm from different solely on collecting from the wild to replenish geographic areas are important objectives met their stocks. Instead, they can make a positive, by the offsite storage systems (see ch. 7). Germ- direct contribution to species’ survival. plasm storage is also the principal method for maintaining identified strains of microbes (see Offsite Maintenance in ch. 8), And it is increasingly used to store wild Germplasm Storage plant species and a few wild animal species.

Storage of dormant seeds, embryos, and clonal materials, or germplasm storage, is the most

The efficacy of onsite and offsite technologies develop management or recovery plans (ch, 5). depends on biological, political, and economic Species with unique reproductive physiology, factors. The following four chapters in this re- for example, often cannot be maintained off- port examine how these various considerations site until a considerable investment has been determine which technologies are applied. Gen- made in developing propagation techniques (ch. eral observations on how these factors help 6). match management systems to conservation ob- Political factors also influence conservation jectives are considered here. (See table 4-2 for objectives and management systems. Commit- a summary of objectives, ) ments of government resources, policies, and Biological considerations are central to the programs determine the focus of attention and, objectives and choice of systems. Because not to a large extent, such commitments reflect pub- all diversity is threatened, the task of maintain- lic interests and support. For example, in the ing it can focus on the elements that need spe- United States a disproportionate share of re- cial attention, Biological uniqueness is impor- sources is devoted to conservation programs tant in setting priorities for conservation for a select few of the many endangered spe- programs. A unique species—one that is the cies. Substantial sums have been spent in llth- only representative of an entire genus or fam- hour efforts to save the California condor and ily, for example, or a species with high esthetic the black-footed ferret, while other endangered appeal—may be the focus of intensive conser- organisms such as invertebrate species receive vation management either onsite, offsite, or little notice. both. National instability may also threaten biologi- Biological uniqueness can present problems cal resources either directly in the cases of civil in applying conservation technologies, because strife or warfare or indirectly through encourag- species-specific research is often required to ing neglect. Such cases warrant special efforts 92 ● Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity

Table 4-2.—Management Systems and Conservation Objectives

Onsite Off site Ecosystem maintenance Species maintenance Living collections Germplasm storage Maintain: Maintain: Maintain: Maintain:

● ● a reservoir or “1 i brary ” of . genetic interaction be- breeding material that can- ● convenient source of genetic resources tween semidomesticated not be stored in germplasm for breeding species and wild relatives genebanks programs

● ● evolutionary potential s wi Id populations for sus- field research and develop- ● col Iections of germ plasm tainable exploitation ment on new varieties and from uncertain or threat- breeds ened sources

● ● functioning of various Q viable populations of off site cultivation and ● reference or type col Iections ecological processes threatened species propagation as standard for research and patenting purposes

● ● vast majority of known ● species that provide im - captive breeding stock of ● access to germ plasm from and unknown species portant indirect benefits populations threatened in wide geographic areas (for pollination or pest the wild control)

● ● representatives of unique ● “keystone” species with ready access to wild spe- ● genetic materials from criti- natural ecosystems important ecosystem sup- cies for research, educa- cally endangered species port or regulating function tion. and disr.)lav ,. SOURCE Off Ice of Technology Assessment, 1986

to collect an endangered species or germplasm maintenance easily justify germplasm storage and maintain it outside the country to ensure technologies (see ch. 7). However, cost-benefit survival and to facilitate access. analysis is more difficult when benefits are diffuse and accrue over a long period (7), This The applicable management systems and problem is particularly acute for onsite main- technologies also depend largely on economic tenance programs where competition for land factors. Costs of alternative management sys- exists. Current threats to biologically rich trop- tems and the value of resources to be conserved ical forests by land seeking peasant agricul- may be relatively clear in the case of genetic turalists illustrate these conflicting interests, diversity. For example, the benefits of breeding programs compared with the cost of seed

COMPLEMENTARYNES$ OF MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

Each of the four management systems serves Exchanges between onsite systems occur, for different objectives. Historically, the two off- example, when genetic material from wild site approaches have developed independently plants becomes incorporated into locally cul- from onsite approaches, However, some links tivated varieties. Exchanges between offsite sys- have developed between the different manage- tems occur, for example, when seeds and clones ment programs (see figure 4-1). Improvement of agricultural varieties are taken from storage of such links will contribute substantially to the and grown out in living collections for use in cost-effectiveness of each management system breeding programs. Similarly, a zoo may col- and will help to achieve the overall goal of main- lect animal semen from its living collection and taining biological diversity. place it in cryogenic storage to expand the number of individuals it can maintain—in a sense creating a “frozen zoo. ” Biological Linkages Exchanges of species or germplasm between Transfers of biotic material among the four wild areas and living collections are most evi- management systems can enhance diversity. dent when wild specimens are taken for zoos, —

Ch. 4—Interventions To Maintain Biological Diversity . 93

Figure 4-1 .—Transfers of Biotic Material Between Management Systems

\ )

SOURCE Off Ice of Technology Assessment, 1986 botanic gardens, or private collections. Taking It is often possible to take only germplasm— wild specimens for living collections may pro- seeds, cuttings, and semen—rather than entire vide material for research and public education, organisms. This approach has the advantage may prevent captive populations from inbreed- of being less destructive to rare or endangered ing, and may even enhance wild populations populations (6), In the interest of preserving en- through later reintroduction. However, these dangered populations, mammal germplasm col- activities can—and have—threatened wild pop- lection is increasingly being attempted. Semen ulations of a number of species. has been collected from wild populations of 94 . Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity cheetahs, rhinoceroses, and elephants (10), But Technological Linkages collecting mammal germplasm, without keeping the animal in captivity, is more difficult and Research and technology transfers between diversity management programs can increase costly, And many of the wildlife specimens maintained in zoos are the survivors of destruc- the efficiency, effectiveness, and capacity for tive capturing procedures. maintaining biological diversity. Some technologies developed for domesticated species can Efforts increasingly are being made through be adapted for use with wild species. For ex- captive breeding to produce stocks for rein- ample, technologies for offsite maintenance of troduction into the wild. The golden lion tama- wild species—particularly germplasm storage rin program in Brazil (11) has been successful and captive breeding—have benefited substan- for example, Less attention has been focused tially from the research and experience in agri- on reintroducing threatened plant species, but culture. Perhaps the most dramatic linkage is the recent reintroduction of a wild olive tree embryo transfer technologies developed for species on the island of St. Helena suggests that livestock that are now being adapted to endan- this approach is possible (6). gered species (ch, 6). Similarly, storage tech- Perhaps the most important transfer of ge- nologies developed for agricultural varieties, netic material occurs between agroecosystems such as cryogenics and tissue culture, may be- and germplasm storage: Landraces produced come valuable tools for maintaining collections in traditional farmers’ fields are the result of of rare or threatened wild plant species. thousands of years of natural and human selec- Like biological linkages, technological link- tion from thousands of different crop varieties. ages work both ways. For example, research Many varieties can no longer be maintained on living collections has provided information by the farmers, who abandon them to plant that can be applied to maintaining populations higher yielding crop varieties. But the genetic in the wild (2). Likewise, research on wild pop- diversity of traditional varieties is needed to ulations supplied information on a number of create improved varieties. Thus, collecting ex- species’ special reproduction requirements, peditions to transfer these varieties into offsite which led to successful results with breeding storage are critically important to maintenance in captivity. of the world’s agriculture, Germplasm flows Technological linkages among institutions from storage back to agroecosystems, via re- engaged in researching, developing, and apply- search and breeding programs, as new varieties ing technologies have been limited. Research- are introduced into agricultural systems. ers and resource managers in this area have Transfers are not always beneficial, however. historically worked in relative isolation, deal- Livestock that escape captivity can become feral ing almost exclusively with others in their fields animals with populations so high that they of activity. The few interactions that have threaten native wild plants and animals. Feral occurred have had a positive impact. Thus, the goats on Pacific islands and feral horses on potential for benefits from increased coopera- some rangelands of the United States are well- tive work seems apparent, but institutions are known examples. Similarly, exotic plants in- slow to make such changes. troduced as ornamental or agricultural crops sometimes escape to become weeds that crowd Institiutional Linkages out native species. Efforts to capture specimens for living collections can also be destructive, Exchanges of organisms and technologies The challenge is to manage the transfers among have occurred because they have been consid- sites and programs to enhance the positive con- ered necessary for success of the different pro- tributions to diversity maintenance and mini- grams. However, most programs focus on rela- mize the negatives ones, tively narrow subsets of diversity. Some groups —

Ch. 4—Interventions To Maintain Biological Diversity . 95

devote their attention exclusively to maintain- research to applied research is a problem in ing certain agricultural crops, while others fo- developing useful technologies, the principal cus on specific wild species—e. g,, whales or weakness seems to be the failure of institutions migratory waterfowl, The result is that much to support synthesis of scientific information of the work is done in isolation, and the scope into useful management tools. and effectiveness of overall diversity maintenance effort becomes difficult to monitor. And The problem of technology development is while particular concerns may be well-addressed, more pronounced for onsite than for offsite other concerns receive little or no attention. maintenance. This difference perhaps reflects the more pragmatic nature of offsite mainte- Institutional problems that impede overall nance, where institutions (most with agricul- maintenance of biological diversity include: tural interests) emphasize research and devel- ● overlap and inter institutional or intra- opment. Focus on technology development is institutional competition, commonly lacking in onsite maintenance. In- c gaps between goals and the human and stitutions may deter scientists from translating financial resources available to achieve research into practical techniques (8). To ap- them, and ply ecological studies to onsite maintenance, ● lack of complementariness or cooperation greater emphasis needs to be placed on com- between initiatives (4). parative and predictive science, which implies less emphasis on descriptive studies (4). Institutional links can identify common interests, strengths, and weaknesses of various Forces working against diversity are largely organizations as well as gaps and opportuni- social and economic. Therefore, human dimen- ties to address overall concerns. Not all activi- sions need to be included in the scientific in- ties should be operationally linked, however. vestigations, and natural and social sciences A diversity of approaches in conservation activ- must be involved in conservation initiatives. ities is beneficial, and interaction should oc- There is, however, a paucity of social science cur principally with those programs closest in research for the development of technologies purpose and approach (4). to conserve biological diversity. This lack is partly because of the complexity and difficulty Useful technologies emerge through a series of such work, and partly because the potential of steps, Basic research provides an under- for social science to make important contribu- standing of the nature of biological systems. tions has been overbooked. Drawing on this knowledge, researchers define requirements and develop techniques to man- Greater support is needed for inventory and age ecosystems, species, or genetic resources, monitoring of diversity in natural systems and Once the techniques are developed, however, in agricultural systems. Some of this informa- researchers must synthesize techniques into tion is already available, but most of it has not technologies, then transfer and apply the tech- been assimilated or made available to decision- nologies to site-specific circumstances. makers, In practice, the process of technology devel- Finally, science needs to be applied to pro- opment is impeded by institutional constraints. vide policy makers and the general public with Research is undertaken by scientists in many better information on the scope and ramifica- institutions, including universities, botanic tions of diversity loss. Such information needs gardens, zoological institutions, and govern- to be accurate, compelling, and digestible by ment agencies responsible for natural re- a lay audience, To produce such information, sources. These scientists commonly emphasize scientists and scientific institutions need to be- the theoretical. At the other end of the spec- come more directly involved and accommodat- trum are resource managers who apply particu- ing within the public policymaking process (9). lar techniques. Although the transfer of basic At the same time, the information they provide 96 . Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity should meet the four criteria for effective pub- 3. Effectiveness—able to influence policy in lic policy: a constructive way and linked with the network of decisionmakers responsible for the 1. Adequacy—meets the accepted standards issue, of objectivity, completeness, reproducibil- 4. Legitimacy—carries a widely-accepted pre- ity, and accuracy, and is appropriate to the sumption of correctness and authority (3), subject and the application. 2. Value—addresses a worthwhile problem; neither too narrow nor too broad.

CHAPTER 4 REFERENCES

1. Arnold, M. H., “Plant Gene Conservation,” Na- 6. Lucas, G., and Oldfield, S., “The Role of Zoos, ture 39:615, Feb. 20, 1986. Botanical Gardens and Similar Institutions in 2. Benvischke, K., “The Impact of Research on the the Maintenance of Biological Diversity,” OTA Propagation of Endangered Species in Zoos. ” commissioned paper, 1985. Genetics and Conservation, C. Schonewald-Cox, 7, Randall, A., “Human Preferences, Economics, et al. (eds. ) (Menlo Park, CA: Benjamin/Cum- and the Preservation of Species, ” The Value of mings Publishing Co., Inc., 1983). Z3ioZogical Diversity, B.G. Norton (cd.) (Prince- 3. Clark, W. C., and Majone, G., “The Critical Ap- ton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1986). praisal of Scientific Inquiries With Policy Im- 8. Salwasser, H., U.S. Forest Service, personal placations, ” Science, Technology, and Human communication, September 1986. Values, forthcoming. 9, Shapiro, H. T., et al., “A National Research Strat- 4. diCastri, F,, “Twenty Years of International egy, ” Issues in Science and Technology, spring Programmed on Ecosystems and the Biosphere: 1986, pp. 116-125. An Overview of Achievements, Shortcomings, 10, Wildt, D. E,, National Zoological Park, Smithso- and Possible New Perspectives, ” Global Change, nian Institution, Washington, DC, personal com- T.F, Malone and J.G. Roederer (eds.) (New York: munication, July 1986. Cambridge University Press, 1985). 11. World Wildlife Fund—U.S., Annual Report 1984 5. Frankel, O. H., and Soul&, M. E., Conservation (Washington, DC: 1984), and Evolution (Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press, 1981). Part II Chapter s Maintaining Biological Diversity Onsite CONTENTS Page

Highlights ...... ● .***.. ...*.*.. .*.** 101

Introduction ...... ● .**,.. ● *,*.,* ● **.** 101 Classifying and Designing Protected Areas...... ***, ...*..,...... 102 Classification Systems for Protected Areas ...... ,...0.. .*..**, 102

Design of Protected Areas ...... ● ...... ***.. ● .....*. ..**. 105 Establishment of Protected Areas...... *..*.. ● *..*.*. ● **.. 109 Acquisition and Designation ...... **,..* .,...6.. .s,., 109 Criteria for Selection of Areas To Protect ...... *,**...... ● ****** ● ** 111 Planning and Management ...... ● ...... ● ,*****, .*.** 113 Planning Techniques ...... ● ..0,., .*.* , ...... 113 Management Strategies ...... ,,.,.,. 116 Ecosystem Restoration ...... *.*,*. .*,.**.* . . . . . 119 Outside Protected Areas ...... 0,, ● ...,*.. ..0., 121 Genetic Resources for Agriculture ...... **. ..,,*** ,.....s 121 Conservational A Type of Development ...... 122 Data for Onsite Maintenance of Biological Diversity :::::::::::::::: :::.123 Uneven Quality of Information ...... 123

Databases ..*.*** ● *..*.,. ● *.***** .******* ...... ***..* ...... **.. 124 Data for Management of Diversity ...... 124 Coordination...... : : : : : : ...... 126 Social and Economic Data ...... ,.,.s .**.,*** ..00s 127 Needs and Opportunities ...... 0..0. ● .**.*,. .0.0. 128 An Ecosystem Approach ...... 8.,.. ● *.*.**. ..*** 128 Innovative Technologies for Developing Countries ....129 Long-Term Multidisciplinary Research ...... ::::::::::::::: :., ..129 Personnel Development...... ● *.**.. **...*** ● **** 130 Data To Facilitate Onsite Protection...... ******** ● ******O* ● 4* 130 Chapter preferences ...... ,...... ,., ...’131 Tables Table No. Page 5-1. Categories and Management Objectives of Protected Areas ...... 110 5-2. Coverageof Protected Areas by Biogeographic Provinces ...... 112

Figure No. Page 5-1. Growth of the Global Network of Protected Areas, 1890-1985 ...... 110 5-2, National Conservation Strategy Development Around the World,

July 1985 .....0 . . . . . ● ,.*”.* ...... 0,,.... ● *O..... ● *.***.. ● *O* 116 5-3. Design of a Coastal or Marine Protected Area ...... 119 5-4. Representation of a Geographic InformationSystem Function Overlaying Several Types of Enviromnental Data ...... 126 Boxes BOXNO. Page 5-A. Differences Between Terrestrial and CoastaLMarine Systems ...... I05

5-IL The Edge Effect ******.* .******** **** **.**,* .******* ● ☛☛☛☛☛☛☛ ● S** 107 5-C. Cluster Concept for Biosphere Reserves .***.** ..*.**.* .*,***** ● ..* 118 Chapter 5 Maintaining Biological Diversity Onsite

Maintaining plant, animal, and microbial diversity in their natural environment (onsite) is the most effective way to conserve maximum biological diversity over the long term. ● Strategies to maintain diversity onsite have evolved from strict preservation to multiple use. More recently, attention is being given to integrating conservation with development in areas outside protected zones. ● Guidelines for optimum biological design of protected areas are improving. But decisions on design are determined more often by socioeconomic and political factors than by scientific principles. ● Techniques for restoring diversity on degraded sites are being improved as knowledge of natural plant and animal succession increases. However, complete restoration is often not feasible, and partial restoration is usually slow and expensive. ● Opportunities for improving national and global conservation of diversity onsite include 1) promoting an ecosystem approach to protected area establishment and management, 2) encouraging innovative resource development methods that treat conservation as a form of development, 3) supporting multidisciplinary research on the many factors to consider when designing nature reserves, and 4) developing training and job opportunities for experts in all these areas.

INTRODUCTION

Plants and animals can be maintained where the hundreds or thousands of species of they are found, that is, onsite, either by pro- many ecosystems. tecting certain sites from change or by manag- 3. Species survive gradual changes in their ing change to support some portion of the nat- natural environments by continuous evo- ural biota. Most biological diversity can only lution and adaptation—processes that are be maintained in a natural condition for three arrested in offsite collections. reasons: 1. For most species, technologies have not Strategies for maintaining biological diver- been developed to keep substantial num- sity onsite range from single-species manage- bers of individuals alive outside their nat- ment to protection of complete ecosystems in ural environments. designated natural areas. The various ap- 2. For species that can be kept alive in artifi- proaches are complementary. For example, a cial conditions, preserving genetic diver- European nature reserve system established sity usually entails maintaining numerous with broad conservation objectives contains individuals from genetically distinct pop- some 10,000 sites of plant species that also are ulations. Such preservation is financially useful for breeding and for research into the and logistically feasible for only a few of chemistry of natural substances.

101 102 . Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity

CLASSIFYING AND DESIGNING PROTECTED AREAS

Maintenance of biological diversity per se has tions. However, conservationists and resource often not been the primary objective of pro- developers should also view conservation as tected natural areas, Instead, many such areas a necessary component of economic devel- have been set aside and managed for other con- opment. servation values, such as preservation of scenic In spite of the powerful influence of social landscapes or protection of watersheds (11). More recently, however, the U.S. Congress and factors, social sciences are applied less often other policy makers have begun to authorize ac- than natural sciences in efforts to maintain bio- tions to address the maintenance of biological logical diversity. Development planning techniques that do use social science data and prin- diversity directly. With this new mandate, biologists, agricultural scientists, and conservation ciples have been proposed, however, and used program managers have started to develop new occasionally to integrate natural resource con- ways to apply science to the problem of main- servation with other forms of economic, cul- taining biological diversity onsite. tural, and social development. Resource development planning is discussed in some detail The development of techniques for onsite in the OTA report, Technologies To Sustain maintenance of biological diversity has so far Tropical Forest Resources (83), A variation of focused mainly on protected areas. This sec- resource development planning, integrated de- tion is concerned, therefore, largely with where velopment planning, is described briefly later these protected areas should be established and in this chapter. how biological principles can be used in the design and management of protected areas. The technologies appear to be scientifically sound, Classification Systems for yet too little implementation has occurred thus Protected Areas far for a conclusive assessment of effect. Strategies to develop a system of protected Even if the biological techniques are demon- areas typically begin by classifying and map- strated to be correct, the actual location, de- ping types of ecosystems using data on plant sign, and management objectives for protected and animal distributions and on climate and areas will be determined mainly by social (in- soil parameters. This information is compared cluding economic and political) factors. For ex- with the locations of already-protected areas ample, costs will usually be a stronger consid- to approximate priorities for allocating the re- eration than biological criteria in choosing sources available for site protection, whether to have one large reserve or several small ones, Boundaries usually reflect what Descriptions of threatened ecosystems are area has been made available rather than what now adequate in every country to undertake would provide the best habitat for flora and effective programs for conserving biological fauna, diversity. In nearly all regions, however, continued improvements in ecosystem classifica- Development activities other than conservation and assessment would facilitate better de- tion may also take precedence in decisions to cisions on where protection is most needed. change the boundaries of protected areas. In Preservation priorities need to be based on tropical countries, where diversity is most knowledge of which ecosystems: threatened, many natural areas are occupied by farmers, hunters, gatherers, and fishermen have high diversity, (see ch. 11). Strategies to safeguard biological have high endemism (a high proportion of diversity must recognize that development of the species having a limited natural range), natural resources is imperative and must incor- are threatened by resource development porate socioeconomic and political considera- or degradation patterns, Ch. 5—Maintaining Biological Diversity Onsite ● 103

● are located where social and economic closely related units. An example of this is the conditions are conducive to conservation, ecoregions classification system, used exten- and sively by U.S. Federal land-managing agencies ● are not adequately represented in existing (l). Ecosystem regions for North America are protected areas. defined as domains on the basis of climate. The domains are subdivided into divisions, which The major patterns of nature can be described are subdivided into provinces on the basis of for most terrestrial areas with existing data. Sev- what plant communities can be expected to de- eral biogeographic systems have been devel- velop if the natural succession of species is not oped that relate data on distribution of plant interrupted by human activity. Provinces are and animal species to factors such as climate subdivided into sections on the basis of the com- and natural barriers like oceans, deserts, and position of the vegetation types that eventually mountain ranges. These systems classify the would prevail. Extending this ecoregion clas- Earth into zones, with each zone containing sification system to cover the world on a scale distinctive ecosystems and life forms. of 1:25 million is being considered. Much less information is available on aquatic A recently developed system for classifica- sites, such as lakes and streams, Aquatic eco- tion of the world’s marine and coastal environ- systems are difficult to map on a large scale, ments combines physical processes with biotic and the way to integrate them into land clas- characteristics (34). This classification system sifications is poorly understood. The same is will be used as a basis for selecting U.S. coastal true of riparian vegetation, mountain meadows, biosphere reserves (13), and other azonal ecosystems, Each classification system has advantages Classification systems take two broad ap- and disadvantages for programs to maintain proaches. “Taxonomic” methods establish land biological diversity. The taxonomic approach units by grouping resources or sites with simi- identifies and classifies each component, For lar properties. “Regionalization” methods sub- example, separate taxonomies are used to iden- divide land into natural units on the basis of tify flora, fauna, and soils. This separation spatial patterns that affect natural processes facilitates location of natural areas that will and the use of resources (1), The two approaches conserve concentrations of high-priority com- can be integrated to identify ecosystem diver- ponents, such as a vegetation type or animal sity in considerable detail. species. The regionalization approach allows The taxonomic approach is typified by the scientists to determine whether the same type Society of American Foresters (SAF) Cover of ecosystem in distinct biogeographic regions Type Classification system, which aggregates actually represents two different ecosystems (2), similar stands of forest trees on the basis of the Biogeographic classification maps indicate kind, number, and distribution of plant species what ecosystems would be found under natu- and the dominance by tree species (19). The ral conditions, but the discrepancy between ex- basic taxonomic units—forest cover types—are pected and actual features is often great because named after the predominant tree species. The of human intervention, Sparse grasslands may Renewable Resources Evaluation of the U.S. occur where climate, physical features, and spe- Forest Service further aggregates many of the cies distribution records suggest tropical moist SAF categories into 20 “major forest types, ” forest should grow, Furthermore, the major which are the basis for the only map of forest classification systems cover only broad zonal cover types available for the United States as features of the environment. Azonal features— a whole. e.g., wetlands, riparian areas, and coral reefs— The regionalization approach, on the other cannot be included. So conservation strategies hand, begins with a nation or continent and must take a different approach to identify pri- subdivides it into progressively smaller, more orities for these ecosystems. Typically, plans

104 ● Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity

credit’ Forest The Society of American Foresters Cover Type Map, an example of an ecosystem classification system, aggregates similar stands of forest trees on the basis of the kind, number, and distribution of plant species and the dominance by tree species. for conservation of azonal ecosystems are based or a mountain forest may not have an unusually on surveys that cut across the biogeographic high number of species present, but it may have zones. a high proportion of species not found elsewhere (i.e., high endemism). Such areas are con- Biogeographic classification systems also sidered valuable for maintaining biological need to be supplemented with information on diversity, because they contribute substantially endemism. Patterns of endemism vary among to diversity on a global scaIe, taxa and among regions. Some species with restricted distribution are quite common locally, In sum, a variety of ecosystem classification whereas others are extremely rare (26). On the systems are currently being used by many orga- broadest scale, taxa may be endemic to a con- nizations with different objectives. Although tinent or subcontinent; on a narrow scale, many these maps do not indicate the extent of exist- plant species seem to be restricted naturally to ing ecosystems (e. g., how much forest actually areas as small as a few square kilometers. remains), they do correspond roughly to the boundaries of species distributions. Thus, they Identifying centers of endemism has been an can be compared with maps of natural areas ongoing effort of conservationists, especially already protected, and planners can then choose tropical ecologists. An area such as an island which sites to focus on for more detailed assess- Ch. 5—Maintaining Bio/ogical Diversity Onsite 105 ment of an ecosystem’s contribution to diversity, its vulnerability, and its social and eco- Box 5-A.—Differences Between nomic significance. Terrestrial and Coastal~Marine Systems It is difficult to gauge the relative differences Design of Protected Areas in biological diversity in terrestrial and coastal-marine environments. Dry land con- The sizes and locations of protected areas are tains approximately four times the number of determined first by political and financial con- species found in the sea; on that considera- straints. Within those limits, the designs of nation alone, terrestrial ecosystems seem in- ture reserves have usually been based on natu- herently more diverse. Differences in faunal ral history characteristics of the particular diversity between marine and terrestrial envi- species of greatest interest. Recently, however, ronments are primarily due to insects. With- scientists have begun to develop theories for out them, marine fauna would be more diverse than terrestrial fauna. However, terrestrial designing nature reserves to optimize protec- flora clearly exhibit greater diversity than mation of biological diversity rather than protec- rine flora (51). tion of particular species. These theories are Viewed from a different perspective, in still based mainly on inferences from general which the number of higher taxa (particularly scientific principles and are largely untested, animal) indicate degree of diversity, the sea Thus, they are the subject of much academic would appear more diverse because many debate among scientists (53), higher taxa (i.e., phyla, classes, orders) are ex- Criteria for optimum size and shape for pro- clusively marine. Implicit in this view is the notion that higher levels reflect greater genetic tected areas have been based on information differences–i.e., a single species maybe the from insular ecology (e.g., refs, 15,16,74,90). sole representative of an order, class, or phy- These criteria, however, are widely viewed as lum, and the loss of one of these species might too simplistic, and the theories are being fur- cause afar greater genetic loss than would the ther developed with information from ecolog- loss of a species in a taxon made up of several ical-evolutionary genetics (24,70,73,79) and hundred or thousand members (51). from theoretical population dynamics (28,74, Another difference is that many fish and in- 80). These theories focus mainly on terrestrial vertebrates that make up the bulk of marine protected areas and probably have limited use species pass through several life stages from for the design of coastal-marine reserves, The egg to adult. In many of the life stages, the great dispersive abilities of marine organisms organisms seem unrelated to that of the adult and the interconnections of adjacent commu- form. These different forms can live in differ- nities thus complicate decisions concerning the ent ecosystems or in distinctly different niches proper size and spacing of reserves. (See box within the same ecosystem. Maintaining one species may therefore require maintenance of 5-A for discussion contrasting terrestrial and several different ecosystems (51). coastal-marine systems,) Movement of organisms and materials between different community types—seagrass, coral reef, and mangrove—means that terres- Information on the occurrence and natural trial and marine communities sometimes can- distribution of species on islands has been used not be defined simply by their physical bound- to formulate theoretical size and location cri- aries. Effectiveness of efforts to protect one teria for protected areas intended to maintain community type may be diminished by failure to protect neighboring communities as diversity. The equilibrium theory of island bio- well as adjacent watersheds (40). geography (52) maintains that greater numbers of species are found on larger islands because

106 ● Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity the populations on smaller islands are more vul- ous-sized patches of forest were kept intact nerable to extinction. That vulnerability is due through coordination with the deforestation to probabilistic nature of individual births, and development program, and biologists now deaths, occurrences of disease, and changes in monitor plant and animal populations in each habitats. Also, islands farther from continents patch. Although the project is only 20 years old, have fewer species, because colonists from changes in the biota are already evident (47,48). large land masses are less likely to reach them. The guidelines for optimum biological design This theory was extended from true islands to still have many limitations (72). Most of the rele- their terrestrial analogs (e.g., forest patches in vant research has focused on animals, particu- agricultural or suburban areas), and the field larly forest-dwelling birds; too little research of study become known as “insular ecology” has been conducted on plants or on other types to reflect this broader perspective. Scientists do not concur that the theory accurately ex- plains natural patterns of species diversity, and research has been initiated to test the theory. (See Gilbert (27) and Simberloff (76) for reviews of studies that confirm or refute the equilibrium theory.) In any case, the island analogy—that much of the natural diversity is being reduced and confined to small, often isolated areas—is not in dispute, Nature reserves serve as islands for species incapable of surviving in human-dominated habitats. Isolated natural areas are likely to experience declining numbers of species when their size is reduced by deforestation or similar habitat changes. The analogy between islands and nature reserves was reinforced by findings from some of the early tests of equilibrium theory. These findings led to proposed design criteria for nature reserves intended to minimize the loss of species over time (53). The designs called for large nature reserves near each other, to reduce the effects of small areas and distances on species survival. Other design elements not explicitly derived from equilibrium theory but thought to maintain a greater number of species at equilibrium also exist. How- ever, these are rather academic “all other things being equal” principles, and on the ground, complex habitat differences among areas should weigh more heavily in pragmatic choices of which sites to conserve. The applicability of insular ecology to conservation is being tested by the World Wildlife Fund’s Minimum Critical Size of Ecosystems Project (49). Biologists took inventories of plant and animal life in an Amazon forest area before it was fragmented by development. Vari- Ch. 5—Maintaining Biological Diversity Onsite ● 107

of habitats. Also, the occurrence and persistence of a species on any particular site may Box 5-B.-The Edge Effect be governed not only by the populations on that site but also by whether groups of loosely con- Natural boundaries between ecosystems, nected populations can survive in the region or edges, are considered to be ecologically (46,71). This sort of scientific question requires diverse areas. Edges can be created by long-term study, which is only beginning to be human manipulation of vegetation in an attempt to encourage maximum local diver- conducted. sity (14). Along an edge, animals from each As the Earth increasingly becomes a patch- of the abutting vegetation types may be work of natural and developed areas, the ef- found, together with animals that make fre- fects of activities on or near the boundaries of quent use of more than one vegetation type protected areas are becoming more important. and those that specialize on the edge itself (41). Game animals commonly are edge- Small areas and those with angular boundaries adapted, as are animals of many urban, sub- have a higher proportion of boundary-to-inter- urban, and agricultural areas (e.g., birds) (8). ior than larger or more circular areas. Nature reserves seldom have sharply defined natural boundaries like oceanic islands. Instead they have political boundaries that can do only so imizing the potential exposure to harm. The much to prevent movements in and out. Many idea of buffer zones is not new, but implemen- species can migrate across nature reserve tation has been slow; few evaluations have been boundaries, and the results of human activities done yet to develop guidelines about the nec- (e.g., pollution) may enter by air, water, or land. essary character and width of the zones or the Consequently, another theory on the optimum shifting nature of boundaries. design of protected areas, “the boundary mod- Corridors of habitat to connect nature re- el,” has been proposed. It accounts for the serves have been proposed for sites where re- boundary effects, including the effects of hu- serve sizes are below-optimum. These corridors man activities (69). should facilitate gene flow and the dispersal Designated protected areas include both po- of individuals between protected areas, which litical and biological boundaries. Some of the should, in turn, increase the effective size of biological boundaries are the natural edges be- populations and thus raise the chance of sur- tween ecosystems; others result from human vival for semi-isolated groups (6). Also, cor- activities, most of which originate outside po- ridors could increase the recolonization rate litical boundaries. Those biological boundaries if species are eliminated locally (78). Corridors, that fit the ecological definition of an “edge” however, are another theoretical concept, and (box 5-B) may increase local diversity as edge- they may not be appropriate for all sites. As adapted species prosper. Over time, however, noted earlier, geographic isolation is a cause survival of species in the interior may be re- of genetic diversity. Thus, corridors where none duced if edges are enlarged, because the habi- previously existed might cause locally adapted tat for species adapted to less-disturbed condi- genotypes to be lost due to gene flow. The ap- tions is reduced. Poor protection at the political plicability of corridors is another aspect of de- boundaries generally shifts the biological sign theory now being actively researched. boundaries toward an area’s interior. The use of corridors and boundary zones has Zones where resource-conserving develop- been proposed for protected areas in the West- ment activities are encouraged have been tested ern Cascades region of the United States, This to buffer the boundary effect (e.g., the united area contains the largest tract of uncut forest Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural in the conterminous United States as well as Organization’s (UNESCO) Man and the Bio- natural riparian habitats (32). The proposal sug- sphere Program). Such buffer zones can help gests surrounding islands of old-growth forest reserves by increasing the habitat area and min- with zones of low-intensity, long-rotation tim- 108 ● Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity

ber harvesting and then linking the islands by a need for populations larger than 50/500— corridors of old-growth vegetation. This design perhaps orders of magnitude larger. Empirical would presumably provide mobility for species or experimental evidence is lacking to deter- like the cougar and bobcat—far-ranging carni- mine how resilient a “genetically viable” pop- vores that would have populations too small ulation would be when confronted with other for survival and continued evolution if confined pressures (e.g., demographic, environmental, to a single habitat island. Proposals like this or catastrophic uncertainty) (72), must be considered planning hypotheses, suggested by general theory; and as such must be Population Dynamics subjected to close, case-by-case scrutiny before Scientists have long recognized that, in gen- implementation. eral, smaller populations are more susceptible to extinction than larger ones, because death Genetcs for individual organisms is an event determined Genetic considerations are another dominant largely by change, and populations are collec- concern in the literature on population viabil- tions of individuals. Models of the impact of ity and conservation. Attempts are being made change on individual births and deaths were to determine the smallest number of interbreed- developed decades ago (e.g., ref. 21), and these ing individuals that will enable a species to have been applied to estimate the extinction survive indefinitely—adapting to changing envi- time for particular species under various cir- ronmental conditions without suffering the neg- cumstances. Models also have been developed ative effects of a small population size (popu- to evaluate the effect of chance environmental lation instability, erosion of genetic variability, variations and chance population-wide catas- inbreeding). Because each individual carries trophes. only part of the genetic variation characteris- Recently, more sophisticated models tic of its species, the size of a population—and of stochastic population dynamics have been formu- thus, the amount of genetic variation—may de- lated specifically to investigate questions of termine how much and how fast a population population viability. These models can evolve. do not give specific prescriptions for minimum population Application of genetics to the issue of popu- size to assure survival, but they are leading to lation size and viability has led to theoretical a better understanding of the role of chance in estimates of minimum populations for success- populations. They indicate that to avoid extinc- ful conservation of birds and mammals. One tion resulting from the impact of chance on in- such estimate, known as the 50/500 rule, is that dividual births and deaths may require only a effective population size (in genetics sense) of few hundred breeding individuals. But larger, 50 breeding adults is the minimum needed to perhaps much larger, population sizes are nec- sustain captive breeding programs over dec- essary if the condition of the species’ environ- ades or a century (e. g., as in zoos), but a popu- ment varies, and still larger populations are lation 10 times as large is needed to sustain a needed for species that are susceptible to catas- species in its natural habitat as it evolves over trophes (72). millennia survive changing environmental to The modeling approach useful but (25,45), is has sig- stresses nificant limitations. First, data for population The 50/500 rule is an approximation based models encompassing both environmental and on studies of only a few species. But the effect genetic factors exist for only a few species. Also, of population size depends on several factors species experience the effects of chance at in- that differ for various species, such as sex ra- dividual, environmental, population, and ge- tio, age structure, mating behavior, and be- netic levels. But models that could simultane- haviors such as feeding. Thus the rule, when ously simulate all these factors would be too applied to a particular species, could project complex for existing analytical capabilities, Ch. 5—Maintaining Biological Diversity Onsite ● 109

Even if such models were developed, they could lation size is smaller, but the necessary habitat prove very costly to use (72). must be larger to support the requisite populations. Thus, smaller mammals can have a via- The theoretical population models are yield- ble population size of a million individuals but ing other plausible hypotheses, some of which a habitat requiring only tens of square kilome- have important implications for conservation. ters. The largest mammals, on the other hand, Extinction probabilities depend critically on may have a viable population with only hun- population growth rates, on environmentally dreds of individuals but may need a million induced variability in this rate, and on particu- square kilometers of habitat (3). lar catastrophic scenarios to which the species are subject. One recent analysis employs a sto- These are preliminary analyses, But even if chastic population model and the general rela- subsequent work reduces the estimates by two tionships between body-size and population orders of magnitude, larger mammals may need growth rates and between body-size and pop- contiguous habitats of tens of thousands of ulation density to estimate the sizes of popula- square kilometers to survive indefinitely, Few tions and habitats necessary for mammals to protected natural areas are that large, imply- have a 95 percent probability of persistence for ing that conservation strategies for certain spe- 1,000 years. cies should not depend as much on protected reserves as on monitoring and managing larger The preliminary results from this analysis are areas (24). startling. For larger animals, the viable popu-

PROTECTED AREAS

Since the world’s first two national parks exaggerate the scope of conservation actually were established in the 1870s, some 3,500 pro- being achieved. tected areas have been set aside for conservation, covering some 4.25 million square kilometers (1,050 million acres) (35). (See figure 5-1 Acquisition and Designation for rate of growth.) Most protected areas are established by of fi- Growth in the number and size of protected cial acts designating that uses of particular sites areas was slow at first. It accelerated during will be restricted to those compatible with nat- the 1920s and 1930s, halted during world War ural ecological conditions. At the Federal level II, and regained momentum by the early 1950s. in the united States, designating a land area The number doubled during the 1970s, but or water body for conservation involves mak- growth has slowed over the past few years (33). ing a formal declaration of intent to assign a Before 1970, most protected areas were located certain category of protection and then provid- in industrial countries. But for the past 15 years, ing an opportunity for extensive public com- the Third World has led in both numbers added ment on the proposed action. Other govern- and rates of establishment. ments use similar processes, although the extent of public participation varies. Designation as a protected area does not necessarily mean that protection is effective, of The degree of protection depends partly on course. The extent of actual protection in the the objectives of the acquisition or designation. 3,500 areas has not been determined, but anec- There are many different types of designations. dotal evidence indicates that illegal or un- Kenya, for example, has national parks, na- managed hunting, fishing, gathering, logging, tional reserves, nature reserves, and forest re- farming, and livestock grazing are common serves. The wildlife sanctuaries in Kiribati in problems (83). Thus, data on designated areas the South Pacific are very different in conser- 110 Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity

Figure 5-l.— Growth of the Global Network of national Union for the Conservation of Nature Protected Areas, 1890.1985 and Natural Resources (IUCN) provides a series of 10 management categories (37,38). Protected Number of areas 3,000 areas are categorized according to their management objectives, rather than by the name used in their official designations (see table 5- 1). Thus, the national parks of the United King- dom are placed under category V (protected 2,000 landscape or seascape), rather than under category II (national parks). Standardization of the categories also facilitates international compar-

able 5.1.—Categories and Management Objectives 1,000 of Protected Areas 1. Scientific reserve/strict nature reserve: To protect and maintain natural processes in an undisturbed state for scientific study, environmental monitoring, education, and maintenance of genetic resources. Il. Nationa/ park; To protect areas of national or interna- 0 tional significance for scientific, educational, and recrea- 1870 1890 1910 1930 1950 1970 1985 tional use. Ill. /Vatural rnonurnent/natura/ /andrnar/c To protect and pre- Year serve nationally significant features because of their special interest or unique characteristics. IV, Managed nature reserve/wildli~e sanctuary: To assure the conditions necessa~ to protect species, groups of species, biotic communities, or physical features of the envi- Extent of areas ronment that require specific human manipulation for their perpetuation. 400 V. Protected /andscape or seascape: To maintain nationally significant landscapes characteristic of the harmoni- ous interaction of humans and land, while allowing rec- 300 reation and tourism within the normal lifestyles and economic activities of these areas. V1. Resource reserve: To protect the natural resources of the area for future use and prevent or contain develop- 200 ment activities that could affect the resource, pending the establishment of objectives based on knowledge and planning. 100 V1l. Natura/ biotic area/anthropological reserve: To allow the way of life of societies living in harmony with the environment to continue. 0 t Vlll. Mu/tip/e-use management area/managed resource area.’ 1870 1890 1910 1930 1950 1970 1985 To provide for the sustained production of water, timber, wildlife, pasture, and outdoor recreation, with con- Year servation oriented to the support of the economic activ- SOURCE: International Union for the Consewation of Nature and Natural Re- ities (although specific zones may also be designed sources, The United Nafiorrs List of National Parks and Protected Areas within these areas to achieve specific conservation ob- 1985). (Gland, Switzerland: jectives). IX. Biosphere reserve: To conserve an ecologically repre- vation terms from wildlife sanctuaries in In- sentative landscape in areas that range from complete dia. Designated national parks of the united protection to intensive production; to promote ecologi- Kingdom are quite different from national parks cal monitoring, research and education; and to facilitate local, regional, and international cooperation. in the united States. And in Spain, national X. Wor/d heritage site.’ To protect the natural features for parks, nature parks, and national hunting re- which the area was considered to be of world heritage serves indicate different types of protection. quality, and to provide information for worldwide public enlightenment. SOURCE: J.W. Thorsell, “The Role of Protected Areas in Maintaining Biological To clarify this situation and to promote the Diversity in Tropical Developing Countries, ” OTA commissioned pa- full range of protected area options, the Inter- per, 1985 Ch. 5—Maintaining Biological Diversity Onsite ● 111 isons and provides a framework for all pro- size and number of each type thought to be tected areas. needed for adequate protection (13), The extent to which the world’s terrestrial Criteria for SeIection of ecosystems are included in protected areas has Areas To Protect been crudely estimated using the Udvardy biogeographic classification system, which divides Protected areas can be located and managed the world’s land into 193 biogeographical prov- to protect biological diversity at three levels: inces, Since each province typically contains many distinct types of ecosystems, the degree 1. at the ecosystem level: by protecting unique to which province locations correlate to pro- ecosystems, representative areas for each main type of ecosystem in a nation or re- tected area locations gives only an approxima- gion, and species-rich ecosystems and cen- tion of where greater protection is needed. The ters of endemism; 3,514 protected areas listed by IUCN are located in 178 provinces. The coverage is patchy: sev- 2, at the species level: by giving priority to eral provinces have few protected areas, which the genetically most distinct species (e. g., families with few species or genera with implies that numerous unique ecosystems have only one species), and to culturally impor- yet to be included in the worldwide network tant species and endemic genera and spe- of protected areas (see table 5-2) (33). An estimate of the cost of completing this network is cies; and $1 billion (17). 3. at the gene level: by giving priority to plant and animal types that have been or are be- Ten provinces have fewer than 1,000 square ing domesticated, to populations of wild kilometers protected but more than five pro- relatives of domesticated species, and to tected areas, while another 29 have more than wild resource species (those used for food, 1,000 square kilometers but only five or fewer fuel, fiber, medicine, construction mate- separate protected areas, Determining the ex- rial, ornament, etc.). tent of the patchiness requires better figures for analysis, such as accurate estimates of prov- Ecosystem Approach ince sizes. In addition, aquatic and azonal ecosystems (e. g., wetlands and coral reefs) do not Conserving ecosystem diversity maintains fall easily within this system. not only a variety of landscapes but also broad A U.S. effort that helps maintain representa- species and genetic diversity. Indeed, it may be the only approach to conserving the many tive aquatic ecosystems is the Marine Sanctuary Program conducted by the National Oceanic types of organisms still unknown to science. and Atmospheric Administration of the Depart- A strategy to maintain ecosystem diversity ment of Commerce. Potential marine sanctuary generally begins with the biogeographic classi- sites were listed after consultation with scien- fication system described earlier, The system tific teams familiar with the different ecologi- can be used to identify which ecosystem types cal values of sections of the coastal zone (86). need to be acquired or designated to achieve All current and future designations into the ma- more complete protection of biological diversity. rine sanctuaries will be made from the site- The extent to which diverse U.S. ecosystems evaluation list, Maintenance of community or ecosystem diversity is not a specific objective are represented within protected areas is be- of the Marine Sanctuaries Program, but if all ing assessed on a State-by-State basis by the nat- sites on the list were designated sanctuaries, ural heritage inventory programs of the differ- coastal ecosystem diversity would be signifi- ent States (see ch, 9). Recent estimates of the cantly protected. proportion of major terrestrial ecosystem types that are not protected in the Federal domain An international effort that contributes to con- vary from 21 to 51 percent, depending on the serving representative ecosystems is UNESCO’s 112 . Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity

Table 5-2.—Coverage of Protected Areas Species Approach by Biogeographic Provinces Natural areas are also selected to conserve Provinces lacking any protected areas: the habitats of rare or endangered species or Arctic Archipelago, Arctic Ocean Argentinean Pampas, Argentina to protect areas with high species endemism. Ascension/St. Helena, South Atlantic Ocean using species presence as the criteria for pro- Baikha, U.S.S.R. tected area location and management is useful Burman Rainforest, Burma Greenland Tundra, Greenland for several reasons (62,82): Laccadive Islands, Laccadive Sea ● Lake Ladoga, U.S.S.R. Certain species can be used to indicate the Lake Tanganuika, Africa effectiveness of management. If the more Lake Titicaca, Peru conspicuous rare species cannot survive, Lake Turkana, Kenya Maldives/Chagos Archipelago, Indian Ocean then the design and management of the re- Pacific Desert serve should be changed. Revillagigedo Island, Alaska ● Species provide a focal point or objective South Trinidad that people can readily understand. Provinces with five or fewer protected areas and a total ● protected area of less than 1,000 km2 (247,000 acres): Some species have an appeal that wins Aldabra, Seychelles sympathy, an important factor in raising Amirante Isles, Seychelles funds and public awareness. Aral Sea, U.S.S.R. Araucania Forest, Chile Protection of an area to conserve a rare or Atlas Saharien Steppe, Algeria-Morocco Cayo Coco, Cuba endangered species should be based on the best Central Polynesia, Pacific Ocean existing evidence on its location and habitat Cocos (Keeling) Islands, Christmas Island, Australia needs. The United States has accumulated a Comoros, Indian Ocean East Melanesia, South Pacific Ocean great deal of such information as a result of the Fernando de Noronha Archipelago, Brazil Endangered Species Act and the work of The Guerrero, Mexico Nature Conservancy. For other regions of the Hindu Kush Highlands, Afghanistan-Pakistan Insulantarct ica world, information on endangered species Kampuchea ranges from precise (in northwestern Europe) Lake Malawi, Africa to nonexistent (in the Amazon Basin). At the Lake Ukerewe (Victoria), Africa Malagasy Thorn Forest, Indian Ocean international level, the IUCN’S Conservation Mascarene Islands, Indian Ocean Monitoring Center tracks the status of species Micronesia, North Pacific Ocean and publishes its findings in the Red Data Books Patagonia, Argentina Planaltina, Brazil (10). Ryukyu Islands, Japan Sichuan Highlands, China Genetic Resources Sri Lankan Rainforest, Sri Lanka Taiwan, ROC Genetic variation within species needs to be Tamaulipas, Mexico West Anatolia, Turkey conserved because it enables species to adapt SOURCE J. Harrison, “Status and Trends of Natural Ecosystems Worldwide, ” to changing conditions and provides the raw OTA commissioned paper, 1985 material for domestication of plants and animals and the continued improvement of already domesticated crops and livestock. Man in the Biosphere (MAB) Program. MAB Protected areas designated specifically to pro- has established a network of biosphere reserves tect genetic variability of particular species are in a global system of protected areas (see ch. often called in-situ genebanks. They may be 10). The objective is to have a comprehensive established as separate areas for particular crop system covering all 193 biogeographic prov- relatives, timber trees, animal species, and so inces, The MAB program exists in 66 countries, on. Or, the maintenance of genetic diversity of and approximately 256 biosphere reserves have important species may be one of several objec- been designated thus far (61). tives of a protected area (63). Ch. 5—Maintaining Biological Diversity Onsite ● 113

India and the Soviet Union have expressed strategy is to protect areas where rare and en- commitment to in-situ conservation of the wild dangered species are found, then the diversity relatives of crop species (63). India has desig- of ecosystems that exists may not be maintained nated the first gene sanctuary, for citrus, and adequately because only certain types include some Indian biosphere reserve areas are ex- identified rare species. Concentrating on bio- pected to have genetic conservation as a ma- geographic categories for broad coverage of jor objective. For example, a reserve area has ecosystem types may not protect habitats for been proposed for the Nilgiri Hills area, which rare or endangered species sufficiently or for is rich in wild forms of ginger, tumeric, carda- centers of endemism. The third criterion, pro- mom, black pepper, mango, jackfruit, plantain, tecting genetic variability, includes consider- rice, and millets, The Soviet Union has reportly ation of economic and social factors that may designated 127 reserves for protection of wild contribute less to the objective of maintaining relatives of crops and has proposed an addi- maximum diversity but aid the larger goal of tional 20 areas for protection. Expeditions to conserving resource opportunities for human a region known as the Central Asian gene cen- welfare. ter have found 249 species of wild crop rela- In practice, other objectives and various so- tives (63). cial and economic constraints prevail in the de- In East Germany, an inventory is being made cisions on where to locate protected areas. of important genetic resources within the coun- Other objectives include preservation of scenic try’s nature reserves, including 24 forage crop resources, provision of recreation opportuni- species, 51 medicinal plants, and 27 fruit spe- ties, and protection of watersheds, Constraints cies, As noted earlier, the inventory is expected include budgetary feasibility, competing de- to identify about 10,000 places within the coun- mands for use of the area, and opportunity for try’s reserve system where protection is aflocal support of protected status. forded for plants relevant to breeding, breeding research, and study of the chemistry of The literature on conservation strategies contains few objective methods to evaluate these natural substances (68). trade-offs, except to note that the three biological approaches—ecosystem, species, and gene Trade-Offs pool—are both complementary and necessary. Decisions are often initially made by the intui- In selecting areas for onsite maintenance of tive judgment of conservationists but ultimately biological diversity, trade-offs occur when any by the political processes that lead to the offi- of the above criteria are given priority. If the cial protected area designation.

PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT

Planning and management strategies for on- agement activities range from no intervention site maintenance seek to conserve either the to active manipulation of an ecosystem, species and genetic diversity within a given area or the diversity of ecosystems across a geo- Planning Techniques graphic region. Planning tools range from Planning for protected areas can begin be- mathematical models that simulate how an fore designation is finalized, Biologists gener- area’s biological resources are likely to respond ally agree that plans to maintain diversity need given different management options to written to begin with site surveys to determine the fol- plans for natural area management. Manage- lowing information (65): ment is concerned both with managing external pressures affecting a protected area and the number, abundance, and distribution with managing the natural succession of plant of species, and the interactions between and animal communities within the area, Man- species and community types; 114774 Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity

● the types, extent, locations, and effects of Various kinds of wildlife-habitat models have human uses, the degree of dependence of been used, and recently, the population simu- local inhabitants on these uses, and the pos- lation models described earlier have begun to sible alternatives for activities that are be used widely. These population models pre- harmful to the site; dict how management activities would affect ● the present and potential threats from population size, structure, and recovery rate. activities outside the immediate area of They can describe, for example, the probable concern; size of a fish population before and at various ● the opportunities for making the site more times after a specified fishing season. useful to local inhabitants; and ● the best approach for law enforcement on Wildlife-habitat models are built from natu- the site. ral history data on species distribution and abundance in various habitats, from which Agency budgets and policies for management cause-and-effect relationships are deduced to planning often omit some of these surveys, con- predict how wildlife populations will change sidering them fundamental research rather than as a result of changed habitat conditions. Indi- pragmatic planning activities, For example, the cator Species Models, for instance, focus on U.S. Bureau of Land Management’s Resource one or a few species known to reflect broader Management Plan process does not include col- ecosystem qualities. Another example is the lection of detailed site data if no deleterious hu- Habitat Evaluation Procedure used by the U.S. man impact or other problem is known. Biolo- Fish and Wildlife Service to describe the re- gists argue, however, that the problems cannot sponses of vegetation and, hence, wildlife habi- be fully identified without the surveys. tats to certain management options such as tim- Historically, the specific plans to conserve ber harvesting (75), biological diversity were left to the area manager to devise and implement. This approach Geographic Information System models also still prevails in many regions of the world, In account for the changes in vegetation or wild- the United States, conflicts in land and water life habitats that result from different manage- management and the increasing need to justify ment options, but the output is presented on all management activities to a governing insti- maps, which facilitates evaluation of cumula- tution have resulted in specialized tools for tive impacts by area. A complementary tech- planning the conservation of biological re- nique being developed by U.S. National Park sources, Much of this development of planning Service personnel, the Boundary Model, is in- techniques has occurred in the Federal land tended to assess not only management activi- management agencies. ties but also the effects of human actions outside the protected areas (69). Modeling Biologists warn that the accuracy of models A recent innovation in planning techniques is constrained by the need to reduce complex, is the use of mathematical models, The models often poorly understood interactions to assump- are highly simplified versions of natural envi- tions simple enough to be represented with ronments. Biological data are used to develop mathematical equations. Often, data are too equations that represent assumptions about limited to test all the assumptions. None of the cause-and-effect interactions between plant and natural area models can predict all the possi- animal populations and their habitats, Numer- ble ways that biological resources might re- ous equations interact, and the outcome pro- spond to habitat changes. Thus, models are best jects responses of the biological resources to used to make the assumptions and logic of sci- different management options. The accuracy entists, managers, and natural-area users ex- of the projections depends on how well the plicit, so that final plans and management de- equations and the data reflect the situation in cisions can be based on clear, thorough, and the natural environment, objective understanding of all perspectives, Ch. 5—Maintaining Biological Diversity Onsite . 115

Management Plans Large-area planning documents can include maintaining diversity as one objective to be bal- Management plans can help avoid typical anced with others, but they generally do not protected area problems, such as inappropri- Examples inate recommend site-specific actions. development; sporadic, inconsistent, and clude the plans prepared by the U.S. Forest ad hoc of management; and lack clearly defined Service for national forest management, plans management objectives. Management planning by the Bureau of Land Management for re- also serves to review existing databases, to en- source area management, and plans by the Na- to courage resource inventories, and identify tional Marine Sanctuary Program for the man- other needed research and monitoring activi- agement of marine sanctuaries. These planning ties. do not exist Unfortunately, such plans for processes generally involve numerous experts of the con- many world’s protected areas, which from various disciplines who identify and a on stitutes major constraint maintaining di- weigh management options. The planning doc- versity (82). ument then describes resources, the options Species-specific management plans identify available for managing those resources for vari- actions for maintaining healthy, reproductive ous uses, the trade-offs that would be made in populations of a particular species, Often, the various resource-use scenarios, and finally, the species are either economically valuable or are proposed management strategy. or to rare, endangered, sensitive certain land- National and subnational conservation strat- er of water-management practices. The Office egies (NCSS) tend to be generic documents that of the U.S. Endangered Species Fish and Wild- may include but are not limited to conserving is the agency life Service lead for recovery plans biological diversity. Some 30 countries had be- to on the restore populations listed Federal gun to develop national conservation strategies List, Threatened and Endangered Species For by the end of 1985 (62) (see figure 5-2). To date, two agen- example, Federal agencies, two State only a few NCSS have been completed. The cies, one university, and two agencies from Brit- United States, for example, does not have a plan of the ish Columbia cooperated in development for conservation of biological diversity, Selkirk Mountain Caribou Management Plard Recovery Plan, This plan provides details on One example of a completed countrywide caribou population dynamics, behavior, and plan is the Zambia National Conservation Strat- habitat in Idaho, Washington, and British Co- egy, which identifies the major environmental lumbia, It describes past and present caribou issues and ecological zones that need immedi- management activities, specifies management ate attention in that country (29). Objectives of goals and objectives to recover the species, in- the strategy are to maintain the essential life dicates priorities for action, and assigns these support systems, maintain genetic diversity of to specific agencies (87). both domestic and wild species, promote wise use of natural resources, and maintain suitable the Site-specific management plans outline environmental quality and standard of living, options for maintaining biological resources To accomplish these objectives, plans and pol- of within given locations, commonly parts nat- icies for sustainable management of natural re- ural areas. For example, the Bureau of Land sources are to be integrated with all aspects of a to re- Management developed plan maintain the country’s social and economic develop- the of the sources within Burro Creek Section ment. The strategy outlines schedules of action Kingman Resource Area in Arizona (88). The for the major agencies and identifies necessary has plan clearly stated management objectives. interagency linkages to assure cooperation, The It the of the site, describes resources presents official status of this plan and the extent to the management issues pertaining to the area, which it is being implemented is not clear. details the management practices that will be used on the site, and indicates what other re- Management plans vary in geographic scale source activities will be allowed (e. g., mining) and levels of specificity. Plans at the more gen- (88), eral levels require less detailed information on

116 ● Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity

Figure 5-2.—National Conservation Strategy Development Around the World, July 1985

SOURCE (Gland, Switzerland: 1985) the characteristics of species but greater under- Manipulating habitats to manage particular standing of larger cause-and-effect relation- species sometimes involves controlling popu- ships and of social, economic, and political lations of certain animals—removing an exotic factors, fish from a lake, for example. More often, the intervention involves modifying vegetation. If the target species are grazing or browsing ani- Management Strategies mals such as deer, intervention might mean cut- Increasingly active management of factors ting trees to prevent woodlands from evolving affecting biological diversity will be needed to to the climax stage; for prairie birds such as cranes, it could mean burning grasslands to pre- overcome the effects of human activity and the vent encroachment by woody plants. Certain gradual fragmentation of natural areas (89). Nat- plants may be propagated for food or cover for ural areas change over time, as various plant and animal communities succeed one another, the target species. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service uses such management techniques in and gradual change in the components and quantity of biological diversity occurs. To sus- national wildlife refuges, which are the only extensive federally owned lands managed chiefly tain particular components, such as game animals or songbirds, protected-area managers for conserving wildlife, therefore need to intervene in the natural proc- Management to maximize the diversity of esses. The interventions vary with objectives, community types involves similar interven- and conflicts may occur. For example, devel- tions. Again, a basic consideration is the vari- oping optimum habitat for a particular species ety of plant succession stages to be maintained may not be compatible with maximizing the within an ecosystem. Manipulation manage- diversity of community types. ment is likely to be needed to preserve com- —

Ch. 5—Maintaining Biological Diversity Onsite . 117 munities representing early stages of succes- sources” or “ecological processes” on lands in sion. For example, savanna ecosystems are the National Wilderness Preservation System, maintained by fire, wildlife, and human influ- which is an evolving system of public lands rela- ence. Management techniques to conserve sa- tively undisturbed by humans and large enough vanna systems include regulating animal num- to have potential for wilderness recreation. bers and species and using controlled burning. (Most wilderness areas contain at least 5,000 Rain forests in a mature successional stage re- acres, although some in the Eastern United quire little intervention, but they are likely to States are smaller.) need active protection because they are not gen- Other countries also have extensive areas set erally resilient if cleared in large areas (82). aside for preservation while allowing some hu- Where the U.S. Forest Service manages land man access. Examples include large segments with wildlife diversity as a goal, it attempts to of Antarctica and isolated parts of the Amazo- provide an appropriate mix of successional nian forest. Some natural areas, such as Wood stages within each plant community (84). The Buffalo National park in Canada and Salonga approach of the U.S. National Park Service is National Park in Zaire, have wardens to guard to maintain natural processes to the extent pos- the boundaries and prevent trespassing (61), But sible, including catastrophic changes such as increasingly, countries cannot afford to desig- localized fire, to allow a relatively natural mix nate large areas for strict preservation. Particu- of succession stages to occur. larly in developing countries, adequate fences, patrols, or other means to deny access to desig- Management strategies have evolved from nated areas are seldom logistically, economi- strict preservation and protection to multiple- cally, or socially possible. In addition, preserva- use approaches and, more recently, to inte- tion strategies have exacerbated perceived grated approaches. Strict preservation strategy conflicts between conservation and development, entails setting aside large blocks of natural areas where designation and protection alone would Another strategy for protected areas is to in- be expected to achieve conservation objectives. corporate multiple uses or objectives. This strat- Protection would mean severely restricting the egy is usually based on one or two approaches: uses of, and the changes within, an area to en- developing an optimum mix of several uses on sure the continued natural condition of its bio- a local parcel of land or water; or creating a logical resources and regular policing of bound- mosaic of land or water parcels, each with a aries to prevent trespassing or poaching. Where designated use, within a 1arger geographic area. possible, fences would be erected to restrict ac- Developing an optimum mix of uses in an cess by humans and livestock. area requires careful incorporation of each ob- Moderate versions of this strategy maybe ef- jective so that all can be met, This approach fective in some locations, particularly where is used by the U.S. Forest Service on national the land is owned by an individual or nongov- forest lands and by most States on wildIife areas ernmental organization. In many areas, strict and State forests. In national forests, the po- controls are impractical. It has not been very tential of each subsection is evaluated for recre- successful in developing countries. Moreover, ation, grazing, timber production, wildlife or neither fences nor patrols can prevent all ex- fisheries habitat, mineral development, and ternal influences from damaging a protected other uses. Management objectives for each site area. Regular patrols of a marine sanctuary usually include more than one use. Thus, an could not stop the effects of water pollution, area that is managed for timber production may for example. also provide sites for grazing livestock or foraging wildlife. Sometimes, mining or another use Strict preservation of biological diversity is will be exclusive, at least temporarily. not an explicit objective of any federally protected area in the United States. The objective The California Desert Conservation Area, closest to it is protection of “biological re- managed by the Bureau of Land Management, 118 . Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity is an example of the second approach to multiple use, in which protected areas are managed Box 5-C Cluster Conceprt for primarily as distinct parcels with different pri- Biosphere Reserves mary uses. The conservation area is broken into different land units and classified according In the United States, a promising develop- to the level of human activity allowed in each. ment of biosphere reserves is the cluster concept. The approach is intetidad to link com- Research areas, wilderness areas, areas of crit- plementary areas administered by different ical environmental concern, areas of geologic agencies so they can cooperate in monitoring or archeologic significance, and critical habitats research, educational, and management ac- of endangered or sensitive plant or animal spe- tivities. cies are mapped and sometimes identified by A particularly promising multiple-unit bio- markers posted at the sites. The rest of the land sphere reserve is emerging in the Southern Ap- is classified for various levels of use ranging palachians. Efforts are underway to link the from restricted to extensive human use and al- existing Great Smoky Mountains National teration. Management of the area evolves as Park, the Forest Service’s Cowaeta Hydrologi- human needs for resources of the California cal Station, the Department of Energy’s Oak Desert change. Ridge National Environmental Research Park, and other nearby State and Federal agencies The biosphere reserve concept is another ex- managing natural resources to forma South- ample of multiple-use based on buffer zones that ern Appalachian Biosphere Reserve. The ex- would moderate the extent that activities affect istence of a permanent association of Federal the core. The UNESCO Man and the Biosphere agencies and regional universities has served Program (see also ch. 10) champions this idea. as a useful mechanism to help coordinate re- An idealized scheme includes three areas: gional resaarch and management activities involving the biosphere reserve. 1, The core areas strictly protect ecological Another promising example is on St. John, samples of natural ecosystems that can the Virgin Islands, where the National Park serve as benchmarks for measuring long- Service manages VS. National Park, A co- term changes in ecosystems. operative effort involving agencies and 2. The buffer zones have land-use controls, institutions from Puerto Rico, the U.S. which allow only activities compatible Virgin Islands, and the British Virgin Islands with protection of the core area, such as has coordinated a major research program fo- research, environmental education, recre- cused on developing a biosphre reserve on ation, and tourism. St. John. As the only U.S. national park in a 3. The transition areas surround the core and developing region, the area provides opportunities in the transfer of research and re- buffer zone and are usually not strictly de- source management technologies suitable for lineated. In these areas, researchers, man- small islands of the region. agers, and the local population are to cooperate in rehabilitation, traditional use, development, and experimental research on natural resources (30). plans for such development now exist and await The areas should facilitate management by re- political commitment and implementation in ducing conflicts, because the more incompati- several nations. One example is the develop- ble uses would be physically distant from one ment plan for the San Lorenzo Canyon area in another. And effectiveness of protection should Mexico (60). Multiple-use development is in- be enhanced, because conflicting uses could dicated for a 225,()()()-acre chaparral and des- be detected before they spread into the core (see ert area where watershed protection is a pri- box 5-C). mary objective, The plan delineates four zones: This approach has not yet been implemented 1, a core scientific area to be used for research sufficiently to assess its worldwide effect, but and watershed protection, Ch. 5—Maintaining Biological Diversity Onsite 119

Figure 5-3.— Design of a Coastal or Marine Protected Area

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3

aHabltat~ adjacent and linked to habitats of interest by species movements or flows of nutrients bHeadqua~ers, ranger stations; and traditional fishing, recreational, research, and education ZOneS CwaterShedS, agricultural lands, urban and Industrial developrnerlts, riVE?K3, and eSt UaHf3S dshipplng lanes, commercial fishing grounds, and Intensive use zones SOURCE R V Salm, kfar~ne and Coasta/ Protected Areas A Guide for Planners and Managers (Gland. Switzerland International Unton for the Conserwatlon of Nature and Natural Resources, 1984)

2. a primitive area to be used for watershed cies, such as the National Park Service to en- protection and recreation, large or adjust the shape of reserves (43). 3. an extensive use area for recreation and Reclamation is action intended to restore education, and damaged ecosystems to productive use (43). 4. a natural recovery area eventually for agri- Restoration is the re-creation of entire commu- cultural and commercial use. nities of organisms, closely modeled on com- Zoned development seems an especially im- munities that occur naturally. Reclamation portant concept for marine and coastal areas, gradually becomes restoration as more and which are particularly vulnerable to events out- more naturally occurring species are used and side their boundaries even when they are pro- as natural plant and animal succession occurs. tected. Figure 5-3 is an idealized design for a Restoration technologies, which depend heav- coastal- or marine-protected area. ily on the knowledge gained from reclamation experience, attempt to accelerate natural suc- A more recently developed integrated ap- cession processes while assuring that indig- proach holds potential for resolving many of enous rather than exotic species dominate. the problems that arise in onsite maintenance of biological diversity. An example is the in- Restoration is an onsite method that provides tegrated regional development planning, which links with offsite activities to preserve species. is discussed later in this chapter. Zoos and botanic gardens conserve rare species offsite for reintroduction onsite (see ch. 6), Nurseries and seed facilities provide plants and Ecosystem Restoration seeds for a variety of revegetation efforts, although materials for most native plants still As degraded ecosystems become more com- must be gathered from the wild (42,44). Reintro- mon, restoration will play an increasing role ductions of animals from captive populations in conserving biological diversity. Underlying are few but include the Arabian oryx, the golden most of the discussion in this chapter has been lion tamarin (a recent effort), and plans to rein- the assumption that protected areas are desig- troduce Przewalski’s horse in Mongolia (see ch. nated where ecosystems are in a relatively nat- 6, box 6-E). A few plant reintroductions from ural condition. Another important approach, offsite collections also exist. The Knowlton’s however, is to protect and sometimes manipu- cactus (Pedlocactus knowltonii) has been late degraded ecosystems in order to restore returned to the natural environment from cut- some degree of biological diversity. Restoration tings by the Fish and Wildlife Service (55). techniques are being used by conservation organizations, such as The Nature Conservancy and Some States, such as Florida, require the use the Audubon Society, and by government agen- of native species in reclamation, but reclama-

120 . Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity tion work generally falls short of restoration. Reclamation is generally task-oriented, and the objective is usually to establish productive plant .4 cover, such as pasture or stands of trees. Rela- tively little attention is given to species not directly related to the objective, and relatively few species are used. Consequently, efforts to reclaim land have largely focused on the use of common plant and animal species that are easily propagated and multiply rapidly. Often these are nonnative species; rare or difficult- to-establish species are seldom used. It is easi- est and most cost-effective to use those few species that have been shown to be adequate for particular uses, such as for stabilizing beaches. credit” D Planting prairie plants in a restoration project at the Tree planting is one of the most frequently University of Wisconsin-Madison Arboretum. The purpose of the experiment is to study competition used techniques for reclaiming degraded lands, between species by planting various combinations. and a wealth of literature on various forms of The results will be useful in developing techniques for reforestation exists (23,84). The potential for introducing ‘(difficult” species into prairies as they reforesting degraded forest land is especially are being restored and managed. great in the tropics (83), But restoring forests with diverse native species is seldom attempted. sively from agriculture techniques used in Instead, most programs use one or a few exotic prairies. One approach to restoring 2 to 40 hec- species, partly because of a lack of seeds and tares recommends plowing, followed by disk- techniques to propagate native trees and partly ing at intervals of a year to reduce weeds, fol- because of the cost-effectiveness of planting lowed by seeding with a mixture of prairie fast-growing tree species known to have com- species (56). In Crex Meadows, WI, restoration mercial value, of prairie plants and animals was possible with little intervention other than protection and The Santa Rosa National Park in Costa Rica controlled burning, because many native prai- is one of the few forest restorations that has rie species had apparently continued to grow, been undertaken. The area was a cattle ranch unobserved, for decades while the site was for- for 400 years, but since designation as a protected area, a dry forest ecosystem of native ested, Little information on the cost of prairie restoration is available. Up to now, much of species has been reestablished from seed the effort that has gone into restoring the high- sources on nearby mountain slopes, The prin- est quality prairies has depended heavily on cipal management technique has been to stop dedicated volunteers (4). the human-caused fires, allowing woody species to reinvade the pure grass pastures. The Although the technology of reclamation has restorative effect has now been proved and is developed rapidly in recent years, partly as a to be used in the proposed Guanacaste National result of legislation such as the Surface Mine Park (39). Control and Reclamation Act of 1977, restoration has not yet become an established dis- Prairie restoration offers a kind of prototype cipline. Restoration research and technology for the development and use of ecosystem res- development vary tremendously from one nat- toration. Restoration of prairies began early, motivated by concerns such as diversity and ural community to the next. community authenticity (43). Techniques de- The availability of seed and plant stock for veloped to restore prairies to moderately high varieties adapted to local conditions is a prob- levels of native plant diversity borrow exten- lem. Use of local seeds is not required by law, Ch. 5—Maintaining Biological Diversity Onsite ● 121

and the high cost of small, special seed collec- planting of shrubs costs from $5OO to $2,OOO tions often precludes use of local seeds in fa- per hectare in Utah, depending on whether vor of cheaper, nonlocal ones of relatively few bareroot or containerized stock was used (20). species (3 I ,54). Western nurseries and the Soil Hand-planting to simulate natural vegetation Conservation Service’s Plant Material Centers patterns would further increase costs. have responded to the demand for more native Establishing the same community that oc- plants, but many species still are not available curred on a site prior to disturbance is often commercially. For many that are available, not feasible because of the high cost and a lack germplasm is limited to specialized ecotypes of information regarding, for example, neces- or registered cultivars with limited value for sary conditions for seed germination and other restoration. aspects of survival and reproduction of native The cost of reclamation varies greatly, de- species. Although restoration technologies can- pending on the extent of disturbance, the ex- not quickly restore the diversity that existed be- tent of restoration, and the type of ecosystem. fore degradation, they can be used to break the The average cost of seeding for reclamation of cycle of resource degradation and to reestab- surface mines in seven Western States has been lish a community of indigenous organisms. estimated at $620 per hectare (in 1977 dollars) Normal plant and animal succession may even- (59). This estimate included fertilization, mulch- tually lead to a self-sustaining and relatively nat- ing, and irrigation (the most expensive com- ural ecosystem that provides most of the values ponent), The cost of earth-moving brought the of biological diversity. total bill to $10,000 per hectare. Mechanical

OUTSIDE PROTECTED AREAS Most of the discussion thus far has dealt with where traditional farming practices prevail. protected areas where maintaining biological Large proportions of these resources (5o per- diversity is a management objective. But the cent or more for many species) have not yet majority of biological resources are found out- been evaluated or collected for preservation off- side these areas. Few strategies have been de- site (5o). Germplasm collection programs focus signed yet for conserving diversity in nondesig- on the world’s major staple crops, so many spe- nated areas. Various resource conservation cies that are not yet widely grown are unlikely techniques with other objectives serve to en- to be preserved offsite. Both these and local va- hance biological diversity, however. rieties of major crops are threatened with extinction as they are replaced by modern varieties, which the economics of agriculture favor. Genetic Resources for Agriculture A diverse mix of local varieties theoretically Conservation of genetic variability outside protects traditional farmers from catastrophic protected areas is especially important because crop losses. And, with locally adapted varieties, so many crop varieties and livestock species farmers depend less on subsidized inputs, such and many of their wild relatives are not found as pesticides, fertilizers, irrigation equipment, in areas designated for protection, In addition, and processed animal feed. In many countries, evolutionary processes, such as crop-pest and traditional farmers appear to be motivated more crop-pathogen interactions, can continue. This by avoiding risk than by maximizing profit. type of conservation occurs when farmers have Nevertheless, as agricultural development oc- chosen to maintain traditional crop varieties curs, farmers are shifting to fewer varieties, and livestock breeds. modern methods, and higher profits. Crop varieties with a broad genetic base and One response to this trend is the recently wild relatives of crop plants are mainly located established program to monitor the remaining 122 ● Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity

collections of teosinte, a wild relative of maize ing on other income sources. They generally found only in Mexico, Guatemala, and Honduras, must turn to off-farm income or other, more The habitats for teosinte include some of Mex- modern areas of their farms. In developing ico’s best agricultural land, where it survives countries, where traditional farming is still ex- in narrow strips of untilled soil along stone tensive and crop and livestock diversity are fences bordering maize fields. As land use in- greatest, continued planting of nonprofitable tensifies, these strips are brought into cultiva- traditional varieties would probably have to be tion, And isolated stands of teosinte that inter- subsidized. breed with maize can be genetically “swamped” Such an approach is not without precedent. by the maize and lose their ability to disperse Native American farmers are paid to produce seed. Thus, teosinte populations with unique seed of traditional cultivars in Arizona by a non- genetic characteristics of potential value for profit organization, Native Seeds/SEARCH (58), maize breeding are threatened with extinction. In developing countries, similar programs Fortunately, the international agricultural re- might be administered by some of the same agri- search institute that focuses on maize, Centro cultural research organizations that maintain International de Mejoramiento de Maiz y Trigo offsite germplasm collections. But the agricul- (CIMMYT), is located near many of the sites tural research community has not identified this where teosinte still grows, The CIMMYT maize as a priority for their limited funds. At best, staff and colleagues in the Mexican and Guate- only a very small sample of diversity could be mala national maize research programs have maintained on subsidized traditional farms. It begun a monitoring program, The status of each seems that such subsidies would be as cost- teosinte population is checked annually. The effective as marginal improvements in offsite intention is to take preservation action when- collections. ever a recognized population is placed in immediate danger of extinction (9). Conservation As A Type Another way to safeguard genetic resources of Development outside protected areas would be to preserve traditional agriculture systems in selected re- Maintaining biological diversity by establish- gions. To do this, farming systems must become ing parks is becoming increasingly difficult be- more productive and produce more cash in- cause of demographic, economic, and politi- come. Presumably, higher productivity means cal pressures. The preservation approach to applying scientific methods for crop produc- conservation may become less common in the tion and genetic development but keeping the future, especially in tropical developing countries local varieties and livestock breeds. Some farm- where diversity seems to be most threatened. ing systems research does attempt this. For ex- As a consequence, conservation organizations ample, the Centro Agronomic Tropical de In- and conservationists within development orga- vestigaciones y Ensenanza has consulted with nizations, such as the Agency for International the Kuna people of northeastern Panama about Development (AID), the World Bank, and the agricultural development of their 60,000-hectare, Organization of American States (OAS), have indigenous-reserve area in the context of a park begun to promote the concept that biological project (91). Similarly, the International Coun- diversity can be conserved where natural re- cil for Research in Agroforestry in Africa trains sources are being developed if conservation is researchers to identify opportunities for mar- considered a development activity. ginal improvements in traditional farming sys- A recently published paper of the IUCN Com- tems. But such work is outside the mainstream mission on Ecology (64) supports this concept: of agricultural development and is at best a modest and poorly funded effort. The idea of basing conservation on the fate of particular species or even on the mainte- A complementary approach is for modern nance of a natural diversity of species will farmers to maintain diverse varieties while rely- become even less tenable as the number of Ch. 5—Maintaining Biological Diversity Onsite ● 123

threatened species increases and their refuges IRDP uses systems analysis and conflict reso- disappear. Natural areas will have to be de- lution methods to distribute the costs and ben- signed in conjunction with the goals of regional efits of development activities throughout af- development and justified on the basis of eco- fected populations or sectors. Integration of all logical processes operating within the entire the sectors—including maintenance of biologi- developed region and not just within natural cal diversity—is necessary because individual areas. sectoral activities may help, but often hinder, Conservation has long been a criterion in activities of other sectors aimed at appropriat- carefully planned development of agriculture, ing goods and services from the same or allied forestry, fisheries, grazing land, and other ecosystems. Decisions about which activities primary-industry development. But mainte- are appropriate or how each can be adjusted nance of biological diversity is relatively new to reduce conflict are made through negotia- as an explicit development objective. Some tion by parties representing all the sectors that innovative approaches are beginning to be im- are involved (67). plemented, including the use of conflict reso- A major constraint to considering diversity lution and systems analysis techniques in re- maintenance as a development activity is that source development planning. the benefits of diversity are hard to calculate. Integrated Regional Development Planning No economic valuation techniques exist that (IRDP), being used by the OAS (60,66), subdi- can capture its full value. Thus, biological diver- vides a region into small spatial units and ana- sity has not fared well under the standard cost- lyzes the sectoral interactions in each, in con- benefit analyses applied to development activ- trast to approaches that subdivide issues into ities, Although some efforts have been made sectoral components. IRDP addresses interac- to better account for biological diversity values, tions, like competition for the same goods or the results have been unsatisfactory and not services by two or more interest groups, and widely applied. (See ch. 11 for further discus- analyzes changes that occur in the mix of avail- s on of this topic. ) able goods and services as a result of activities in one sector that are detrimental to another sector.

DATA FOR ONSITE MAINTENANCE OF BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY

To set priorities and to allocate funds and sity, But more and better data on many aspects other resources, decisionmakers need to know of this subject are badly needed, and funding how various ecosystems contribute to biologi- for conservation falls far short of the needs im- cal diversity, how vulnerable they are to degra- plied by the apparent rates and consequences dation, how well protected they are by existing of diversity loss (see ch. 3). So investments must programs, and what the social and economic be concentrated on the most cost-effective ap- prospects are for local cooperation. Manage- proaches possible, which implies the need to ment programs need details on the nutrition, thoroughly understand the ecological, social, space, and reproductive requirements of organ- and economic aspects of biological diversity isms. Most such information comes from tax- (77). onomy, biogeography, natural history, ecology, anthropology, and sociology. For agricultural species, information is also needed on genetics, Uneven Quality of Information microbiology, seed technology, and physiology. The quality of data on biological diversity is Generally, enough is known to improve sub- uneven for different ecosystems and different stantially the programs for maintaining diver- parts of the world, For some places, such as 124 ● Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity tropical South America, data are rudimentary and theories are very tentative. For others, such as temperate North America, information is Efforts to collect biological information have well developed and theories have been exten- increased during the last two decades as a re- sively tested. The unevenness is in part due to sult of growing awareness of the importance data being collected for different purposes, of services provided by natural ecosystems and stored in different forms, and scattered among of the need for better use and management of different institutions. natural resources. Biological data are now collected and analyzed at the international, national, and local levels. Databases—the collec- In general, both data and theories regarding tions of data that are organized for further biological diversity are better for temperate than analyses—can be used to make onsite diversity for tropical biology; better for terrestrial than maintenance efforts substantially more ef- for aquatic sites; better for birds, mammals, and fective. vascular plants than for the lower classes of organisms; and better for the few major crop International databases provide overviews and livestock species used in modern agricul- that can identify potential gaps, status, and ture than for the many species used in tradi- trends of biological diversity worldwide. The tional agriculture. Taxonomic coverage is in- main international organizations involved in creasing, but the pace is slow relative to the collecting biological data are the United Na- quantity of unknown organisms. Each year tions Environment Programme (UNEP); the about 3 species of birds, 11 mammals, up to Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO); 100 fish, and dozens of amphibians and rep- United Nations Educational, Scientific, and tiles are identified for the first time (22,57). In- Cultural Organization (UNESCO); the Conser- sects are the largest order of organisms, and vation Monitoring Center (C MC) of the Inter- hundreds of species are newly identified an- national Union for the Conservation of Nature nually (57); nevertheless, estimates of the num- and Natural Resources (I UCN); the World Wild- ber of insect species not yet identified range life Fund/Conservation Foundation; The Na- from 1 to 30 million (18). ture Conservancy International (TNCI); and the International Council for Bird Preservation (10). Information needed to maintain diversity is (See ch. 10 for further discussion of interna- even more limited on the ecosystem and com- tional databases.) munity levels, partly because ecology is a youn- The utility of international databases has been ger discipline than taxonomy. Moreover, spe- limited because they are not readily available cies interactions within ecosystems are so to resource planners and other analysts who subtle that laborious, time-consuming field re- might use them to advise development decision- search is necessary to understand them. For makers. To resolve this problem, the UNEP’S example, the endangered red-cockaded wood- Global Environment Monitoring System (GEMS) pecker (Dezzdrocopus borealis) requires old- program is establishing a computerized Global growth longleaf and loblolly pine trees for nest- Resource Information Database (GRID). This ing. These pines persist in forest communities program will centralize access to numerous where occasional fires destroy the seedlings of environmental databases and will include train- other, more competitive species (5). Such fires ing in data analysis for developing-country par- require accumulation of appropriate fuel to ticipants. carry the kinds of fires that favor the two pine seedlings. Conservation of red-cockaded wood- DaTa for Management of Diversity peckers, therefore, entails conserving appropriate species to generate the right kind of vege- Biological data needed to plan management tation and litter on the forest floor. of diversity and other natural resources at the Ch. 5—Maintaining Biological Diversity Onsite ● 125

national level are collected by government located on already protected land, Inventory agencies, academic institutions, and research data are plotted on U.S. Geological Survey maps centers. Completeness of the information varies to analyze which lands are most important to from country to country. Several countries, protect and what impacts specific development such as Australia and Sweden, have compiled projects will have on diversity, comprehensive biological surveys of their flora In recent years a great deal of attention has and fauna. Other countries, such as the Soviet been given to the use of computers for manag- Union and China, and some international re- ing biological data. Data management is facili- gions, such as North, East, and West Africa, tated by the flexibility of the hardware and by have completed have made significant prog- or the many types of software on the market today, ress toward completing surveys of their flora. For example, Geographic Information Systems North America the only part of the north is tem- (GIS) being used by the Forest Service and perate that has neither synthesized the are zone the National Park Service to integrate databases data plant and animaI resources nor cre- on its with spatial information. This technique pro- ated national biological database (81). a duces overlay maps that have great potential In fact, the United States has abundant in- to aid efforts to maintain biological diversity formation on its biota at a regional or broad (figure s-q). At present such overlay maps are ecosystem level. But data acquisition is de- used to assess the extent to which ecosystem signed to serve the specific objectives of vari- diversity is being protected by combining de- ous organizations. As a result, many of the data- tails on ecosystem and species distribution with bases relevant to biological diversity are widely information on boundaries of various types of scattered, are often incompatible, and are in protected areas. International and nongovern- effect inaccessible to numerous potential users. ment agencies are also finding the technique The objective of maintaining biological diver- useful: GIS are a basic tool for GRID, The Na- sity has been only a tangential consideration ture Conservancy (TNC] has recently begun in most data-collection efforts. However, files using GIS in its international program, and on endangered species assembled by the Smith- IUCN’S Conservation Monitoring Center plans sonian Institution and the U.S. Fish and Wild- to acquire a system, once funding is secured life Service do address an important aspect of (33). species diversity directly. The data on biological diversity generated at The only comprehensive nationwide infor- the State level are being aggregated at the na- mation system dealing directly with both spe- tional level by TNC. The quality and quantity cies and ecosystem diversity is the national of information varies from State to State, a few aggregation of State Natural Heritage Program States do not yet have programs, and inventory data. This system is extensively used for deci- of species and communities that are not threat- sionmaking on acquisition, designation, and ened is just beginning. In spite of these limita- management of protected areas. tions, this is the most comprehensive national database on biological diversity, In many geo- The heritage program inventories are contin- graphic areas, TNC is the only institution col- ually updated through a system of information lecting data on rare, sensitive, or endemic re- gathering and ranking. They begin with a broad information search of secondary sources for sources that may require special management rare species and ecosystems. These are then to maintain their integrity as populations. In ranked, and further search, including field these areas, the heritage programs help to fill work, takes place for the rarest ones. The in- an important gap in biological data needed for the onsite maintenance of biological diversity. ventory is made up of a series of manual and computer files containing the species and eco- Selection among such data management tech- system’s classification, location, site where it nologies as the GIS depends on the financial occurs, land ownership of the site, and sites resources and the objectives of the organiza-

126 ● Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity

Figure 5-4.—Representation of a Geographic tion sponsoring the data collection. If the ob- Information System Function Overlavina Several - jective is to provide an overview of the status Types of Environmental Data and trends of biological diversity in large areas, then remote sensing with sample surveys on the ground for verification and analysis with GIS maybe the most cost-effective approach. Human settlements If the objective is to design a management plan for a particular area, detailed field surveys are necessary, but tools such as GIS may still prove valuable. For implementation of resource development, information on biological diversity at a Animal local, site-specific level is most important. Yet populations this is the level at which the quality of biological information is most variable. For some heavily studied areas, detailed field inventories and analyses of ecosystem interactions have been completed, whereas for others, especially the remote areas, often little detail of biological Vegetation diversity is known. Development of needed site- cover specific diversity data is constrained by the common attitude of land managers that diversity assessment is fundamental research that should be limited mainly to land areas where research is the designated major use. This is a problem even for agencies that are sensitive to the issue of biological diversity, such as the Water U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. resources Coordination The quantity of biological data may increase as information becomes easier to handle and less costly to acquire and maintain. Linking databases developed for different purposes can Soil types greatly increase their utility and thus their cost- effectiveness. Data incompatibility hinders such linking, however, making it necessary to reenter data manually at great cost, or more often to forgo the improved analysis that linked databases would allow. Data sharing in the United States among and within Federal agen- Base map cies frequently is constrained by a lack of standards. For example, different agencies generally use different terminology to define ecosystem types, This problem also exists at the international level, especially where classification SOURCE. United Nations Environmental Environment Mon- itoring Systems, Resource Databases (Nairobi: schemes used to aggregate data are not stand- GEMS Publication, 1985). ardized. Ch. 5—Maintaining Biological Diversity Onsite ● 127

Coordination of data-collection efforts can re- methods to describe population patterns. The- duce incompatibilities, lessen duplications, and ories on how population growth under various identify gaps in collection. For example, CMC circumstances affects biological diversity are and UNESCO plan to feed information into the lacking, however. GRID system. TNC’S regional databank has incorporated the classification system used by The status of biological diversity is greatly CMC to improve compatibility between the two affected by the supply and demand of raw ma- data systems (33). terials, agricultural commodities, and natural products. Natural-resource economic data and Coordination efforts at the U.S. Federal level analytical methods have been developed for have involved formal interagency cooperative other fields of resource management, such as agreements. (See OTA Background Paper #2, forestry, fisheries, and agriculture, but appli- Assessing Biological Diversity in the United cation of economics to issues of biological States: Data Considerations, for a description diversity has hardly begun. Some biologists and of these Federal interagency efforts to coordi- geographers have started to do economic anal- nate data collection and maintenance.) These yses, but few professional economists are in- efforts have resulted in recommendations and terested in biological diversity. guidelines for standardization of databases. Most agencies would have to invest some per- Data on technological change, especially in sonnel and funding to make their databases agriculture and pollution-causation and abate- compatible with those of other agencies, how- ment, are sometimes assessed as part of the ever, which may not occur without specific con- environmental-impact assessment process re- gressional mandates. quired when Federal funding is involved in resource development in the United States. Im- Social and Economic Data proved methods for such assessment have developed in the years since the National Envi- Human activities are the main cause of the ronmental Policy Act became law. But meth- accelerated loss of biological diversity, and suc- ods for technology-impact assessment are sorely cessful implementation of onsite maintenance lacking for other parts of the world, especially methods described in this chapter depends on for the tropical regions where diversity is most cooperation of people living on and near the threatened. land that is affected. Collection and analysis of social and economic data, therefore, are es- Social and political processes influencing sential to understanding the changing patterns how biological diversity is perceived and val- of biological diversity and to planning and im- ued are probably the least well-understood and, plementing conservation strategies (7). in the long run, the most important factors affecting success of onsite diversity mainte- The complexity of natural ecosystems rivals nance. Geographers, sociologists, anthropolo- the complexity of social and economic proc- gists, historians, and biologists who have ven- esses that affect them. Thus, socioeconomic re- tured outside their field of technical expertise search should be no less rigorous than the bio- have developed important descriptions of so- logical research. Unfortunately, social and cial factors affecting diversity maintenance at economic data are often the weak link in con- specific sites. But the analysis needed to de- servation planning. velop a broader understanding and theories Demography is a well-established social sci- from which to generalize has yet to be un- ence with reliable data sources, theories, and dertaken, 128 . Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity

NEEDS AND OPPORTUNITIES Onsite management of natural areas has usu- An Ecosystem Approach ally been focused on limiting the impacts of out- An ecosystem approach is necessary to main- side pressures. In multiple-use protected areas, tain biological diversity onsite for many rea- the technologies used to maintain biological sons: 1) because the numbers of threatened spe- diversity are mainly based on manipulation of habitats or populations to favor particular species and genetically distinct populations is so high, 2) because so little is known about life his- cies, These methods, many of which derive from the fields of natural history and wildlife tories or even the identity of many species, and 3) because many species are interdependent. management, are effective for the target spe- Yet attempts to develop and implement ecosys- cies. Biologists generally agree, however, that broad biological diversity values are not ade- tem approaches are few, quately served by species management alone. In the United States, development of onsite This approach necessarily concentrates on spe- maintenance technologies is largely the task of cies with immediate commercial or recreational Federal land-managing agencies, such as the value and lets too many others, with less obvi- National Park Service, the Forest Service, the ous values, perish if they do not happen to live Fish and Wildlife Service, and the Bureau of in the type of environment maintained for the Land Management. The mandates of these target species. Thus, technologies are needed agencies emphasize species- and habitat-ori- to maintain diversity at the ecosystem level, ented technologies. A shift toward more eco- Onsite maintenance technologies commonly system-oriented management would require policy changes within the agencies. Most, for have been developed in relatively well-known example, consider an inventory of an area’s bio- temperate zone ecosystems. Plant and animal logical diversity and the investigation of spe- communities in these ecosystems generally can recover from moderate human disturbances if cies interactions to be appropriate activities for basic research programs but not appropriate they are protected for years or decades. But bias pragmatic resource management activities. ologists are not sanguine about adapting these Changes in policies to encourage an ecosystem technologies to tropical and other ecosystems, approach to protected areas may not occur such as coral reefs, that are poorly known and without a congressional mandate directing that have much less natural ability to recover from disturbances, agencies to manage lands and bodies of water in a way that maintains ecosystem diversity. Although most existing onsite technologies An important strategy for maintaining diver- are focused on natural areas where develop- sity is to safeguard representative samples of ment is restricted, attention is beginning to be ecosystems from changes that would reduce directed beyond simple protected area pro- their diversity. The United States lacks a com- grams. Resource development planning methods that treat conservation as an integral part prehensive program for ecosystem diversity maintenance, although some efforts are being of economic and social development have been made through existing programs. The U. S.- devised and tested. These strategies hold prom- MAB program is attempting to establish sam- ise, but they need to be taken from the concep- ples of ecosystems in the United States. Because tual stage to practical implementation. the areas are identified on the basis of ecologi- The remainder of this chapter addresses these cal criteria rather than political boundaries, and other opportunities to improve the re- various Federal, State, and private organiza- search, development, and application of onsite tions must cooperate to implement the program technologies to maintain biological diversity. successfully, which may explain the sluggish Ch. 5—Maintaining Biological Diversity Onsite ● 129 .— —.— .

pace. Federal agencies could be directed to give support. Continued U.S. Government support more support to interagency and Federal, State, of UNESCO’s MAB program and ways to in- and private initiatives to support the MAB crease support for MAB in developing coun- agenda. tries could be explored in congressional committee hearings. The number and size of additional protected areas required for ecosystem diversity mainte- Integrated land management that includes nance are unknown. Extensive inventory pro- conservation in development activities is grams (e.g., the State heritage inventories of The another approach that should be encouraged. Nature Conservancy) have been initiated to de- The OAS Integrated Regional Development termine how to enhance coverage. But support planning could provide a model for other de- has been sporadic and progress is slow. TNC’S velopment assistance agencies, such as AID or State-level approach and mobilization of pri- the World Bank. vate sector support has been effective, so the Federal Government could continue to support this and similar programs. Long-Term Multidisciplinary Research International organizations, led by IUCN and the World Wildlife Fund/Conservation Foun- The most important problems affecting im- dation, are promoting conservation of samples plementation of biological diversity mainte- of the world’s ecosystems. The coverage of eco- nance efforts are not amenable to resolution systems, indicated by comparing protected by any one field of biology, or indeed by the areas to Udvardy’s biogeographical classifica- natural sciences alone. Biological diversity is tion system, is encouraging but still incomplete. so broad that its maintenance requires meth- The next major step will be to survey the de- ods from numerous disciplines, such as natu- gree of actual protection in the designated nat- ral history, population biology, genetics, and ural areas. Such surveys could also identify gaps ecology. In addition, many other factors—eco- in ecosystem protection at a finer biogeographic nomic, political, and social—contribute to de- level than Udvardy’s classifications, Better in- cisions about the sizes, shapes, and locations formation is needed, especially on aquatic eco- of protected areas, Application of social sci- system types such as coral reefs, to develop and ences to diversity maintenance, for instance, implement strategies for international ecosys- to help communicate the issue’s importance to tem conservation efforts. A U.S. Government decisionmakers at all levels, is probably the interagency task force could identify person- most needed research area, nel for this task and ways in which their work might serve the objectives of international con- The formation of a discipline called conservation biology is an encouraging sign of the sci- servat ion, entific community’s effort to start breaking down traditional barriers among disciplines Innovative Technologies for and in ways of approaching problems. The goal Developing Countries is to provide principles and tools for maintaining biological diversity, Signs that the new dis- Many onsite technologies have been devel- cipline is gaining momentum include establish- oped in industrialized, temperate zone coun- ment of a Center for Conservation Biology at tries, and thus, they may not be appropriate for Stanford University, the creation of a depart- developing countries’ ecosystems, which are mostly tropical and where the biological, so- ment of conservation biology at Chicago’s Brook- field Zoo, and the development of programs of ciopolitical, and economic situations are fun- damentally different, Hence, innovative tech- study at the University of Florida and at Mon- nologies are especially needed in these areas. tana State University. More recently, a professional Society for Conservation Biology with The biosphere reserves concept is one such its own journal, conservation Bioiogy, has been approach that appears to merit scrutiny and established. 130 ● Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity

As yet, the National Science Foundation and sity need to be based on accurate data and cor- other research funding organizations have not rect theories on the interactions among recognized the status of conservation biology numerous biological and human factors. Abun- as a discipline by according it a separate fund- dant data exist, especially for the temperate ing category. Its impact on resource manage- zone regions of the world. The data are being ment should increase as it gradually becomes used both to develop and improve theories re- recognized, encouraged, supported, and broa- garding biological diversity and to make spe- dened to include professional social scientists. cific decisions regarding resource management. However, use of the existing information Personnel Development is inefficient when data are not collected into readily accessible databases at the scale on A major constraint to maintaining diversity which decisionmakers operate. onsite is the shortage of personnel—taxonomists, social scientists, resource managers, and Thus, a significant opportunity to improve technicians with adequate training, motivation, onsite maintenance of diversity, both within and work experience. These individuals are and outside protected areas, is to support ac- needed to plan, manage, and explain the need celerated development of comprehensive data- to maintain biological diversity to decision- bases, which would include, for example, makers. Training and institutional development TNC’S State Natural Heritage Programs and its to provide employment opportunities for these international conservation data center pro- kinds of experts are sorely needed, particularly gram. It could also include development of a in developing countries. nationwide description and evaluation of all flora and fauna species in the United States, The number of plant taxonomists working in possibly under the auspices of TNC. the world today is estimated at 3,000, for example; but twice as many would probably be Large gaps in knowledge of tropical species needed for an adequate study of the world’s and ecosystems constrain the effectiveness of flora (12). Moreover, most taxonomists reside diversity maintenance efforts in developing in the temperate zone and only study species countries. Opportunities include increased de- there. velopment assistance support to build institutions and train scientists capable of accelerat- Even if money were available to train new ing progress in the fundamental sciences of taxonomists, job opportunities would have to taxonomy, natural history, and ecology. be provided to attract people to the field. The number of taxonomic positions in museums, Possibly the most severe information defi- herbaria, universities, and resource-managing ciencies relate to the poor understanding of agencies currently is low and may be falling, how social, political, and economic factors in- as research funds are directed at more popu- teract with biological diversity. A great need lar disciplines (e.g., molecular biology). It may exists for social scientists trained and employed be time for the museums and botanic gardens to develop information on how social and eco- to explore innovative ways to promote the field nomic conditions can be made conducive to of systematic biology. These institutions could onsite maintenance of biological diversity. Un- help by defining systematic biology’s role in the fortunately, this is a need difficult for biologists maintenance of biological diversity as a way and natural resource managers to address. It of making the discipline more appealing to po- requires new levels of interest and commitment tential specialists. from social science institutions.

Data To Facilitate Onsite Protection Decisions on where and how to apply various methods for onsite maintenance of diver- Ch. 5—Maintaining Biological Diversity Onsite ● 131

CHAPTER 5

1. Bailey, R.G. (compiler), Description of the Eco- (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1984). regions of the United States (Washington, DC: ln: Shaffer, 1985. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, 16. Diamond, J. M., “The Island Dilemma: Lessons Intermountain Region, 1978). In: Crumpacker, of Modern Biogeographic Studies for the Design 1985. of Natural Reserves, ” Biological Conservation 2. Bailey, R. G., Pfister, R. D,, and Henderson, J. A., 7:129-146, 1975. In: Shaffer, 1985. “Nature of Land and Resource Classification—A 17, Eidsvik, H., Director of Parks, Canada, personal Review,” ]ourna] of Forestry 76(10):650-655, communications, June 1986. 1978, 18, Erwin, T, L., “Tropical Forests: Their Richness 3. Belovsky, G., “Extinction Models and Mam- in Coleoptera and Other Arthropod Species, ” malian Persistence, ” Viable Populations for Co]eopterists’ Bulletin 36(1):74-75, 1982. Conservation, M. Soul: (cd.] (Cambridge, MA: 19, Eyre, F.H. (cd.), Forest Cover Types of the Cambridge University Press, forthcoming). United States and Canada (Washington, DC: So- 4. Betz, R., Northeastern Illinois University, per- ciety of American Foresters, 1980). sonal communications, 1985. In: Jordan, et al., 20, Fairchild, J., Utah Division of Wildlife Re- 1986. sources, Salt Lake City, UT, personal commu- 5, Bonner, F., U.S. Forest Service, Starkville, MS, nication, 1985. In: Jordan, et al., 1986. letter to OTA, May 1986. 21, Feller, W., “Die Grundlagen der Volterraschen 6. Brown, J. H., and Kodric-Brown, A., “Turnover Theorie des Kampfes urns Dasein in Warschein- Rates in Insular Biogeography: Effect of Im- lichkeistheoretischer Behandlung, ” Acta Bio- migration on Extinction, ” Ecology 58:445-449, theoretica 5:11-40, 1939. In: Shaffer, 1985. 1977, In: Soul~ and Simberloff, 1986. 22, Flesness, N., “Status and Trends of Wild Ani- 7. Brush, S., International Agricultural Develop- mal Diversity, ” OTA commissioned paper, ment Program, University of California, Davis, 1985, letter to OTA, June 1986. 23, Food and Agriculture Organisation of the 8. Butcher, G. S., Niering, W. A., Barry, W, J., and United Nations, Tree Growing by Rural People, Goodwin, R. H., “Equilibrium Biogeography and FAO Forestry Paper No. 64 (Rome: 1986). the Size of Nature Reserves: An Avian Case 24. Frankel, O. H., and Soul~, M, E., Conservation Study,” Oeco]ogia (Berl.) 49:29-37, 1981. In: and Evolution (Cambridge, MA: Cambridge NOSS, 1983. University Press, 1981). 9. Centro International de Mejoramiento de Mafz 25, Franklin, J. A., “Evolutional Change in Small y Trigo (CIMMYT), “Conservation of the Wild Populations,” Conservation Biology: An Evolu- Relatives of Maize, ” CIMMYT Research High- tionary-Ecological Perspective M.E. SOU16 and lights, 1985 (El Batan, Mexico: 1986). B.A. Wilcox (eds.) (Sunderland, MA: Sinauer 10. Collins, M., “International Inventory and Mon- Associates, 1980]. itoring for the Maintenance of Biological Diver- 26, Gentry, A. H., “Chapter 8: Endemism in Tropi- sity, ” OTA commissioned paper, 1985. cal versus Temperate Plant Communities, ” Con- 11. Conservation Foundation, National Parks for a servation Biology, M. Soul& (cd.) (Sunderland, New Generation: Visions, Realities, Prospects MA: Sinauer Associates, 1986]. (Washington, DC: Conservation Foundation, 27, Gilbert, F, S,, “The Equilibrium Theory of Island 1985). Biogeography: Fact or Fiction?” Journal of Bio- 12. Crosby, M., and Raven, P., “Diversity and Dis- geography 7:209-235, 1980. In: Shaffer, 1985. tribution of Wild Plants, ” OTA commissioned 28. Ginsburg, L., Slobodkin, L. B., Johnson, K,, and paper, 1985. Bindman, A. G,, “Quasi-extinction Probabilities 13. Crumpacker, D. W., “Status and Trends of the as a Measure of Impact on Population Growth, ” U.S. Natural Ecosystems, ” OTA commissioned Risk Analysis 2:171-181, 1982. In: Shaffer, 1985. paper, 1985. 29. Government of Zambia and IUCN, National 14, Dasmann, R., Wildlife Biology (New York: John Conservation Strategy for Zambia (Gland, Swit- Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1964). zerland: 1985). 15. Diamond, J. M., “Normal Extinctions of Isolated 30. Gregg, B., U.S. National Park Service, Washing- Populations, ” Extinctions, M.H. Nitecki (cd.) ton, DC, letter to OTA, Sept. 19, 1986. 132 ● Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity

31. Barrington, J,, University of Wisconsin, per- Bel Air, MD, personal communication, 1985. In: sonal communications, 1985. In: Jordan, et a]., Jordan, et al,, 1986. 1986, 45. Lande, R,, and Barrowclough, G. F., “Effective 32. Harris, L,, The Fragmented Forest (Chicago, IL: Population Size, Genetic Variation and Their University of Chicago Press, 1984). Use in Population Management, ” Viable Popu- 33. Harrison, J., “Status and Trends of Natural Eco- lations for Conservation, M,E, Soulb (cd.) (Cam- systems Worldwide, ” OTA commissioned pa- bridge, MA: Cambridge University Press, forth- per, 1985. coming). 34, Hayden, B. P., Ray, G. C., and Dolan, R., “Clas- 46, Levins, R., “Extinction,” Some Mathematical sification of Coastal and Marine Environ- Questions in Biology, Lectures of Mathematics ments,” Environmental Conservation 11(3):199- in the Life Sciences, vol. 2, M. Gerstenhaber (cd.) 207, 1984. (Providence, RI: American Mathematical Soci- 35. International Union for the Conservation of Na- ety, 1970). Jn: Shaffer, 1985. ture and Natural Resources, The United Nations 47. Love joy, T. E., Bierregaard, R. O., Jr., Rankin, List of National Parks and Protected Areas J, M., and Schubert, H. O. R., “Ecological Dy- (Gland, Switzerland: 1985). namics of Forest Fragments, ” Tropical Rain 36. International Union for the Conservation of Na- Forests: Ecology and Management, S.L. Sutton, ture and Natural Resources, National Conser- T,(;. Whitman, and A.C. Chadwick (eds.) (Ox- vation Strategies: A Framework for Sustainable ford, England: Blackwell Scientific Publications, Development (Gland, Switzerland: 1985). 1983). In: Shaffer, 1985. 37. International Union for the Conservation of Na- 48. Love joy, T. E., Rankin, J. M., Bierregaard, R. O., ture and Natural Resources, “Categories, Objec- Jr., Brown, K. S., Jr., Emmons, L. H., and Van der tives, and Criteria for Protected Areas, ” Na- Voort, M. E,, “Ecosystem Decay of Amazon For- tional Parks, Conservation, and Development: est Remnants, ” Extinctions, M.H. Nitecki (cd.) The Role of Protected Area in Sustaining Soci- (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1984). ety, Proceedings of the World Congress on Na- In: Shaffer, 1985, tional Parks, Bali, Indonesia, Oct. 11-22, 1982, 49. Love joy, T. E,, and Oren, D. C., “The Minimum J.A. McNeely and K.R. Miller (eds.) (Washing- Critical Size of Ecosystems, ” Forest IsZand Dy- ton, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1984). namics in Man-Dominated Landscapes, R.L. 38. International Union for the Conservation of Na- Burgess and D.M. Sharp (eds.) (New York: ture and Natural Resources, Categories, Objec- Springer-Verlag, 1981). In: Shaffer, 1985. tives, and Criteria for Protected Areas (Merges, 50. Lyman, T. M., “Progress and Planning for Germ- Switzerland: 1978). plasm Conservation of Major Food Crops,” 39, Janzen, D. H,, “Guanacaste National Park: Trop- Plant Genetics Resources Newsletter 60:3-19, ical Ecological and Cultural Restoration, ” a re- 1984. port to Servico de Parques Nacionales de Costa 51. Lynch, M. and Rey, C., “Diversity of Marine/ Rica from Department of Biology, University of Coastal Ecosystems,” OTA commissioned pa- Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, 1986. per, 1985. 40. Johannes, R. E., and Hatcher, B. G., “Chapter 17: 52. MacArthur, R. H., and Wilson, E. O., The The- Shallow Tropical Marine Environments, ” Con- ory of Island Biogeography (Princeton, NJ: servation Biology, M. Soul& and B. Wilcox (eds.) Princeton University Press, 1967). (Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates, 1986). 53. Margules, C., Higgs, A. J., and Rafe, R. W,, “Mod- 41. Johnston, V. R., “Breeding Birds of the Forest ern Biogeographic Theory: Are There Any Les- Edge in East-Central Illinois, ” Condor 49:45-53, sons for Nature Reserve Design?” Biological 1947. In: Ness, R,, “A Regional Landscape Ap- Conservation 24:115-128, 1982. proach to Maintain Diversity,” Bioscience 54. Matthiae, P., Assistant Coordinator of Natural 33(11):700-706, 1983. Areas, Wisconsin Department of Natural Re- 42. Jones, J. O., Espey, Houston & Associates, Inc., sources, personal communication, 1985. In: Jor- Austin, TX, personal communications, 1985. In: dan, et al., 1986. Jordan, et al., 1986. 55. McMahan, J. A., Nothing Succeeds Like Succes- 43, Jordan, W., Peters, R,, and Allen, E., “Ecologi- sion: Ecology and the Human Lot, 67th Faculty cal Restoration as a Strategy for Conserving Bio- Honor Lecture (Logan, UT: Utah State Univer- diversity,” OTA commissioned paper, 1986. sity Press, 1983). In: Jordan, et al., 1986. 44. Kollar, S. A., Jr., Hartford Community College, 56. Morrison, D. G., Use of Prairie Vegetation on Ch. 5—Maintaining Biological Diversity Onsite “ 133

Disturbed Sites, Transportation Research Rec- Design and Conservation of Nature Reserves, ” ord 822 Landscape and Environmental Design Biological Conservation (forthcoming). (Washington, DC: National Academy of Sci- 70. Schonewald-Cox, C. M., Chambers, S. M., Mac- ences, 1981). Bryde, B., and Thomas, W. L., Genetics and Con- 57. Myers, N., “Causes of Loss of Biological Diver- servation: A Reference for Managing Wildlife sity, ” OTA commissioned paper, 1985. Animal and Plant Populations (Menlo Park, CA: 58. Nabhan, G. P., “Native Crop Diversity in Arido- Benjamin Cummings Co., 1983). america: Conservation of Regional Gene Pools, ” 71 Shaffer, M., “The Minimum Viable Population Economic Botany 39:387-399, 1985. Problem” Viable Populations for Conservation, 59. National Research Council, Surface Mining: M. SOU16 (cd.) (Cambridge, MA: Cambridge Soil, Coal, and Society (Washington, DC: Na- University Press, forthcoming). tional Academy Press, 1981). 72. Shaffer, M., “Assessment of Application of Spe- 60. Organization of American States (OAS), OAS cies Viability Theories, ” OTA commissioned pa- General Secretariat, Integrated Regional Devel- per, 1985, opment Planning: Guidelines and Case Studies 73, Shaffer, M., “Determining Minimum Viable From OAS Experience (Washington, DC: 1984). Population Sizes for the Grizzly Bear, ” Inter- 61. Peine, J., Proceedings of Conference on the national Conference on Bear Research and Man- Management of Biosphere Reserves, Nov. 27- agement 5:1 33-139, 1983. 29, 1984, Great Smoky Mountains National 74 Shaffer, M., “Minimum Population Sizes for Park, Gatlinburg, TN. Species Conservation, ” Bioscience 31:1 31-134, 62. Prescott-Allen, R., “National Conservation Strat- 1981. egies and Biological Diversity, ” a report to the 75 Shugart, H., “Planning and Management Tech- International Union for the Conservation of Na- niques for Natural System s,” OTA commis- ture and Natural Resources, Conservation for sioned paper, 1985. Development Center, draft, February 1986. 76 Simberloff, D., “Biogeography: The Unification 63, Prescott-Allen, R., and Prescott-Allen, C., “Park and Maturation of a Science, ’ Perspectives in Your Genes: Protected Areas as In-Situ Gene- Ornithology, A.H. Brash and G.A. Clark, Jr. banks for the Maintenance of Wild Genetic Re- (eds.) (Cambridge, MA: Cambridge Uni~ersity sources, ” National Parks, Conservation, and De- Press, 1983). In: Shaffer, 1985. ~~elopmen t: The Role of Protected Areas in 77 Simon, J., and Wildavsky, A., “On Species Loss, Sustaining Societ~r, Proceedings of the World the Absence of Data, and Risks to Humanity, ” Congress on National Parks, Bali, Indonesia, The Resourceful Earth J. Simon and H. Khan Oct. 11-22, 1982, J.A. McNeely and K.R. Miller (eds.) (New York: Basil Blackwell Inc., 1984). (eds.) (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution 78, Soul~, M, E., and Simberloff, D,, “What Do Press, 1984). Genetics and Ecology Tell Us About the Design 64 Ricklefs, R. E., Naveh, Z., and Turner, R. E., of Nature Reserves?’ Biological Conser\’ation “Conservation of Ecological Processes, ” The 35:19-40, 1986. Environmentalist 4(8), 1984. 79 SOU16, M. E., and Wilcox, B. A., Conservation Bi- 65. Salm, R. V., Marine and Coastal Protected Areas: ology: An Ecological-E\ ’olutionary Perspectit’e A Guide for Planners and Managers (Gland, (Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates, 1980). Switzerland: International Union for the Con- 80 Stenseth, N, C., “Where Have All the Species ser~’ation of Nature and Natural Resources, Gone? on the Nature of Extinction arid the Red 1984]. Queen Hypothesis,” Oikos 33:196-227, 1979. In: 66. Saunier, R., “Environment and Development Shaffer, 1985, A Future Together?” Development Forum 81. Synge, H. “Status and Trends of Wild Plants, ” 11 (8), 1983. OTA commissioned paper, 1985. 67, Saunier, R., and Meganck, R., “Compatibility 82 Thorsell, J. W,, “The Role of Protected Areas in of Development and the In-Situ Maintenance of Maintaining Biological Diversity in Tropical De- Biological Diversity in Developing Countries, ” veloping Countries, ” OTA commissioned paper, OTA commissioned paper, 1985. 1985. 68. Schlosser, S., “The Use of Nature Reserves for 83 U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assess- in Situ Conser\’ation, ” Plant Genetic Rt;SOUIT;CS ment, Technologies To Sustain Tropical Forest ,%reJ%’slctter 61 ;23-24, 1 g85. Resources, OTA-F214 (Washington, DC: U.S. 69. Schonewald-Cox, C. M., and 13ayless, J. W., “The Government Printing Office, March, 1984). Boundary Approach: A Geographic Analysis of 84 U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, 134 . Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity

An Annotated Bibliography of Surface-Mined Management, “Burro Creek Riparian Manage- Area Reclamation Research (Washington, DC: ment Plan” (Washington, DC: May 1983). 1985), 89. Wilcove, D. S., McLellan, C. H., and Dobson, 85. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, A. P., “Chapter 11: Habitat Fragmentation in the Wildlife Habitats in Managed Forests: The Blue Temperate Zone,” Conservation Biology, M. Mountains of Oregon and Washington, USDA Soule (cd.) (Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associ- Pub. No. 5531979 (Washington, DC: 1979). ates, 1986). 86. U.S. Department of Commerce, National 90. Wilcox, B. A., “Insular Ecology and Conserva- Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Na- tion,” Conservation Biology: An Evolutionary- tional Marine Sanctuary Program: Program De- Ecological Perspective, M,E. Soul& and B.A. velopment PZan (Washington, DC: 1982). Wilcox (eds.) (Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Asso- 87. U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wild- ciates, 1980). life Service, “Selkirk Mountain Caribou Man- 91. Wright, R, M., Houseal, B., and De Leon, C., agement Plan” (Washington, DC: 1985). “Kuna Yala: Indigenous Biosphere Reserves in 88. U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land the Making?” Parks 10(3):25-27, 1984. .

Chapter 6 Maintaining Animal Diversity Offsite CONTENTS

Page Highlights . . . . **. **** .*. .*. .*** .*** .*** . *e****....*...*****..*****. 137 overview ● ● ● ● ● ● ● $ ● ● ● ● ● ● * . ● ● ● ● ● ● ● . . ****...**...**.****************** 137 Objectives of Offsite Maintenance Efforts ...... 137 Breeding Programs v. Long-Term Cryogenic Storage ...... 138 Sampling Strategies .*** **. ****, *.** **** .*. ***. ... *.** *.** .. *******0. 142 Identification of Candidates for Conservation...... 142

Preservation and Collection Considerations ● **,,*,.*..****.***,*,***. 144 The Movement of Germplasm—I)isease and Quarantine Issues ...... 145 Maintenance Technologies ...... 148 Storage Technologies...... 148 Breeding Technologies ...... 149 Development and Utilization Technologies...... 156 Needs and Opportunities ...... 157 Wild Animals ...... 157 Domestic Animals ...... 159 Chapter preferences . . ..*.**. ● *****,* ..*****. ● .****** ● *..***. .*.*.. 163

Tables

Table No. Page 6-1. General Guidelines for Intervention To Conserve Natural Populations ...... 143 6-2. Criteria for Classifying Domestic Breedsas Endangered .***.*. ● ..*.* 143 6-3. Captive Animals Required for a Fixed Proportion of Genetic Diversity Over a Number of Generations ...... 149 6-4. Successful Artificial Insemination in Nondomestic Mammals ...... 154

Figures Figure No. Page 6-1. Transcontinental Embryo Transfer ...... 154 6-2. Embryo Transfer Flowchart ...... 155

Boxes

BoxNo. Page

6-A. Breeds .*$*?** ...... 00 ● ,**.*,. ● ..**?*...... ,.,...... 138 6-B. Replacement and Genetic Diversity ...... ’...... 139 6-C. Genetic Drift and Inbreeding ...... 150 6-D. Embryo Transfer ...... 153 6-E. Captive Breeding and Przewalski’s Horse ...... 156 —

Chapter 6 Maintaining Animal Diversity Offsite

Offsite maintenance of animal diversity includes selective breeding of wild or domestic species and safeguarding genetic diversity through cryopreservation. For wild animals, the programs reinforce rather than replace efforts to maintain diversity onsite. For domestic animals, programs try to maximize usefulness of the animals while preserving their ability to adapt to changing human needs. Cryogenic storage could make a considerable contribution to the maintenance of animal diversity. Properly frozen and maintained, sperm and embryos have an expected shelf-life of hundreds of years. Although initial collection and preservation costs are relatively high, subsequent storage costs and space requirements are low. The number of individual animals required to start a captive population or a cryogenic store depends on a host of factors. Retaining 99 percent of a source population’s genetic diversity for 1,000 generations could require up to 50,000 animals, far too many to be practical under captive management. At a minimum, however, several hundred individual animals are required for captive breeding programs. Breeding programs require the international transfer of animals, which risks spreading pests and diseases. For most wild species, regulatory controls are virtually nonexistent. Stringent controls are in place, however, for importing domestic animals. Advances in diagnostic procedures and germplasm transfer technologies are expected to’ facilitate the international movement of animals. No organized program exists, either in the United States or Internationally, to sam-pie, evaluate maintain, and use available sources of animal germplasrn. Such a program is needed, in addition to programs to understand the reproductive processes of wild animals, to develop local expertise in reproductive biology and quantitative genetics, and to increase the number of captive maintenance and breeding facilities.

OVERVIEW

Objectives Offsite extent of control can vary considerably, but the Maintenance Efforts decision to remove individual animals from a natural habitat implies a major increase in hu- Offsite maintenance of animal diversity is de- man involvement in propagation of a popu- fined as propagation or preservation of animals outside their natural habitat. The programs in- lation. volve control by humans of the animals cho- Captive maintenance of wild species has be- sen to constitute a population and of the mat- come progressively more important as increasing choices made within that population. The ing numbers of species are threatened or en-

137 138 . Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity dangered in their natural habitats. These programs can be considered holding actions designed to reinforce rather than replace wild populations. If a natural population is deci- mated or lost, captive maintenance programs provide a reservoir of individuals to allow reintroduction. The genetic diversity of the original population must not be lost or seriously reduced during captive maintenance if animals are expected to be able to readapt to life in the wild. Likewise, genetic changes that may be induced during captive maintenance must be minimized. Reciprocal transfers of individuals between wild and captive populations can help reduce genetic pressures. Such exchanges, however, involve the capture of wild animals, and they risk the accidental death of some of them. Therefore, risks should be evaluated carefully before beginning a program of genetic exchanges between wild and captive populations. For domestic species, all populations are by definition maintained offsite. Most of these animals have existed in association with humans for centuries, and their current genetic diversity is a reflection of this long interaction. Their genes have been manipulated through generations of selective breeding to meet the diverse needs of humans, and this manipulation has led to a wealth of specialized breeds (boxes 6- A and 6-B). Some wild progenitors of domestic species still differ so much from domestic populations that they exist as a reservoir of genetic diversity, but these natural populations are unlikely to contribute much to current commercial stocks through traditional breeding methods. The aim of programs to maintain genetic diversity in livestock differs somewhat from that for wild animals. In domestic populations, genetic diversity that may be important to fu- the challenge is to maximize current utility and ture generations. preserve sufficient diversity to ensure livestock’s continued adaptability to changing— Brooding Programs v. Long-Term and often unforeseen—human needs. In fact, Cryogonic Storage efforts to raise current rates of food production may constitute the greatest threat to future Using captive breeding programs to retain flexibility by concentrating unduly on short- a considerable proportion of the genetic diver- term production goals with attendant losses in sity of endangered species or rare breeds for Ch. 6—Maintaining Animal Diversity Offsite ● 139

Box MI.”mpkwnfa tad Gaasatk ~* Tmditiondly, breed rephwxnent has pmceedd OXl an evoktionmytime male, with fp’adud *e$ inbreed composition and provision for ~ca of % Wdth Of kd -tkma. WXitiy, however, the pace of breed repiacemen * has aixmkatad, with the of multinational breeding companies in poultry and swine, the use of artificial and intensifiwi sire selection in dairy cattle, and enhanced for Qfgempiasm throughout the world. Aiso, greater standardization of production, marketing, and remrding procedures for j=dtry, swim, and dairy cattle in industrial Gantries be increasingly prmnotad repkement of local breeds. In domestic species, the greatest threat to genetic diversity involves extensive and sometimes indiscriminate crossing of indigenous @ocks in developing countries with breeds from North Amer- ica and Western Europe [3). This crossing stmna from needs to !nct~se world food production and from a belief that this goal is best met using poesible genetic merit for individual traits (such as milk or egg production). But breeds developed in @n~te-zone industrial countries are often not suited to the more restrictive r@Kkmai, m~mt, and disease conditions of developing countries and may be less efficiant than indigenous #ocka in wing available resources. Only recently has the need for comprehaneive evaluation td!timtotal of imported breeds begun to be recognized in developing countries. Unf@tun@ely, serious dilution of original breeds may have already occurred. ~us, it is not the process of breed repkmnmt mr se ~at iS a problem but the rate of replacement and the dangw that useful breeds maybe discarded before they can be fairly evaluated. Regional strains of established breeds are especiallyvuhmrablato lose through intercrossing with more popuIar strains. Extensive use of Hokdnbuils fkorn North Amwica in European Friesian populations threatens serioua dilutiori of the gewtic material of theae strains. The percentage of Holstein genes in young Friesian bulls entering European artificial inaemin@ion programs in 1982 ranged from 8 percent in Ireland to 91 percent in Switzerland and weqpl 54 percent for 10 European countries (4). Genetic diversity can sometimes be reduced in commercial stocks even if population numbers remain large. These losses can occur when selection is intense and control of breeding stock is concentrated in a few large breeding farms (as in the commercial pouhry industries] or when artificial insemination allows extensive use of a few seiected sires throughout the population (as in the dairy industry). In both cases, the resuk is increased genetic uniformity within the stock despite the large numbers. Several studies (3,25) have concluded that important kwms may ba occurring in commercial poultry breeds. Comparable losses have apparently not yet happened in dairy Mttie populations. No imminent losses of genetic diversity within major comnwrcial tweeds are foreseen for mvine, sheep, goats, or beef cattle. Several populations of chickens are currently being maintained without selection and at dficient population sizes to substantially retard losses in genetic diversity (42). And some artificial insemina tion organizations retain semen from bulls that have been removed from service. However, these programs do not represent industry or public policy, and parallel programs do not exist for other domestic species. The Ioss of endangered species and ram breeds is of particubw ooncarn in light of likely fiture advances in molecular biology and geneticti. The abiiity @ mtfraet dedrabla genes from different qM- cies or less productive_ ad inM@ th~~ hto &mastic animals could have important implications for designing superior mbals fb~ a~ifk amdromrmnt“ al ao~ Unfortunately, knowi- edge of the @metic material of_ av!$d @ @ rudinwrttary. For instance, it is unclear if adaptive f&t@l’s - **“ are controlled by many or a few g-,@= Wd# m - to ~.. aflocal braeda and endangered _. - + . ., 140 ● Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity a substantial period of time requires relatively large numbers of animals. Under the most favorable assumptions, maintenance of 90 to 95 percent of the genetic diversity within a population for 100 to 200 generations would require a captive population of at least several hundred individuals sampled from throughout the range of the species (15,27). Until relatively recently, zoos have not been concerned with keeping representative levels of genetic diversity within their exhibition stock. Problems in fertility and juvenile survival that often accompany exhaustion of genetic diversity were simply accommodated by obtaining new specimens from the wild. As this be- Photo credit. American Breeders Serwce came difficult, and in some cases impossible, This calf, born in 1984, was conceived with semen that zoos began to reevaluate their role. The result had been frozen for 30 years. has been establishment of programs to maintain pedigree information on zoo animals transfer has become commercially viable and through the International Species Inventory increasingly involves the use of frozen embryos. System (ISIS) and to facilitate transfer of indi- Commercial use of frozen semen and embryos viduals among zoos. These efforts help main- is less common in other livestock species, but tain genetic diversity, but existing zoos can sup- acceptable results can be achieved. Frozen se- port at most 1,000 kinds of terrestrial men is also regularly used with poultry and with vertebrates at a minimum population of 250 (2), some species of fish (18). whereas an estimated 1,500 to 2,000 kinds will be in danger of extinction by the year 2050 (43). Cryopreservation of sperm and embryos of The magnitude of the problem will thus out- wild species has been much more limited. To run currently available facilities for captive date, blackbuck, giant panda, fox, wolf, chim- breeding. panzee, and gorilla have been produced from frozen semen (7,9,38); baboon (37) and eland Recent advances in reproductive biology and (8), as well as mice, rats, and rabbits, have been cryopreservation may facilitate efforts to pre- produced from frozen embryos. Procedures dif- serve genetic diversity. Cryopreservation refers fer among species, but in theory, semen and to storage below – 1300 C: water is absent, embryos from a range of mammalian species molecular kinetic energy is low, and diffusion can now be successfully frozen. is virtually nil. Thus, storage potential is expected to be extremely long. Storage in liquid The contribution of cryopreservation to the nitrogen ( — 1960 C) or in the vapor above it (ea. maintenance of animal diversity could be – 1500 C) is a useful technique: Liquid nitro- tremendous. Properly frozen and maintained, gen is relatively inexpensive, inert, and safer sperm and embryos have an expected shelf-life than comparable refrigerants (e.g., liquid hydro- of hundreds, if not thousands, of years. Al- gen, liquid oxygen, or freon). though initial collection and preservation costs may be relatively high, subsequent storage costs Storage and eventual production of live off- and space requirements are low, allowing for spring from frozen semen or embryos have belong-term maintenance of large numbers of income common for cattle, sheep, goat, buffalo, dividuals and gametes. and horse. The semen of pigs can also be frozen. In 1982, an estimated 10.5 million cattle These individuals represent a frozen snap- were produced through artificial insemination shot of the population at the time of collection. with frozen semen. Similarly, bovine embryo If the initial sampling of individuals is done

Ch. 6—Maintaining Animal Diversity Offsite ● 141

I .

of San The frozen zoo: Cryogenic storage of cell strains, gametes, and embryos is being undertaken as part of the conservation activities of zoos. properly, the procedures should allow regener- 2,000 years of normal storage without appar- ation of the original population without the ent ill effects (16). Normal progeny were genetic changes inherent in the maintenance produced. Thus, risks of genetic damage from of captive breeding populations. background radiation appear negligible. The long-term genetic stability of frozen em- Just as captive breeding programs reinforce bryos and sperm is a matter of some concern. rather than replace natural populations, cryo- Freezing and thawing does not appear to in- preservation efforts reinforce rather than re- crease the mutation rate in these tissues, but place captive breeding programs. In wild spe- long-term exposure to low levels of radiation cies, females must still be available to gestate could be a problem, especially because DNA frozen embryos or to provide female gametes repair mechanisms would be inoperative at in matings involving frozen semen. In domes- – 1960 C (l). Mouse embryos and semen have tic species, breeding populations selected for been kept frozen for at most 10 and 30 years, biologically or economically important traits respectively. However, frozen mouse embryos may still be required, but cryogenic storage of also have been exposed to augmented levels of individuals from the original population pro- radiation equivalent to that experienced in vides a valuable measure of insurance. Periodic 142 ● Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity sampling and preservation of gametes or em- technologies for embryos are well developed bryos from rare breeds allow a repository of only in certain domestic mammals. Similar genetic diversity to be maintained. techniques are needed for birds, reptiles, amphibians, fish, and invertebrates. Two caveats must be kept in mind regarding the role of cryopreservation of gametes and em- Second, cryopreservation of gametes and embryos. First, considerable development work bryos should not bean llth-hour effort to pro- is required to extend the techniques to cover tect seriously endangered species. Restraining the full range of endangered populations. For wild animals to collect semen or embryos is wild animals, reliable procedures for collect- risky. Some animals die, which entails an un- ing, freezing, and using semen and embryos acceptable risk if the species is already rare. have to be developed further and validated for Therefore, research and the collection of gametes each species or group of species to ensure that and embryos from many sources should begin sufficient levels of genetic diversity can be before the populations become endangered. regenerated from the frozen store. Preservation

SAMPLING STRATEGIES Efficient programs for offsite maintenance The blue whale is an example of a species of animal genetic diversity require a mecha- that cannot be maintained in captivity. nism for monitoring existing populations—to 3. Uniqueness: Given limited facilities for identify when and if intervention is required— captive propagation, programs must try to and procedures for sampling threatened pop- represent as much available taxonomic ulations in a way that ensures desired levels diversity as possible. Thus, endangered of genetic diversity within the conserved pop- species that are the only representative of ulation. their genus, family, or order would receive high priority. Identification of Candidates Subspecies present a special problem. Most for Conservation wild species have several distinct forms or races, analogous to the breeds found in domes- Three criteria are generally considered when tic animals. These subspecies usually cannot selecting wild species for captive propagation all be maintained as discrete breeding popula- or preservation (35): tions. Instead, captive propagation programs

10 Endangerment in the Wild: Information on need to concentrate on one or two representa- the status of wild animals is probably best tive subspecies or amalgamate several of them obtained from the Species Conservation into a single interbreeding population. Cryo- Monitoring Unit (SCMU) of the Interna- genic preservation of semen or embryos would tional Union for the Conservation of Na- facilitate conservation of these identifiable sub- ture and Natural Resources at Cambridge species. University in England. Funding con- Table 6-1 provides some general guidelines straints tend to limit the scope and timeli- for monitoring and intervention to conserve a ness of SCMU information, however. Lo- cal and regional organizations may also natural population. Such an approach has three important advantages: provide useful information, but their effectiveness varies widely. 1, a sample of the source population can be 2. Feasibility in captivity: Lack of facilities obtained before substantial loss of genetic and expertise may preclude captive breed- diversity has occurred; ing or cryogenic storage of some species. 2, conflict over capture and restraint of rare —

Ch. 6—Maintaining Animal Diversity Offsite ● 143

Table 6-1 .—General Guidelines for intervention der the auspices of the United Nations Envi- To Conserve Natural Populations ronment Programme, Regional efforts are Likelihood Number of directed by the European Association for Ani- of extinction animals Action mal Production, the Society for the Advance- Possible fewer than At least, serious surveillance ment of Breeding Researchers in Asia and 100,000 of status and trends should Oceania, the InterAfrican Bureau for Animal be initiated Resources, the International Livestock Centre Probable fewer than Well-managed captive propa- 10,000 gation programs should be for Africa, and the Asociacion Latinoamericana establ i shed; reproductive de Production Animal (12). Comparable efforts technology research should in North America have been less comprehen- be vigorously conducted; and germinal tissues should sive and limited to private organizations such be collected for storage as the American Minor Breeds Conservancy. while there are an adequate number of animals to use as At least 700 unique strains of cattle, sheep, founders, subjects, and pigs, and horses have been identified in Eur- donors ope alone, and 241 of these are considered en- Certain fewer than Off site programs should be 1,000 intensified while onsite ef- dangered, under the criteria detailed in table forts are fortified for a “last 6-2 (30). public support for maintenance of all stand”; off site programs are these breeds is not feasible, and choices will imperative have to be made. Two considerations have been Imminent fewer than Off site programs become as 500 important as onsite efforts suggested for choosing among competing do- sOIJRcE D R Netter and T J Foose, “Concepts and Strategies To Maintain mestic breeds (39): Domestic and Wild Animal Germ Plasm,” OTA commissioned paper, 1985 1. the breed exists as a closed population, and a similar population does not exist else- individuals, e.g., the California condor, can where; or be avoided by taking action before extinc- 2. the breed exhibits a specific genetic value, tion is imminent; and such as superiority in some production 3, if techniques for semen and embryo pres- trait, the existence of a major gene (i.e., a ervation are not well developed, material gene with a known effect on some physio- can be made available for experimentation, logical characteristic), or the expression of a unique characteristic of potential im- For the rare breed of a domestic species, identifying candidates for conservation involves portance. assessment of uniqueness, potential economic In the selection of threatened breeds, charac- contribution, and degree of endangerment, terization and evaluation are critical first steps Monitoring the status of domestic animal (35), Ideally, breeds would be assessed in their breeds used for food and fiber production is native environments and would be evaluated somewhat coordinated by the Food and Agri- as both pure breeds and as crosses with other culture Organisation of the United Nations, un- indigenous and improved breeds. This evalua-

Table 6-2.—Criteria for Classifying Domestic Breeds as Endangered

Number of active femalesa Species Number of active males Stable population Decreasing population Cattle ...... fewer than 20 fewer than 1,000 1,000 to 5,000 Sheep ...... fewer than 20 fewer than 500 500 to 1,000 Goats ...... fewer than 20 fewer than 500 500 to 1,000 Pigs ...... fewer than 20 fewer than 200 200 to 500 aThe risks associated with a decreasing population were deemed to be greater than those associated with a stable population Therefore, larger numbers were suggested for a decreasing population SOURCE Adapted from K Maijala, A V Cherekaez, J,M. Dewllard, Z. Reklewskl, G Rognoni, D,L Simon, and D E. Steane, “Cons ewat!on of Animal Genetic Resources In Europe, Final Report of an E A A P Working Party, ” Lj~esfOck PfOdUCf/0~ Sc/erIce 11 :3..22, 1984 144 ● Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity tion, often lacking for threatened breeds within as more productive breeds prove them- developing countries, can be extremely impor- selves. tant. In the absence of a formal evaluation, bib- liographic databases may provide some needed Preservation and Collection information (12). Following the evaluation, Considerations breeds can be put in one of four categories: The number of individual animals required 1, Useful under current economic conditions. to initiate a captive population or a cryogenic Such stocks should be integrated into the store will depend on the nature and extent of production system in a way that uses their the genetic diversity to be maintained, on the genetic material in pure lines, crosses, or population structure in nature, and on the rate selected gene pools. Pure lines should be at which the captive population reproduces. maintained with selection for net merit in production systems that are characteris- The Natural Extent of tic of commercial production within the The Genetic Diversity country of origin or preserved cryogenically if maintenance as a pure line is im- Both natural and artificial selection reflect possible. different fitness or reproductive success for in- 2. Viable under current economic conditions dividuals carrying different genes and lead to in relation to other indigenous types, but changes in the frequencies of those genes in inferior (in pure lines or in crosses) to im- a population. The diversity of genes in a large, proved types; no obvious biological ex- interbreeding population may be quite exten- treme or major gene. Germplasm preser- sive, with different individuals possessing a vation in such populations could have two somewhat different genetic composition. It is rationales: preservation of frozen semen this diversity that enables populations to adapt or embryos to prevent total loss of the germ- to environmental changes. Indeed, preserving plasm and as insurance during a period of the evolutionary potential of the species re- breed replacement with the improved quires the maintenance of these possibly use- types, or maintenance as pure lines for ful genes. their cultural-historical value at the option The objective in sampling a source popula- of local governments and producers. A tion, then, should be to obtain a group that rep- dual philosophy exists here–a unique pop- resents the bulk of its genetic diversity. Fewer ulation should not be discarded until its animals are required to obtain an adequate ini- inferiority is documented, but preservation tial sample of a population’s diversity than are should not hinder use of improved breeds. required to ensure continued maintenance of 3, Not competitive under current economic that diversity over time. Thus, 20 to 30 founder conditions; possesses an extreme pheno- animals should provide an adequate sample of type for one or more traits or carries a ma- the genetic diversity in most interbreeding pop- jorgene. Such breeds should be conserved ulations (6,43), but much larger subsequent pop- cryogenically or as pure lines. Research use ulation sizes are required to prevent erosion should be encouraged, and selection to in- of this diversity over time. tensify the extreme phenotype should be considered. In terms of cryopreservation, enough frozen 4. Not competitive with existing adapted semen to produce 10 live offspring from each types; not a biological extreme; no major of 25 sires, which would require 50 to 100 units genes for production traits. No particular of semen per sire, would constitute a good sam- efforts should be made to conserve such ple of an interbreeding source population (40). breeds unless they can be documented as The Council for Agricultural Science and Tech- unique in their genetic origin. Stocks could nology recommends production of 40 to 80 off- move from the second category to this one spring from frozen embryos representing 20 or Ch. 6—Maintaining Animal Diversity Offsite 145

more unrelated parents (3). Assuming a preg- tifiable protein molecule, genetic differences nancy rate of 30 percent and a subsequent sur- can be identified by the behavior of the pro- vival rate of 80 percent, 167 to 333 frozen em- teins on an electrically charged (electropho- bryos would be required for each breed. retic) gel. Electrophoretic testing procedures help identify the existence and distribution For particularly rare breeds, too few individ- various genes in different subpopulations. uals may be available to comply with these rec- of Rapid advances in molecular biology hold ommendations. Although a viable population also promise DNA probes that would directly can be established with as few as 4 to 10 ani- of as- similarity of DNA molecules among mals, such a population may differ considera- sess the subpopulations. In domestic animals, however, bly in genetic composition from the unendan- differential selection pressures result in gered source population, and it may have an may considerable genetic variation among breeds impaired ability to respond to future changes with similar evolutionary origins. in environment. Initiation of a captive population with only a few founders could be justified if a reasonable likelihood exists of obtain- Roproductive Rate ing additional individuals from the wild at some future point. Reductions in diversity are cumulative over generations in small populations, so the losses Population Structure in Nature associated with a single sampling event are much than that would accumulate Most domestic and wild populations exist as lower those time if population size remained groups of semi-isolated subpopulations. The ex- over the at the founder number. captive breed- tent of this subdivision differs among species As soon as a ing population started, therefore, should and influences the sampling process in devel- is it expanded consistent with continued oping a captive population. If the population be to a size maintenance available genetic diversity. is strongly subdivided, genes present in one sub- of the If reproductive rate high, maintenance population may be absent in others, and sam- the is can be achieved rapidly and with only a few pling must attempt to include individuals from founders, If the reproductive rate is low, sev- all major subgroups. According to one calcu- eral intervening generations at limited population, the recommended 20 to 30 founder ani- lation size will be required to reach eventual mals can be decreased by about one-third if the target numbers, and more founders will be population exists as a small number (2 to 10) needed to assure retention of genetic diversity of very distinct subpopulations, but it should during this period. Sample sizes for cattle have be increased by about one-third if 50 to 100 dis- been suggested to be twice those required for tinct subgroups exist (35). pigs, sheep, and goats, for example (3). One Current assessment of genetic diversity advantage of cryogenic preservation would be among subpopulations must be based on bio- that the period of population expansion can be chemical, historical, morphological, and eco- deferred until appropriate facilities and habi- logical criteria. For genes that produce an iden- tat are available,

MOVEMENT OF GERMPLASM-DISEASE AND QUARANTINE ISSUES

For many reasons, effective programs for insufficient to allow endangered species to be conservation of endangered populations will conserved onsite, and animals may have to be require extensive international transfer of transferred to countries better equipped to sup- germplasm. First, facilities, funds, and institu- port captive breeding programs. Second, with tional stability in developing countries maybe wild animals, effective maintenance of genetic 146 ● Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity diversity within captive populations will re- diseases transmissible to livestock and have quire the international transfer of animals for importation requirements similar to those of breeding purposes. And third, the optimum use domesticated livestock, but also must remain of domestic animal germplasm for food pro- in permanent post-entry quarantine in U.S. De- duction depends on the international move- partment of Agriculture (USDA)-approved fa- ment of desirable breeds and strains to coun- cilities. They can be moved from one USDA- tries where they may be useful. approved zoo to another, however, and their offspring can be transferred to nonregulated International transport of animal germplasm facilities. is accompanied, however, by the risk of introducing and spreading disease agents and vec- Current efforts to control introduction of for- tors, many of which could have an enormous eign diseases center on combined strategies of impact on animal productivity. Indeed, trans- blood (serological) testing and quarantine. Some porting animal germplasm without appropri- tests are designed to detect antibodies to spe- ate safeguards could jeopardize the conserva- cific disease organisms and can thereby iden- tion programs for which the germplasm is tify individuals that have been exposed to the required. Thus, technologies to facilitate germ- disease at some time; other tests maybe used plasm transfer must also limit the risk of dis- to detect the presence of a specific pathogen. ease transmission. Periods of quarantine support these procedures Many infectious diseases are caused by by allowing an incubation period for animals organisms that do not naturally occur in the that may have been infected recently. The tests United States, and their introduction could are conservative, because individuals that have have serious effects on U.S. animals. Those been exposed to a disease but no longer retain causing most concern are foot-and-mouth dis- the organism still carry antibodies and react ease, African swine fever, rinderpest, foreign positively. However, the procedures also facili- bluetongue strains, scrapie, fowl plague, velo- tate identification of asymptomatic carriers of genic viscerotropic Newcastle disease, and the various diseases. Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis (20). Cur- Some serological procedures, such as the rent programs to exclude entry of pathogenic complement fixation and the viral neutraliza- organisms vary with the species, disease, and country of origin. tion tests, are at times unable to adequately dis- criminate between pathogenic and nonpatho- For most wild species (including nonungu- genie organisms. These limitations have made late mammals, most birds, reptiles, amphibians, it very difficult to obtain negative test results and most fish), regulatory controls to prevent for some diseases. Recent advances in diagnos- introduction and transfer of hazardous diseases tic procedures have yielded tests with much are virtually nonexistent. Except for inspection greater accuracy and specificity. Three of the at the time of entry, movement of such indi- most important are the following: viduals is not restricted. In contrast, entry requirements for domesticated livestock species 1. Indirect Immunofluorescence: This proce- are quite stringent, especially for those com- dure can provide very rapid screening of ing from countries that harbor foot-and-mouth samples for a variety of infectious agents. disease, rinderpest, scrapie, or velogenic Although it lacks specificity for some dis- viscerotropic Newcastle disease. eases, it greatly facilitates the initial screening process. All imported domestic animals are subjected to a variety of diagnostic tests and to varying 2. Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay periods of quarantine in both the country of (ELISA): The compounds that are pro- origin and the United States. Greater control duced by a disease organism and that elicit reflects the wide potential dissemination of the production of antibodies by the infected these animals throughout the livestock indus- individual are called antigens, This test try. Wild ungulates (hoofed mammals) can carry uses carefully selected and purified anti- . — — -.

Ch, 6—Maintaining Animal Diversity Offsite ● 147

gens unique to a given strain of an infec- suitability of both parents for such movement, tious agent to identify circulating antibod- But considerable interest exists in developing ies. It is rapid and can be highly specific. procedures that would allow the status of the Continued developments in selection and embryo to be evaluated independently. Such purification of limited amounts of specific an assessment is likely to become feasible in antigens using recombinant DNA technol- the future. Indeed, transfer of embryos of wild ogy may ultimately make ELISA the pre- and domestic animals may ultimately provide ferred serologic testing method for most the safest means of exchanging germplasm, infectious agents, 3. Complementary DNA Probes: These probes Advances in diagnostic procedures and trans- are derived from cloned DNA or RNA of fer technology should facilitate the interna- specific infectious agents and can confirm tional movement of germplasm. For domestic the existence of the infectious agent in tis- species and wild ungulates, these developments sue samples. The tests would distinguish should make foreign breeds more accessible between animals carrying only antibodies without increasing the risk of introducing dis- and those that actually carry the infectious ease. Improved serological testing may allow agent, The tests would also be of great value relaxation of the permanent post-entry quaran- in identifying asymptomatic carriers of in- tine now imposed on wild ungulates. For un- fectious agents that infect circulating white regulated species, a mechanism for monitor- blood cells without eliciting antibody for- ing disease status is needed and should be mation. facilitated by new technologies. These efforts In addition to movement of entire animals, will be particularly important as captive breed- increased interest in the international transfer ing programs enlarge, thereby increasing con- of semen and embryos has produced both op- tact between exotic and indigenous species. portunities and concerns about disease control. Returning individuals from zoos to the wild will For semen, the risk of disease transmission is also place a premium on ensuring the health usually equated to that associated with the male status of released individuals. that produced the semen. When semen is being moved, it undergoes the same tests the For improved diagnostic and transfer tech- donor would undergo if he were being moved. nologies to be most effective, they must be ap- In addition, samples of the semen are usually plied both in the united States and in the coun- subjected to various diagnostic tests (44,45), tries of origin, Currently, USDA-approved quarantine facilities do not exist in Asia and The risk via either fresh or frozen embryos have only recently been developed in Latin is less clear, In many cases, infectious agents America. To set up such facilities and equip are attached to the surface of the embryo or them requires capital inputs—costs that are found in the associated uterine fluids. Although likely to be borne largely by industrial coun- standard methods of embryo-washing free the tries. This approach is reasonable in terms of embryo of most such organisms (19), it does not the ultimate benefits that are expected from remove all of them (e. g., African swine fever) global maintenance of animal diversity. The (1 1). Research is thus needed on the feasibility costs of importing animals and semen are cur- of’ purging embryos of undesirable disease rently absorbed by the U.S. importer. Yet this agents. Even if the disease organism cannot be approach ignores societal benefits that accrue disassociated from the embryo, the contami- from access to foreign domestic animal germ- nated germplasm may be rendered noninfec- plasm and from maintenance of animal diver- tious by highly specific monoclinal antibod- sity as a whole, which argue for a greater U.S. ies, new antiviral agents, chemical detergents, Government role. If widespread maintenance or immunization of surrogate mothers. of genetic diversity is the goal, then increased To date, the suitability of embryos for inter- public support for importation, conservation, national movement has been equated to the and use of foreign germplasm is essential.

148 ● Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity

Storage TechnoIogies The ability to freeze semen successfully resulted from the accidental discovery in 1949 Cryogenic storage of gametes and embryos of the cryoprotective action of glycerol. To date, introduces a new level of complexity to the pro- semen has been frozen from at least 200 differ- cedures already discussed, but it also holds the ent species, but little has actually been thawed promise of greatly facilitating conservation of and tested, Commercial use of artificial insemi- genetic diversity. For both semen and embryos, nation with frozen semen is a reality today only a critical element for cryopreservation involves for domestic species. Current media for freez- development of media to protect cells when ing of semen usually include buffering agents, they are frozen in liquid nitrogen at – 196° C. a cryoprotectant such as glycerol, antibiotics, Likewise, procedures must be developed to reg- and either egg yolk or milk. Many variations ulate the rate of freezing and thawing of this of these media exist, and a somewhat different material in a way that will maintain the integrity mix usually must be developed for different of the cells. species. . The first successful freezing of mammalian embryos with a subsequent live birth was reported in 1972 with mice (50,51). Since then, embryos of 10 mammalian species have been successfully frozen, and the procedure has become routine with the mouse, cow, and rabbit. As with semen, a variety of freezing media and of freezing and thawing procedures are available and are being evaluated. Rapid increases in efficiency have occurred in the bovine embryo transfer industry, and frozen embryos can now be transferred in a manner analogous to artificial insemination. As in the freezing of semen, specific procedures and media appear to be required for each species. Yet the procedure in general rests on a firm mechanistic understanding of the processes responsible for cell injury during freezing, thawing, and dilution. Previous detailed work with mice and primates can act as a model for extension of these techniques to other mammals, Thus, given appropriate research, cryogenic storage of embryos could be developed for a range of species, Cryopreservation is probably the most promising area of reproduction research today. The potential exists to hold a well-constructed sample of the genetic diversity of a population in suspended animation indefinitely, In practice, frozen semen or embryo storage would probably be used with living populations for a num- credit: Zoological Society ber of reasons: to augment the genetic varia- In a vial, frozen cells may be stored in suspended tion within breeding populations, to allow animation and later resuscitated. Technologies for storing sperm, ova, and embryos are being developed periodic comparisons between original and cur- for domestic and non-domestic species. rent populations, and to validate the viability

Ch. 6—Maintaining Animal Diversity Offsite ● 149

credit Breeders Service

Liquid nitrogen storage vessels (above) contain enough frozen bull semen to inseminate 4.5 million cows. Liquid nitrogen maintains the temperature at –196C C (–320 of the frozen material. Samples from current Table 6-3.—Captive Animals Required for a populations would likewise periodically be Fixed Proportion of Genetic Diversity Over a Number of Generations added to the frozen store to retain new variants produced by natural selection or mutation. Percentage of Number of generations This process would be particularly important aenetic diversitv 100 in domestic populations, in which selection ~aintained ‘ 50 200 1,000 50 ...... 36 72 145 722 could make preserved individuals economically 75 ...... 87 174 348 1,738 obsolete. 90 ...... 238 475 949 4,746 95 ...... 488 975 1,950 9,748 Breeding Technologies 99 ...... 2,488 4,975 9,950 49,750 SOURCE Adapted from Netter and Foose, “Concepts and Strategies TO Maintain Domestic and Wild Animal Germ Plasm, ” OTA The goals of a propagation program can be stoned paper, 1985 defined in terms of how much genetic diversity is to be maintained and for how long. Ta- ble 6-3 shows the number of animals required suggests that this goal (i. e., retention of 99 per- to ensure retention of various proportions of cent for 1,000 generations) would require up genetic diversity for subsequent generations. to 50,000 animals. These numbers are consist- Ideally, all of the genetic diversity present in ent with the guidelines in table 6-1, which sug- the source population would be maintained in- gests natural populations of fewer than 100,000 definitely in the captive population. Table 6-3 should be carefully monitored.

150 ● Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity

Genetic drift accumulates generation by gen- vary among subpopulations. And the number eration, not year by year, and animal species of genes that can be maintained within the sub- differ considerably in this regard (box 6-C). For divided population will exceed the number that example, 200 years covers perhaps 100 gener- could be maintained in a random-mating pop- ations of chickens but only 7 to 8 generations ulation of comparable size. In practice, the min- of elephants. Yet in most cases, breeding pop- imum size of the subpopulation will depend on ulations should not experience inbreeding rates the tolerance of the species to the inbreeding in excess of 1 percent per generation; to meet rates. Still, some degree of subdivision should this constraint, at least 50 breeding individuals be practiced, and the movement of individuals per generation are required. among subpopulations should be fewer than one per generation unless effects of inbreed- Manipulation of the breeding structure of a ing become evident. Subdivision also protects population can have a significant impact on its the population against disease outbreaks or genetic characteristics. For example, an appro- other disasters that might annihilate any one priate level of subdivision of a population can subpopulation. retard the overall rate of genetic loss in the population as a whole: Subdivision increases the The loss of genes from a captive population rate of loss within each subgroup, but the spe- can also be retarded by controlling mating. In cific genes that are lost through random drift contrast to selection, which presupposes a Ch. 6—Maintaining Animal Diversity Offsite 151 differential contribution of different individ- gene pool constituted from these breeds. A uals to the next generation, programs that at- gene-pool population of pigs was developed in tempt to equalize the contribution of each in- the early 1970s in Nebraska and used in efforts dividual can greatly lower initial rates of genetic to increase ovulation rate (53). loss (21). Likewise, if pedigrees of available in- A program to not only maintain but also gen- dividuals are known, matings can be planned erate genetic diversity in domestic breeds has in an attempt to equalize the contribution of been suggested (26). In this effort, populations different lineages. This approach has been used would be selected to generate extreme levels to stabilize founder contributions in a captive of performance in specific traits. These popu- population of Speke’s gazelle (46). Thus, efforts lations could serve as reservoirs of genetic var- to record and publish pedigrees of individuals iation and their characteristics would be well in endangered species (such as the records of known. ISIS) assume great importance. Efficient maintenance of captive populations For domesticated animals, several population requires a thorough understanding of the re- structures and mating systems can be used in productive processes of the species. Optimal conservation programs that are generally not use of breeding stock is often facilitated by an appropriate for wild animals. In many domes- ability to manipulate and control these proc- tic species, the large number of existing breeds esses. In domestic animals, control of the es- (30) precludes conservation of all endangered trous cycle and ovulation through administra- breeds as pure breeds. One possibility in such tion of exogenous hormones has become cases is to preserve a single breed representa- commonplace, greatly assisting programs of tive of a group of similar breeds. A better strat- controlled mating, artificial insemination, and egy, however, may be to amalgamate into a gene embryo transfer. In wild species, however, pool individuals from related breeds or from knowledge of basic reproduction remains several breeds that excel in a certain charac- limited. Efforts to expand knowledge in this teristic. area are largely funded by the private sector Gene-pool populations are designed to con- and are insufficient. serve genes rather than individual breeds. Thus, Infertility is a major problem in many spe- several breeds noted for a certain characteris- cies of zoo animals. It reduces the effective tic such as heat tolerance or proliferation might breeding size of captive populations and exacer- be interbred to provide a single large reservoir bates genetic losses. Infertility can often be of genes for this trait. Although the identity of traced to environmental factors such as light, individual breeds is lost, many genes present temperature, nutrition, disease, or social influ- in the breeds are retained. Selection to inten- ences. Such problems would be more easily sify the trait maybe appropriate, depending on overcome if more were known about basic re- the potential or current economic importance productive processes in wild animals. of the population. Maintenance of a single interbreeding gene pool is less desirable than of General principles underlying control of re- a subdivided population for long-term gene con- production are relatively uniform across spe- servation. For domestic species, however, the cies, yet the particular hormone levels observed larger population sizes that are possible in a and the release patterns of these hormones are single gene-pool population are expected to fa- species-specific. A practical, reasonably sim- cilitate selection for economically important ple, relatively inexpensive kit for monitoring characters within the population. Simmental urine hormone levels has recently been devel- cattle representing at least five regional or na- oped (29). This test helps confirm ovulation, tional strains from Europe were imported into predict optimal times for insemination, diag- North America in the 1970's, and the current nose reproductive dysfunction, and detect preg- American Simmental population represents a nancy. Because the test is based on urine sam-

152 ● Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity

clomid, is being considered to support ovulation in female gorillas (9). Growing pressure for the international movement of animal germplasm will also place an increasing premium on knowledge of reproductive biology. In terms of animal safety, conven- ience, and disease control, movement of semen and embryos (either fresh or frozen) would be preferable to the movement of animals. Al- though the techniques to allow collection, preservation, transport, and use of these tissues are relatively well developed in domestic animals, comparable methods do not exist for wild species. Artificial insemination (A. I.) is the introduction of semen into the female reproductive tract by artificial means. It requires technologies to allow collection of semen from the male, storage of semen until it can be used, identification of females in the proper stage of the estrous cycle, and deposition of semen at the appropriate location in the female reproductive tract. Collection of semen from wild species is usually accomplished by electroejaculation, which involves stimulation of ejaculation by application of a mild, pulsating electrical current through a lubricated rectal probe. The Photo Zoological Society of San process requires restraint and anesthesia of the New technologies in reproductive physiology offer male, and semen obtained with this procedure possibilities of producing large numbers of offspring from many vertebrate species. Above, an osmotic pump is often less fertile than that obtained in a nat- filled with gonadotropin-releasing hormone is prepared ural ejaculate. Use of A.I. likewise requires the for insertion under the skin of a female iguana. The ability to assess the reproductive status of the iguana subsequently entered and ovulated. female quite accurately, and insemination procedures must be developed that are consistent pies, it also avoids problems restraining and with the biochemical and physical character- anesthetizing rare animals. istics of the female reproductive tract. Although reproductive problems in wild ani- Although artificial insemination has been at- mals can often be solved through management tempted in many species of wild animals, it has changes, hormone therapy can also be used for only been successful in a Iimited number and, infertility arising from age or unknown envi- in most cases, with one animal in most species. ronmental factors. In particular, gonadotropin- A.I. with frozen semen has been successful with releasing hormone has been used to initiate and even fewer wild species (see table 6-4) such as maintain estrous cycles and ovulation in mon- the wolf, gorilla, chimpanzee, and giant panda. keys, sheep, and cattle. It is administered through a small osmotic pump implanted be- Effective use of embryo transfer requires even neath the skin and appears to have facilitated greater control of an animal’s reproductive the birth of two cubs to a previously subfertile processes (box 6-D and figure 6-l). Fertilized cheetah (28). Similarly, a human fertility drug, ova and early embryos are recovered from the Ch. 6—Maintaining Animal Diversity Offsite . 153

Box 6-D.-Embryo Transfer Embryo transfer is a well-established practice in the beef and dairy cattle industries. More than 200,000 transfers are performed annually throughout the world, mainly in the United States and Can- ada. Although the technique was first used with beef cattle, half the transfers are now in dairy cattle. The objective is to increase the number of offspring of cows with valuable genetic traits, such as rapid rates of growth and high levels of milk production. Using this procedure, one valuable cow can produce on average 12 offspring a year. The procedure involves inducing superovdation in a donor cow using gonadotrophin hormones, so that she will produce six to eight eggs rather than one. The cow is artificially inseminated with semen from a valuable, high-performance bull, and the embryos are collected by nonsurgically flush- ing the uterus after 6 to 8 days. Embryos that appear viable and healthy by microscopic examination are transferred to recipient cows that are also at the sixth to eighth day of their estrous cycle. Nor- mally one embryo is transferred to each recipient. Several new technologies hold promise of making the process more efficient and increasing its usefulness to animal agriculture. Among these is the ability to freeze bovine embryos. This procedure is currently used by most embryo transfer companies, and 25 percent of the transfers in the United States are with frozen embryos. Survival of the embryos is not perfect, however: Transfer of unfrozen embryos average a 60-percent pregnancy rate, while frozen and thawed embryos can be expected to yield pregnancy rates of 40 to 50 percent. Another interesting development in this industry involves cloning bovine embryos. Once developed, this technique would allow the multiplication of large numbers of calves from one valuable embryo. The cloned embryos could be frozen while other embryos from some clonal lines are tested to determine if the line is of high value; valuable ones could be replicated using the frozen clones, providing a powerful tool for livestock improvement. Several research stations are also experiment- ing with inserting genes for specific productivity traits, such as growth, into embryos before transfer. The application of these new biotechnologies is expected to expand the size and usefulness of the cattle embryo transfer industry. Although embryo transfer could also be a useful tool in swine production, much of the technology and the industry are not yet well developed. In swine, embryos must be collected and transferred surgically. And the embryos do not survive freezing with present techniques. This procedure therefore has received little use in the swine industry. In addition, the cost of surgically recovering embryos is likely to preclude wide-scale use of this technology in the near future. Based on the use of embryo transfer in cattle, research on the applicability of this technology for wild species was begun in 1981. Although the nonsurgical collection techniques are similar, working with exotic species entails several unique problems, such as, the need to administer drugs by dart or pole syringe and the need for anesthesia to perform even the simplest procedures. The ultimate goal was to develop methods for using a common wild species (e.g., the eland antelope) as a surrogate mother for a less common species (e.g., the bongo antelope). In 1983, an eland calf was born to a surrogate eland mother, becoming the first non-domestic issue of a nonsurgical embryo transfer. A transfer involving a frozen embryo was accomplished soon thereafter. These successes were followed by attempts at interspecies transfer (i.e., a donor and surrogate of different species). Initial efforts for an eland-to-cow transfer were unsuccessful. The eland, however, proved to be a suitable surrogate mother for an embryo collected from a bongo. This first documented nonsurgical embryo transfer between two different species of wild animals indicates that embryos can be gestated by surrogates of differmt species, offering hope for the future of endangered wildlife (figure 6-1). SOURCE: Adapted from materiala provided by Dr. Neal Firet University of Wbxmsin and Dr. May Dreaaer, Cincinnati Wildlife Research Federation.

I154 Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity

Photo credit: Zoological of San Diego Collection of sperm samples for artificial insemination and cryogenic storage from non-domestic species is part of many off site conservation programs. Above, an African antelope, the scimitar-horned oryx (Oryx gazella dairnrnah) is tranquilized and undergoing semen collection by electroejaculation.

reproductive tract of a donor female (the genetic mother) and transferred into the tract of a re- Table 6-4.-Successful Artificial Insemination in cipient female (the foster mother), in whom the Non-domestic Mammals embryos develop into full-term individuals. Suc- cessful embryo transfer requires synchroniza- Guanaco Gorilla tion of the estrous cycles of donor and recipi- Llama Ferret Black buck Fox ent animals (figure 6-2). In domestic animals Bighorn sheep wolf this synchrony is usually achieved through ex- Brown brocket deer Persian leopard ogenous hormone treatment. Donors are in- Reindeer Puma Red deer Macaca monkey duced to produce an excess of eggs (super- Speke’s gazelle Papio baboon ovulated) by injection of fertility hormones. Giant panda Squirrel monkey Superovulation has been fairly successful with Chimpanzee hoofed mammals, although the results vary con- SOURCE: B.L. Dresser, Cincinnati Wildllfe Research Federation, personal communications, Septemtw 19S6. siderably. Optimal drugs and dosages have yet

Ch. 6—Maintaining Animal Diversity Offsite . 155

Figure 6-2.— Embryo Transfer Flowchart dia for development differ among species, but reliable techniques to culture embryos for up to 24 hours exist for cattle, rabbits, mice, sheep, and humans. Successful embryo culture is usually prerequisite to more sophisticated in vitro embryo manipulation. Embryo Storage: This technology involves holding embryos in arrested development for up to several days, Again, specific storage media must be developed for each species. Embryo storage procedures can greatly facilitate transfer of embryos over long distances and in vitro embryo manipulation. In Vitro Egg Maturation: This technique involves the culturing of immature eggs to maturity. Coupled with in vitro fertilization, this technique could dramatically increase the number of offspring that a given Necessary steps in preparing donor and recipient animals for embryo collection and transfer. female might produce. The reproductive lifetime of the female is also lengthened be- Betsy Dresser, Director of Research, Cincinnati Wildlife Research 1 cause ova suitable for culturing can be obtained prior to sexual maturity as well as after a female is no longer able to conceive to be identified in most other species. Donors naturally. are mated naturally or by artificial insemina- In Vitro Fertilization: In a few species, it tion, and fertilized eggs are collected from the is possible to remove unfertilized ova from female tract (surgically and nonsurgically) and a female, mix them with semen in vitro, transferred (surgically or nonsurgically) to the and produce fertilized ova that will develop recipient female. normally when transferred back into a fe- Development of embryo transfer techniques male, In cases of unexpected death of ge- is important to maintenance of genetic diver- netically valuable animals, ova can even sity within captive populations, given the con- be collected from ovaries shortly after siderations of transfer and disease control pre- death. viously discussed. In addition, surrogate Embryo Splitting: A single embryo can, mothers confer passive immunity to offspring under the proper conditions, be split into developed from transferred embryos. Thus, ani- two or four, and each part can subsequently mals moved into new environments or re- develop into a live offspring, Although the introduced to the wild may benefit from being offspring are genetically identical, this carried by mothers acclimated to the new envi- process allows a much larger number of ronment, offspring to be produced from each embryo collection, Several more-advanced techniques, studied Interspecific Embryo Transfer: This in- primarily in domestic animals, hold consider- volves transfer of embryos between related able potential for all species: species. Thus, embryos of a rare species ● Embryo Culture: This technique involves could be carried to term by a female of a maintenance of fertilized eggs outside the more common species. This technology body during the early stages of embryonic has enjoyed some success, but much more development. The appropriate culture me- research is needed. To date, successful in- 156 ● Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity

Przewalski% homes can interbreed withthdr domestic relative, andtlm hybrids producad by such cross8s were tiegedy incxwpmtad into the R%uwbE ‘axar’s oavdry ~d. The disappearance d!theqeoka ww pm#M&ly duatu hunting and, mom important, to restricted access to limited watm suppliti tlmt wam nwncqmlizd by nonmds tifheir MM& ofdonmstic animals. The homes’ habitat remab, and plans exist to retire th~ spedaa to ite fornwr range in Mongolia. This restoration effort invoivas tha cuop@rative activities of zmbgical parka in the United States, the Soviet Union, the United l&tgdo~ and West and East Germany. Animaia will be provided by zoological parks ftam their expanding populations. The offsite comervatkm ofspeciw and preservation Ofgenstic diveisitythattkwe efforts reprment may play an increasing rob in strategies to pravent ektinatimk. The interaction throtqjh movement of individuals from offdte to onske ciwwrvation fhcilitks mkmea tlm chance of extinction and simultaneously provides access to mm $pecias for wh.wationai and research purposes. SOURCE: I)r. oliver Ryder, Research -rtment, * Die$o ZOO.

terspecific embryo transfers have occurred to horse, and Przewalski’s horse to pony from mouflon (wild sheep) to domestic (see box 6-E) (9). sheep, gaur to cattle, bongo to eland, zebra

The objectives of developing and using fiber production on an international scale is genetic diversity differ between wild and al- oof paramount importance. In this context, the mestic animals. For domestic animals, the po- most pertinent technologies are those that fa- tential contribution of rare breeds to food and cilitate the international movement and evalu- Ch. 6—Maintaining Animal Diversity Offsite 157 ation of these breeds. Thus, the previously dis- cellular biology expands, the unique physiolog- cussed technologies of disease control, artificial ical and metabolic processes found in many insemination, embryo transfer, and cryopreser- wild animals are likely to have progressively vation of embryos and gametes are extremely more important research and development ap- important. In particular, aggressive application plications. of state-of-the-art technologies for the control The domestication of wild animals is an emo- of disease transmission would greatly facilitate tional issue. It implies imposition of human con- use of foreign germplasm. trol of the mating and husbandry of a previ- Equally important, however, is the fact that ously wild species. To many people, this step no organized program exists, either in the is also inconsistent with the preservation of eco- United States or elsewhere, to sample, evalu- logical diversity. However, the potential gains ate, preserve, and use available sources of germ- from developing adapted populations of pre- plasm (3). Current research organizations do viously wild animals to produce food and fi- not have the resources to evaluate the many ber in harsh or severely restricted environments unique breeds that exist worldwide. Evalua- may be too great to ignore. Thus, populations tions of animal germplasm could, however, fo- of red deer in Europe and New Zealand are rap- cus on the present and foreseeable U.S. and idly becoming domesticated (10), and different world animal production and marketing envi- species of deer are being crossed to improve ronments and on the breeds that seem to have production characteristics (32), Eland and oryx the greatest potential for improving animal food in Africa (47), capybara in South America (17), and fiber production systems (3). and crocodiles and butterflies in Papua New Guinea (33,34) are also being harvested in semi- For wild species, programs of development controlled programs that may entail domesti- and utilization are much less clear, The ration- cation of segments of these populations. In such ale for preservation of such species largely re- a situation, domestication should not be flects the need to maintain the Earth’s ecologi- avoided. Instead, great care must be taken to cal structure and, to many individuals, ensure that protected, viable wild populations utilization of wild species is inconsistent with are also maintained free of contamination from this goal. Yet products and processes observed domesticated subpopulations. Such an ap- in wild species have been and will continue to proach, though difficult, is necessary to meet be of value to society. Armadillos, for exam- the joint goals of food production and mainte- ple, provide a unique model of human leprosy. nance of genetic diversity. As the understanding of molecular genetics and

NEEDS AND OPPORTUNITIES Needs and opportunities for maintaining ani- movement will probably assist in maintaining mal diversity offsite involve both application diversity. Mechanisms to monitor genetic diver- of available technologies and development of sity in domestic populations are also badly new technologies, Needs differ considerably be- needed, tween wild and domestic animals, and these two groups will be considered separately. For wild animals, many of the needs involve adap- Wild Animals tation of techniques that are currently available Expertise in Relevant Areas for domestic animals, In some cases, these adaptations are straightforward. In others, con- Maintenance of captive breeding populations siderable basic research will be required. In al- oof wild animals requires that breeding pro- mestic animals, efforts to assess and evaluate grams be based on principles of quantitative global genetic resources and facilitate their genetic management to avoid losses in genetic 158 ● Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity diversity. Likewise, a knowledge of the repro- supporting maintenance of genetic diversity ductive biology of the species is required to en- could be initiated. Grants could be awarded on sure efficient propagation of the animals in cap- a competitive basis and could support exten- tivity. The need for expertise in these areas has sion of applied programs to captive wild spe- increased dramatically as offsite programs have cies. Such a program would be relatively expen- become more common and more complex. Ef- sive, however, and would tend to concentrate ficient use of animals for genetic purposes re- expertise instead of encouraging broad access quires extensive movement of germplasm to needed training. among institutions. These efforts are likely to increasingly rely on transfer of semen or em- Facilities for Offsite Maintenance bryos, especially at the international level, plac- In recent years, zoo administrators and others ing a premium on scientific expertise. have become aware of the need for well- To date, development of expertise in the ap- planned breeding programs to ensure mainte- plication of reproductive biology and quantita- nance of genetic diversity within captive pop- tive genetics management has largely occurred ulations. Substantial theoretical work has gone through the initiatives of individual students into developing plans for existing or likely fu- within traditional reproductive physiology or ture facilities. The results suggest that today’s quantitative genetics programs. In reproduc- facilities will not be sufficient to maintain tive physiology, programs are usually directed desired levels of diversity. However, zoo per- primarily toward domestic animals; efforts to sonnel appear to have developed mechanisms obtain skills applicable to wild species maybe to make choices (albeit not unanimous choices) met at best with tolerance or at worst with ac- among competing possibilities. Still, without tive discouragement. Still, substantial interest additional facilities, losses of diversity appear in the reproductive biology of wild animals has likely. been noted, and students of this field are in- Development of captive maintenance and creasingly tolerated. In quantitative genetics, breeding facilities could benefit from additional training programs tend to emphasize either the funding. Such a program would enhance ca- theoretical aspects of quantitative genetics in pabilities to preserve biological diversity off- natural populations or the applied aspects of site. Modest levels of funding could have a con- breeding domestic animals. More opportuni- siderable impact, although substantial funds ties to tailor courses to study of wild popula- would be required to address the total problem. tions exist in this area than in reproductive Funds could be channeled through the National physiology, however. Zoo in Washington, DC, or through competi- Fellowships and traineeships in areas that tive grants to nonprofit zoological parks, Em- support maintenance of wild animal genetic phasis could be given to species that have diversity could be provided on a competitive limited captive facilities. basis to students in reproductive biology, cryobiology, population genetics, and animal be- Reproductive Biology and havior for studies applicable to the genetic and Cryopreservation reproductive management of captive popula- The reproductive processes of most wild ani- tions of wild animals. The program could be mals are not sufficiently understood to allow administered by the National Science Founda- optimum rates of reproduction under captive tion (NSF). Emphasis would be placed on ap- management. This lack of information becomes plying knowledge and theory to managed pop- especially acute in light of increasing interest ulations. One advantage of such a program in artificial insemination and embryo transfer would be sensitization of faculty members to because these technologies require much greater the needs and opportunities in this area. control of the reproductive process. Although A grants program to allow selected educa- the critical elements that control reproduction tional institutions to expand their expertise in and cryopreservation in wild species are anal- Ch. 6—Maintaining Animal Diversity Offsite 159

ogous to those in domestic animals, important Basic Research in Population Biology differences exist. Thus, extending available and Genetics knowledge about domestic animals to wild ani- Much of the basic theory of population mals will require accumulation of information genetics was derived in the first half of the 20th unique to each species or group of species. Op- century and was adapted to applications in do- timum use of available individuals in programs mestic animal breeding in the 1940s and 1950s. of captive breeding or cryopreservation will Current interest in developing breeding pro- depend on collecting this unique information. grams to maintain representative levels of genetic diversity within populations of mini- Progress is being made in understanding the mum size has introduced several new program- reproductive processes of wild animals, but not design questions. These questions relate to such as quickly as it is needed or as it could be used. things as the amount and nature of genetic Without additional research, many available diversity that can be lost without compromis- captive animals will continue to experience ing the long-term evolutionary potential of the suboptimal fertility, and fewer total individuals species, the importance to evolutionary poten- of all species will be maintained at acceptable tial of rare genes (which are easily lost by population sizes in available facilities. Semen genetic drift), the long-term importance of mu- from a number of wild species has already been tation to maintenance of diversity (22), and the frozen and exhibits near-normal motility and importance of genetic diversity (both among morphology when thawed, but its ability to re- and within species) to maintenance of the in- sult in conception is largely untested. Likewise, tegrity of entire ecosystems. In many cases, successful use of frozen embryos has occurred these questions deal with validation of long- in only a few species. term quantitative genetics theory; answering them will require imaginative syntheses of the disciplines of genetics and ecology. A program of competitive grants to support Some of the needed research is currently be- research on the reproductive biology and ing done or has been planned. Without direc- of wild animals could be ini- cryopreservation tion, however, it will occur in a piecemeal way, tiated. This program could be administered with no assurance that issues of the highest pri- through NSF and would channel funds to both basic studies on the reproductive biology and ority will be addressed. A program of competi- cryobiology of wild animals and to applied tive grants to support development, extension, and validation of quantitative genetic theory studies of control of reproduction, artificial in- related to questions of maintaining biological semination and embryo transfer. preference could be given to existing programs that em- diversity could be developed. This program phasize the integration of programs for wild could be administered through NSF and would require less funding (because of fewer equip- and domestic animals. ment needs) than programs in reproductive biology or cryopreservation. Such a program Another approach could be establishing a few could provide a focus for needed efforts in this centers for study of the reproductive biology area and a mechanism for screening compet- of wild animals. These centers could serve as ing proposals to identify those that address focuses for programs of basic and applied re- areas of highest priority. search. They should be sufficiently well funded to allow broad programs of research onsite as well as extramural research with cooperating institutions, The centers could likewise serve Objective Assessment of Global as repositories for frozen gametes and embryos Genetic Resources from endangered populations as techniques are The potential contributions of indigenous perfected. stocks of animal agriculture both in their coun- 160 Technologies to Maintain Biologic Diversity

try of origin and internationally needs to be mestic animal genetic resources and develop assessed. Experience with the prolific Finnish options for improving the present efforts. Landrace and Booroola Merino sheep (31,36) Limited additional financial and technical and with Sahiwal cattle (24,48) has shown that support for development of databases and li- local, specialized stocks often have wide can brary reference facilities in existing foreign utility outside their country of origin. Likewise, centers could be provided (14). In many cases, comprehensive performance evaluations of funds for microcomputers, software, and refer- crosses of indigenous and imported breeds sug- ence materials could provide a major improve- gest that animals may make important local ment in the capabilities of existing institutions contributions to final performance of the cross- at limited cost. Necessary funds and consult- breed (5). The use in West Africa of native cat- ing personnel could be channeled through tle resistant to trypanosomiasis (23) is an im- USDA, FAO, or the U.S. Agency for Interna- portant example. To assess the contributions tional Development (AID). of such breeds, objective information must be available to potential users. In many cases, Another approach could be the development some details exist but they are fragmented and of an international center for animal genetic difficult to locate and gain access to. In other resources that would be charged with mainte- cases, only anecdotal information is available. nance of a comprehensive base of information on domestic animal germplasm resources. The Considerable international awareness of the center could maintain and update files on the need for such assessments exists. Efforts to at status, trends, and characteristics of domestic least list and broadly categorize breed resources breeds worldwide and provide information to have been initiated in Europe (30), Latin Amer- potential users of this germplasm. Charges ica (13), and Eastern Asia and Oceania (41), would be made to clients requesting informa- These efforts have been coordinated by the tion, but to function properly, considerable pub- Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of lic subsidization would probably be required. the United Nations (14). Efforts in most of the The center could be a branch of USDA or a part developing countries have, however, been ham- of the National Agricultural Library. This plan pered by insufficient funding to develop elec- has the potential disadvantage of moving re- tronic databases and library reference facilities. sponsibility for maintenance of the necessary On balance, efforts to date deserve credit and databases out of national and regional institu- have achieved some successes but are still in- tions, or at least deemphasizing the roles of such sufficient. institutions. Such an approach would tend to reduce the emphasis on breed evaluation and No comparable assessment of breed re- preservation at the grassroots level in the coun- sources has been undertaken for North Amer- tries of origin. ica yet, so commissioning one would indicate support for efforts elsewhere and represent a Major new funding to support breed evalua- minimal contribution by North American coun- tion and characterization efforts could be pro- tries to a global accounting. The assessment vided, Even though considerable information could be coordinated by the National Academy already exists on many foreign breeds, the ma- of Sciences (NAS) or the U.S. Department of terial is often fragmented and limited to only Agriculture (USDA) with technical support descriptive characteristics. The initiation and from relevant professional societies (American support of several major projects to objectively Society of Animal Science, American Dairy Sci- evaluate and compare indigenous breeds to po- ence Association, Poultry Science Association, tential imported breeds for the full array of and Canadian Society of Animal Science) and productive traits in the country or region of ori- private agencies (e.g., American Minor Breeds gin would be a tremendous asset in terms of Conservancy). A recently initiated NAS project knowledge of global genetic resources. Fund- on global genetic resources could address doing could be channeled through USDA or AID. Ch. 6—Maintaining Animal Diversify Offsite 161

Such a project would require major new fund- of modest new funds. Such a program would ing, incIuding support for development of nec- recognize the existence of promising foreign essary foreign facilities. breeds and likewise acknowledge that the procurement of these breeds is a matter of pub- Facilitation of International Movement lic interest. A considerable improvement in of GermpIasm U.S. access to foreign germplasm could be accomplished through such a program with ex- Effective use of global germplasm requires isting technology. that mechanisms exist to facilitate the movement of such resources, This is especially im- New funding for research and development portant for specialized breeds in developing on the diagnosis and neutralization of foreign countries, such as prolific Chinese pigs (52), diseases could be provided to APHIS and other which may have utility in crossbreeding pro- research laboratories through a system of com- grams in industrial countries. The international petitive grants. This new funding could be ac- movement of germplasm is often difficult be- companied by a mandate to aggressively pur- cause of different countries’ health-related sue importation of promising foreign import-export requirements. This area involves germplasm into the United States. Objectives both technologies for actual movement of germ- of the program would be, first, to validate and plasm (embryo transfer, semen and embryo col- apply recently developed technologies for dis- lection, etc.) and technologies for prevention ease diagnosis (ELISA, DNA probes, etc.) and, of disease transmission. second, to improve on and extend these technologies. Such a program should be able to The United States currently maintains facil- accelerate access to foreign germplasm. ities for quarantine and disease-testing at Plum Island, NY, and Flemming Key, FL, These sta- The training of foreign professionals in areas tions provide U.S. breeders access to foreign that support germplasm transfer could be sup- breeds. The approach taken has usually been ported. These areas would include veterinary to provide use of these facilities to importers pathology, reproductive biology, with empha- in the private sector and to require that the cost sis on techniques for gamete and embryo col- of importation be borne completely by the im- lection and transfer, and cryobiology. In many porter, Importation of some breeds of sheep and cases, germplasm transfer is limited by insuffi- swine has been supported by public (USDA) cient expertise and facilities in the country of funds, but these cases are the exceptions. origin. An expanded training program for for- Assessing private sector importers for impor- eign students and professionals would increase tation costs does allow the expense to be borne the chances that the needed expertise existed by those likely to receive economic benefit from onsite. Considerable opportunities for foreign the sale of imported animals, but it ignores the professionals to receive this kind of training public benefits likely to accrue from access to already exist, however. A major problem is that foreign germplasm. When the decision to im- students receive sophisticated training in highly port a breed lies solely within the private sec- technical areas but have insufficient facilities tor, preference will be given to more traditional and equipment to put their training to use when breeds judged to have the most speculative po- they return home. tential while unique breeds of undocumented value will usually be ignored, The development and improvement of foreign centers for transfer of germplasm could USDA and the Animal and Plant Health In- be supported. This improvement would require spection Service (APHIS) could be directed to new funding to allow development of centers pursue an aggressive program of screening, im- in major geographical areas of the world. These portation, and evaluation of promising foreign centers could serve as focuses for a fui[ range breeds. Such a program would involve both a of considerations relating to maintenance of redirection of existing funds and appropriation biological diversity. In particular, equipment 162 ● Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity and expertise for collection, preparation for It would be primarily advisory in nature but shipment, and preservation of gametes and em- should possess some funding to implement its bryos could be concentrated in such institu- recommendations to function effectively. tions. Facilities for quarantine and diagnostic testing using advanced technologies would An International Board on Domestic Animal greatly facilitate germplasm transfer. To be ef- Resources could also be established. This board fective, these centers would have to be well could provide international coordination of funded and equipped on a continuing basis. programs, set standards and coordinate the ex- Ideally, they would address a range of biological change and storage of germplasm, and provide diversity issues, for wild as well as domestic funds to support activities in developing coun- animals, including maintenance of information tries, probably at the regional level. Some ef- centers and repositories for cryopreservation forts have already been made in this direction, of frozen semen and embryos of rare native and the United States could support and ex- breeds. pand these efforts. A program to identify, conserve, and use en- Losses Of Genetic Diversity dangered breeds of potential value worldwide Among and Within Broods could be developed. It could identify rare breeds Indiscriminate crossbreeding of so-called im- of potential value worldwide, with subsequent proved breeds from industrial nations coupled negotiation of procedures to protect and main- with increasing intensification within the poul- tain the genetic integrity of these populations try, swine, and dairy industries have resulted within the country of origin. If maintenance in reductions in global breed diversity and may of such populations within the country of ori- lead to substantial losses of rare breeds. Within gin could not be assured, the United States some of the major commercial breeds of live- could support collection and cryogenic storage stock, losses in genetic diversity may also be of gametes and embryos. Semen of all mam- occurring because of narrow selection goals malian livestock can be successfully frozen, as and intensified use of individual sires and their can embryos of all mammalian livestock spe- sons through artificial insemination. cies except the pig. Such storage could be located in this country to ensure maximum safet y A National Board for Domestic Animal Re- of the preserved material, and it would include sources could be established, composed of rep- material that could not be imported as live ani- resentatives from USDA, universities, private mals under current animal health regulations. foundations, and industry. The board could pro- Efforts such as these would require close co- vide a mechanism to coordinate animal germ- operation with the countries of origin of the plasm conservation activities. The program various breeds to avoid the perception of ex- could be established through a directive to a ploitation of foreign resources for the sole ben- lead agency such as USDA and would not re- efit of the United States. quire additional legislation. Such aboard would identify potential sources of foreign germplasm A program like this could also monitor the for import and monitor the status of genetic status of genetic diversity within commercial diversity within commercial breeds. It could populations in the United States. This moni- also monitor the status of rare breeds within toring would involve interacting with indus- the United States and make recommendations try to ensure maintenance of genetically diverse for their preservation and use. The board could poultry control strains, retaining semen from act as a liaison with institutions in other coun- a wide sample of dairy bulls as a reservoir of tries and show a U.S. commitment to mainte- genetic diversity, and monitoring the status of nance of domestic animal biological diversity. other species. Ch. 6—Maintaining Animal Diversity Offsite ● 163

CHAPTER 6

1. Ashwood-Smith, M, J., and Grant, E., “Genetic logical Diversity: Status and Trends for Agri- Stability in Cellular Systems Stored in the Fro- cultural Domesticated Animals, ” OTA commis- zen State, ” The Freezing of Mammalian Em- sioned paper, 1985. bryos, K, Elliott and J. Whelan (eds.) (Amster- 13. Food and Agriculture Organisation of the dam: Elsevier, lgpi’). United Nations, “Recursos Geneticos Animales 2. Conway, W, G,, “The Practical Difficulties and en Americana Latina, ” FAO Animal Production Financial Implications of Endangered Species and Health Paper 22, 1981. Breeding Programs, ” International Zoo Year- 14. Food and Agriculture Organisation of the book, 1986. United Nations, “Animal Genetic Resources 3. Council for Agricultural Science and Technol- Conservation by Management, Data Banks and ogy, “Animal Germ Plasm Preservation and Uti- Training, “ FAO Animal Production and Health lization in Agriculture, ” Council for Agricul- Paper 44/1, 1984. tural Science and Technology Report No. 101, 15. Franklin, I. R., “Evolutionary Change in Small 1984. Population,” Conservation Biology, M.E. Soul~ 4. Cunningham, E. P., “European Friesians—The and B.A. Wilcox (eds. ) (Sunderland, MA: Canadian and American Invasion, ” Animal Sinauer Associates), 1980, pp. 135-149. Genetic Resources Information, January 1983, 16, Glenister, P. H., Whittingham, D. G,, and Lyon, pp. 21-23. M. F,, “Further Studies on the Effect of Radia- 5. DeAlba, J., and Kennedy, B. W., “Criollo and tion During the Storage of Frozen 8-Cell Mouse Temperate Dairy Cattle and Their Crosses in a Embryos at – 1960 C,” Journal of Reproduction Humid Tropical Environment,” Animal Genetic and Fertility 70:229-234, 1984. Resources Conservation by Management, Data 17. Gonzalez-Jeminez, E., “The Capybara: An In- Banks and Training, FAO Animal Production digenous Source of Meat in Tropical America, ” and Health Paper 44/1, 1984, pp. 102-104. World Animal Review 21:24-30, 1977. 6 Denniston, C., “Small Population Size and 18. Graham, E, F., Schmehl, M. R., and Deyo, Genetic Diversity Implications for Endangered R, C. M., “Cryopreservation and Fertility of Fish, Species,” Endangered Birds, S. Temple (cd,) Poultry and Mammalian Spermatozoa, ” Pro- (Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, ceedings of the Iuth Technical Conference on 1977), Pp. 281-289. Artificial Insemination and Reproduction, Na- 7. Douglass, E. M., and Gould, K, G., “Artificial In- tional Association of Animal Breeders, 1984, pp. semination in Lowland Gorilla (GoriJla gorilla), ” 4-29, Proceedings of the American Association of Zoo 19. Hare, W, C, D., and Singh, E. L., “Control of In- Veterinarians, 1981, pp. 128-130. fectious Agents in Bovine Embryos, ” Proceed- 8. Dresser, B. L., Kramer, L,, Dahlhausen, R. D., ings of an International Symposium on Microbi- Pope, C. E., and Baker, R. D., “Cryopreservation ological Tests for the International Exchange of Followed by Successful Transfer of African Animal Genetic Material, 1984, pp. 80-85. Eland Antelope (Tragelaphus oryx) Embryos, ” 20. Heuschele, W. P., “Management of Animal Dis- Proceedings of the Ioth International Congress ease Agents and Vectors Potentially Hazardous on Animal Reproduction and Artificial Insemi- for Animal Germ Plasm Resources, ” OTA com- nation, 1984, pp. 191-193. missioned paper, 1985, 9. Dresser, B. L., and Leibo, S. P., “Technologies To 21. Hill, W. G., “Estimation of Genetic Change, I: Maintain Animal Germ Plasm in Domestic and General Theory and Design of Control Popula- Wild Species, ” OTA commissioned paper, 1986. tions, ” Animal Breeding Abstracts 40:1-15, 10. Drew, K.R. (cd.), Advances in Deer Farming 1972. (Wellington, New Zealand: Editorial Services, 22. Hill, W. G., “Predictions of Response to Artifi- Ltd., 1978). cial Selection From New Mutations, ’ Geneti- 11. Eaglesome, M. D., Hare, W. C. D., and Singh, cal Research 40:255-278, 1982. E. L., “Embryo Transfer: A Discussion of Its Po- 23. International Livestock Centre for Africa, “Try- tential for Infectious Disease Control Based on panotolerant Livestock in West and Central a Review of Studies on Infection of Gametes and Africa, Volume I: General Study,” International Early Embryos by Various Agents, ” Canadian Livestock Centre for Africa Monograph z, Addis Veterinary Journal 21:106-112, 1980. Ababa, Ethiopia, l!lTg. 12. Fitzhueh. H. A.. Getz. W.. and Baker. F. H.. “Bio- 24. International Livestock Centre for Africa, “Sa- 164 ● Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity

hiwal Cattle: An Evaluation of Their Potential Birth Following Cryopreservation and Transfer Contribution to Milk and Beef Production in of a Baboon Embryo, ” Fertility and Sterility Africa, ” International Livestock Centre for 42:143-145, 1984. Africa Monograph 3, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 38, Seiger, S. W. J., “A Review of Artificial Methods 1981. of Breeding in Captive Wild Species, ” The 25. King, J. W. B., “Genetic Exhaustion in Single- Dodo, journal of the Jersey Wildlife Preserva- Purpose Breeds,” Proceedings of the FAO/UNEP tion Trust 18:79-93, 1981. Technical Consultation on Animal Genetic Re- 39. Simon, D. L., “Conservation of Animal Genetic sources Conservation and Management, FAO Resources—A Review, ” Livestock Production Animal Production and Health Paper 24, 1981, Science 11:23-36, 1984. Pp. 230-242. 40. Smith, C., “Genetic Aspects of Conservation in 26. Land, R. B., “An Alternate Philosophy for Live- Farm Livestock, ” Livestock Production Science stock Breeding, ” Livestock Production Science 11:3-48, 1984. 8:95-99, 1981. 41. Society for the Advancement of Breeding Re- 27. Lande, R,, and Barrowclough, G. F., “Effective searchers in Asia and Oceania, “Evaluation of Population Size, Genetic Variation and Their Animal Genetic Resources in Asia and Ocea-

Use in Population Management,” Viable Popu- nia)” Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, 1981. lations, M.E. Soul~ (cd.) (Oxford: Blackwell Pub- 42. Somes, R. G., “International Registry of Poultry lishing Co., 1986). Genetic Stocks, ” Storrs Agricultural Experi- 28. Lasley, B. L., and Wing, A., “Stimulating Ovar- ment Station Bulletin 469, 1984. ian Function in Exotic Carnivores With Pulses 43. Soul&, M. E,, Gilpin, M., Conway, W., and Foose, of GnRH, ” Proceedings of the American Asso- T., “The Millennium Ark: How Long the Voy- ciation of Zoo Veterinarians, 1983, p. 14, age, How Many Staterooms, How Many Passen- 29. Loskutoff, N. M., Ott, J. E., and Lasley, B. L., gers?” Zoobio]ogy 5:101-114, 1986. “Monitoring the Reproductive Status of the 44. Stalheim, O.H.V. (cd.), “Proceedings of an In- Okapi (Okapia johnstoni],” Proceedings of the ternational Symposium on Microbiological American Association of Zoo Veterinarians, Tests for the International Exchange of Animal 1981, P. 149. Genetic Material” (Madison, WI: American 30. Maijala, K,, Cherekaev, A. V., Devillard, J. M., Association of Veterinary Laboratory Diagnosti- Reklewski, Z., Rognoni, G., Simon, D. L., and cians, 1984). Steane, D. E., “Conservation of Animal Genetic 45, Stalheim, O. H. V., Bartlett, D. E., Carbrey, E. H., Resources in Europe, Final Report of an E. A,A.P, Knutson, W. W., Landford, E. V., and Seigfried, Working Party, ” Livestock Production Science L., “Recommended Procedures for the Microbi- 11:3-22, 1984, ologic Examination of Semen” (Madison, WI: 31. Maijala, K., and Osterberg, S., “Productivity of American Association of Veterinary Laboratory Pure Finnsheep in Finland and Abroad,” Live- Diagnosticians, 1979). stock Production Science 4:355-377, 1977. 46. Templeton, A. R., and Read, B., “The Elimina- 32. Moore, G. H., “Deer Imports,” New Zealand tion of Inbreeding Depression in a Captive Herd Agricultural Science 18:19-24, 1984. of Speke’s Gazelle, ” Genetics and Conservation, 33. National Research Council, “Butterfly Farming C.M. Schonewald-Cox, S.M. Chambers, B. Mac- in Papua New Guinea” (Washington, DC: Na- Bryde, and L. Thomas (eds,) (Menlo Park, CA: tional Academy Press, 1983). Benjamin/Cummings, 1983). 34. National Research Council, “Crocodiles as a Re- 47. Thresher, P., “The Economics of Domesticated source for the Tropics” (Washington, DC: Na- Oryx Compared With That of Cattle,” World tional Academy Press, 1983). Animal Review 36:37-43, 1980, 3s. Netter, D. R., and Foose, T. J., “Concepts and 48, Trail, J. C. M., “Cattle Breed Evaluation Studies Strategies To Maintain Domestic and Wild Ani- by the International Livestock Centre for mal Germplasm, ” OTA commissioned paper, Africa,” Animal Genetic Resources Informa- 1985. tion, January 1983, pp. 17-20. 36. Piper, L. R,, Bindon, B. M., and Nethery, R.D. 49, Wallace, B,, and Vetukhiv, M,, “Adaptive Orga- (eds.), The Booroola Merino (Melbourne, Aus- nization of the Gene Pools of Drosophila Popu- tralia: Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial lations,” Gold Spring Harbor Symposium on Research Organization, 1980), Quantitative Biology 20:303-309, 1955. 37. Pope, C. E., Pope, V. Z., and Beck, L. R., “Live 50, VVhittingham, D. G., Leibo, S. Y., and Mazar, P., Ch. 6—Maintaining Animal Diversity Offsite ● 165

“Survival of Mouse Embryos Frozen to – 1960 Performance Characteristics of Prolific Breeds and – 260° C,” Science 178:411-414, 1972. of Pigs in China, ” Livestock Production Science 51. Wilmut, I., “Effect of Cooling Rate, Warming 10:59-68, 1983. Rate, Cryoprotection Agent, and Stage of Devel- 53. Zimmerman, D.R. and Cunningham, P. J., “Se- opment on Survival of Mouse Embryos During lection for Ovulation Rate in Swine: Population, Cooling and Thawing, ” Life Science 11, Part Procedures and Ovulation Response, ” Journal 2:1071-1079, 1972. of Animal Science 40:61-69, 1975. 52, Zhang, W., Wu, J. S., and Rempel, W. E., “Some Chapter 7 Maintaining Plant Diversity Offsite CONTENTS

Page Highlights ...... ,.169

Overview ...... *..*,* ● .*...... 169 Objectives of Offsite Collections ...... 169 Considerations in Selecting Technologies ...... ,....,.,..171 Collecting Samples .. .., O.. .. O....., ...... ,,,..,...... ,...173 Strategies ...... ,.....,173 Selecting Sites for Collecting .. ., D O, ...... ,, ...... 173 Quarantine ...... ,..,...... 175 Quarantine and Plant Importation ...... ,...... ,.177 Safeguards for Reducing Risk in Imported Germplasm...... ,..177 Storing Samples...... ,178 Conventional Seed Storage, ...... ,...... ,...180 Cryogenic Storage of Seeds ...... ,183 Field Maintenance and Controlled Environments ...... 184 pollen Storage...... 184 Biotechnology...... ,.,,.,.,,,...,....185 Management of Stored Materials ...... 187 Using Plants Stored Offsite ...... , ... ..190 Evaluation ...... ,l90 Traditional Breeding ...... ,.,...... ,..,...191 Biotechnological Improvement ● O..**. , ...... ● ***..* . 191 Needs and Opportunities ...... ,, ...... 194 Develop a Standard Operating Procedure ...... ,...,..,.,194 Improve Movement of Germplasm Through Quarantine . ..,...... 196 Promote Basic Research on Maintenance and Use of Plant Germplasm ..196 Chapter preferences ...... 197

Tables Table No. Page 7-1. Crops and Trees Commonly Prohibited Entry by Quarantine Regulations in 125 Countries ...... ,178 7-2. Technologies and Practices To Detect Pests and Diseases of Quarantine Significance and the Pathogens to Which They Are Most Frequently Applied ...... ,.179 7-3. Storage Technologies for Germplasm of Different Plants ...... ,....179 7-4. Estimated Costs of Conventional and Cryogenic Storage ...... ,,..184 7-!5. Somaclonal Variationin Economically Important Plant Species ...... 193 Figures Figure No. Page 7-1. Regions of the World Where Major Food Crops Were Domesticated ..,176 7-2. Maintenance Process of a P1ant Seed Bank ...... ,,.,.,...180

Boxes Box N o. Page3 7-A. Definitions Relevant to Offsite Plant Collections ...... ,...170 7-B. The History of Plant Collection ..*.**. ● .**.,** ,..,.0...... 174 7-C. Breeding and the Development of Gaines Wheat...... ,192 Maintaining Plant Diversity Offsite

HIGHLIGHTS

. Seed storage techniques are being used to conserve the genetic diversity of cereals, legumes, and many other important crop species. Some plants, however, do not produce seeds that can be stored. Eventually, this problem may be resolved with techniques for in vitro storage of plant tissue, from which whole plants can be regenerated. At present, the main alternative to seed storage is to grow entire specimens in the field. ● New technologies, including cryogenic storage of seeds and clones, use of biochemical methods to characterize accessions, and improved methods to detect pathogens in plant materials transferred internationally, have the potential to increase the cost-effectiveness of maintaining plant diversity offsite. Progress, however, is constrained by a lack of fundamental research on plant physiology, reproductive processes, and the mechanisms of genetic and cellular change. ● Priorities and protocols for collecting and maintaining germplasm of major crop plants are internationaIIy coordinated. However, they are not well- organized for minor crops or for wild plants that are endangered or have economic potential. ● Long-term public and private support for germplasm storage facilities depends on whether the stored materials prove to be valuable. The use of offsite collections can be improved by characterizing the genetic diversity contained in the collections and evaluating collections for important traits. Major breakthroughs in biotechnologies might eventually lead to fundamental changes in how biological diversity is maintained. Even so, a large portion of public resources for technology development should be used in improving the application of existing technologies, such as cryogenic storage of germplasm, that are important to society but are not attractive to the private sector to support.

OVERVIEW

One approach to maintaining plant diversity Objectives Offsite Collections involves collecting samples of agricultural and wild species and storing them in offsite collec- Offsite collections of agricultural crops bring tions, Such collections can assemble agricul- together varieties and related species from turally, geographically, and ecologically diverse widely dispersed areas (box 7-A). These collec- plants for use in crop improvement, genetic re- tions conserve plant genetic resources threat- search, or plant conservation. This chapter as- ened with loss or extinction. They also serve sesses technologies of collecting, storing, and as a convenient source of new genes for public using plants offsite, and private plant improvement. The highly suc-

169 170 ● Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity

Ch. 7—Maintaining P/ant Diversity Offsite 171 cessful rice variety 1R36 developed by the In- considerations affect the selection of appropri- ternational Rice Research Institute resulted ate technologies such as biological limitations from the crossbreeding of 13 accessions in their of the species, reliability of the technology, and collections of rice from the United States and cost. several Asian countries (Pg). wild plant collections help to preserve endangered species, sup- Biological Limitations ply materials to restore degraded lands, and provide material for genetic improvement of Seeds are the most commonly and easily crops. stored propagules of plants. When placed in conditions that reduce their moisture content Botanic gardens and arboretums arethepri- to approximately 5 to 6 percent, seeds of many mary repositories for wild plant species (69, species will remain viable for years. Lowered 112). Arboretums have been particularly impor- temperatures can further extend storage life. tant for maintaining individual trees and shrubs Seeds able to withstand reduction in moisture that may have little commercial significance and temperature are called orthodox seeds. (69). These facilities may also have commit- Most of the major food crops (e.g., cereals and ments to public education and display that can legumes) have orthodox seeds, and many, when result in selecting plants with special or unusual properly dried, withstand cooling to – 196° C, characteristics rather than those representing the temperature used in cryopreservation (58, the genetic diversity within the species. How- 85,89,100,108). ever, many such institutions are now giving greater attention to the potential contributions Seeds that cannot survive a reduction in moisture content are called recalcitrant seeds. Recal- they can make to maintaining plant diversity (12,34), citrant seeds are found in many important tropical species, a few temperate tree species, and some aquatic plants (8,42,83,100,108,118). Considerations in SeIecting Technologies Reducing the water content of recalcitrant seeds severely shortens their life span. Thus, No single technology is appropriate for all they cannot be stored like orthodox seeds: cool- the plants stored in offsite collections. Several ing to subfreezing temperatures would lead to

Board for Genetic Resources Many temperate and tropical species such as coffee and oil palm have seeds that cannot be stored for long periods; for this reason, collection of woody cuttings is preferred. 172 . Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity formation of ice, resulting in damaged cells and eration compressors should have alternative death of seeds. Instead, plants with recalcitrant power systems to prevent warming, which may seeds are commonly stored as field collections. adversely affect the viability of stored seeds Research on the physiology of recalcitrant seeds (100). Cryogenic techniques do not rely on ex- may lead to methods for long-term seed main- ternal power sources or mechanical cooling sys- tenance of these species. In vitro plantlet or em- tems. And though containers may develop bryo culture, coupled with cryogenic storage, leaks, the risks to security are considered much may also eventually become useful for these less than for mechanical refrigeration (100,101). species. Some novel approaches to reducing depen- Two other biological limitations may restrict dence on mechanical cooling systems are be- the maintenance of some plants. First, the qual- ing tested. The Nordic Gene Bank in Sweden ities that distinguish a particular variety (e.g., recently established a long-term storage facil- flower color and shape in roses; or the color, ity in old mines dug into the permafrost (125). flavor, and texture of a peach) may not be pre- The Polish Government proposed establishing served in plants grown from seeds, For many a world seed collection in Antarctic ice caves, fruit and nut varieties, retention of these spe- but this approach raises questions about stor- cific qualities is only possible through clonal age temperatures and about ease of access and propagation, which entails producing plants political control (55). An approach being de- from cuttings or by grafting. Second, some veloped in Argentina is to use the cold nights plants do not produce seeds readily because of of mountain environments to cool a specially inappropriate environmental conditions, phys- constructed storage vault (55). These options, iological barriers, or genetic inabilities, In some while interesting, are suitable for only certain cases, such as many varieties of banana or the countries and are still experimental. tropical yams (Dioscorea), plants are sterile and Genetic stability of plants can be affected in seeds cannot be obtained. Basic studies of phys- several ways. Mutations in orthodox seeds may iology are needed to improve understanding increase as samples lose their ability to ger- of the processes controlling flowering and seed minate (84,108). Growing out samples subjects production for both cultivated and wild plant them to conditions that will select against cer- species. tain individuals and thus reduce genetic diver- Reliability sity in the sample (88). Cryogenic storage can improve genetic stability by slowing viability The reliability of technology refers to both loss and lengthening the time needed between the potential for loss (by natural causes, acci- regenerations. For in vitro cultures, genetic mu- dent, or equipment failure) and the likelihood tation becomes a concern when the tissues are of genetic alteration during storage. growing as unorganized calli. Cryogenic storage of such cultures could suppress mutation The potential for loss by natural causes is by arresting growth, but more research on plant higher in field collections than in seed collec- development and cryopreservation of in vitro tions. Pests, diseases, and environmental con- cultures is still needed (90,108). ditions can decimate field collections. Therefore, collections should be duplicated in different locations to ensure against loss. Greenhouses Costs or other controlled environments may reduce the potential for loss by reducing environmental A final consideration in the selection of tech- exposure. Research of in vitro culture may lead nologies is cost. In seed storage facilities, ex- to alternatives to field collections that are free penses are incurred with monitoring viability from disease and environmental uncertainties. and regenerating samples. Mechanical refrigeration systems can be expensive because of Collections are also subject to equipment fail- continuous energy costs. Cryogenic storage can ure. As a backup measure, mechanical refrig- lower long-term costs by reducing the fre-

Ch. 7—Maintaining Plant Diversity Offsite ● 173 quency of viability monitoring and regenera- In vitro cultures may be more economical tion. However, cryogenic storage is economi- than extensive field collections, particularly if cal for only certain plant species; larger seeds, the cultures are stored cryogenically. However, such as beans, may be stored more economi- further research and development is needed on cally under mechanical refrigeration (102). both in vitro culture and cryogenic storage,

COLLECTING SAMPLES

Collecting samples involves the development sources (IUCN) and the Center for Plant Con- of strategies as well as the actual collection of servation at the Arnold Arboretum of Harvard plants. Developing strategies can be facilitated University are beginning to focus the expertise by analyzing plants already in storage, Ideally, and resources of botanic gardens, arboretums, a strategy would provide for the collection of and private collectors to improve offsite main- all genetic variants of a species without redun- tenance of wild plants. dancy (37) (box 7-B). Selecting Sites for Collecting Strategies Studies of the geographic distribution of Considerations of economic or esthetic im- plants, the experiences of scientists and plant portance, rarity, degree of endangerment, ac- collectors, computer-based models, and re- cess, genetic diversity, and similarity to plants already stored offsite can all influence the setting of strategies. For the major agricultural species, collection strategies have been established by considering the data on plants already collected, geographic distribution of crop species, particular needs of breeders, and the economic or social importance of the crop (117). The Inter- national Board for Plant Genetic Resources has established a system of priority ratings to guide collectors: priority 1 crops are those with most urgent global collection needs; Priorities 2, 3, and 4 indicate descending orders of urgency (51,73), Strategies are less clearly established for the collection of most wild species (66), In general, those threatened in their natural environment or of display value have received greater attention (69,1 12). A formal system for coordinating conservation activities has only recently been established (34,112). Botanic gardens, commercial institutions, and private collections have been growing and propagating rare plants for years but without concern for obtaining a range of genetic diversity (69). organizations Photo credit M O’Grady such as the Botanic Gardens Conservation Co- Collecting natural rubber in the Amazon forest. ordinating Body of the International Union for Natural rubber still has many industrial uses for which the Conservation of Nature and Natural Re- synthetic rubber cannot be employed. 174 ● Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity

search on the origins of plants have enabled habitats and resist a variety of crop-specific dis- scientists to locate regions rich in diversity of eases can be located in these areas. crop species. The regions where most of the major crop species were originally domesti- Some guidelines are available for collecting cated and developed are known as centers of a genetically diverse sample (12,47). For in- diversity, after a scheme first proposed by bot- stance, plants growing in areas of different soil, anist N.I. Vavilov of the Soviet Union (45,57). water, or light conditions may represent types At least 12 centers of diversity are now recog- that have genetic adaptations and could prove nized (figure 7-1). Primitive varieties and related to be valuable sources of particular genetic wild species that are able to survive in diverse traits. But guidelines for collecting seeds or

Ch. 7—Maintaining Plant Diversity Offsite ● 175

Scientists and experienced collectors also provide helpful information on collecting sites. Several of the large so-called genetic stock collections of crop germplasm in the United States, such as the one for tomato at the University of California-Davis, are overseen by a few individuals with special interests in that crop. The knowledge these people have about origins and distribution of a crop is frequently the result of extensive observations and field collecting experiences. Computer-based modeling is another potentially useful tool for predicting the location of sites appropriate for collecting. Data from a few key locations may provide information on the distribution of a particular crop trait, such as drought tolerance. A map can then be constructed by computer-based extrapolation of neighboring regions. Areas likely to contain plants with similar characteristics could be selected (2). However, this technology has its limitations. This kind of analysis requires precise data on latitude, longitude, and elevation for collected plants, for example—information that is not currently available in most crop databases (2). And because overall geographic information comes from satellite imagery, it can be prohibitively expensive (2). Political or other (e.g., geographic) restrictions on collecting in some areas may also make acquisition of plant samples difficult. Finally, data for the initial de Papa (C/P) profile are obtained from sites chosen by sta- Collecting wild potato species in South America, tistical analysis, and plant distribution may not a center of potato diversity. parallel these mathematically chosen sites. Re- finements in existing databases, collection in- other propagation materials (cuttings, tubers, formation, and artificial intelligence systems etc.) are only general and may be altered by spe- may someday allow such models to assist in cific conditions in the field. For example, the collecting. However, it seems the importance Central America and Mexico Coniferous Re- of using existing data for such tasks has been sources Cooperative (CAMCORE) has estab- overlooked (46). lished guidelines for environmental and geographic factors to consider, depending on the Quarantine number of trees to collect from, and the amount of seed to be collected (25,26). But if collectors After samples have been collected, compli- encounter small populations of tree species, col- cations may arise in transporting them. Move- lection is made from any tree with seed (26). ment of plants from one region to another al- Thus, the guidelines for a collecting expedition ways carries some risk that pests (nematodes, depend heavily on the expertise and judgment snails, insects, etc.) or pathogens (viruses, bac- of the individual collector. teria, or fungi) will also be transported (14,59,

176 ● Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity

I origin. of rice sugarcane I sugarcane Breadfruit Coconut Noble location Mango Taro Tea Banana Yam Thin Oriental Citrus the • millet) ~', about "" Pacific \. - Peach Onion (Foxtail Soybean Cabbage doubt - ast:. c1"~" ASia , "Ji2"1h ...... indicates ":,~ pea \ millet ...,,-. millet) / Domesticated name In4!Ia \ Pigeon Eggplant Cucumber (Cotton?) (Sesame?) the ---'-- Were CentndAlla Broadbean? ...... Buckwheat Hemp Alfalfa , (Grape) (Foxtail Common I~ after reserved. A~ ~ ., .1 ..... 0.' Crops rights mark All Food 1986. question A Pomegranate Apple? (Grape) (Olive) (Plum) Lentil Date Pear Fig Flax Chick-pea Barley Pea Onion Wheat Major September rice Where millet millet beet parentheses. 235(3}:88-97. in World IPearl IFinger Yam Cowpea Coffee (Cotton?) (Sesame?) African Watermelon Sorghum R:ye Cabbage (Grape) (Olive) Sugar Oats the Amerioan shown potato) of are Scientific Pineapple (Cotton) (Sweet (Cassava) Yam areas .. Man," different 7·1.-Regions Nourish That several South bean) America Figure Highland in Animals bean bean and Lima Peanut Potato (Common (Cotton) originated Plants Pecan Sunflower Blueberry Tepary Cranberry Plum (Grape) bean he ' .. bean) runner potato) Harlan, apparently (corn) bean J.R. that Papaya Cacao (Cassava) (Sweet (Common Avocado Scarlet Cotton Maize Sleva Tomato SOURCE: Crops Ch. 7—Maintaining Plant Diversity Offsite . 177

60). Plants destined for offsite collections, par- ized growing practices (60). Once plants have ticularly those from centers of diversity, can cleared safeguard restrictions, they may be dis- present particular quarantine concerns. These tributed to the general public. centers possess not only considerable crop In the United States, some plants (e.g., ap- diversity but also widely adapted crop pests and ples, pears, and potatoes) are held at one of the pathogens. An area where coffee and the dis- Agricultural Research Service’s Plant Protec- ease coffee-rust coexist, for example, would be tion and Quarantine facilities until they are con- a likely place to obtain plants with rust resis- sidered free of any pests or pathogens (60). tance genes, but it could also have pathogens Plants in this group face the most constraints that have adapted to coffee plants (60). because the hazards associated with importing The presence of most exotic pests can be de- them are highest (60). These plants may be held termined by inspection or by treatment of plants for several years after their original impor- upon entry, but some imported plants may be tation. detained while tested for obscure pathogens. In developing countries, plant quarantine sys- Such testing requires well-equipped labora- tems may lack scientific expertise, facilities, or tories and personnel as well as considerable appropriate governmental infrastructures to time. This last constraint—5 or more years for support them (14). Therefore, they depend heav- the detection of certain viruses and virus-like ily on such regulatory constraints as import re- organisms in woody plants—can profoundly af- fusal, lengthy quarantine, or treatment for pests fect importation of some plants (60). or pathogens, These restrictions can result in considerable delay in importation of plants to Quarantine and plant Importation facilities in these areas. Establishing quarantine policies and practices for a particular plant species depends on Safeguards for Reducing Risk in both knowledge of its risk of carrying pests or Imported Germplasm pathogens and availability of technologies to detect such pathogens (table 7-I). Most plant A number of actions and regulations, either species, when imported according to regula- at the place of origin or at the port of entry, tions (e. g., clean and free of soil, and subject reduce the risks associated with plant impor- to inspection at an authorized port of entry), tation. are considered unlikely to be carrying harmful organisms and thus to be of low risk (60). Inspection, certification, testing, or treatment of plants before export can reduce potential Some agricultural crops, such as rice, sor- quarantine delays (60). Most plants require lit- ghum, or sugarcane and their related wild spe- tle more than inspection to move quickly through cies, require greater attention because they quarantine. In vitro plantlet cultures can, in might contain pathogens not easily detected by some cases, be imported with fewer restrictions current technologies. than the plants from which they originate, Such Certain agricultural plants or plant parts used cultures, though, are not considered free of dis- for vegetative propagation (e.g., sugarcane ease without diagnostic testing (60). stems or potato tubers) represent the greatest Upon entry, plants likely to contain patho- risk to agriculture because they maybe infected gens can be tested with a variety of technol- with undetected pathogens (60). The U.S. De- ogies (table 7-2) (59,60). However, procedures partment of Agriculture (USDA) allows small vary in reliability and in the resources they re- quantities of these plants to be imported for sci- quire. Indexing, which uses highly sensitive in- entific use only. Permits typically require that dicator plants, is the most reliable and wideIy plants be grown under the supervision of a used method, but it requires considerable green- knowledgeable specialist and may require diag- house space to maintain the plants necessary nostic testing for pathogens as well as special- for this test (60). Serologic methods that use an- 178 ● Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity

Table 7-1 .—Crops and Trees Commonly Prohibited Entry by Quarantine Regulations in 125 Countries

Percentages of Number of countries Percentages of countries countries prohibiting: in which crops/genera that name one or more Plants Plants Seeds Crops and trees are prohibited pests or pathogens only a and seeds only Forest crops.’ Maple ...... 14 43 100 0 0 Chestnut ...... 34 23 76 24 0 Conifers b ...... 27 26 100 0 0 Hawthorn ...... 14 86 100 0 0 Walnut ...... 21 48 100 0 0 Poplar...... 27 44 93 7 0 Oak ...... 25 47 92 8 0 Willow ...... 22 45 100 0 0 Ash ...... 24 58 96 4 0 Elm ...... 32 47 94 16 0 Fruit crops: Citrus ...... 62 45 55 45 0 Coconut ...... 28 32 29 64 7 Strawberry ...... 20 55 65 35 0 Banana ...... 39 39 54 46 0 Pome fruitsc ...... 37 68 85 15 0 Prunus (cherry, plum, etc) ...... 37 68 85 15 0 Currant ...... 16 38 69 31 0 Grapevine ...... 41 41 90 10 0 Vegetable crops: Sweet potato ...... 23 35 61 39 0 Potato ...... 41 41 90 10 0 Other crops: Coffee ...... 49 31 24 57 18 Cotton ...... 52 23 25 61 14 Sunflower ...... 15 40 20 80 0 Rubber ...... 28 50 29 71 0 Tobacco ...... 26 31 35 58 7 Oil palm ...... 16 38 56 44 0 Rice ...... 33 42 21 61 18 Rose ...... 22 41 100 0 0 Cacao ...... 43 42 19 79 2 Tea ...... 20 45 45 55 0 Sugarcane ...... 40 10 63 37 0 alncludes plants as well as any parts for vegetative Propagation bspeclflcauy the genera P/cea, Larix, Pinus, andAb@ Clncludes the generac~aeno~e/es, Cydonia, Ma/us, and ~YrfJs SOURCE R.P Kahn, “Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity” Assessment of Plant Quarantine Practices,” OTAcommlssioned papeh 1985. tibodies to pathogens provide rapid results but negative result maybe due to inadequate tech- may not detect all forms of a particular patho- nology. It is essential, therefore, that the limits gen (60), Molecular techniques to detect the of any technology be understood. Basic re- genetic material of pathogens are available,but search on the biology of pathogenic organisms these may require better-equipped laboratories and the technologies used to detect them is and greater expertise than is available in many needed to improvetesting procedures, develop quarantine programs, Identifying the presence them for other pests and pathogens, and un- of a pathogen can thus be difficult because a derstand the limits.

STORING SAMPLES

Storage technologies aim to preserve an ade- stitution (81). Plants can be maintained offsite quate amount of plant germplasm, sustain its in a numberofforms and with a number of tech- viability, and preserve its original genetic con- nologies (table 7-3). They may be maintained Ch. 7—Maintaining Plant Diversity Offsite ● 179

Table 7“2.—Technologies and Practices To Detect Pests and Diseases of Quarantine Significance and the Pathogens To Which They Are Most Frequently Applied

Technology/practice: Description Range a Physical examination: Physical manifestations of disease-producing agents...... A Seed health testing: Germinating seed in culture conditions that allow growth of fungi or bacteria. Microscopic examination of seed for pathogens...... B,F Grow-out testing: Growing plants under controlled conditions until diseases are no longer detected ...... B, F,V,O /ndexing: Attempted transfer of pathogens from a plant under examination to another species that is highly sensitive to infection by them. Can involve transfer by mechanical abrasion with extracts or by grafting ...... , ...... B,F,V Electron microscopy: Examination of extracts or tissues for the presence of pathogens or their spores ...... B,V Inclusion bodies: Light microscopic examination of tissues for structures characteristic of pathogen infection...... B,F,V Serologic testing: An array of procedures utilizing the ability of test animals to produce antibodies that are highly specific for a particular pathogen. Important variations include enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, radioimmunosorbent assay, and immunosorbent electron microscopy ...... B,V,O Polyactylamide gel electrophoresis: Detects ribonucleic acid (RNA) of pathogens in small amounts of tissue ...... B,V,O Nucleic acid hybridization: New technology that uses recombinant DNA procedures to locate the genetic material of a pathogen in DNA extracted from tissue samples...... B,V,O aA = Most pests and pathogens, B = bacteria; F = fungi, V = wruses, O = others (0 g , ffIYCOPlaSmaS, vlrolds) SOURCE Based on data from R P Kahn, “Technologies To Ma!ntaln Biological Dlvers!ty Assessment of Plant Quarantine Practices, ” OTA commissioned paper, 1985

Table 7-3.—Storage Technologies for Germplasm of Different Plants

Storage technology Storage Field In vitro cool Liquid Plant group form b collections culture temperature nit rogen Collection c Cereals and grain legumes seeds x R B,A (wheat, corn, barley, rice, soybean) Forage legumes and grasses seeds x R B,A (alfalfa, orchardgrass, bromegrass, clover) plants x X,R x A Vegetables seeds x R B,A (tomato, bean, onion, carrot, lettuce) plants x R R R A Forest trees seeds x R B,A (pines, firs, hardwoods) plants x R R B,A Roots and tubers seeds x B,A (potato, sweet potato, tropical yam, aroids) plants x X,R R R A Temperate fruit and nuts seeds x R B(?),A (apple, grape, peach, strawberry, raspberry) plants x X,R R R A Tropical fruit and nuts seeds x R A (avocado, banana, date, citrus, papaya, cashew) plants x R R R A Ornamental seeds x R A (carnation, zinnia, lilac, rhododendron) plants x X,R A Oilseeds seeds x R B,A (soybean, sunflower, peanut, oilpalm, rape) plants x R R A New crops seeds x R B,A (jojoba, amaranth, guayule) plants x X,R A ax ~ currently in use, R = under research and development. bRefers to source of materlafs for storage (e,g , plants are the source of materlais for initiating tissue Cultures CB ~ base Collections available, A = active COllOCtlOnS available

SOURCE Adapted from L Towill, E Roos, and P C Stanwood, “Plant Germplasm Storage Technologies,” OTA comm!ssloned paper, 1985 180 ● Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity

Figure 702.— Maintenance Process of a Registration Plant Seed Bank When seeds arrive at a storage facility, passport information must be recorded and a number assigned to facilitate recordkeeping. Pass- number 4 port data may include information on the origin I I of the sample, its source (if acquired from I another facility), and any pertinent physiolog- 1 I ical details that would aid storage. Data of interest to potential users, such as disease resistance, also may be included. I I ● Cleaning The information accumulated may reflect the ● Drying focus of a particular collection. The Royal Bo- counting 1 tanic Gardens at Kew, England, requires de- REGENERATION tails on the location and habitat in which a wild I I plant species was collected, an estimate of the I total number of plants represented by the sample, a taxonomic classification, and the loca- STORAGE I I tion of a reference herbarium specimen. The Ambient to cryogenic more detailed this preliminary information is, temperatures the more useful the accession is for crop development or conservation. i 1 J Collections may receive the accessions of I another collection, thus duplicating materials. t Although such duplication does provide security against loss, the number of accessions held

Unacceptable by all collections does not reflect duplicates. bll{ty In barley, for example, the total of more than 280,000 accessions in storage is considerably greater than the estimated 50,000 distinct ac- I I cessions worldwide (70). SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment, 1986. Processing as seeds, in fields, or in greenhouse collections. Once registered, other data such as estimates Pollen storage and in vitro plantlet cultures may of the number of seeds received, viability in supplement storage of many of these species. terms of percentage of germination, and taxo- Finally, cryogenic storage (in liquid nitrogen) nomic identification must be obtained. In addi- and emerging DNA technologies may hold po- tion, seeds may require preparation, like clean- tential for improving maintenance of plants. ing and drying for storage. Seeds are tested for germinating ability to de- Conventional Seed Storage termine if the sample is of high viability or whether it must be planted to produce fresh Most agricultural crops held by the National seed before storing (29,30,31,43). Plant Germplasm System (NPGS), international centers, national programs, and private collec- To reduce moisture in seeds, procedures tions are maintained as seeds. The process of using chemical desiccants have been developed conventional seed storage can be divided into and are widely applied (111). Facilities with several steps: registration, processing, storage, large amounts of seeds to process, such as the viability testing, and regeneration (figure 7-2). U.S. Plant Introduction Stations or the National Ch. 7—Maintaining Plant Diversity Offsite . 181 — —

Seed Storage Laboratory (NSSL), use dehumid- whether another 40 seeds are needed (30,42). ified rooms to reduce moisture. But a small sample of seeds may need to undergo numerous tests before an answer is reached, Storage which may take longer than testing a single large sample. Four factors affect seed storage: 1) moisture content, 2) storage temperature, 3) storage Other tests–involving dyes, physiological atmosphere, and 4) genetic composition of the tests, or biochemical assays—have been devel- sample (4,87,88,89), Reduced moisture content oped to determine seed viability (89). The va- is considered the most crucial to maintaining lidity of such tests relies on the ability to dem- viability. In general, each l-percent decrease onstrate a correlation with actual germination in seed moisture between the 5- and 14-percent rates. These tests can be useful to determine range will double the lifespan of a seed sample. if dormancy or inappropriate storage condi- Reduction of storage temperature also increases tions are producing misleading results (30). seed longevity. A 50 decrease in temperature Some, such as the tetrazolium dye test for a between 0° and 50° C doubles longevity (89). range of seeds, or X-ray contrast with heavy Control of storage atmosphere generally does metals in tree seeds, have been widely used not provide significant advantages over ma- (30,89). others, such as enzyme tests, provide nipulation of moisture and temperature, par- information useful for the study of seed physi- ticularly when the latter is below freezing. ology but are more expensive and difficult to Genetics relate to differences between individ- perform than standard germination tests. ual accessions or between individuals in a Preserving the genetic variability in seed ac- mixed sample and cannot be altered to increase cessions is a major concern in offsite collec- longevity. tions, Many accessions, particularly those of Viability Testing primitive landraces and wild species, are genetically diverse populations and display con- Seeds must be tested periodically for viabil- siderable genetic variation between individuals ity. This information helps determine when an in a sample. Genetic differences in storage life- accession needs to be grown-out to produce a span can mean that the genetics of a popula- fresh sample of seeds. The most obvious test tion could be altered by decline in viability is to germinate a portion of the seeds to esti- (86,87,88,108). mate the viable percentage. Although seeds generally should be regener- Viability testing involves placing seeds in ated when germination drops 15 percent, prac- appropriate conditions (damp blotter paper, tical considerations of labor, space, and time agar medium, etc.] and counting the number can delay this step (32,43,83,108), One recent of seeds that germinate over a period of time. report stated that NSSL does not regenerate However, if seeds are dormant, obtaining via- samples until viability has dropped 40 percent bility estimates can be difficult. Citrus species, (113). This practice, however, may be based for example, were thought to have died when more on lack of resources than on scientific prepared for conventional storage but were considerations. shown instead to be dormant (82). Heating, cooling, lighting, and treatments (e. g., removal or Regeneration cracking of the seed coat) may be required to Variations in growth requirements for spe- overcome dormancy in some species. cies and even for varieties within a species com- Typically, 200 to 400 seeds are required for plicate the growing-out of seed. In beans, for viability testing (43). However, a sequential ap- example, different accessions may require proach reduces the number needed for testing. different conditions, e.g., daylength, for grow- Forty seeds can be tested to determine whether ing out. Thus, both subtropical and temperate the accession should be regenerated, stored, or sites must be used to grow-out a range of bean

182 Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity

credit: OTA Conventional seed storage. Seeds are stored in airtight containers (top photo), then placed in drawers (bottom left) in refrigerated rooms (bottom right). Many storage facilities increasingly use laminated foil envelopes instead of cans.

Ch. 7–Maintaining Plant Diversity Offsite ● 183 varieties, Other factors such as control of pollination can also be important for regenerating certain crops (95,108). Wind-pollinated accessions can readily cross with others, and thus, individual accessions must be grown in widely separated fields to ensure that they are not genetically mixed. Genetic loss by natural selection during grow- out may be undetected in regenerated seed. At NSSL, the designated grower is responsible for ensuring that the sample returned is from plants grown under conditions that would minimize genetic loss. No testing beyond visual examination and a viability test of the returned sample is conducted. Grow-outs are expensive in terms of facilities and personnel, and they subject stored materials to damage from pests, pathogens, and environmental conditions, which may reduce genetic diversity in an accession. But the most effective and least expensive way to maintain diversity is to reduce the frequency of regeneration through technologies that extend storage.

Cryogenic Storage of Seeds A critical factor in cryogenic storage is the amount of water in the tissue to be frozen. Most orthodox seeds can be easily stored at cryogenic temperatures because their water content is low enough to avoid damage associated with freezing (99,100,102,108), creased costs, due in part to the greater amount of space required, may reduce or eliminate po- Cryogenic technologies may be able to extend tential cost-savings over mechanical refriger- the storage life of orthodox seeds to more than ation (102). a century, which would greatly reduce the need for viability testing and regeneration (100,102, This method could hold considerable cost ad- 121,122). vantages with regard to operating a seed bank However, limitations on cryogenic storage and regenerating seed (table 7-4) (102). Cryo- exist for some species depending on a plant’s genic storage facilities will cost about the same seed coat, oil or moisture content, and seed size to establish, but operation over time would be cheaper, in part due to reduced need for via- (108). Some plants, such as plums and coffee, have orthodox seeds that tolerate low moisture bility testing and grow-out. Investment in a facility to produce liquid nitrogen might be nec- levels but are sensitive to cooling below –4OO C (100). If cooled or warmed incorrectly, many essary in some areas, but the operational savings in the seed bank could allow recovery of seeds can crack (100). Seeds as big as cotton costs in 6 to 14 years (99). seeds (about eight seeds per gram) are appropriate for cryogenic storage (99,100,102). Larger Major obstacles to this technology are the lack seeds, such as beans, can also be frozen, but in- of appropriate facilities and scientific exper- 184 . Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity

Table 7-4.—Estimated Costsa of Conventional focus on a narrow taxonomic group, as men- and Cryogenic Storage tioned earlier. Arboretums conserve limited Storage for 100 years samples of tree and shrub species with very Source Conventional b Cryogenic small natural gene pools that are under pres- Storage: sure of destruction, or plants with distinctive Includes equipment, supplies, characteristics (34,69,80). In the United States, and replacement of establishing a network among botanic gardens equipment ...... $ 5.30 $5.00 and arboretums, facilitated by the newly formed Operations: Includes utilities, equipment Center for Plant Conservation at the Arnold Ar- maintenance, liquid nitrogen boretum at Harvard University, could allow a coolant, and monitoring of division of labor and sharing of expertise that viability (every 5 years for mechanical; every 50 years would enable more species and more genetic for cryogenic ...... 60.00 11.80 diversity within species to be maintained (34, Seed replacement: 106). From regenerating when viability or sample size Trees in field collections, however, may have declines (four times for been selected for economically important traits mechanical; one time for cryogenic) ...... 100.00 25.00 and thus may only represent a narrow range Total 100-year cost $165.30 $41.80 of the total diversity available for a species. Average yearly cost $ 1.65 $0.42 CAMCORE, for example, collects seeds only %osts for accession of onion (a species that survives poorly under conventional from coniferous trees with commercially val- storage). Savings for other crop species-particularly those with large seeds— may be less dramatic or nonexistent, uable trunk characteristics (i.e., tall and straight) bAss s conditions of – 18° C and seed moisture of 4 to 7 Percent, ume storage (25). Trees in field collections, nonetheless, can under which storage life of onion seed is approximately 25 years. SOURCE: P.C. Stanwood and L.N. Bass, “Seed Germplasm Preservation Using be useful sources of seeds for restoration and Liquid Nitrogen,” Seed Science and Technology 9:423-437, 1981. reforestation projects (8). tise at many locations, particularly in develop- Many clonally propagated crops are main- ing countries, and the lack of scientific data tained in field collections. Clonally propagated on genetic stability of seeds stored cryogeni- crops include fruit and nut species; many or- cally. Certainly the capacity to use cryogenic namental, such as roses; and some root and technologies should be part of any newly con- tuber crops important to developing countries structed facility for seed storage. (e.g., sweet potato, cassava, and tare). Seeds may be available for many varieties. However, FieId Maintenanence and Controlled most of these crops are genetically hetero- Environmomts geneous, and clones grown from their seeds may not retain the particular qualities of the Accessions may also be stored as vegetative parent plants (e.g., the seeds of a Macintosh plants in field collections or controlled envi- apple do not produce Macintosh apple trees, ronments e.g., greenhouses (108). This approach but rather a range of trees that result from may be necessitated by physiological restric- recombination of the genes in the Macintosh tions on storing seed, by the need to preserve apple). The Centro International de la Papa particular combinations of characters or by in- (CIP) in Peru, for instance, maintains an active abilities to obtain satisfactory seed samples field collection of potato landraces but also has (81,108). Field collections can preserve the abase collection of seeds from these accessions genetic diversity of many aquatic plants; trop- (50). ical species (e.g., coconut, cacao, mango, or rubber trees); tropical forest trees; and some temperate trees (e.g., oaks) —which all have Pollen Storage recalcitrant seeds (28,42,63,64,84). Pollen is not a conventional form of germ- Botanic gardens and arboretums maintain di- plasm storage, but information is available on verse field collections, though many institutes preserving pollen for breeding purposes for

many species, particularly for crossing mate- Considerable information is still needed on rials that flower at different times (107,108). A stability and longevity of storing pollen, how- population of pollen grains collected from ge- ever, before its use in storage will be possible netically different individuals would contain (108). Pollen is undesirable as the sole propagule the nuclear genes; cytoplasmic (nonnuclear) for base collection storage because whole plants genetic factors would not be transmitted, how- cannot generally be obtained from it (81,108). ever, because these are not inherited through In addition, pollen storage does not circumvent the pollen (108). potential plant health problems because some pathogens are pollen-borne, Pollen can be separated into types that are tolerant or intolerant of drying (81,107,108). Biotechnology Tolerant types store best when dried and maintained at low temperatures, much like ortho- Biotechnology provides additional opportu- dox seeds. But the pollen of many species does nities to improve offsite maintenance of plants. not survive low moisture or freezing tempera- Of particular relevance are in vitro cultures of tures. Some intolerant types, notably maize, plants that are now maintained in field collec- have been successfully preserved in liquid ni- tions. And developments in genetic engineer- trogen, but data on success are sparse (3,107, ing may make the storage of isolated DNA prac- 108). tical in the future.

186 Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity

In Vitro Culture In vitro cultures of plants have been advo- cated for a variety of species, especially those that are clonally propagated (20,53,56). Al- though this technology can be adapted to many species (16,33,93), it is generally unnecessary for those that have orthodox seeds. However, the methods may be necessary if there is a need to maintain specific genetic types, if seed progeny are highly variable, if plants have long juvenile stages (e.g., many tree species), or if seeds are lacking (e.g., clonal crops such as banana, tare, and sugarcane) (20). In vitro maintenance is defined as the growing of cells, tissues, organs, or plantlets in glass or plastic vessels under sterile conditions (108). when plants originate from intact isolated meristems, the cultures may be free of pathogens (108). The media for growing in vitro cultures may vary among species and among individuals within a species. By altering the balance of nutrients and growth regulators in the media, in vitro cultures can be made to develop unorganized growth (termed callus), produce multiple shoots or plantlets, form structures similar to the embryo in a seed, or develop roots to enable transfer to field conditions. Not all plants, however, are amenable to growth or Board Genetic Resources manipulation by in vitro culture (108). vitro culture could become an important method of One aspect of in vitro technology of particu- long-term maintenance for plants with seeds that cannot be stored under dry, cold conditions and for plants that lar concern for plant germplasm conservation can only be maintained in field collections. is the occurrence of genetic modification (somaclonal variation) in plants derived from callus cultures (67,90). Such variation is con- from buds or shoot-tips are considered most sidered useful in the development of new varie- suitable. tal characteristics but is unacceptable when No in vitro long-term base collections of agri- preservation of specific genotypes is the objec- cultural crops exist at present, although some tive. Although it is known that certain types of cultures and conditions, such as callus cul- active collections are being developed: potato tures, can produce higher frequencies of soma- at CIP, cassava at the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) in Colombia, and clonal variation, the cellular processes that pro- yam and sweet potato at the International In- duce them are not well understood (90,120). stitute for Tropical Agriculture in Nigeria (122, Furthermore, growing cultured plants to maturity remains the only satisfactory way to exam- 123). The NPGS Clonal Repositories are inves- ine the consequences of such changes. Conse- tigating in vitro cultures as backup to field collections of some crops (108). quently, each method of culture must be carefully evaluated before it is applied. For germplasm In vitro cultures can be stored under normal preservation, in vitro plants directly derived growth conditions, in reduced temperatures or Ch. 7—Maintaining Plant Diversity Offsite ● 187 in a medium that inhibits growth (53,56,119, DNA Storage 120,122), Cultures can thus be maintained for Future storage technologies may include, as weeks to months without subculture (i.e., trans- a supplemental strategy, the preservation of the fer to fresh medium). However, all treatments isolated genetic information (DNA and RNA) that retard growth put additional stress on the of plants. Existing technologies can locate, ex- culture, which may increase the potential for cise, and reinsert genes. In some cases, these somaclonal variants. genes retain nearly normal function (75,108). In vitro culture techniques could be impor- A much better understanding of gene structure, tant for the long-term maintenance of plants function, and regulation is needed, however, with recalcitrant seeds. One recent proposal before isolated DNA can be used for germplasm has been to excise the embryo from the seed storage (76,108). and store it under cryogenic conditions. The embryo could be thawed and then grown and Management of Stored Materials multiplied in vitro (40). Research in cooperation with the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew, Offsite collections of plants must be well man- England, has demonstrated the feasibility of this aged to guard against loss of materials and to procedure for two tree species (Araucaria use financial and technological resources most husteinii and Quercus robur). Further research efficiently. Some duplication between collec- is needed to apply it to other plants with recal- tions can prevent catastrophic loss, but exces- citrant seeds (4o). sive redundancy can waste resources. Disease organisms that might be brought into a collec- Cryogenic storage may help avoid the stresses tion by new accessions need to be managed. of continuous in vitro culture (49,62,90,121,122, Finally, information on the accessions must be 123), Considerably greater attention would be easily available both to managers and users. needed in preparation, freezing, storing, thawing, and subsequent culturing than is the case Duplication of Collections for orthodox seeds. Although some generali- zations can be made, methods acceptable to one Duplication of collections provides the best species or variety may not be satisfactory for insurance against natural catastrophes, pests, others. However, research has demonstrated diseases, mechanical failures, or abandonment that in vitro-cultured shoot-tips from some her- (81,108), CIP protects its collection of landrace baceous plants (e.g., potato, carnation, and cas- potatoes with field plantings at other locations, sava); berries (e. g., strawberry, raspberry, and with seed storage, and with in vitro culture (50). blueberry); and buds of some woody species At the NPGS Clonal Repositories (see ch, 9), (e.g., apple) can survive cryogenic storage (108). greenhouse collections back-up field-maintained collections of fruit and nut species. Duplica- Many questions remain before cryogenic storage of in vitro cultures is widely applied. tion is equally critical for seed banks, where Among these is whether a single procedure can malfunctioning of a mechanical compressor can result in loss of cooling. be developed that works well for an array of plants. Further, it is not yet understood how Plants in an offsite collection also can be lost the process of freezing and thawing affects if institutional priorities change, or if the per- regeneration of cultures or their genetic con- son responsible for the species or collection stitution (108,121). Additional investigation for leaves (108). The situation is particularly criti- individual crops is needed, and current tech- cal for older varieties of fruits, berries, and nologies have not yet been adapted for handling vegetables that may be held only by private in- the large numbers of specimens that might be dividuals or groups (112). For wild species, too, expected in an offsite facility. a large collection is frequently the result of the 188 ● Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity interest of one person or a few individuals. Biochemical Analysis.—Analysis of proteins when these efforts cease, a valuable collection or DNA using electrophoretic techniques is can rapidly deteriorate. Information on the fo- another way to assess diversity (94). Isoenzymes, cus and extent of various collections can aid the protein products of individual genes, can coordination of duplication and minimize the change in number or chemical structure when potential for loss (34,112). the genes for them are altered, and these changes can be detected by an electrophoretic assay, Examination of DNA can allow compar- Assessing Diversity in a Collection ison of the entire genetic composition of ac- The diversity of a collection can be assessed cessions. by collecting morphologic, biochemical, or Isoenzyme analysis on either starch or poly- phytochemical information, frequently called acrylamide gels has probably been the most characterization data. popular technique for assessing genetic diver- Most characterization data can help distin- sity. Surveys of isoenzyme polymorphism have guish one accession from another but not as- been performed for maize, wheat, tomato, pea, sess potentially useful traits. This is particularly and barley (94,114). In addition, surveys have true for assays of proteins or DNA, which give been done on hundreds of other cultivars and little indication of such traits as crop yield, dis- wild species (94,104, 105,114). ease, or stress resistance. A potential application of this technology is the development of isoenzyme “fingerprints” Morphological Assessment.—Assessing the to permit reliable identification of specific plant morphology of an accession is the first step to varieties to certify breeding materials, to iso- developing accurate characterization, Morpho- late genetically similar cultivars, or to monitor logical information for wild species is impor- otherwise undetected genetic changes in acces- tant for taxonomic identification and forms the sions. Electrophoretic analysis has been used essential baseline from which all other data are to detect duplication in some offsite collections, related (68). The information on agricultural such as the CIP collection of potato germplasm crops can be used to distinguish individual ac- (50) and is increasing in application at NPGS cessions, as well as identify them taxonomically facilities (19). However, since the data are gen- (114). However, data are on gross appearance erally restricted to a few biochemical charac- and do not reflect the full genetic composition teristics and do not reflect performance data of an accession. or the full genetic composition of an accession, Care must be taken to ensure reliable results such analysis has been considered risky (39). when plants are grown-out for morphological Two-dimensional electrophoresis is used to assessment (10). Spacing of plants must be ade- separate complex protein mixtures such as quate to ensure that results do not reflect over- those found in seed or leaf extracts so that sev- crowding, for example. Samples thought to be eral hundred proteins can be distinguished in duplicates are frequently grown side by side a single gel (9,17,114). The results can be diffi- for comparison (13). Biological factors, such as cult to reproduce, however. The technique re- the potential for cross-pollination among ac- quires specialized equipment and may be too cessions, must be taken into consideration. lengthy for routine use because only one sample can be evaluated at a time. Managers of off- The major constraints to assessing morphol- site collections are unlikely to have the time, ogy are adequate space, funds, and trained per- expertise, or resources to use this technique rou- sonnel. Though not technically difficult, such tinely. assessments require attention to possible environmental effects and may take a significant Restriction fragment length polymorphisms amount of time to perform, analyze, and record, (RFLPs) have been used to directly examine Ch. 7—Maintaining Plant Diversity Offsite 189

DNA. DNA is “cut” enzymatically (using re- pensive instrumentation. These technologies striction endonuclease enzymes) into pieces or have been used extensively, however, by sci- restriction fragments that can be separated on entists studying the taxonomy and systematic electrophoretic gels. Because RFLPs represent of plants (114) and by university and industry the whole genetic composition of the sample, scientists interested in developing potential comparing individual analyses within a sam- uses for wild plants in medicine and industry. ple or among accessions would indicate the variability that exists. The techniques, however, Controlling Pests and Pathogens are expensive and require technicaI expertise in Collections to execute and interpret. Thus, use of RFLPs Managing stored samples requires efforts to appears limited at present to appropriately ensure that seeds or plants are not lost to pests equipped laboratories (114). RFLPs have been or pathogens. Because a collection may distrib- useful in developing detailed genetic maps for ute seeds to other regions, precautions must use in breeding programs (48) but are not rou- be taken to reduce the possibility of sending tinely applied to characterization of germplasm. pests or pathogens as well (61). Phytochemical Analysis.—Phytochernical Stored seed can be severely damaged by ro- analysis deals with the distribution and chemis- dents, insects, or fungus (58). With rodents, the try of organic compounds synthesized by plants major damage is not from consumption but (114). rather from the pests scattering and mixing up different accessions (58). Many insect, fungal, Analysis involves three general processes: ex- and bacterial contaminants can be controlled traction, isolation, and identification (44,114). with the use of chemical fumigants, although plant materials are homogenized in aqueous such treatments might also harm the seeds (58, alcohol, then purified by evaporation of the al- 59,81). Sanitary storage facilities that obviate cohol and chemical partitioning to remove con- the need for such treatment are therefore prefer- taminating substances and isolate the chemi- able (81). when dried seeds are kept at subfreez- cals of interest (114). Chemicals can then be ing temperatures, the potential risk is minimal identified by chromatographic or spectroscopic (58,101), techniques (114). The risk of disseminating pathogens is con- During the past 10 years, the major techno- siderably greater for crops maintained through logical advance in separation and purification clonal propagation (59,61). Some facilities with of organic chemical mixtures has been the de- a specific focus may have greater expertise with velopment of high-performance liquid chro- a crop and its diseases than a national quaran- matography (H PLC). HPLC is more rapid than tine facility concerned with all potential intro- other chromatographic procedures and can iso- ductions. Cooperation between scientists and late a range of plant chemicals. Developing quarantine officials can improve control of appropriate HPLC procedures, however, re- pathogens and aid technology development. quires considerable investment of funds and time. Some facilities of NPGS, however, are lmformation Management using techniques such as HPLC to help char- Offsite collections are repositories not only acterize germplasm (19). of germplasm but also of information, This information can aid collection management, Recent advances in microcomputers have can provide more efficient access to specific provided sophisticated, low-cost spectropho- tometers that can identify plant chemicals (114). accessions, and might help develop collection Other techniques, such as nuclear magnetic res- strategies. onance spectroscopy and mass spectrometry, The current focus has been on standardiza- also can determine chemical structure but they tion of terminology in order to facilitate ex- require considerable technical expertise and exchange between collections and to provide 190 . Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity

more consistent information to users (117). De- The Germplasm Resources Information Net- velopment of uniform crop descriptors that in- work (GRIN) of NPGS is an example of a large clude information about the storage history of information system designed to coordinate data an accession as well as data on the original from multiple collections in the United States. collector, collection site, vegetative and repro- GRIN, once fully established, is expected to productive characteristics, disease or pest suscep- vide information on all accessions held by tibility, and biochemical characteristics (e.g., NPGS. Although the capacity of the system is isoenzyme profiles) is important for consistent more than adequate, entering information is, and accurate information (7,98,117). This task after several years, still in the preliminary stages. for NPGS has been assigned to crop advisory OTA has found GRIN praised by managers of committees (see ch. 9). NPGS facilities for its recordkeeping operations but criticized by potential users because de- Several data storage and retrieval methods tailed information is unavailable on individual are now used (65). A collection of only a few accessions and obtaining results of searches can hundred accessions might use file cards or take considerable time. GRIN at present does books. As the collection grows, a computer- not collect information on privately held col- based system may be more appropriate. Large lections of agricultural plants, such as those co- collections, such as the Royal Botanic Gardens ordinated by the Seed Savers Exchange or the in England, have developed systems adapted North American Fruit Explorers, nor does it to their specific needs (97). The nature of the hold information on wild species. data in computer-based information management systems depends on whether the materials being stored are agricultural crops (1,125) or wild species (34,97).

USING PLANTS STORED OFFSITE

Collections are used for crop development ness of maturity in a fruiting crop. This assess- as well as conservation. Plant breeders and sci- ment can be complicated in a genetically vari- entists who may depend on the genetic diver- able accession because all individuals may not sity in such collections require specific infor- express the trait equally (81). Further, changes mation about accessions to select appropriate in conditions (e.g., appearance of a new dis- plants. Genes in selected accessions are incor- ease) can require further evaluation for new porated into improved crop varieties using traits. In addition, new accessions must be traditional plant breeding practices. In addi- evaluated. Thus, evaluation may be considered tion, biotechnology may provide methods that a never-ending task (81). could enable development of improved crop varieties or more efficient use of genes in plants. Evaluations vary according to the species or trait being examined and may be both lengthy and complex (37). A test for yield potential, for example, would require different growing con- Evaluation of plant germplasm involves the ditions than a test for genes that enable plants examination of accessions for the presence and to grow in acid soils. And sufficient space to quality of particular traits that may be of use grow plants to maturity is needed, along with to crop breeders. trained personnel to design the tests and to analyze results (81). The time required too can be In general, evaluation examines traits that considerable. Testing the wheat held by the U.S. may be genetically quantitative (i.e., controlled National Small Grains Collection for resistance by many genes) and subject to environmental to stem and leaf rust, for example, is expected influence, such as drought tolerance or earli- to require more than 10 years (96). Evaluation Ch. 7—Maintaining Plant Diversity Offsite ● 191 of some traits may require repeating tests over theless, the process must continue in order to several years and in different regions (81). sustain agricultural yields—pests and diseases adapt to new varieties, and the needs of growers Evaluation has been perceived as a serious and consumers constantly change (77). deficiency in the overall effort to maintain crop germplasm (23,37,78,108,117). Insufficient in- Traditional breeding involves several basic formation has meant accessions have been un- steps: 1) locate a genetically stable trait (e.g., derused. However, the situation has been im- yield, pest resistance, or stress tolerance); 2) iso- proving (81,108). International Agricultural late plants with the most desired expression of Research Centers have evaluated many of their the trait; 3) breed genes into breeding lines of accessions for important traits, chiefly disease plants similar to those that will be improved and pest resistance, yield, and quality factors to provide more usable material; and 4) cross (13,50,108). In the United States, the four re- these plants with other breeding lines to pro- gional plant introduction stations (see ch. 9) duce plants from which improved crop vari- have included examination for several agricul- eties can be selected (41,81). turally important traits in their preliminary The third step, called developmental breed- characterizations. This is not, however, suffi- ing, is important because the desired trait may cient to meet all the needs of users, and more be located in a wild species or variety that is extensive efforts are necessary (108). difficult to cross with domesticated ones. This Although the usefulness of a collection may is the case, for example, with genetic resistance depend on its evaluations, questions remain as to some 27 serious diseases of the tomato (81). to who has responsibility for this task. Collec- wild species or landraces may have different tion managers might be able to gather morpho- growth requirements that make crossing them logical data, but they may not be able to per- with other varieties difficult. Developmental form the lengthy and detailed trials needed to breeding overcomes such differences but may evaluate traits. Further, it has been argued that require growing plants at multiple locations. such evaluations are best done under the con- Incorporation of genes from over 500 exotic ditions in which they will be used because ex- sorghums, for example, required growth in two pression may be altered by environmental dif- locations because the exotics required shorter ferences (36). It would seem, therefore, that days to flower than commercial U.S. varieties. evaluation trials for specific traits are best per- A cooperative effort, therefore, was established formed by the breeders who require those traits. between the Texas Agricultural Experiment Sta- Duplicating efforts could be minimized by put- tion and the USDA Federal Station in Mayaguez, ting results into centralized database systems— Puerto Rico, to perform the crosses and test the a proposed function of the GRIN system in the progeny (48,81). United States, The major constraint to traditional breeding is its dependence on the sexual process of Traditional Breeding plants. Multiple crossings and testing of off- Traditional breeding typically involves iden- spring may take years. Molecular biological tifying particular genes or characteristics and techniques to locate and map genes in plants incorporating them into existing varieties. Crop may greatly shorten the time needed for breed- development through breeding, a major con- ing improved varieties (6). tributor to modern gains in agricultural production, is a time-consuming process: It may Biotechnological Improvement take 10 to 15 years to develop a single new variety (box 7-C). Biotechnology provides greater precision and speed in the manipulation of genes by avoid- Traditional breeding has provided as much ing the sexual reproductive process (24,41,75). as 60 percent of the production increases of Three general areas have potential impact on many agricultural crops (22,24,35,77,124). Never- the use of stored plant diversity: 1) somaclonal 192 • Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity

______WaSfHooton

____ Or~o"

variation, 2) somatic hybridization, and 3) re somaclonal variants have been isolated from combinant DNA technoiogies. buds produced in unorganized in vitro cultures (table 7-5) . V.rIaI... ••••cl .... However, somaclonal variations may not al During the process of in vitro culture of ways persist (74,90). In some cases, variations unorganized plant tissues, modifications fre can be passed on to succeeding generations, quently arise that can be genetically stable and but in others they are lost (75,90). in addition heritable (5,75,90,91). A number of significant to the problem of genetic stability, variant cells —.

Ch. 7—Maintaining Plant Diversity Offsite ● 193

Table 7-5.—Somaclonal Variation in Economically Important Plant Species

Plant Source of tissue Characters Transmission a Oats (Avena sativa) Immature embryo, Plant height, heading date, leaf striping Seed apical meristem Wheat (Trificurn aesfivurn) Immature embryo Plant height, spike shape, maturity Seed tillering, leaf wax giliadins, amylase Rice (Oryza sativa) Seed embryo Tiller number, panicle size, seed fertility, Seed flowering date, plant height Sugarcane (Saccharum officinale) Various Disease resistance, auricle length, Vegetable isoenzyme alterations, sugar yield Corn (Zea rnays) Immature embryo Endosperm and seedling mutants, Seed pathogen toxin resistance, DNA sequence, changes in mitochondria Potato (Solanurn tuberuosurri) Protoplasm leaf callus Tuber shape, yield, maturity date, plant Vegetable form, stem, leaf, and flower structure, disease resistance Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) Anthers, protoplasts, Plant height, leaf size, yield grade index, Seed leaf callus alkaloids, reducing sugars, leaf chlorophyll Alfalfa (A4edicago sativa) Immature ovaries Leaves, petiole length, plant form and Vegetable height, dry matter yield Brassicas (Brassica spp.) Anthers, embryos, Flowering time, growth form, waxiness, Seed meristems — glucosinolates, disease tolerance aseed = lnherlted in seeds of variant plants: vegetable = transmitted to CiOfldly reproduced Plants SOURCE W R Scowcroft, S A. Ryan, R I S Brettel, and P J Larkin, “Somaclonal Vanatlon A ‘New’ Genettc Resource,” Crop Genet(c Resources” Conservation and Eva/uat(on, J H W Holden and J T Wlll!ams (eds ) (London” George Allen & Unwin, 1964)

and tissues may not regenerate into whole hibited the least desirable characteristics of plants or may produce abnormal or sterile each parent and was sterile (75). plants (75). Research on irradiation and protoplasm fusion Progress in developing somaclonal variation shows promise. By irradiating one set of pro- for plant improvement has been promising for toplasts, the genetic material is broken into a few plant species (5,90,92). However, its gen- short sequences, some of which will make its eral application remains unproven. Further, it way into the fusion partner. The technique, is not yet possible to select through in vitro cul- with considerable development, may eventu- ture many valuable traits, such as yield or qual- ally enable transfer of genes between sexually ity characters. This inability reflects a basic lack incompatible species. of knowledge of the genetic mechanisms controlling many such traits (38). Recent studies show the potential for trans- ferring cellular organelles with their genetic in- Somatic Hybridization formation (chloroplasts and mitochondria) to other species (15,41,75). This technique may be A report conducted more than a decade ago useful in the transfer of genes for the limited on the fusion of leaf protoplasts (cells from number of traits (e.g., photosynthetic efficiency, which the ceil walls have been enzymatically herbicide tolerance, cytoplasmic male sterility) removed) from two species of tobacco heralded found in these organelles. exciting possibilities (11). The process, termed somatic hybridization, held promise of bridg- Application of somatic hybridization has ing many barriers to hybridization. Questions been limited to plants from three families: of whether “impossible hybrids” could be ob- Solonaceae (e.g., potato, tomato, tobacco); tained were partially answered with reports of Cruciferaceae (e.g., cabbage, rape); and Umbel- a successful protoplasm fusion from a tomato liferaceae (e.g., carrots) (75). Regeneration of and potato (72). Unfortunately, as with a hy- whole plants from protoplasts often remains brid sexually produced 50 years earlier by cross- an obstacle because little is known about the ing radish and cabbage, the resulting plant ex- culture conditions needed to cause protoplasts 194 ● Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity or undifferentiated tissue to regenerate into Genetic engineering techniques may allow whole plants (41,75,111). scientists to develop, by gene transfer, new agricultural varieties (75), but considerable scien- Recombinant DNA Technologies tific development is needed before such technologies can become routine. Further, genetic The technologies associated with recombi- engineering technologies face legal, social, and nant DNA allow insertion of specific genetic political questions in light of warnings that po- information into plants to produce altered char- tential products might cause health, environ- acteristics. Basic principles of the technologies mental, or economic problems. With continued have been discussed in earlier OTA studies research, genetic engineering could augment, (109,111). Current constraints relate largely to but not substantially replace, standard breed- inabilities to culture and regenerate isolated ing practices. cells of most plant species (41,75).

NEEDS AND OPPORTUNITIES

In the past 10 years, new technologies for oped that include newly developed technologies germplasm collection, maintenance, and use and incorporate additional procedures as they have been developed (108). Improved germ- are developed. Such procedures could be de- plasm maintenance in the United States will veloped by a task force composed of represent- require not only the addition of new technol- atives of government, industry, and academia. ogies, but careful planning for facilities and The task force could specifically consider the resources to support them. Determining the ap- use of technologies by the National Plant Germ- propriateness of a particular technology in- plasm System. volves consideration of the biology of the spe- Development of recommendations will not cies, the reliability of the technology, the effect assure improvement of germplasm mainte- of the technology on a collection’s composition, nance in existing U.S. collections. Issues such and costs. This section discusses several areas as the need for additional storage space at NSSL of offsite maintenance that need attention and and implementation of better viability testing the opportunities for doing so. and regeneration protocols must be addressed by increased funds if necessary. A plan to im- Develop a Standard Operating prove storage and maintenance in NPGS col- procedure lections should be drawn up, therefore, that would address both the needs for new facilities Studies have only recently begun to systemat- and support of basic operations. Such a plan ically address problems of records mainte- could be developed by USDA with or without nance, regeneration procedures, seed-drying the suggested task force, or by a separate com- techniques, storage, liability testing conditions, mittee drawn from sectors served by NPGS. or improper management (21,30,31,43). This assessment has highlighted numerous appro- Storage priate procedures. Implementation of these technologies in the United States and interna- Cryogenic techniques could greatly extend tionally could provide a basis for improving the storage time of seeds and could reduce costs maintenance in offsite collections and devel- associated with monitoring seed viability and oping appropriate avenues for training per- regenerating samples. USDA funding of re- sonnel. search on the effects of cryogenic storage could increase the number of species that can be Standard operating procedures for maintain- maintained and allow investigation of concerns ing offsite collections of plants could be devel- about genetic stability. Ch. 7—Maintaining Plant Diversity Offsite ● 195

In vitro plants can be used for a range of spe- present efforts might be revealed. Such an ex- cies with recalcitrant seeds or for those that amination could be performed by an expert must be maintained as clones. However, the committee appointed by USDA. Recommenda- techniques are not now used extensively for tions could include specific roles for compo- germplasm storage, and uncertainties about nents of NPGS and mechanisms for accom- genetic stability in the in vitro environment plishing those goals. have been noted. Cryogenic technologies could Grant funds could be made available through be particularly important, but they require fur- ARS to researchers and breeders screening for ther development. particular traits. Such funds could encourage Funds to develop technologies for maintain- greater use of germplasm collections as well ing plants in offsite collections are already pro- as increase the information about accessions. vided through the Agricultural Research Serv- Data from evaluations could then become part ice (ARS) to NPGS researchers. These efforts of the permanent GRIN record. could be enhanced by making funds available to researchers outside USDA on a competitive basis. As an alternative, the USDA/Competitive Maitenance of Endangered Research Grants Office could develop a pro- wild Species gram that would focus on germplasm mainte- The efforts of botanic gardens and arbore- nance and the application of technology. tums to obtain and store seeds or plants of endangered wild species have only recently been Characterization and evaluation of coordinated. Additional funding for facilities Offsite Collections and personnel to develop and maintain such Characterization and evaluation data are not collections will be needed. Further, each spe- available for most plants held by NPGS, but the cies presents a potentially unique set of require- development of descriptors by crop advisory ments for maintenance and regeneration that committees (CACS) (see ch. 9) will provide guide- must be taken into account. lines for preliminary characterizations of many Funds have come in part from the Institute crops. Technologies for biochemical characteri- for Museum Services (34). They have been used zation exist, and consideration should be given for daily operations as well as to establish stor- to ones that are appropriate for particular crops. age facilities. Continued funding could provide Further, careful consideration of the agronomic for the maintenance of many endangered wild traits to be evaluated will be necessary. plants, However, it has been estimated that Improving characterization and evaluation maintaining the 3,000 or so rare and endan- data will require additional funding and per- gered plant taxa will cost at least $1.2 million sonnel. A 10-year NPGS program to provide annually (71). detailed evaluations of the genetic diversity and One possibility is to expand the scope of potentially useful agronomic characters in cul- NPGS activities to include endangered wild tivated species and their relatives might cost species. NPGS personnel have considerable ex- $5 million annually. Such a program would pertise in offsite maintenance of plants, and probably require increased collaboration be- including endangered wild plants as a respon- tween NPGS facilities and scientists to expand sibility would take advantage of this expertise. the available expertise, develop a computerized However, an enlargement of NPGS’S scope file for each accession, and increase involve- would require additional funding for person- ment of CACS and breeders in determining nel and facilities. And because responsibilities which agronomic traits to evaluate. are currently divided among various parts of By examining analyses of the roles of CAC, NPGS on a crop-by-crop basis, an administra- NPGS facilities, and users of NPGS in record- tive mechanism for assigning responsibility for ing evaluation data, different ways to improve a particular species would be needed. I% . Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity

As an alternative, an existing private orga- years, several fundamental questions still need nization, such as the Center for Plant Conser- to be addressed. vation (CPC), could become the mechanism within NPGS for coordinating maintenance of In the past, storage has essentially referred endangered wild plants. Funds could be desig- to orthodox seed storage. It is increasingly nated through USDA/ARS for this purpose, and apparent that new techniques for storage of CPC could be responsible for coordinating ef- nontraditional forms of germplasm (e. g., recal- forts and administering funds to cooperating citrant seeds, pollen, and in vitro cultures) are botanic gardens and arboretums. needed. Although cryogenic storage has been used for several years on animals, its use with Improve Movement of Germplasm plants has only recently been investigated. Through Quarantine Questions about the nature of genetic control and the mechanisms involved in somaclonal Technologies that identify viruses in im- variation are as yet unresolved. These new stor- ported plants could reduce delays associated age technologies all require better understand- with the testing of a few plant species. Although ing of developmental processes, of cell and seed many potentially useful technologies exist, few physiology, and of mechanisms of cellular de- are applied routinely to quarantine testing, be- terioration and repair. cause USDA’s Animal and Plant Health Inspec- tion Service (APHIS) lacks sufficient trained New methods for storage of naked DNA and personnel, facilities, or operating funds needed RNA and possible recovery of DNA from dead to implement a particular technology. Cooper- cells could lead to a new concept in germplasm ation between APHIS and NPGS facilities could conservation. Caution must be exercised, how- enhance the technical expertise applied to ever, to ensure that limited funds are not dis- quarantine-testing and other solutions to im- proportionately channeled into this high-tech- prove quarantine efforts. nology area. If genetic conservation is a goal, then existing technologies and those showing A panel representing APHIS, the research promise should receive adequate funding be- community, and NPGS could be convened to fore more speculative approaches are pursued. assess the adequacy of facilities and programs relating to quarantine. It could make recom- Improved understanding of the biochemical, mendations for implementing newer technol- genetic, and physiological control of develop- ogies, improving present facilities, construct- ment may lead to techniques for characterizing ing new facilities, and mechanisms for and evaluating germplasm. The genetic control promoting cooperation with NPGS facilities. of most important traits is not yet understood. The panel could also redirect existing budgets Additional research on the basic structure and within USDA to address specific problems and, function of genes can also improve the biologi- if necessary, develop legislation for increasing cal knowledge necessary for genetic manipu- USDA appropriations to meet quarantine lation of plants. needs. The panel might also consider mechanisms for incorporating new technologies and Funding for research on germplasm has come the appropriateness of facilities and personnel from several agencies. But research priorities for performing them. at the National Science Foundation (NSF) or USDA’s Competitive Research Grants Office Promote Basic Research on (CRGO), however, generally do not encompass Maintenance and Use of Plant projects that focus on germplasm maintenance. Germplasm Perhaps a new program within USDA/CRGO or NSF could be created to address research Although technologies to maintain plants off- appropriate to germplasm maintenance and site have advanced considerably in recent use. Ch. 7—Maintaining Plant Diversity Offsite ● 197

REFERENCES

1. Astley, D., “Management Systems at the Na- International Perspective (Madison, WI: Crop tional Vegetable Research Station Gene Bank, ” Science Society of America, 1984). Documentation of Genetic Resources: Informa- 14, Chiarappa, L., and Karpati, J. F., “Plant Quaran- tion Handling Systems for Genebank Manage- tine and Genetic Resources, ” Crop Genetic Re- ment, J. Konopka and J. Hanson (eds,) AGPG: sources: Conservation and Evaluation, J.H, W. IBpGI?/85/76 (Rome: International Board for Holden and J.T. Williams (eds.) (Boston: George Plant Genetic Resources, 1985), Allen & Unwin, 1984), 2. Atchley, A. A., USDA/ARS Germplasm Resources 15. Cocking, E. C., “Use of Protoplasts: Potentials Laboratory, personal communications, May and Progress, ” Gene Manipulation in Plant Im- 23, 1986. provement, J,P, Gustafson (cd.) (New York: Ple- 3. Barnabas, B., and Rajiki, E., “Storage of Maize num Press, 1984). In: Orton, 1985. (Zea mays L.) Pollen in Liquid Nitrogen,” Eu- 16. Conger, B,V, (cd,), Cloning Agricultural Plants phytica 25:747-753, 1976. Via In-Vitro Culture (Boca Raton, FL: CRC 4. Bass, L., “Seed Viability During Long-Term Press, 1981). Storage,” Horticultural Reviews, J. Janick (cd.) 17, Cremer, F., and Van de Wane, C., “Method for (Westport: Avi Publishing Co,, 1980). Extraction of Proteins From Green Plant Tis- 5. Berlin, J., and Sasse, “Selection and Screen- sue for Two-Dimensional Polyacrylamide Gel ing Techniques for Plant Cell Culture, ” Piant Electrophoresis, ” Analytical Biochemistry Cell Culture 31:99-131 (Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 147:22-26, 1985. In: Weeden and Young, 1985. 1985). 18. de Bakker, I. G., “The Gene Bank, A New Con- 6. Bishop, J. E., “New Genetic Technology Shortens cept, An Old Cause, ” Zaadlelangen 37:7-25, Time Required To Breed Food-Plant Varieties, ” 1983, Wa]] Street Journal, May 17, 1986. 19. Deitz, S. M,, director, Western Regional Plant 7. Blixt, S., and Williams, J.T. (eds.) Documenta- Introduction Station, personal communication of Genetic Resources: A Model (Rome: In- tion, August 1986. ternational Board for Plant Genetic Resources, 20. de Langhe, E. A, L., “The Role of In-vitro Tech- 1982). niques in Germplasm Conservation, ” Crop 8. Bonner, F. T., “Technologies To Maintain Tree Genetic Resources: Conservation and Evalua- Germplasm Diversity, ” OTA commissioned tion, J.H.W. Holden and J,T. Williams (eds,) paper, 1985. (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1984). 9. Brown, J, W. S., and Flavell, R, B., “Fractiona- 21. Dickie, J, B,, Linington, S., and Williams, J. T., tion of Wheat Giliadin and Glutenin Subunits Seed Management Techniques for Genebanks. by Two-Dimensional Electrophoresis and the AGPG:IBPGR/84/68 (Rome: International Board Role of Group 6 and Group 2 Chromosomes for Plant Genetic Resources, 1984). in Giliadin Synthesis, Theoretical and Ap- 22, Duvick, D. N., “Genetic Rates of Gain in Hy- plied Genetics 59:349-359, 1981. In: Weeden brid Maize Yields During the Past 40 Years, ” and Young, 1985, Maydica 22:187-196, 1977. 10. Burton and Davies, “Handling Germplasm of 23. Duvick, D, N., “Genetic Diversity in Major Cross-pollinated Forage, ” Crop Genetic Re- Farm Crops on the Farm and in Reserve, ” Eco- sources: Conservation and Evaluation, J,H, W. nomic Botany 38:161-178, 1984. Holden and J.T. Williams (eds,) (London: George 24. Duvick, D. N., “Plant Breeding: Past Achieve- Allen & Unwin, 1984]. ments and Expectations for the Future, ” Eco- 11. Carlson, P. S., Smith, H. H., and Dearing, R. D., nomic Botany 40(3):289-297, 1986, “Parasexual Interspecific Plant Hybridization,” 25, Dvorak, W. S., “Strategy for the Development Proceedings, National Academy of Sciences, of Conservation Banks and Breeding Programs U.S.A. 69:2292-2294, 1972. In: Orton, 1985. for Coniferous Species from Central America 12. Center for Plant Conservation, Recommenda- and Mexico, ” Proceedings of the Southern tions for the Collection and Ex Situ Manage- Forests Tree Improvement Conference, 1983. ment of Germplasm Resources From Rare Wild 26. Dvorak, W, S,, director, Central America and P/ants (Boston: CPC, 1986). Mexico Coniferous Resources Cooperative 13, Chang, T. T., “The Role and Experience of an (CAMCORE), personal communication, May International Crop-Specific Genetic Resources 1986. Center, ” Conservation of Crop Germplasm: An 27. Dvorak, W, S., and Laarman, J. G,, “Conserving Igg . Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity

the Genes of Tropical Conifers,” Journal of For- 38. Gibbs, M., and Carlson, C. (eds,), Crop Pro- estry 84:43-45, 1983. ductivity–Research Imperatives Revisited, an 28. Ellis, R. H., “Revised Table of Seed Storage international conference held at Boyne High- Characteristics,” Plant Genetic Resources News- lands Inn, MI, Oct. 13-18, 1985 and Airlie letter 58:16-33, 1984. House, VA, Dec. 11-13, 1985. 29. Ellis, R. H., “Information Required Within 39, Goodman, M. M., Department of Crop Science, Genetic Resources Centres To Maintain and University of North Carolina, Raleigh, per- Distribute Seed Accessions, ” Documentation sonal communication, May 1986. of Genetic Resources: Information Handling 40. Grout, B. W. W., “Embryo Culture and Cryo- Systems for Genebank Management, J. Konopka preservation for the Conservation of Genetic and J. Hanson (eds.) AGPG:IBpGR/85/76 (Rome: Resources of Species With Recalcitrant Seed,” International Board for Plant Genetic Resources, Plant Tissue Culture and Its Agricultural Ap- 1985). plications, L.A. Withers and P.G. Alderson 30. Ellis, R. H., Hong, T. D., and Roberts, E. H., (eds.) (London: Butterworths, 1986). Handbook of Seed Technology for Gene Banks, 41. Hansen, M., Busch, L., Burkhardt, W. B., and Volume I: Principles and Methodology, Hand- Lacy, L. R., “Plant Breeding and Biotechnol- books for Gene Banks No. 2 (Rome: Interna- ogy,” Bioscience 36:29-39, 1986. tional Board for Plant Genetic Resources, 42. Hanson, J., “The Storage of Seeds of Tropical 1985). Tree Fruits,” Crop Genetic Resources: Conser- 31. Ellis, R. H., Hong, T. D., and Roberts, E. H., vation and Evaluation, J,H.W. Holden and J.T. Handbook of Seed Technology for Gene Banks, Williams (eds.) (London: George Allen& Unwin, Volume II: Compendium of Specific Germina- 1984). tion Information and Test Recommendations, 43. Hanson, J,, “Practical Manuals for Genebanks: Handbooks for Gene Banks No. 3 (Rome: In- No. l,” Procedures for Handling Seeds in ternational Board for Plant Genetic Resources, Genebanks (Rome: International Board for 1985). Plant Genetic Resources, 1985). 32. Ellis, R. H., and Roberts, E. H., “Procedures for 44. Harborne, J. B., Phytochemical Methods (Lon- Monitoring the Viability of Accessions During don: Chapman & Hall, 1973). Storage,” Crop Genetic Resources: Conserva- 45. Hartmann, H. T., Flocker, W. J., and Kofranek, tion and Evaluation, J.H.W. Holden and J.T. A. M., “Plant Science,” Growth, Development Williams (eds.) (London: George Allen & Un- and Utilization of Cultivated Plants (Engle- win, 1984). wood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1981). 33. Evans, D. A., Sharp, W. R., Ammirato, P. W., Ya- 46. Hawkes, J., Plant Genetic Resources: The Im- mada, Y. (eds.), Handbook of Plant Cell Cu)- pact of the International Agricultural Research ture, Volume I (New York: Macmillan Press, Centers (Washington, DC: Consultative Group 1983). on International Agricultural Research, World 34. Falk, D. A., and Walter, K. S., “Networking To Bank, 1985). Save Imperiled Plants,” Garden, January/Feb- 47. Hawkes, J. G., Crop Genetic Resources Field ruary 1986. Collection Manual (Rome: International Board 35. Fehr, W.R. (cd.), “Genetic Contributions To for Plant Genetic Resources and European Yield Gains of Five Major Crop Plants, ” Crop Association for Research on Plant Breeding, Science Society of America, Spec. Pub. No. 7, 1980). 1984. 48. Helentjaris, T., King, G., Slocum, M., Sieden- 36. Frankel, O. H., and Brown, A. D, H., “Plant strang, C., and Wegman, S., “Restriction Frag- Genetic Resources Today: A Critical Appraisal,” ment Polymorphisms as Probes for Plant Diver- Crop Genetic Resources: Conservation and sity and Their Development as Tools for Applied Evaluation J.H.W. Holden and J.T. Williams Plant Breeding,” Plant Molecular Biology 5:109- (eds.) (London: George Allen& Unwin, 1984). 118, 1985, 37. Frey, K. J., Meredith, C. P., and Long, S. R., 49. Henshaw, G. G., Keefe, P. D., and O’Hara, J. F., “Genetic Improvement,” Crop Productivity— “Cryopreservation of Potato Meristems, ” In Research Imperatives Revisited, M. Gibbs and Vitro Techniques: Propagation and Long Term C. Carlson (eds.), an international conference Storage, A. Schafer-Menuhr (cd.) (Boston: Mar- held at Boyne Highlands Inn, MI, Oct. 13-18, tinus Nijoff/ Dr. W. Junk Publication, 1985). 1985 and Airlie House, VA, Dec. 11-13, 1985. 50. Huaman, Z., “The Evaluation of Potato Germ- Ch. 7—Maintaining Plant Diversity Of fsite ● 199

plasm at the International Potato Center,” Crop of Recalcitrant Seeds—Achievements and Pos- Genetic Resources: Conservation and Evalua- sible Approaches (Rome: International Board tion, J.H.W. Holden and J.T. Williams (eds.) for Plant Genetic Resources, 1979). (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1984). 64. King, M. W., and Roberts, E. H., “The Desicca- 51. International Board for Plant Genetic Resources, tion Response of Seeds of Citrus limon L., ” An- Revised Priorities Among Crops and Regions, nals of Botany 45:489-492, 1980. In: Towill, et AGP:IBPGR/81/34 (Rome: 1981]. al., 1985. 52. International Board for Plant Genetic Resources, 65. Konopka, J., and Hanson, J. (eds, ), Documen- Practical Constraints Affecting the Collection tation of Genetic Resources: Information Han- and Exchange of Wild Species and Primitive dling Systems for Genebank Management (Rome: Cu]tivars, AGpG:1J3pGR/83/49 (Rome: 1983). International Board for Plant Genetic Resources, 53, International Board for Plant Genetic Resources, 1985), “IBPGR Advisory Committee on In Vitro Stor- 66! Koopowitz, H., Developmental and Cell Biol- age, ” First Meeting, Aug. 16-20, 1982 (Rome: ogy, University of California, Irvine, personal 1983). communication, August 1986. 54. International Board for Plant Genetic Resources, 67, Larkin, P. J., and Scowcroft, W. R., “Somaclonal IBPGR Advisory Committee on Seed Storage, Variation: A Novel Source of Variability From Report of the Second Meeting, Sept. 19-20, Cell Cultures for Plant Improvement,” Theroet. 1983, AGPG:IBPGR/83/116 (Rome: 1984). Appl. Genet, 60:197-214, 1981, 55, International Board for Plant Genetic Resources, 68, Lucas, G., Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew, Eng- Cost-Effective Long-Term Seed Stores (Rome: land, personal communication, May 1986, 1985). 69. Lucas, G., and Oldfield, S., “The Role of Zoos, 56. International Board for Plant Genetic Resources, Botanical Gardens and Similar Institutions in “IBPGR Advisory Committee on In-Vitro Stor- the Maintenance of Biological Diversity,” OTA age, ” Report of the Second Meeting (Rome: commissioned paper, 1985, 1985). 70, Lyman, J. M,, “Progress and Planning for Germ- 57. Janick, J., Schery, R. W., Woods, F. W., and Rut- plasm Conservation of Major Food Crops,”Plant tan, V. W., Plant Science. An Introduction to Genetic Resources Newsletter 60:3-21, 1984, World Crops, 2d ed. (San Francisco: W .H. Free- 71. McMahan, L., Center for Plant Conservation, man & Co., 1974). Boston, personal communication, August 1986. 58, Justice, O. L., and Bass, L., Principles and Prac- 72, Melchers, G,, Saeristan, M,, and Holder, A, A., tices of Seed Storage, Agriculture Handbook “Somatic Hybrid Plants of Potato and Tomato No. 506 (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Regenerated From Fused Protoplasts, ” Carls- Agriculture, 1978). berg Res. Comm. 43:203-218, 1978. 59. Kahn, R. P., “Plant Quarantine: Principles, 73, Oldfield, M. L., The Value of Conserving Ge- Methodology, and Suggested Approaches, ” netic Resources (Washington, DC: U.S. Depart- Plant Health and Quarantine in International ment of the Interior, 1984). Transfer of Plant Genetic Resources, W.B. 74. Orton, T. J., “Somaclonal Variation: Theoreti- Hewitt and L. Chiarappa (eds.) (Cleveland, OH: cal and Practical Consideration, ” Gene Manip- CRC Press, 1977). In: Kahn, 1985. ulation in Plant Improvement, J, P. Gustafson 60. Kahn, R. P., “Technologies To Maintain Bio- (cd.) (New York: Plenum Press, 1984). In: Or- logical Diversity: Assessment of Plant Quaran- ton, 1985. tine Practices, ” OTA commissioned paper, 75. Orton, T. J., “New Technologies and the En- 1985, hancement of Plant Germplasm Diversity,” 61 Kaiser, W, J., “Plant Introduction and Related OTA commissioned paper, 1985, Seed Pathology Research in the United States,” 76. Peacock, W. J,, “The Impact of Molecular Bi- Seed Science and Technology 11:197-212, ology on Genetic Resources, ” Crop Genetic Re- 1983. sources: Conservation and Evaluation, J.H. W, 62, Kartha, K. K., “Meristem Culture and Germ- Holden and J.T. Williams (eds.) (London: George plasm Preservation, ” Cryopreservation of Plant Allen & Unwin, 1984). Cells and Organs, K.K. Kartha (cd.) (Boca Ra- 77. Plucknett, D. L., and Smith, N. H., “Sustaining ton, FL: CRC Press, 1985). In: Towill, et al,, Agricultural Yields,” Bioscience 36:40-45, 1985. 1983. 63, King, M. W., and Roberts, E. H., The Storage 78. Plucknett, D. L., Smith, N. J. H., Williams, J. T., 200 ● Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity

and Anishetty, N. M., “Crop Germplasm Con- 90. Scowcroft, W. R.. Genetic Variabi]itv in Tissue servation and Developing Countries, ” Science Culture: Impact ‘on Germplasm Conservation 220:163-169, 1986. and Utilization, AGpG:lBPGR/84/152 (Rome: 79. Plucknett, D., Smith, N., Williams J. T., and International Board for Plant Genetic Resources, Anishetty, N. M., Gene Banks and The World’s 1984). Food (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University 91 Scowcroft, W. R., and Larkin, P. J., “Somaclonal Press, in press). Variation, Cell Selection and Genotype Cul- 80. Richardson, S. D., “Gene Pools in Forestry, ” ture,” Comprehensive Biotechnology, vol. 3, Genetic Resources in Plants—Their Explora- C.W. Robinson and H.J. Howells (eds.) (Syd- tion and Conservation, O.H. Frankel and E. ney: Academic Press, 1984). In: Scowcroft, et Bennet (eds.) IBP Handbook No. 11:353-365 al., 1984. (Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications, 92. Scowcroft, W. R., Ryan, S. A., Brettel, R. I. S., 1970). and Larkin, P. J., “Somaclonal Variation: A 81 Rick, C. M., “Plant Germplasm Resources,” ‘New’ Genetic Resource, ” Crop Genetic Re- Handbook of Plant Cell Culture, P.V, Am- sources: Conservation and Evaluation, J.H. W. mirato, D.A. Evans, W.R. Sharp, and Y. Yamada Holden and J,T, Williams (eds.) (London: George (eds.), vol. 3:9-36 (New York: Macmillan Press, Allen & Unwin, 1984). 1984). 93! Sharp, W. R., Evans, D. A., Ammirato, P. V., and 82. Roberts, E, H., “Loss of Seed Viability During Yamada, Y, (eds.), Handbook of Plant Cell Cul- Storage,” Advances in Research and Technol- ture, vol. 2 (New York: Macmillan Press, 1984). ogy of Seeds, Part 8, J.R. Thompson (cd.) 94, Simpson, M. J. A., and Withers, L. A., Charac- (Wageningen: Pudoc, 1983). terization of Plant Genetic Resources Using 83. Roberts, E. H., “Monitoring Seed Viability in Isozyme Electrophoresis: A Guide to the Liter- Genebanks,” Seed Management Techniques ature (Rome: International Board for Plant for Genebanks, J.B. Dickie, S. Linington, and Genetic Resources, 1986). J.T. Williams (eds.) AGPG:IBPGR/84/68 (Rome: 95 Singh, R. B., and Williams, J. T., “Maintenance International Board for Plant Genetic Resources, and Multiplication of Plant Genetic Resources, ” 1984). Crop Genetic Resources: Conservation and 84( Roberts, E. H., and Ellis, R. H., “The Implica- Evaluation, J,H.W. Holden and J.T. Williams tions of the Deterioration of Orthodox Seeds (eds.) (London: George Allen& Unwin, 1984]. During Storage for Genetic Resources Conser- 96. Smith, D. H., curator, U.S. National Small vation, ” Crop Genetic Resources: Conserva- Grains Collection, personal communications, tion and Evaluation, J.H.W. Holden and J.T. Jan. 19, 1986. Williams (eds.) (London: George Allen& Unwin, 97. Smith, R. D., Linin~ton, S. H., and Fox, D. T., 1984). “The Role of the C;mputer in the Day to Day 85 Roberts, E. H., King, M. W., and Ellis, R. H., Running of the Kew Seed Bank,” Documenta- “Recalcitrant Seeds: Their Recognition and tion of Genetic Resources: Information Han- Storage, ” Crop Genetic Resources: Conserva- dling Systems for Genebank Management, J. tion and Evaluation, J.H.W. Holden and J.T. Konopka and J. Hanson (eds.), AGPG:IBPGR/ Williams (eds.) (London: George Allen& Unwin, 85/76 (Rome: International Board for Plant 1984). Genetic Resources, 1985). 86. Roos, E. E., “Induced Genetic Changes in Seed 98 Sprague, G. F., “Germplasm Resources of Plants: Germplasm During Storage, ” The Physiology Their Preservation a“nd Use,” Annual Review and Biochemistry of Seed Development, Dor- of Phytopathology 18:147-165, 1980. mancy and Germination, A.A. Kahn (cd.) (New 99. Stanwood, P. C., “Cryopreservation of Seeds,” York: Elsevier Biomedical Press, 1982). Report Second Meeting, IBPGR Advisory Com- 87. Roos, E. E., “Genetic Shifts in Mixed Bean Pop- mittee on Seed Storage, App. III (Rome: Inter- ulations, Part I: Storage Effects,” Crop Science national Board for Plant Genetic Resources, 24:240-244, 1984. 1984). 88. Roos, E. E., “Genetic Shifts in Mixed Bean Pop- 100. Stanwood, P. C., “Cryopreservation of Seed ulations, Part II: Effects of Regeneration, ” Crop Germplasm for Genetic Conservation,” Cryo- Science 24:711-715, 1984. preservation of Plant Cells and Organs, K.K. 89. Roos, E. E., “Precepts of Successful Seed Stor- Kartha (cd.) (Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 1985). age, ” Physiology of Seed Deterioration, Spec. 101. Stanwood, P. C., USDA-ARS National Seed Pub. No. 11:1-25 (Madison, WI: Crop Science Storage Laboratory, Fort Collins, CO, personal SocietV of America, 1986). communication, May 1986. Ch. 7—Maintaining Plant Diversity Offsite “ 201

102. Stanwood, P. C., and Bass, L, N,, “Seed Germ- 115. Wilkes, G,, “Current Status of Crop Plant plasm Preservation Using Liquid Nitrogen, ” Germplasm, ” CRC Critical Reviews in Plant Seed Science and Technology 9:423-437, 1981. Science 1:133-181, 1983. 103. Strauss, M. S., “Technology and Plant Gene 116, Wilkes, G., “Germplasm Conservation Toward Banking in Developing Countries, ” OTA staff the Year 2000: Potential for New Crops and paper, 1986. Enhancement of Present Crops,” Plant Genetic 104. Tanksley, S. D., and Orton, T. J., lsozymes in Resources, A Conservation Imperative, AAAS Plant Genetics and Breeding, Part A (New Selected Symposium 87:131-164, 1984. York: Elsevier Biomedical Press, 1983), 117. Williams, J. T,, “A Decade of Crop Genetic Re- 105. Tanksley, S. D., and Orton, T. J,, Isozymes in sources Research, ” Crop Genetic Resources: Plant Genetics and Breeding, Part B (New Conservation and Evaluation, J,H.W. Holden York: Elsevier Biomedical Press, 1983). and J.T. Williams (eds.) (London: George Al- 106, Thibodeau, F., and Falk, D,, “The Center for len & Unwin, 1984). Plant Conservation: A New Response to En- 118. Williams, J. T., and Damania, A. B., Directory dangerment, ” The Public Garden, January of Germplasm Collections, 5: Industrial Crops, 1986. I: Cacao, Coconut, Pepper, Sugarcane, and Tea 107, Towill, L. E,, “Low Temperature and Freeze- (Rome: International Board for Plant Genetic Vacuum-Drying Preservation of Pollen,” Cryo- Resources, 1981). preservation of Plant Cells and Organs, K,K. 119, Withers, L. A., “Germplasm Storage in Plant Kartha (cd.) (Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 1985). Biotechnology, ” Plant Biotechnology, S.H, 108, Towill, L., Roos, E., and Stanwood, P. C., “Plant Mantell and H. Smith (eds.] (Cambridge, MA: Germplasm Storage Technologies, ” OTA com- Cambridge University Press, 1983), missioned paper, 1985. 120. Withers, L, A,, “Germplasm Conservation In 109. U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assess- Vitro: Present State of Research and Its Appli- ment, Impacts of Applied Genetics: Micro- cation, ” Crop Genetic Resources: Conservation Organisms, Plants, and Animals, OTA-HR-132 and Evaluation, J,H,W, Holden and J.T. Wil- (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing liams (eds.) (London: George Allen & Unwin, Office, April 1981), 1984). 110, U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assess- 121 Withers, L, A,, “Cryopreservation of Cultured ment, Plants: The Potentials for Extracting Pro- Cells and Meristems, ” Cell Culture and So- tein, Medicines, and Other Useful Chemicals— matic Cell Genetics of P]ants, 2:253-3 16 (New Workshop Proceedings, OTA-BP-F-23 (Wash- York: Academic Press, 1985]. ington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 122, Withers, L. A., “Cryopreservation and Gene- September 1983). banks, ” Plant Cell Culture Technology, ” M.M, 111 U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assess- Yeoman (cd.), Botanical Monographs, 23:96- ment, Commercial Biotechnology: An Interna- 140 (Oxford, U. K.: Blackwell Scientific Publica- tional Analysis, OTA-BA-218 (Springfield, VA: tions, 1986). National Technical Information Service, Jan- 123. Withers, L. A., and Williams, J. T,, “Research uary 1984). on Long-Term Storage and Exchange of In 112. U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assess- Vitro Plant Germplasm, ” Biotechnology in in- ment, Grassroots Conservation of Biological ternational Agricultural Research (Manila, Diversity in the United States—Background Philippines: International Rice Research Insti- Paper#l, OTA-BP-F-38 (Washington, DC: U.S tute, 1985). Government Printing Office, February 1986). 124. Witt, S., Briefbook: Biotechnology and Genetic 113. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Diversity, California Agricultural Lands Proj- Research Service, Research Progress in 1985, ect, 1985. A Report of the Agricultural Research Service 125, Yndgaard, F,, “Genebank Security Storage in (Washington, DC: 1986). Permafrost, ” Plant Genetic Resources News- 114. Weeden, N., and Young, D. A., “Technologies letter 62:2-7, 1985. To Evaluate and Characterize Plant Germ- ‘D]asm.” OTA commissioned DaDer.11, 1985. Chapter 8 Maintaining Microbial Diversity P8ge Highlights ...... ? .. ~ ...... C205

Overview. ....D .@...... a...... OOO. .. egt...... o ...... 205 What Is Microbial Diversity? ...... 205 Status of Microbial Diversity Onsite...... *.+*.,...... ~..~,..zoy Microbial Diversity Offsite...... o...... !...... ,...... 208 Maintenance Technologies ...... S ...... 208 Isolation and Sampling...... 208 Microbial Identification ..***,* ● **9*.** ● ****..* ● ******* 9*.9.*** ● *** 209 Storage of Micro-Organisms ...... ~...,...... +..209 Needs and Opportunities . .****..******* ...... +...... +212

Catalog Collections ...... 00 . 00. 9 ..s. Develop Methods for Isolation and Culture ..***.* ..***..* ● ******* .** 213 Study of Microbial Ecology ,,,.... ● .*.*** ● ****99* ● ******, 9******* 9 213 Chapter preferences ...... ● *214

Table. Table No. Page 8-1. Summary of the Characteristics, problems, and Uses of Micro-Organisms ...... s...... 0 ...... a t ...... 207

Box

BoXNO. Page 8-A,The Importance of Microbial Diversity...... 206 Chapter 8 Maintaining Microbial Diversity

Micro-organisms provide benefits and harbor danger. But safeguarding a diversity of these organisms remains important, for few have been cataloged and the potential contribution to agriculture, industry, and medicine is therefore unknown. The most cost-effective way to preserve economically important micro-organisms today is through offsite collections. Micro-organisms that are isolated and identified can be stored from a few days to as long as 30 years. Technologies used are freeze-drying (the most common method), ultra-freezing (which costs more in labor and materials), immersion in mineral oil, low- temperature freezing, and desiccation. The last three methods are suitable for short-term storage only. A high priority in efforts to maintain a diversity of micro-organisms is the need for an integrated database of current collections. Also needed is research on microbial ecology, to better understand the extent to which plants and animals depend. on bacteria and fungi to survive.

OVERVIEW

Micro-organisms constitute a vast, though cludes such different things as the large ma- largely unseen, part of the biotic world. Al- rine algae of ocean kelp beds and the sub- though most frequently discussed in terms of microscopic viruses that infect humans, their harmful effects on humans, they are es- animals, plants, and other micro-organisms, sential to the proper functioning of ecosystems Even smaller than viruses are those infective as well as to the survival of many species of agents, such as viroids, that have been found plants and animals (19,25) (see box 8-A). The to be nothing more than pieces of genetic ma- public is less concerned, however, about po- terial, lacking even the typical protein coats of tential losses of microbial diversity than about a virus. Thus, the diversity of micro-organisms plant, animal, or ecosystem diversity (19). is immense, with only a relatively small fraction of micro-organisms having been identified What Is Microbial Diversity? (19,25), The wide range of micro-organisms not typi- The concept of a species, borrowed from ani- cally classed as plants or animals includes bac- mal and plant biology, cannot be easily applied teria, cyanobacteria (blue-green algae), fungi (in- to all micro-organisms (5,19,25,29). Research cluding yeasts), protozoa, and viruses (see table frequently focuses on populations of microbial 8-l). Although the microscopic, single-celled cells that share common nutritional, chemical, bacteria are generally considered synonymous or biochemical characteristics. Such popula- with the term micro-organism, the field in- tions, each typically descended from a single

205 [page omitted] This page was originally printed on a dark gray background. The scanned version of the page was almost entirely black and not usable. Ch. 8—Maintaining Microbial Diversity ● 207 ——

Table 8“1 .—Summary of the Characteristics, Problems, and Uses of Micro-Organisms —— — .- Organisms Characteristics Problems.——. — Uses Bacteria Single-cells; spherical rod and Some cause disease in humans, Break down organic matter spiral forms. Most are sapro- animals, and plants, and assist soil fertility, phytes (use dead matter for waste disposal, and biogas food), although some bacteria production; source of anti- are photosynthetic. biotics and other chemicals, Fungi Variety of forms; microscopic Rot textiles, leather, harvested Assist in recycling complex molds, mildews, rusts, and foods, and other products; plant constituents such as smuts; larger mushrooms and cause important plant and cel Iulose; mushrooms and puffballs, animal diseases. yeasts important as foods; many used in chemical and pharmaceutical industries. Algae Single cells, colonies, or fila- Cover pond surfaces, producing Red and brown seaweeds are ments containing chlorophyll scum and unpleasant odor and important foods in Asia and and other characteristic pig- taste (in drinking water); ab- Polynesia; red algae ments; no true roots, stems, or sorb 0, from ponds and some produce agar; important leaves; aquatic. produce toxins. food source for many ocean fish. Protozoa Single cells, or groups of similar Responsible for serious human Assist in breakdown of organ- cells, found in fresh and sea and animal disease (e. g., ic matter such as cellulose water, in soil, and as symbi - malaria, sleeping sickness, in ruminant nutrition, onts or parasites in man, dysentery). animals, and some plants. Viruses Infective agents; capable of mul- Cause variety of human, animal, Important as carriers of genet- tiplying only in living cells; and plant diseases (e. g., in- ic information; some infect- composed of proteins and fluenza, AIDS, rabies, ing pests can be used as nucleic acids. mosaics). biological control aaents. ;OURCE National Academy of Sciences, M/crob/a/ Processes Promls)ng Techfrolog(es for Developing Countr(es (Washington DC National Academy Press, 1979)

cell, are termed strains (7). Individually identifiable strains of micro-organisms are thus often regarded as the basic units of microbial diversity. Micro-organisms are found in nearly all environments (8). Bacteria, for example, have been found living in deep-sea steam vents at temperatures of 3500 C (22). Although some micro-organisms are widely distributed, others may be restricted to a narrow ecological range, Most micro-organisms are found as parts of complex microbial communities or as integral parts of larger ecosystems. Many of these micro-organisms cannot be isolated and grown under controlled laboratory conditions (25).

Status of Microbial Diversity Onsite

Photo credtt” G.E Pierce and M K Mulks Assessing the status and changes in microbial Pseudomonas putida, a bacterium capable of degrading diversity onsite can be difficult. As noted hydrocarbons, is one type of micro-organism. earlier, few micro-organisms have been isolated 208 . Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity and described or identified (25). Therefore, any if wild mushrooms can be overharvested (33). changes that occur cannot be determined as In the absence of information, some efforts have temporary or permanent. been made to limit collection (33). Research on the biology and ecology of these mushrooms For example, the composition of microbial and their distribution is needed. populations within environments can be dramatically altered by pollutants (18,19,32). Microbial Diversity Offsite Studies of microbial populations at a pharmaceutical dump site in the Atlantic Ocean indi- The principal repositories for those few cate that the survival and growth of certain micro-organisms that have been isolated are off- marine micro-organisms over others in the pop- site collections. Offsite collections of micro- ulation occur as a result of pollution (27), Al- organisms provide easier and quicker access though it is clear that pollution or environ- to specific strains than repeatedly returning to mental disturbance can produce quantitative onsite sources to obtain them. In addition, it changes, definitive evidence of extinction of may not always be possible to obtain the same micro-organisms, as is seen in plants and ani- micro-organism from the same place. The mals, is rare. But it would seem likely that where fungus from which penicillin was derived, for micro-organisms are highly adapted to a spe- example, could not again be isolated from air cific environment, loss of that environment or dust samples in the laboratory where it was could result in extinction of the micro-orga- first found as a culture contaminant. Offsite col- nisms (10). lections also are used as reference standards for taxonomic and comparative studies. In micro- one group of micro-organisms for which the biology, a “type” strain of a micro-organism potential for loss has been a particular concern is maintained for use as a reference and as a is the macrofungi—more specifically, the edi- source for subsequent studies (17). It would be ble wild mushrooms. Morels, chanterelles, and impossible to isolate type-strains from natural other mushrooms have long been collected by environments each time comparative studies fanciers, particularly in the Northwest United were initiated (19,21). States (33). However, increased collection to serve a growing commercial demand for wild Current offsite collections of micro-orga- mushrooms has raised fears that the most nisms are actively used as resources by indus- sought-after species could become rare or ex- try and by the scientific community. Yet such tinct (1,33). Scientists currently disagree about collections are rarely established or maintained whether this is possible, for it is not even known for preserving microbial diversity (26).

MAINTENANCE TECHNOLOGIES

Onsite maintenance is the only feasible long- medically, agriculturally, or scientifically im- term method for maintaining the major portion portant micro-organisms today is to preserve of microbial diversity, because most of the them in offsite collections (19). The following micro-organisms in any single environment sections assess the techniques required to main- have yet to be identified (19). But existing pro- tain micro-organisms offsite. grams to maintain animal and plant diversity will likely cover all but a few specialized envi- lsolation and Sampling ronments (e. g., deep-sea steam vents), so establishing reserves specifically for maintaining Isolation of micro-organisms and their incor- micro-organisms should not be necessary, poration into a collection generally reflects a particular set of goals. Laboratory applications, The most cost-effective approach to provid- such as those involved in genetic engineering, ing ready access to the many economically, require specific strains of micro-organisms that, Ch. 8—Maintaining Microbial Diversity ● 209

once obtained, are kept as pure cultures. Micro- characterize every (or even most) micro-orga- organisms have been isolated to study their in- nism present. Thus, sampling of diversity is terrelationships and the way the dynamics be- limited to those micro-organisms for which iso- tween populations influence the entire biologi- lation and culture technologies are available. cal food chain. Some collections represent sampling of specific taxonomic classes of micro-organisms of economic or agricultural importance. The actinomycete collection of the Identification of isolated micro-organisms Battelle-Kettering Laboratory (Yellow Springs, can be a lengthy and complex task (for details OH) and the many collections of varying sizes of the principles and procedures, see ref. 15), of Rhizobiurn, the nitrogen-fixing bacteria of Preliminary identification involves standard legumes, are examples of goal-directed collec- staining procedures and microscopic examina- tions. The pathogenic characteristics of a tion. Analysis of the results of these initial ex- micro-organism, as in the case of a disease- aminations requires extensive knowledge of producing virus, can also merit spending funds, micro-organisms and the general characteris- time, and expertise to isolate it. tics of various taxonomic groups, Information regarding the source of the isolate can also play Isolated pure cultures of micro-organisms are an important role at this stage, necessary for detailed study (7). For some, such as the fungi, a sterile culture of spores on a spe- Following preliminary identification, the cially prepared medium may be all that is nec- micro-organism is subjected to more detailed essary to obtain a pure culture. Nutritional re- analysis, frequently consisting of examination quirements for various fungi can, however, be of growth characteristics on varying substrates specific and difficult to determine. Most bac- and under varying environmental conditions, teria must be cultured on a variety of media These tests establish specific physiological that will stimulate growth of possible contami- characteristics that aid identification. The gen- nants, from which pure culture can then be ob- eral protocol is to work with a pure culture and, tained. Viruses are frequently isolated from in- using selected tests, narrow the range of possi- fected cells or tissues by centrifugation or bilities. Once identified, the isolate is then com- filtration techniques that separate them from pared to a reference sample using selected diag- other cellular components. For micro-organisms nostic tests (24), that consist only of a small piece of genetic ma- Biochemical analysis of proteins and DNA, terial, such as viroids, the newly developed as described for plants (see ch. 7), has been used technologies for isolating, multiplying, and for identification of many strains of micro- characterizing DNA and RNA have been impor- organisms (7’), Although these technologies rou- tant. The critical determination that an isolated tinely identify the micro-organisms used in re- micro-organism is pure can be a lengthy proc- search laboratories, they are not generally ap- ess of repeated culture or separation under plied in offsite collections. As the field of varying conditions and can be a research prob- genetic engineering has developed, however, lem in itself (7). the capacity to study, compare, and identify the Studies of microbial ecology and microbial genomes of micro-organisms has improved diversity are limited by the inability of scien- (10,31). Such techniques could greatly enhance tists at the present time to isolate many micro- assessment of diversity and facilitate identifi- organisms (19). Identification, for example, gen- cation of micro-organisms in offsite collections. erally requires growth in pure culture to allow for nutritional and physiological testing, It is Storage of Micro-Orgonisms not currently possible to acquire a knowledge of the total microbial diversity in any one envi- The purpose of preserving micro-organisms ronment in a readily definable time period be- is to maintain a strain for an indefinite period cause of this inability to isolate, culture, and in a viable state. The continuous culture of a 210 ● Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity micro-organism is one way to present it, but these frozen suspensions are placed under it is expensive both in materials and in labor vacuum to remove the water in them. The vials and does not ensure that the genetic stability are then heat-sealed under vacuum by melting of the micro-organism will be maintained. Con- the glass tops with an air-gas torch and stored tinuously subculture organisms can adapt to at temperatures lower than 50 C. Lower stor- the specialized conditions of the laboratory and age temperatures (– 30° to – 70° C) may result take on characteristics different from those for in lengthened viability. which they were originally isolated. Long-term Chemical agents (cryoprotectants) that pro- storage techniques that minimize such effects tect cells from damage caused by ice-crystal for- have been developed, mation during the initial freezing are commonly Storage of micro-organisms involves reduc- added to cells before freeze-drying. The Amer- ing metabolic rates and, thus, the rate at which ican Type Culture Collection (ATCC) routinely micro-organisms multiply and use nutrients uses 10 percent skim milk or 12 percent sucrose (19). All methods that reduce metabolic rates for such purposes. Curators at the Northern Re- cause loss of a certain percentage of the sam- gional Research Laboratory of the USDA’s Agri- ple. Methods need to be developed, therefore, cultural Research Service, in contrast, prefer that not only reduce metabolic rates but also bovine or equine serum as a cryoprotectant for prevent decline in viability in order to prevent all microbial species (19). loss of the strain. Recovery of the lyophilized cells is simple and An additional time-consuming but crucial straightforward. The sealed vial is opened by task associated with storage technologies is scoring, and a small amount of liquid-nutrient authentication (19). This task involves the main- medium is added to rehydrate the cells. The tenance of accurate records about the culture contents, once rehydrated, are transferred to history and diagnostic characteristics of the a culture vessel containing a medium appro- strains in a collection. It also involves periodi- priate for growth. cally recovering and culturing stored organisms The initial cost of equipping a laboratory to to determine their viability and to confirm pu- undertake lyophilization is as much as $25,000 rity and genetic stability. (11). The expense of actually preparing lyophi- The majority of micro-organisms currently lized cultures, however, is low, The long-term preserved in culture collections are held by viability of such materials is excellent, and this freeze-drying or by ultra-freezing (cryogenic procedure is thus probably the most cost-effec- storage) (16,19). These two methods permit stor- tive means of microbial preservation in use age for extremely long periods of time (currently today (19). Unfortunately, some microbial spe- as long as 30 years) (16). Other special meth- cies do not fare well under these techniques, ods for storage of micro-organisms are immer- and other storage methods must be used, sion in mineral oil, low-temperature freezing, and desiccation (16), Ulfra-Freezing Freeze-Drying Fastidious microbial species (i.e., those with Freeze-drying, or lyophilization, is now the complex nutritional requirements) that do not most commonly used storage technique for cul- retain viability under other preservation meth- ture collections. Healthy microbial cells, grown ods (e.g., plant pathogenic fungi) frequently can under optimal conditions, are dispensed in be preserved by ultra-freezing (2,19). In this pro- small, sterile vials or ampules at a relatively high cedure, cells sealed in vials or ampules are fro- concentration (e. g., 106 to 107 cells per mil- zen at a slow cooling rate (1° C per minute) un- liliter of solution). The vials are then quickly til they reach – 1500 C, The vials are then stored frozen in a super-cooled liquid solvent bath or at — 1500 to — 196° C using liquid nitrogen in a mechanical ultra-freezer (at – 60° C), and freezers.

Ch. 8—Maintaining Microbial Diversity . 211

Cells stored at cryogenic temperatures must be handled carefully when being recovered, Ice crystals can form as vials are warmed and can kill cells that would otherwise survive the technique. Loss of viability is minimal when the sample is thawed rapidly, Sealed vials are thus put in water at 37’o C until all ice melts. Then they are opened and the contents transferred to nutrient medium. Ultra-frozen cultures must be maintained at very low temperatures at all times during storage. Liquid nitrogen freezers are therefore needed, Proper precautions are important to ensure that such freezers operate properly and W have sufficient supplies of liquid nitrogen cool- Cells being dispensed into ampules to be frozen and ant over long periods of time. Thus, the tech- stored in liquid nitrogen ( – 196 C). The cabinet contains only sterile, air to lessen the chances of nique can cost more than freeze-drying, both contamination of the freeze preparation. in labor and in materials necessary to maintain storage temperatures, Ultra-freezing is reserved for microbial species that are not amenable to other, less costly procedures.

Other Methods Microbial cell cultures can be stored for short periods of time if the culture is overlaid with sterile mineral oil. The oil prevents dehydration and reduces the metabolic rate of the organisms (16). Cells are grown on either nutrient gels or in broth cultures, After incubation and growth, mineral oil is added to the culture to a depth of about 2 centimeters. The cultures are then stored at approximately 40 C. Recovery is by procedures similar to those used for rou- credit tine subculture. Although cultures preserved Ampules of freeze-dried or frozen living strains can be in this way have remained viable for as long stored in mechanical refrigerators at –60” C (–76- F), in walk-in cold rooms at 5 C (40 F), or in vacuum-insulated as 3 years, the method is not considered appro- refrigerators (above) automatically supplied priate for long-term storage of micro-organisms, with liquid nitrogen at – 196 C ( – 320 F). because cultures have to be recovered, authen- ticated, and restored every few years (19), The cryoprotective agents necessary for this A few micro-organisms, like some of the ac- procedure differ from the ones used in lyophili- tinomycetes and some soil-borne spore-forming zation. ATCC routinely uses a mixture of bacteria, can withstand normal freezing proc- glycerol (10 percent), dimethylsulfoxide (5 per- esses and retain both viability and genetic sta- cent), and nutrient medium for most bacterial bility. Cultures are stored on a nutrient medium strains. These chemicals are taken into the cells at 0° to — 20° C, Cells may remain viable for and protect the internal membranes from in- as long as 2 years, but damage by ice crystal jury caused by freezing. formation is thought to be extensive (19). For 212 . Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity certain microbial cells, low-temperature freez- hydrated under vacuum. A soil, paper, or ce- ing is inexpensive and useful for a short period. ramic bead medium is frequently used. Cells Like immersion in mineral oil, however, repeti- also may be suspended in gelatin solution and tive recovery, authentication, and restorage then drops of the gelatin dried under vacuum. make this technique too labor-intensive for long- Once dehydrated, the cells must be stored in term maintenance of micro-organisms. desiccators but will remain viable longer if refrigerated. Recovery of the cells is by dehydra- The majority of microbial cells die if they are tion with nutrient medium and subculture. This dried at ambient temperatures (16). But a few method is relatively inexpensive and routinely can withstand dehydration and remain viable used for some important bacterial genera (e. g., for moderate periods of time. Spore-forming Rhizobiurn). However, other techniques, if bacteria are particularly suited to this method available, are preferred for long-term storage of storage. Microbial cells are usually trans- (19). ferred to a sterile, solid material, and then de-

NEEDS AND OPPORTUNITIES

No major technical constraints limit the storage and use of micro-organisms in the United States and most other industrial nations, al- Maintaining and distributing a current cata- though developing countries lag behind in the log is the goal of virtually every collection cu- application, use, and technological knowledge rator, Without such a compilation to provide of micro-organisms (28). The most satisfactory potential users with ready access to its contents, long-term storage techniques for micro-orga- the value of a collection is greatly diminished. nisms are also those that are technologically That very few collections are adequately cata- the most sophisticated. In the case of cryogenic loged is a reflection of just how onerous this storage, the technique requires a dependable task can be. In a sense, this aspect of collec- source of liquid nitrogen. Lyophilization of cul- tion management has been constrained by lack tures in sealed, evacuated glass-ampules cre- of an appropriate technology (19). The advent ates culture units with excellent longevity, even of microcomputers and highly adaptable, user- when stored at room temperature. The attrac- -friendly database management systems soft- tion of this method for developing countries ware heralds a new era enabling a curator to is diminished slightly by the relatively high ini- compile, print, and update a catalog inexpen- tial cost of equipment and problems keeping sively and with relative ease [9). Such electronic such equipment operational (19). catalogs would make current collections more accessible and improve their management (4). Improvisation in the laboratories of developing-country scientists has resulted in a wide ar- One way to catalog the contents of various ray of variations of standard preservation meth- collections is through creation of a National Microbial Resource Network. Two main obsta- ods (19). These modified methods are, in many cases, satisfactory to the individual collection cles can be anticipated to such a network: curators, though most require micro-organisms 1. the differences in history, traditions, and to be regularly subculture. This requirement independence of existing collections; and makes these methods suitable only for relatively 2. the difficulty of standardizing technical small collections, and it increases the likelihood and informational protocols to assure mean- of strains becoming genetically adapted to cul- ingful interchange of germplasm and data ture and losing their original characteristics. among participating network institutions. Ch. 8—Maintaining Microbial Diversity . 213

One network of microbiological resource organisms in existing collections. Efforts to iso- centers (MIRCENs) has been addressing these late the Legionella micro-organism or the obstacles for almost a decade (12) (see ch. 10). retrovirus (human T-cell leukemia-lymphoma In practice, however, this endeavor has been virus) associated with acquired immune defi- frustrated by an inability to come up with stand- ciency syndrome (AIDS) illustrate both the dif- ardized data sets that reconcile the different ficulty and importance of such research. orientations of individual collections world- An appreciation of the complexity of the tech- wide and by financial resources that fall far nical barriers faced by microbiologists trying short of the level required (12). to isolate and culture many micro-organisms A more focused attempt to achieve an in- is necessary to support research. Basic studies tegrated microbial resource database was ini- of microbial physiology, through grant pro- tiated in 1984 by UNESCO, This MIRCEN proj- grams and in-house research by such agencies ect is still being developed and provides for as the National Science Foundation, U.S. De- standardization of a minimum data set for char- partment of Agriculture, and the National In- acterized strains of Rhizobium (the bacteria institutes of Health (NIH), can improve present volved in nitrogen fixation in soybeans, alfalfa, abilities to isolate and culture micro-organisms. beans, and other legumes); adoption of compatible database management systems; and Study of Microbial Ecology periodic publication of an integrated catalog of the collections held at Beltsville, Maryland Another research priority is that of microbial (USA), Porto Alegre (Brazil), Nairobi (Kenya), interactions that permit efficient functioning and Maui, Hawaii (USA). of the microbial flora of an environment and, ultimately, support higher organisms in that An appraisal of the lessons learned in the inter- environment, Research into microbial ecology national MIRCEN effort could greatly benefit is an integral part of any strategy to preserve establishment of a National Microbial Research micro-organisms. Present understanding of Network. Reservations may be expressed about microbial ecology and the extent of microbial whether the institution-building rationale for diversity in ecosystems is, however, inadequate the MIRCEN program will mean the collections (19,25). Many plants and animals depend on are of less-than-optimal quality; nevertheless, bacteria and fungi in the environment to sur- with limited financial resources, the MIRCEN vive (25), In some cases, such as digestion in program has achieved a high degree of network the termite or dairy cattle, microbes are impor- effectiveness, including regular global and re- tant parts of the organism’s basic physiology. gional newsletters, electronic data exchange, Study of the soil micro-organisms that are ac- and computer conferences, tive in nutrient recycling, such as those associated with nitrogen fixation, are of great po- Develop Methods for Isolation tential importance to agriculture. and Culture Grant programs and in-house research at An important challenge to maintaining agencies such as NIH, USDA, the Department micro-organisms offsite is the development of of Energy, and the Environmental Protection methods for culture of those organisms that Agency could focus on improved understand- have not yet been isolated in the laboratory (19). ing of microbial ecology, Present efforts are Basic research into the isolation and cultiva- spread over several agencies with little coordi- tion of these fastidious micro-organisms is es- nation. Examination of the overall efforts re- sential to further applications of the world’s lating to microbial ecology and diversity could microbial diversity. Research on microbial cul- lead to better coordination of research and de- ture would allow better characterization of velopment of a specific funding program within diversity in natural environments as well as en- one agency that would address microbial ecol- able more efficient handling of difficult micro- ogy research. 214 ● Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity

1. Allen, E. B,, research assistant professor, Utah (eds.) (Washington, DC: American Society for State University, Logan, UT, personal commu- Microbiology, 1981). nication, May 14, 1986. 174 Gibbons, N. E., “Reference Collections of Bac- 2. “ATCC Collection Emphasizes Living Plant teria—The Need and Requirements for Type Pathogenic Fungi,” ATCC Quarterly Newsletter Strains, ” Bergey’s Manual of Systematic Bac- 3(1):5, 1983. teriology, N.R. Krieg and J,G. Holt (eds.) (Balti- 3. Baird, J. K., Sandford, P. A., and Cottrell, I. W., more, MD: Williams & Wilkins, 1984). “Industrial Applications of Some New Micro- 18, Grimes, D. J., Singleton, F. L., and Colwell, R. R,, bial Polysaccharides,” Biotechnology, Novem- “Allogenic Succession of Marine Bacterial Com- ber 1983, pp. 778-783. munities in Response to Pharmaceutical 4. Baker, D., research scientist, Battelle Kettering Waste,” Journal of Applied Bacteriology 57:247- Laboratory, Yellow Springs, OH, personal com- 261, 1984. munication, Feb. 10, 1986. 19 Halliday, J., and Baker, D., “Technologies To 5, Brenner, D,]., “Impact of Modern Taxonomy on Maintain Microbial Diversity,” OTA commis- Clinical Microbiology, ” ASM News 49:58-63, sioned paper, 1985. 1983. 20 Henahan, J., “Feisty Gram-Negative Aerobes 6. Brill, W. J., “Agricultural Microbiology, ” Scien- Succumb to New Antibiotic Group, ” Journal of tific American 245:198-215, 1981. the American Medical Association 248:2085- 7. Brock, T. D., Biology of Micro-Organisms (En- 2086, 1982. glewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1979). 21 Holmes, B., and Owen, R. J., “Proposal That 8, Clarke, P. H., “Microbial Physiology and Bio- Flavobacterium breve Be Substituted as the technology,” Endeavour, New Series 9:144-148, Type Species of the Genus in Place of Flavobac- 1985. terium aqua tile and Amended Description of the 9, Colwell, R. R., “Computer Science and Technol- Genus Flavobacterium: Status of the Named ogy in a Modern Culture Collection, ” The Role Species of Flavobacterium, ” International Jour- of Culture Collections in the Era of Molecular nal of Systematic Bacteriology 29:416-426, 1979. Biology, R.R. Colwell, (cd.) (Washington, DC: In: Halliday and Baker, 1985. American Society for Microbiology, 1976). 22 Klausner, A., “Bacteria Living at 350° May Have 10, Colwell, R. R., vice president for academic af- Industrial Uses,” Biotechnology, 1983, pp. fairs and professor of microbiology, University 640-641. of Maryland, Adelphi, personal communication, 23, Klausner, A., “Microbial Insect Control, ” July 7, 1986. Biotechnology, May 1984, pp. 408-419. 11. Colwell, R. R., vice president for academic af- 24. Krieg, N. R., “Enrichment and Isolation,” Man- fairs and professor of microbiology, University ual of Methods for General Bacteriology, P. of Maryland, Adelphi, personal communication, Gerhardt, et al. (eds.) (Washington, DC: Amer- Aug. 26, 1986. ican Society for Microbiology, 1981). 12 Colwell, R, R., “Microbiological Resource Cen- 25 Margulis, L., Chase, D., and Guerrero, R., “Mi- ters,” Science 233:4762, 1986. crobial Communities, ” Bioscience 36:160-170, 13 Demain, A. L., “Industrial Aspects of Maintain- 1986. ing Germplasm and Genetic Diversity, ” The 26 National Academy of Sciences, Microbial Proc- Role of Culture Collections in the Era of Molecu- esses: Promising Technologies for Developing lar Biology, R.R, Colwell (cd.) (Washington, DC: Countries (Washington, DC: National Academy American Society for Microbiology, 1976). Press, 1979). 14. Dixon, B., Invisible Allies: Microbes and Man 27 Peele, E. R., Singleton, F, L., Deming, J. W., Future (London: Temple Smith, 1976). Cavari, B., and C~lwell, R. R., “Effects ~f Phar- 15, Gerhardt, P., Murray, R. G. E., Costilow, R. N., maceutical Wastes on Microbial Populations in Nester, E. N., Wood, W. A., Krieg, N. R., and Phil- Surface Waters at the Puerto Rico Dump Site lips, G.B. (eds.), Manual of Methods for General in the Atlantic Ocean, ” Applied and Environ- Bacteriology (Washington, DC: American Soci- mental Microbiology 41:873-879, 1981. ety for Microbiology, 1981). 28. Pramer, D,, “Microbiology Needs of Developing 16( Gherna, R. L., “Preservation,” Manual of Meth- Countries: Environmental and Applied Prob- ods for Genera] Bacteriology, P. Gerhardt, et al. lems,” ASM News 50(5):207-209, 1984, Ch. 8—Maintaining Microbial Diversity ● 215

29. Sonea, S., and Panisset, M., A New Bacteriol- ment, Commercial Biotechnology: An Interna- ogy (Boston, MA: Jones & Bartlett Publishers, tional Analysis, PB #84-173 608 (Springfield, VA: 1983). National Technical Information Service, 1984), 30. U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assess- 32. Walker, J. D., and Colwell, R, R., “Some Effects ment, Impacts of Applied Genetics. Micro- of Petroleum on Estuarine and Marine Micro- Organisms, Plants, and Animals, OTA-HR-132 Organisms, ” Canadian Journal of Botany (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Of- 21:305-313, 1975. fice, April 1981). 33. White, P., “No Fungus Among Us?” Sierra, Jan- 31. U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assess- uary/February 1986. Part III Institutions Chapter 9 Maintaining Biological Diversity in the United States Page?

Highlights ● .*** *. **98*******..************* . ***..**,********.**.**. 221

Overview ● *.** . ******0**..******.********.* . *..****.*.*.*...*.*.*** 221 Federal Mandates Affecting Biological Diversity Conservation...... 222 Onsite Biological Diversity-Maintenance Programs...... 224

Ecosystem Diversity Maintenance. . . . ● 0**. **0* *.** **. ********0*.*,. 224 Species Habitat Protection ...... ● *.*****.****.,**.***********. 228 Onsite Restoration ...... b, ..v. .e...... b e ...... 231 Offsite Diversity Maintenance Programs...... 232 PIant Programs .*** **** *.** **** . **0**************..*************** 232 Animal Programs ...... ● *,**,,**.****...****,*************,*, 238 Microbial Resource Programs ...... c . . t ...... 242 Quarantine *0** *.** **** .*** **** **** **0* **0* *0** **** **** *o ***+0*** 244 Needs and Opportunities . . . *********O**.******.*..*************.**** 245

Chapter 9 References . . . . ● *.*********.********.****.*.**.*********** 246

Tables Tabh No. Page 9“1. Federal Laws Relating to Biological Diversity Maintenance...... 223 9-2. Examples of Federal Ecosystem Conservation Programs ...... 225 9“3. Number of U.S. Species at Various Stages of Listing and Recovery as of 1985 ...... *************..*******.*.**************** 229 9-4. Existing and Proposed Crop Advisory Committees of the National Plant Germplasm System . . . . ● *,*****..*..***********.*** 235 9“5. Active Breed Associations in the United States ...... 239 9-6* Microbial Culture Collections in the United States With More Than 1,000 Accessions ...... ● ☛☛☛✎☛☛☛☛☛☛☛✎☛☛☛☛☛☛☛☛☛☛☛ 243 Figures Page 9-1. Principle of the National Plant System ...... 234 Chapter 9 Maintaining Biological Diversity in the United States

● Many U.S. public laws and programs addressing the use of natural resources and the activities of private groups contribute significantly to the conservation of biological diversity. However, diversity is seldom an explicit objective, and where it is mentioned, it is not well-defined. The resulting ad hoc coverage is too disjunct to address the full range of concerns over the loss of diversity. ● Existing laws and programs focus on either onsite or offsite conservation, which impedes establishment of effective linkages between the two general approaches to maintaining diversity. Links help define common interests and areas of potential cooperation between various institutions—important steps in defining areas of redundancy, neglect, and opportunity. ● Personnel of federally mandated programs that deal directly with maintenance of biological diversity, such as the National Plant Germplasm System and the Endangered Species program, have stretched budgets to meet their mandated responsibilities. It appears, however, that these programs will be unable to continue to meet their mandates without significant increases in funding and staffing.

Federal legislation authorizes onsite conser- Many organizations or programs discussed vation of species and communities and offsite in this chapter focus on one aspect of diversity collection and development of plant and ani- maintenance: plant seeds, rare animal breeds, mal species of economic importance. The Fed- or onsite conservation of endangered species. eral Government consequently supports pro- This chapter considers Federal mandates re- grams for agricultural plant and animal lated to diversity conservation, onsite conser- conservation and for onsite conservation of vation, offsite plant and animal conservation, selected species, but little consideration is given and microbial conservation. In each case, Fed- to a myriad of other diversity maintenance ob- eral, State, and private activities are assessed, jectives. The numerous Federal onsite pro- although these categories are arbitrary and, in grams are not well-coordinated to promote a fact, biological diversity maintenance programs comprehensive approach. State and private ef- frequently fall into more than one category, forts fill some gaps, but in many cases, maintaining diversity is not a specific objective, merely a result.

221 222 Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity

FEDERAL MANDATES AFFECTING BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY CONSERVATION

No Federal law specifically mandates the vides little direction to the Agricultural Re- maintenance of biological diversity, either off- search Service. site or onsite, as a national goal. The term it- Table 9-1 lists the major Federal mandates self is used only in Title VII of the Foreign Assis- tance Act of 1983 (discussed in ch. 11). A pertinent to diversity maintenance. Species pro- number of Federal laws require the conserva- tection laws authorize Federal agencies to man- tion of resources on Federal lands, however, age specific animal populations and their habitats onsite. Legislation on the protection of or require that consideration be given to re- natural areas authorizes the acquisition or des- sources in Federal agency activities. Offsite maintenance of agricultural plant germplasm ignation of habitats and communities that help diversity is mandated indirectly through legis- maintain a diversity of natural areas under Fed- lation authorizing the National Plant Germ- eral stewardship, Federal laws for offsite main- plasm System (discussed later in this chapter). tenance of plants authorize conservation and But offsite maintenance of wild plants, wild ani- development (or enhancement) primarily of mals, and microbial resources is not explicitly plant species that demonstrate potential eco- mandated by Federal legislation. nomic value, Offsite maintenance of domestic animal germplasm is authorized indirectly by The lack of a comprehensive Federal onsite the Agricultural Marketing Act of 1946. The policy leads to uncoordinated programs, fre- Endangered Species Act of 1973 is in both cat- quently leaving important gaps in conservation. egories of table 9-1 because it authorizes wild Generally, Federal agencies coordinate conser- plant and animal species protection, habitat vation activities onsite for species that are spe- protection, and offsite conservation for those cifically mentioned in Federal protection laws, species considered threatened or endangered but this coordination frequently does not ex- in the United States, tend to nonlegislated species. For example, onsite conservation can be coordinated among Although the National Forest Management Act of 1976 (Public Law 94-588) is the only Fed- Federal agencies for threatened and endan- eral legislation that includes in its mandate the gered species under the Endangered Species onsite conservation of a “diversity of plant and Act of 1973 (Public Law 93-205). But no formal institutional mechanism exists to coordinate animal communities, ” it offers no explicit congressional direction on the meaning and scope conservation of thousands of plant, animal, and microbial species not recognized as threatened of onsite maintenance of biological diversity. Interpretation of this provision has been a dif- or endangered. ficult process and has involved lengthy consul- offsite germplasm conservation mandates tation with scientists and managers around the are equally vague. For example, the Agricul- country (50). The U.S. Forest Service ultimately tural Marketing Act of 1946 is intended to “pro- decided the law gave them a mandate to main- mote the efficient production and utilization tain terrestrial vertebrate species diversity and of products of the soil” (7 U. S.C.A. 427), but the structural timber stands on all Forest Serv- it is interpreted narrowly by the Agricultural ice lands in conjunction with planning and Research Service to mean domesticated plant management processes (44 F.R. 53967-53779), species and varieties. Little consideration has Whether this interpretation fulfills the congres- been given to conservation of wild plant sional intent on conserving diversity has not species, been challenged. Federal mandates give even less attention to Such terms as biological resources, wildlife, offsite conservation of domesticated and wild animals, and natural resources can and have animals. Legislative authority is vague and pro- been interpreted differently by Federal agen- Ch, 9—Maintaining Biological Diversity in the United States ● 223

Table 9-1 .—Federal Laws Relating to Biological Diversity Maintenance

Common name - - Resource affected US Code Onsife diversity mandates: Lacey Act of 1900 wtld animals 16 U.S.C 667, 701 Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918 ..., ., wtld birds 16 U S.C 703 et seq. Migratory B!rd Conservation Act of 1929, . . . ., ... wild birds 16 U.S.C 715 et seq. Wildlife Restoration Act of 1937 (Plttman-Robertson Act) ., wild animals 16 U. SC. 669 et seq. Bald Eagle Protection Act of 1940 wild birds 16 U.S.C. 668 et seq. Whaling Convention Act of 1949, ...... wild animals 16 U SC 916 et seq. Fmh Restoration and Management Act of 1950 (Dingell-Johnson Act) ,. .,, .,, flshenes 16 U.S. C. 777 et seq Anadromous Fish Conservation Act of 1965 (Publlc Law 89-304) flshenes 16 U S.C 757a-f Fur Seal Act of 1966 (Public Law 89-702) ...... wild animals 16 U SC 1151 et seq. Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972, ,, . . ..,..,.,, ,, .,..,, ,,. wild animals 16 U SC 1361 et seq. Endangered Species Act of 1973 (Public Law 93-205),, . . . . wild plants and 7 U S C. 136 animals 16 USC, 460, 668, 715, 1362, 1371, 1372, 1402, 1531 et seq Magnuson Fishery Conservation and Management Act of 1977 (Public Law 94-532)...... , .., .., .,, ... .,,.,,.,, flsherles 16 U,S.C. 971, 1362, 1801 et seq. Whale Conservation and Protection Study Act of 1976 (Public Law 94-532) ... .,, . . wild animals 16 USC 915 et seq Fish and Wildllfe Conservation Act of 1980 (Publtc Law W-366). . wild animals 16 U S.C 2901 et seq Salmon and Steelhead Conservation and Enhancement Act of 1980 (Publlc Law 96-561).. ., .., ftsherles 16 U.S.C 1823 et seq Fish and Wlldllfe Coordination Act of 1934 . . terrestrial/aquatic 16 US.C 694 habitats Flshand Game Sanctuary Act of 1934 ...... sanctuaries 16 USC 694 Hlstorlc Sites, Buildings, and Antlqultles Act of 1935 ...... natural landmarks 16 U.S.C. 461-467 Fish and Wildlife Act of 1956 ...... wildlife sanctuaries 15 U.S.C. 713 et seq. 16 U.S.C. 742 et seq. Wilderness Act of 1964 (Publlc Law 88-577) ., ., ., ., wilderness areas 16 U S C. 1131 et seq National Wildlife Refuge System Administration Act of 1966 (Public Law 91-135) ...... ,, ...... refuges 16 U S C, 668dd et seq Wild and Scenic Rivers Act of 1968 (Public Law 90-542) ,,, . . river segments 16 U S.C. 1271-1287 Marine Protection, Research and Sanctuaries Act of 1972 (Public Law 92-532) ...... coastal areas 16 U.S.C. 1431-1434 33 U.S.C. 1401, 1402, 1411-1421, 1441-1444 Federal Land Policy and Management Act of 1976 (Publlc Law 94-579) ...... public domain lands 7 USC. 1010-1012 16 U.S.C. 5, 79, 420, 460, 478, 522, 523, 551, 1339 30 U.s.c. 50, 51, 191 40 U.s.c. 319 43 U.S.C. 315, 661, 664, 665, 687, 869, 931, 934-939, 942-944, 946-959, 961-970, 1701, 1702, 1711-1722, 1731-1748, 1753, 1761-1771, 1781, 1782 National Forest Management Act of 1976 (Publlc Law 94-588) national forest lands 16 U.S.C. 472, 500, 513, 515, 516, 518, 521, 576, 581, 1600, 1601-1614 Public Rangelands Improvement Act of 1978 (Publlc Law 95-514) public domain lands 16 U.S.C 1332, 1333 43 U SC 1739, 1751- 1753, 1901-1908 Of fsite diversity mandates: Agricultural Markettng Act of 1946 (Research and Marketing Act) agricultural plants 5 U.s.c, 5315 and animals 7 U.S C, 1006, 1010, 1011. 1924-1927, 1929, 1939-1933, 1941-1943, 1947, 1981, 1983, 1985, 1991, 1992, 2201, 2204, 2212, 2651- 2654, 2661-2668 16 U,S.C. 590, 1001-1005 42 U.S.C. 3122 Endangered Species Act of 1973 (Public Law 93-205) wild plants and 7 U.S.C. 136 animals 16 U.S.C, 460, 668, 715, 1362, 1371, 1372, 1402, 1531 et seq. Forest and Rangeland Renewable Resources Research Act of 1978 (Publlc Law 95-307), . . ., ...... tree germplasm 16 USC, 1641-1647 NOTE Laws enacted prior to 1957 are cited by Chapter and not”Publlc Law number SOURCE Off Ice of Technology Assessment, 1986 224 ● Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity cies. Wildlife, for example, has been defined all animals, both vertebrates and inver- in a number of ways, including the following: tebrates, including fish (65).

● mammals that are hunted or trapped These definitional differences are further evi- (game); dence of the lack of a comprehensive Federal all mammals—the word animal is some- approach to these issues. times used interchangeably with mammal; ● all animals, both vertebrates and invertebrates, excluding fish; and

ONSITE BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY MAINTENANCE PROGRAMS

U.S. onsite programs seem to have one of Federal protection; jurisdiction over any use three main objectives: 1) maintenance of diverse is determined exclusively by the States. One habitats or ecosystems, 2) preservation of indi- preliminary assessment concluded that pri- vidual species through habitats’ protection, and vately owned, legally secured, single-purpose 3) restoration of habitats to their natural con- nature reserves offer the greatest protection to dition. These objectives are not necessarily ex- biological diversity (10), clusive. Safeguarding communities and ecosys- The size of a designated area and proximity tems could help protect rare species. Protecting to other land designations also influence its con- the habitat of a species may conserve an eco- tribution to onsite diversity (10). Some Research system or community. And restoring habitats Natural Areas (RNAs), for example, are well- could enhance the diversity of species within protected but may be very small (the smallest an ecosystem. is only 2 acres), Numerous vertebrates and larger plants would not be able to survive and Ecosystem Diversity Maintenance reproduce successfully in a small “island” habitat; therefore, small RNAs contribute little to Maintaining ecosystems is the only way to community diversity maintenance. ensure the continued viability and evolutionary processes of the organisms within these Natural areas are influenced by human activ- areas (see ch. 5). Numerous mechanisms exist ities on surrounding land that reduce the area’s at the Federal, State, and local level to manage ability to sustain natural biological communi- land and water areas for their maintenance. The ties. The National Park Service has reported net result is the continued existence of a diver- that 55 percent of the threats to park natural sity of ecosystems in the United States. resources come from influences outside park boundaries (64). The National Wildlife Refuge Ecosystem diversity maintenance within Fed- System also noted that influences from adja- eral, State, and private holdings depends on the cent areas were harming the fish and wildlife degree of protection given to the area, its size, within refuges (63). Concern over such threats and the impact of external influences. Protec- has prompted introduction of legislation to min- tion of ecosystem diversity within land and imize negative effects of activities conducted water designations ranges from scant to strict. in adjacent areas, The use of land and waters in the National Wilderness Preservation System is greatly re- Table 9-2 provides a summary of the Federal stricted—generally, motorized vehicles and ecosystem conservation programs in which long-term human activities are prohibited. designated areas are maintained in a relatively Some wilderness areas are regularly patrolled natural condition, The land designations in- and violators cited. Others receive little regu- cluded are only some of more than 100 catego- latory attention. At the other extreme, estuaries used by Federal agencies, Some programs rine sanctuaries are not required to have any involve more than one agency, such as the Re- Ch. 9—Maintaining Biological Diversity in the United States ● 225

Table 9-2.—Examples of Federal Ecosystem Conservation Programs

Program title and responsible Number Acres Program title and responsible Number A-c res Federal agency or agencies of units (millions) Federal agency or agencies of units (millions) Nationa/ Natural Landmarks National Monuments National Park Service ...... 10 0.95 National Park Service ...... 77 4.72 U.S. Forest Service ...... 48 0.69 National Preserves Bureau of Land Management. . 45 1056 National Park Service ...... 12 21.10 Fish and Wildlife Service ...... 3.15 Federal Aviation Administration 1 0.003 Nat/onal Rivers 4 Department of Energy ...... 1 0.13 National Park Service ...... 0.359 Department of Defense...... 16 0.19 National Forests Department of Transportation . . . 3 0.014 U.S. Forest Service ...... 152 190,4 Bureau of Reclamation ...... 1 0.032 Experimental Forests, Ranges, Research Natural Areas and Watersheds National Park Service ...... 66 2,3 U.S. Forest Service ...... 88 0.240 U.S. Forest Service ...... 151 0.184 Experimental Ecological Reserves Department of Energy ...... 2 0.75 U.S. Forest Service . . . . . 27 0.219 Fish and Wildlife Service ...... 194 1,94 Fish and Wildlife Service ...... 2 0.057 Bureau of Land Management. . 18 0.048 Bureau of Land Management. . . . 2 0.022 Department of Defense...... 4 0.006 National Oceanic and Tennessee Valley Authority . 4 0.0001 Atmospheric Administration 1 0.006 Bureau of Indian Affairs ...... 1 00009 Agriculture Research Servtce . . . 4 0.100 Wild and Scenic Rivers National Park Service ...... 1 0.093 National Park Service ...... 23 1,927 Tennessee Valley Authority . . . . 1 0.069 miles Smithsonian Institution . . 1 0,001 Bureau of Land Management. . . 15 1,367 National Wildlife Refuges m i Ies Fish and Wildlife Service ...... 424 89.9 U.S. Forest Service ...... 23 2,098 m i Ies Outstanding Natural Areas Fish and Wildlife Service ... . 7 1,043 Management m i Ies Bureau of Land Management. . . . 37 0.377 a Biosphere Reserves (Man and the Areas of Critica/ Environmental Biosphere) Concern National Park Service ...... 25 25.09 Bureau of Land Management. . . . . 236 1.94 U.S. Forest Service ...... 18 1.63 Fish and Wildlife Service . 4 2.81 Marine Sanctuaries Bureau of Land Management, . 1 0034 National Oceanic and Agriculture Research Service . . . 2 0.209 Atmospheric Administration . . 7 2,322 (sq. nautical National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 3 0.633 miles) Estuarine Sanctuaries Wilderness Areas National Oceanic and U.S. Forest Service ...... 332 31,84 Atmospheric Administration 17 268,762 (sq. Bureau of Land Management. 22 0.37 nautical National Park Service . . 38 36.78 m i Ies) Fish and Wildlife Service . . 65 19,33 National Environmental Research Nat\onal Parks Parks National Park Service ...... 337 79,44. Department of Energy ...... 5 1.15 NOTE When more than one aaency has res~onslblltty for an area acreaqe has been dlwded eWJall Y and each a9enc Y receives credit for an area a Because biosphere reserves ;re managed by severa~ agenc!es slmul tan eously the total number (53) I n the table exceeds [he actual n u m ber of reserves (43) SOURCE Adapted from W D Crumpacker Status and Trends of U S Natural Ecosystems OTA commissioned paper. 1985, M Bean. ‘Federal Laws and Pollcles Perta(wng to the Maintenance of Blolog{cal Dlverslty on Federal and Pr!vate Lands, OTA commissioned paper. 1985 search Natural Area Program. Other programs the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and are under the jurisdiction of just one agency, Cultural Organization (UNESCO), which con- such as the National Forest System. siders the onsite maintenance of biological diversity a major goal (17). The U.S. network Few programs are designed specifically to of 43 biosphere reserves provides a framework maintain biological diversity, even though some for linking complementary protected areas in programs may indirectly have this as one of particular biogeographical regions and for con- their objectives. One exception is the Man and ducting research on strategies for managing the Biosphere Program, coordinated through ecosystems to conserve diversity (22). The U.S.

program, unlike programs in other countries, A variety of management options exist within is strictly voluntary; designation is used mainly programs that consider diversity an objective, to encourage cooperation and increase use for For example, national forests are directed by scientific and educational purposes, law (National Forest Management Act) to be managed in a way that sustains plant and ani- Research Natural Areas and Experimental mal diversity, At the individual forest level, su- Ecological Areas are designated by appropri- pervisors have flexibility in determining how ate Federal agencies and the National Science and to what extent vertebrate species diversity Foundation, respectively, to conserve natural will be considered in forest operations. ecological communities for research in natural community manipulation. A Federal Com- Similarly, National Wildlife Refuges and Na- mittee on Ecological Reserves was established tional Parks consider maintaining diversity an in 1974 to coordinate designation of these sites, objective, although this attitude is not supported in part to ensure that each community type was by specific mandate. National Wildlife Refuge included in the system (4). The coordinating managers may try to maintain a diversity of spe- committee still exists nominally, but it no longer cies with the existing habitat or may manipu- provides an advisory function. Designations of late areas to create a diversity of habitats, In Research Natural Areas are currently deter- some cases, refuges are managed exclusively mined independently by each Federal agency. for a single species. National Parks have to bal-

Ch. 9—Maintaining Biological Diversity in the United States ● 227 .- —

will of the individual landowner. National Nat- ural Landmarks on Federal- or State-controlled lands require the cooperation of the authorized agency to ensure that protection is considered in the area’s management. An attempt has been made to identify the amount of potential ecosystem diversity that is protected in Federal landholdings. Potential ecosystem diversity is that which would be expected to develop on a site under natural conditions. According to an assessment that considered areas of approximatey 23,000 acres or larger, lands of four agencies failed to include 22 percent of the recognized ecosystem types (i.e., 69 out of 315), These four agencies were the National Park Service, Forest Service, Fish and Wildlife Service, and Bureau of Land Man- agement. Another 29 percent of these ecosystem types were only minimally included (9). Since this analysis assessed only potential diversity, it probably underestimates existing ecosystem diversity in the landholdings (9). The largest number of unrepresented types were in Texas and Oklahoma, which have relatively large amounts of ecosystem diversity but relatively few Federal lands. Another analysis of the same Federal holdings, using a different classification scheme for potential ecosystem diversity, obtained similar results (12). These two studies indicate that any attempt to include all ecosystem types within Federal programs would require considerable expansion of existing holdings. For the national wilderness preservation system, however, almost half the unrepresented types in that system could be added from existing Federal agency holdings (12). Contributions of these Federal programs to Natural area management programs also oc- maintaining diversity depends on the degree cur at the State level. State parks, forests, and of protection offered for each designation (10). protected sites may be managed for one or a For example, National Natural Landmarks are few resources, but they help preserve some rem- designated to identify and conserve unique, nants of diversity, particularly when they are rare, or representative communities in the managed in conjunction with private or Fed- United States. Designation of these sites does eral reserves. State designations could also be not, however, include protecting the site from wildlife areas, fishing areas, university research human alteration. Approximately half the Na- stations, botanic sites, school and other public tional Natural Landmarks exist on private lands, or special districts (e. g., a water man- lands, where conservation depends on the good agement district) (10). 228 “ Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity

Private holdings also contribute to maintain- authorized under the Endangered Species Act ing diversity, especially through the protection of 1973, The program authorizes the Secretary of remnant areas. Many of the remaining tall of the Interior, through the U.S. Fish and Wild- grass prairies in the Midwest, for example, are life Service (FWS), and the Secretary of privately owned by individuals or as railroad Commerce, through the National Marine Fish- right-of-ways. private land trusts lease parcels eries Service (NMFS), to protect endangered of land for biological or historical significance, and threatened species of plants and animals which may contribute to onsite diversity main- in the United States and elsewhere. tenance. (For further details, see ref. 55.) Many The program, administered by the Office of of the land parcels are small and isolated, with Endangered Species, has several phases: list- little attention given expressly to diversity main- ing species, developing recovery plans, and tenance, but they do contribute to the patch- managing species’ habitats. Species are listed work of natural areas in the United States. An as threatened or endangered when sufficient assessment of the protection associated with information on the status and distribution of all these Federal, State, local, and private land the species suggests significant declines in pop- designations is under way (11). ulation or range or both and when an extensive One private institution with an explicit goal public review has been completed. In general, of natural area preservation is The Nature Con- a species is considered a candidate between the servancy (TNC), TNC is a nonprofit organiza- time a petition to propose a species is received tion with chapters in most States. Its objectives and the listing process is completed. In addi- are to identify species and community diver- tion, many candidate lists are put together sity onsite, purchase areas or work with land- through expert review by the regional and holders to protect the species or community, Washington offices of the FWS, and manage areas to ensure the continued ex- Lists of candidates are published periodically istence of the species or community. in the Federal Register. (The most recent lists TNC, through State Natural Heritage Pro- were published in September 1985 for verte- grams (discussed in ch, 5 and in the next sec- brates and plants and in May 1984 for inver- tion), conducts field investigations of rare, tebrates.) To date, approximately 3,9oo species threatened, or endangered organisms and com- and subspecies of plants, vertebrates, and in- munities across the Nation. The information vertebrates are candidates compared with ap- generated from these surveys helps identify proximately 385 species already listed (18). organisms that should be given Federal or State When a species is listed, the next step is de- protected status, as well as habitats and com- velopment of a formal recovery plan outlining munities where special attention is necessary. the responsibilities of all parties with jurisdic- TNC, one of the largest private landholders tion over the species’ habitat and their man- in the United States, owns 895 preserves (39). agement roles. Recovery plans are advisory doc- In addition, it works with Federal, State, and uments to the Secretary of the Interior, not local governments to designate protected areas. binding agreements. Recovery plans are ap- Thus, the organization, through a grassroots proved or awaiting approval for approximately approach, is effectively identifying and main- two-thirds of the species listed (see table 9-3), taining a diversity of rare species or commu- Implementation of recovery activities, however, nity types in the United States. has been slow (13). The thrust of the Endangered Species Pro- Species Habitat Prosection gram is protection through proper management of a species’ habitat. Most management activi- The most comprehensive national program ties are carried out by Federal and State agen- for the protection of species diversity and their cies with jurisdiction over the habitats, not by habitats is the Endangered Species Program, FWS (unless the species occur on National Ch. 9—Maintaining Biological Diversity in the United States “ 229 —. .- — —

Table 9-3.— Number of U.S. Species at Various protected under the law, but it provides insuffi- Stages of Listing and Recovery as of 1985 cient protection for those that are candidates,

Species Identified as candidates for listing 3,908 The program is criticized for the slow pace of Candidates with completed status research 964 candidate review in the listing process. Some Species Ilsted as threatened or endangered . 383 animals and plants may have become extinct Species with approved recovery plans . . . 223 Species recovering ... 22 between the time they were proposed as can- SOURCE J Fttzgeralc-and G M Meese Sawng Endangered Spec/es (Wash, n g didates and their review by FWS (4,18). The (on DC Defenders of Wlldl!fe 1986I Texas Henslow’s sparrow and the Schweinitz’s Waterweed are two such examples (31). This Wildlife Refuges]. These habitats, often called delay underscores the need to list species or critical habitats—because the species depend take other action in time to prevent their loss, on these areas for survi~ral or reproduction— By publishing lists of candidates in the Fed- are designated either in conjunction with, or eral Register, the Endangered Species Office subsequent to, the listing of a species. To date, has succeeded in bringing public attention to critical-habitat designations have been made these candidates. Now the office is working for only about 70 listed species (13), with other Federal agencies to promote consid- A federally listed threatened or endangered eration of candidate species in agency planning. species is protected from any federally author- However, no legislative authority currently pro- ized activity that may jeopardize its continued tects candidates from adverse impacts of Fed- existence, even when the activity occurs en- eral agency actions. tirely on private land (4), Any Federal agency Underfunding and understaffing of the Of- undertaking or authorizing a project in the fice of Endangered Species hampers its ability range of an endangered species must consult with FWS or NMFS to ensure that the impacts to implement listing, recovery, and consultation objectives (18). With an increased budget, on a listed species tvill be minimal. The con- resources would be applied initially to develop sultation requirement is one of the most effec- recovery plans for all listed species. Consulta- tive parts of the program in protecting threat- tion among agencies is also severely under- ened or endangered species (4). It is one of the funded. Any funding increase to the Endan- least well-funded areas of the Endangered Spe- gered Species Program could be gradual, over cies Program, however. 5 years perhaps, so the office could expand ex- To a limited degree, efforts to manage a isting program efforts. Program growth might threatened or endangered species involve off- involve annual increases of $2 million for State site techniques, such as artificial propagation grant programs, $500,000 for species listing, of plants and captive breeding programs for ani- $1.5 million for consultation, and $4 million mals. Efforts to recover several species of large for recovery plans (54). birds (e.g., the peregrine falcon and whooping Other programs identify and protect selected crane) demonstrate the success of such tech- species, sometimes known as public trust re- niques, In some cases, captive breeding pro- sources, designated in Federal mandates, Ex- grams provided the opportunity for species to be reintroduced into their historic range. amples include migratory bird management and anadromous fish hatchery programs, The In addition to Federal activities, State agen- programs provide little protection for overall cies may receive Federal funding to implement species diversity. The Fish and Wildlife Serv- species-specific recovery and management ef- ice, the major Federal agency with authority forts. To date, 41 States have approved pro- to manage biological resources, is currently grams for animals, and 17 have programs for focusing its limited personnel and budget al lo- plants (4). cat ions primarily on pubIic trust resources. Overall, the Endangered Species Program ef- One Federal program focusing on public trust fectively maintains species already listed and resources is the National Wildlife Refuge Sys- 230 “ Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity tern, administered by FWS (3). Many of the ref- to protect diversity in each State (46), Each pro- uges have been created by revenues from an- gram develops an inventory of the State’s rare nual waterfowl hunting permits. Consequently, species and ecosystems and identifies priority most refuges are purchased to protect habitats actions. The Nature Conservancy establishes for migratory birds. Refuges may also protect and initially supports the programs. In some habitats of threatened or endangered species instances, States will take over the program de- (e.g., Atwater Prairie Chicken National Wild- vised by TNC and incorporate activities into life Refuge in Texas) or large mammals (Na- the State government. In other instances, States tional Bison Range in Montana), with funding and TNC share responsibilities. from the Land and Water Conservation Fund, State Natural Heritage Programs and data- a land trust funded by the sales of grazing bases are designed to be compatible so national leases, offshore oil, mineral rights, and other information on species diversity can be col- sources on Federal lands. The Land and Water lated, As of February 1986,44 States had con- Conservation Fund is the principal source of tracted for the program and 26 of these had as- money for land purchases by Federal agencies. sumed administration of the program from TNC Refuges may provide habitats for a diversity (30), The Conservancy also maintains four non- of species, but the designation of the refuge is contracted programs and has separate contracts to benefit one or a few species of special inter- with the Tennessee Valley Authority, the Na- est, Woodland habitats along some east coast vaho Nation, and Puerto Rico, refuges, for example, have been converted to Programs’ abilities to protect diversity are grassland-wetland habitats to enhance water- limited by their resources and the degree of in- fowl at the expense of overall diversity. fluence they have in the State governments. The State programs also tend to focus on selected Rhode Island program, for instance, although species of fish, wildlife, and plants, although part of the State government, receives its fund- the emphasis differs somewhat from Federal ing from the Federal Fish and Wildlife Serv- programs. States generally receive revenues ice, Thus, its inventory is primarily limited to from hunters, fishermen, and Federal grants, species identified by the Endangered Species for management and conservation of harvested Act, A lack of resources and influence hamper species. Interest in nongame species is increas- this program’s ability to comment on State and ing, however. State agencies, through referen- Federal developments and State land-acquisi- dums, are expanding their fish and wildlife pro- tions. The South Carolina program, also part grams to a wider array of species’ conservation of the State government, is supported by a efforts. Public pressure to conserve and manage $400,000 State grant fund and income-tax nongame populations and increased budgets checkoff (21). with these resources, the program to implement programs (62) are increasing State maintains a larger inventory, buys and manages efforts. However, State nongame programs are land, and comments on all relevant State and funded by add-on monies from tax checkoffs, Federal developments. which hampers the ability of most States to ade- programs that are not part of a State govern- quately fund or maintain personnel for their ment have fewer resources and opportunities nongame programs. In addition, this type of to affect Federal and State decisions. Two fur- funding severely hampers long-range planning ther constraints are the limited information that and implementation of nongame projects. An programs are able to collect and the lack of a alternative to this type of funding is to provide national classification system for natural eco- monies from the State’s general fund, as is be- systems. ing done by the Florida Fresh Water Game and Fish Commission (31). Nevertheless, State Natural Heritage Pro- grams perform a function unfulfilled by exist- Another State activity is the Natural Heritage ing institutions. The continuing inventory of program, a set of public and private programs rare species and ecosystems enables the pro- Ch. 9—Maintaining Biological Diversity in the United States “ 231 tection of the most important biologically di- Onsite Restoration verse lands and the early identification and modification of potentially destructive devel- Another facet of maintaining biological diver- opment plans. sity is the restoration of degraded sites. The field is relatively new, few institutions have well- A variety of private conservation organiza- developed programs, and complete restoration tions work to protect species of particular in- has been difficult to achieve. (See ch. 5 for dis- terest. The National Audubon Society, for ex- cussion of restoration technologies. ) ample, maintains some 60 refuges to protect the habitat of endangered species. Many of the A key Federal legislation that directly pro- first refuges were designated to protect marine vides for revegetation after a disturbance is the and coastal waterbird colonies (I 5). More re- Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act cently, sanctuaries are being acquired to pro- of 1977, also known as S MC RA (Public Law tect inland habitats and to restrict development. 95-87). Section 515(b)( 19) states that mining These areas provide refuge for an array of spe- operations shall: cies, in addition to the key species for which . . . establish . . . a diverse, effective, permanent the sanctuary was purchased. vegetation cover of the same seasonal variety Conservation organizations such as Izaak native to the area of land to be affected. Walton League of America help maintain diver- The number and composition of species is often sity through an advocacy role. These groups suggested by past management practices. The work with the U.S. Congress and Federal and Bureau of Land Management (BLM), Forest Serv- State agencies to develop laws and programs ice, and Soil Conservation Service have each that reflect the importance of maintaining spe- developed vegetative mixtures for various types cies. Like Federal programs, diversity conser- of disturbances that can be economically man- vation is not a stated objective of most nonprofit aged and are likely to succeed. There is a prob- organizations (except TNC), but their efforts aid lem, however, with the definition of “native.” in maintaining species and habitat diversity BLM, for instance, interprets native to include on site. introduced exotics that have been established Additional groups working for species pres- within the area before the project was assessed. ervation include single-species organizations Section 515(b)(2) states that the mine opera- or foundations, such as the Carolina Bird Club, tion shall: Desert Fishes Council, or Trout Unlimited (47). These offices work to promote habitat protec- . . . restore the land affected to a condition cation for these organisms, manage habitats for pable of supporting the use which it was capable of supporting prior to any mining, or higher particular species, and advocate survival of or better uses. these species through Federal and State agencies. The net result is species maintenance and Thus, SMCRA provides an incentive to develop conservation of particular components of bio- techniques for establishing native plant species. logical diversity. The natural diversity aspect of SMCRA could be strengthened at the State level by requiring A multitude of nonprofit organizations also the use of native species in revegetat ion function at the local and State level. These mixtures. groups tend to be small, poorly financed, and focused on a particular area or species of con- A few Federal agencies are initiating resto- cern. (For further discussion, see ref. 59. ) Such ration efforts. The Forest Service is mandated organizations generally do not have biological by the National Forest Management Act of 1976 diversity as an exclusive objective, but they con- to replant all lands in the National Forest Sys- tribute to the maintenance of biological diver- tem that do not regenerate naturally after tim- sity through their achievernents of preserving ber harvesting. Tree monoculture are most a specific species o f concern or its habitat. 1ikely to be planted, thus reducing diversity in- 232 . Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity stead of restoring the area’s original diversity. . . . authorizes USDA to contract with farmers The National Park Service (NPS) has instituted to remove 40 million acres of erodible land from small-scale restoration projects, mainly for areas row crop production. . . , The retired acres affected by past tourist use or other distur- would be planted to grasses, legumes, and trees bances (32). An exception to the typical small- to reduce erosion and enhance wildlife (66). scale NPS restoration project is the legislatively This provision could be strengthened if resto- mandated (Public Law 95-250) Redwood Creek ration of vegetation in riparian areas were in- rehabilitation project in Redwood National cluded in the legislation, The reconstruction Park. The project is developing rehabilitation of debt portion of this bill may be more benefi- techniques for 36,000 acres of previously logged cial to diversity. It allows the farmer to offer and seriously eroded slopes in the redwood- up land for not less than 50 years to be used mixed conifer ecosystem. to lower the debt. The Fish and Wildlife Service and Environ- Private efforts may be the leading contribu- mental Protection Agency identify water bod- tors to restoring biological diversity. Although ies polluted by chemicals or acid rain that are much reclamation is being carried out by in- suitable for restoration. In lakes damaged by dustries and consulting firms in compliance acid rain in the Northeast, for example, FWS with regulations, work is also being done by has spent $5 million in a liming effort to reduce small organizations and individuals motivated lake acidity and restore aquatic life (32). The by esthetic and environmental interests. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers is researching Universities also are conducting research to de- wetland restoration techniques to mitigate develop techniques for restoring different ecosys- velopment projects in wetlands, tems, Recently, restoration has been identified as a focus of research at the Cary Arboretum One future opportunity to restore diversity in New York and at the Center for Restoration is by the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s Ecology at the University of Wisconsin (32), (USDA) implementation of the conservation reserve provision of the Food Security Act of 1985 (Public Law 99-198). The conservation reserve:

OFFSITE DIVERSITY MAINTENANCE PROGRAMS

Federal programs to maintain diversity off- Plans Programs site generally involve germplasm of agriculturally or economically important plants and ani- Historically, responsibilities for maintaining mals, Less attention is given to wild plants and plant resources at the Federal level included animals at the Federal level than at the State only domesticated plants under the jurisdiction or private level. State efforts to conserve a diver- of USDA. Although recent legislation has in- sity of plants, animals, or micro-organisms off- cluded some wild plant species (e. g., Forest and site are poorly documented and tend to be Rangeland Renewable Resources Research Act, widely dispersed. Private institutions conduct Rural Development Act), the focus of USDA numerous activities directly related to the main- is still reflected in programs to maintain crop- tenance of biological diversity offsite. Conse- related germplasm, quently, offsite conservation of many biologi- Agricultural Plants cal resources occurs only as a result of private efforts. For ease in discussion, offsite mainte- The most significant program is the National nance of biological diversity is divided into Plant Germplasm System (NPGS)—a diffuse plant, animal, and micro-organism programs, network of USDA, State, and private institu- although programs overlap considerably. tions, private industry, and individuals. NPGS Ch. 9—Maintaining Biological Diversity in the United States ● 233 activities include acquiring, maintaining, and evaluation, and inventory information on improving plant germplasm. Various compo- NPGS germplasm; and nents of the system also conduct research that —the National Small Grains Collection. supports preservation of genetic diversity, ac- ● National Seed Storage Laborator~: The Na- quisition of new materials, and use of stored tional Seed Storage Laboratory (NSSL) in germplasm (see figure 9-l). Ft. Collins, CO, is designed to be the principal storage facility for agricultural crop Work done by NPGS is in response to spe- seeds in the NPGS, Ideally, all plant vari- cific national needs. Agricultural plant explo- eties are stored at NSSL as base collections. ration and development of new crop species NSSL is responsible for monitoring the via- led to a formal Federal program (Section of Seed bility of seeds within its collections as well and Plant Introduction) in 1898 within USDA as seeds stored in active collections. The (28). Recognizing that germplasm resources laboratory does not evaluate its samples, were being lost due to inadequate maintenance however, and depends on other facilities facilities, Congress enacted the Agricultural in the network to regenerate samples when Marketing Act in 1946, authorizing regional germination declines, centers to maintain and develop plant germ- ● Germplasm Collections: National respon- plasm (27). sibility for maintaining major crops is Federal contributions to NPGS currently are divided among four Regional Plant Intro- administered through the Agricultural Re- duction Stations (RPISS). Many important search Service (ARS) and the Cooperative State collections are not associated with an RPIS, Research Service (CSRS). The ARS National such as those for soybeans, cotton, sugar Program Staff in Beltsville, MD, coordinates crops, and small grains. Germplasm that these various activities and facilities: must be clonally maintained is the responsibility of the five newly established and ● Advisory Committees: The National Plant four developing national clonal reposi- Germplasm Committee and individual tories. Several collections of genetic or mu- crop advisory committees provide both pol- tant stocks that possess specific traits ex- icy and technical advice to administrators ist, Although not generally used in and curators of NPGS. The National Plant breeding, such stocks have been important Genetic Resources Board advises the Sec- resources for research on cytogenetics, retary of Agriculture on resource issues physiology, biochemistry, and molecular and serves as liaison between NPGS and genetics of crops. the International Board for Plant Genetic The mission of NPGS is to acquire, maintain, Resources. evaluate, and make accessible as wide a range ● Plant Genetics and Germplasm Institute: of genetic diversity as possible in the form of This USDA/ARS facility includes the fol- seed and clonal materials to crop breeders and lowing: plant scientists (60), The scientific expertise on —the Plant Introduction Office that coordi- germplasm maintenance is among the best nates the acquisition of new materials, available, assignment of introduction numbers, and distribution to appropriate facilities; Assessments of NPGS during the past 5 years —the Plant Molecular Genetics Laboratory, have highlighted shortcomings in coordination, devoted to developing methods for using communication, storage facilities, maintenance germplasm to improve crops; of seed viability, and staffing levels (7,56,57,60). —the Germplasm Resources Information Facilities such as NSSL, for example, have been Network (GRIN) Database Management criticized for inadequately maintaining seed Unit, responsible for developing and stocks and for storage limitations. A 1981 study maintaining the computer-based system by the General Accounting Office (GAO) found that is intended to contain passport, that NPGS curators sent only half the seeds

234 . Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity

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I I I I Ch. 9—Maintaining Biological Diversity in the United States ● 235 from active collections to the NSSL (56). And pay for grow-outs. A comprehensive system to the study determined that approximately 63 per- support regeneration of stored seed has been cent of the active germplasm collections were hampered by competing interests for available stored in inadequate containers or in undesira- resources. ble climates, The result, GAO concluded, may The crop advisory committees {CACS) in be the loss of at least one-fourth of the germ- NPGS were developed to improve communi- plasm resources held by NPGS. cation about crop-specific needs (see table 9-4). Efforts have been made to address some of CACS are comprised of scientists from NPGS, these deficiencies through reallocation of re- private industry, and the academic community. sources, construction of new facilities, and cen- They provide technical expertise to the NationaI tralization of responsibilities, but the need to Plant Genetic Resources Board, the National improve germplasm maintenance remains, Plant Germplasm Committee, ARS staff, and Recommendations to improve NPGS have been NPGS curators. In some cases, such as the pear hampered by the diffuse nature of the network collection at the national clonal repository in and by inadequate resources. Corvallis, OR, CACS advise the facility in charge of a particular crop (7]. The system has been cited as needing a clearer division of responsibility y for maintain- CACS are growing in importance and influ- ing and evaluating germplasm collections (7), ence within NPGS (45). Committees have been Because it is a cooperative network, lines of authority are frequently unclear, and there may Table 9.4.—Existing and Proposed Crop Advisory be too many levels of authority to adequately Committees of the National Plant Germplasm System administer a national program on germplasm (60). The result is a general lack of understand- Existing committees Proposed committees ing of how decisions concerning NPGS are Alfalfa Asparagus Barley Florist crops made by ARS. Such decisions can be further Carya Leafy vegetables complicated by the competing interests and Citrus Tropical fruit and nuts concerns of other cooperative Federal (i. e., Clover Woody ornaments Cotton CSRS] or State agencies that may provide pro- Crucifer gram support. Grass Juglans The ARS staff has recently increased its in- Maize put into budget allocations for Federal facilities Malus Oats and has attempted to centralize program re- Pea sponsibilities into one office (42). Further Peanut centralization could provide increased coordi- Phaseolus Potato nation of the system’s collections, improved Prunus communication on available germplasm diver- Pyrus sity (especially through the GRIN database), and Rice Root and bulb more effective identification of funding pri- Small fruits orities. Sorghum Soybean One area that has received insufficient funds Sugar beet is regeneration of seeds with reduced viabil- Sugarcane Sunflower ity. Although NSSL monitors seed viability, it Sweet potato sends seeds that germinate poorly to another Tomato facility for growing-out. If viability is found to Vigna Vine crops be low, it may be difficult to obtain a regener- Vitis ated sample. If NPGS does not have specific Wheat responsibility for a sample, NSSL must locate SOURCE U S Department of Agrlcultu~e, Agricultural Research Serv~ce Pla~t Genetics and Germplasm Inst!tute Germplasm Resources Information a willing donor, but it does not have funds to Network, Progress Update, February 1986 236 ● Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity

asked to identify gaps in the diversity of crop storage. OTA found that the NSSL collections species, coordinate collection and maintenance require upgraded facilities with access to mod- needs, develop priorities for crops, and assess ern storage technologies and backup refriger- the data available on accessions. However, no ation systems. One proposed NSSL facility provision exists within NPGS to ensure that the would quadruple present storage capacity and necessary meetings of a CAC will be held or enable use of modern technologies. Funds for reports developed. To date, NPGS has relied construction, however, are not available in the on the dedication and commitment of the sci- Administration’s current budget (4.5). entists involved to accomplish these tasks, Al- Although many long-standing deficiencies though some CACS have achieved a great deal, have been addressed by administrative changes others have been slow to organize and develop such as creation of the crop advisory commit- their activities. ARS has argued that funding tees, future improvements of NPGS will require or other support for CACS is unnecessary, but additional funds for facilities, as well as per- OTA has found the committees feel they would sonnel, equipment, and supplies to support be more effective if funds for frequent and regu- basic operations. lar meetings were available. Most States do not formally fund offsite germ- The diverse nature of NPGS can also be seen plasm maintenance activities independent of in its different roles of providing service func- NPGS, California, an exception, began a pro- tions of maintaining germplasm and undertak- gram in 1980 to conserve the genetic diversity ing research programs. Functions such as grow- of important plant and animal species within ing out seeds, evaluating accessions, assessing the State (33). The California Gene Resources viability, and managing information are serv- Conservation Program, which is currently in- ice-oriented, Many Federal and State scientists active, raised awareness of the need to conserve within NPGS, however, are evaluated on a sys- germplasm resources, A program at the Univer- tem that can provide disincentives for such sity of California at Davis will conduct research activities. The problem can become acute when on germplasm resources in the State and pro- decreased funding means that research staff vide funds for orphan collections, those that must handle service functions. may be vulnerable due to the death or retire- The need for more personnel and funding has ment of principal curators (49). increased with the amount of germplasm held Private individuals and grassroots organiza- by NPGS facilities, Concern about characteri- tions are preserving a significant amount of zation and evaluation of accessions has created agricultural crop diversity not found in govern- additional burdens for many facilities. There- mental collections (20,44,59), The Seed Savers fore, proposed changes should consider im- Exchange, for example, helps preserve heir- proved support of the basic operations along loom vegetable varieties and other vegetable with plans for new construction. seeds not available from the Federal Govern- The National Seed Storage Laboratory con- ment or commercial producers. The exchange tinues to need improvement (7,56,57,58,60). of seeds among its 450 members helps ensure Within 2 years, the existing facility will exceed the survival of some 3,500 plant varieties, most its storage capacity. Collections at the RPISS of which can be found only within the orga- and other facilities are witholding some acces- nization. (For further discussion of Seed Savers sions from NSSL. But keeping them creates an Exchange and other grassroots efforts to pre- additional burden for facilities not equipped serve agricultural plant germplasm, see ref. 59.) for long-term storage. Without expanded space, Private industry also maintains plant germ- NSSL cannot provide the necessary backup plasm in conjunction with developmental pro- storage for NPGS germplasm collections. grams for new crop varieties or as marketed In addition, NSSL storage rooms were built seed varieties, United Brands, for instance, before the use of subfreezing and cryogenic maintains the most extensive collection of

Ch. 9—Maintaining Biological Diversity in the United States ● 237

Wild Plants No Federal equivalent to NPGS exists for wild plant species. Although NPGS maintains some wild plant germplasm, this is clearly a secondary function and generally involves relatives of cultivated crops or species economically valuable, such as ornamental or florist crops. Most wild plant diversity is stored in living collections such as botanic gardens and arboretums. Federal programs that make some contribution to maintaining wild plant diversity do not cover the majority of plant diversity, USDA’s Soil Conservation Service (SCS) maintains some wild species (those with known or suspected value to soil or water conservation) in its Plant Materials Centers. Species not being used in plant development programs are sent to NSSL (52). The Forest Service maintains germplasm of tree species with known or potential commercial value (5). The Smithsonian Institution maintains an extensive collection of North American wild plant species. The Office of Endangered Species provides some funding for offsite maintenance and propagation of threatened or endangered plant species. The contributions of current State efforts are unclear. Generally, State programs are coordinated through the State Department of Agri- culture and focus on species with some economic importance to the State—e. g., timber banana germplasm (23). Although the objective varieties, shrubs, and grasses useful in land in most cases is not the maintenance of genetic reclamation, along with important wildlife diversity, industries could maintain germplasm foods. resources that contribute to the overall plant The most significant offsite programs for diversity in the United States. germplasm are financed and managed in the Support can be provided by private industry private sector (59). One such effort, the Center by granting funds, equipment, facilities, or land. for Plant Conservation (CPC), is beginning a The Rhododendron Species Foundation, for ex- network of botanic gardens and arboretums to ample, maintains an extensive collection of conserve all threatened and endangered wild wild rhododendrons at a facility donated by the plant species. CPC, located at the Arnold Ar- Weyerhaeuser Co. (59), A grant to NPGS by Pi- boretum in Massachusetts, has solicited the par- oneer Hi-Bred International, Inc., of $1.5 mil- ticipation of 14 major botanic institutions lion over 5 years will support the evaluation across the country to act as regional centers of Latin American corn varieties (2)—work not for wild plant diversity. By establishing a data possible under present NPGS budgets. network, CPC hopes to identify plant species

238 ● Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity

Regardless of their objectives, these botanic institutions and the individuals who run them contribute to the maintenance of plant diversity. However, no coordination exists for information exchange or evaluation of contributions, Although it is too early to assess results, the Center for Plant Conservation may provide significant coordination of such efforts. One possible way to improve offsite wild plant maintenance is to expand NPGS to include nonagricultural varieties. The objective is to take advantage of existing Federal, State, and private cooperation. Crop advisory committees could be established for species that are important but have little market value. NSSL could be expanded to serve as a repository for wild species’ seeds that may have future economic or ecological significance. Existing plant centers and scientists could play a larger role in propagation and reintroduction programs for wild plant species, particularly threatened or endangered species. The underlying responsibilities of NPGS would need to be changed to accommodate nonagricultural species. Biological differences between agricultural and wild species, such as

Photo credit L McMahan dormancy and seed production barriers, would increase the need for research to prepare plans Greenhouses of the Berry Botanic Garden, Portland, OR, Botanic gardens are becoming increasingly important to for storage, germination, and regeneration. the effort to diversity. Expanding the role of the system to include wild plant species could reduce already insuffi- for inclusion into the national program (16). cient funding for existing programs, however. CPC also has agreements with NSSL for long- The Agricultural Research Service budgeted term storage of selected wild species (40). nearly $16 million (gross) for germplasm work in 1986, but one report has estimated that by Arboretums and botanic gardens historically the 1990s, annual allocations of almost $40 mil- have not considered the maintenance of wild lion (1981 dollars) will be needed to support pro- plant diversity a goal (37). They have generally grams (43,60). Adding approximately 20,000 provided display gardens—areas where showy new plant species (perhaps millions of acces- flowers or unique plants are presented–with sions to represent the diversity of each species) a secondary objective of preserving wild plant would severely strain an already underfunded species. Interest in maintaining diversity is in- program, creasing, however (37,59). In some cases, reproductive individuals of rare plant species may Animal Programs be found only in arboretums or botanic gardens. Yet, aquatic plants are underrepresented in bo- The United States has no organized program tanic institutions, and few aquatic gardens ex- for maintaining diversity in agricultural ani- ist to conserve such species. mals (6). Federal activities to conserve genetic Ch. 9—Maintaining Biological Diversity in the United States ● 239 resources are minimal, and private efforts, Germplasm Evaluation Program of the Roman though more substantial, are so disperse that L. Hruska U.S. Meat Animal Research Center it is difficult to assess gaps or overlaps. (MARC) in Nebraska, which compared more than 20 foreign and domestic cattle breeds (61). Neither the Federal Government nor State Current efforts at MARC deal with develop- governments have programs designed to main- ment of composite gene-pool stocks for new and tain wild animal diversity offsite, It is minimally more productive breeds of sheep and swine. supported by Federal contributions to private sector programs, but no overall Federal plan Within the private sector, breed associations exists and funding is erratic, Thus, the private —loose unions of individuals who produce a sector is currently making the most significant particular livestock breed—have been formed contributions to maintaining domestic and wild for common species (e.g., cattle, pigs, sheep, animal diversity. goats, and horses) to record pedigrees and production of individuals within livestock breeds Domestic Animals available in the United States (see table 9-5). USDA was authorized to collect, maintain, These groups do not consider maintenance of and develop animal genetic resources under the biological diversity as a goal, although they may same legislation that provides authority for the contribute to maintenance of animal genetic National Plant Germplasm System’s compo- resources (25,59). A diversity of livestock breeds nents (Agricultural Marketing Act of 1946). will be maintained only if an association ex- However, USDA contributions to domestic ani- ists for each breed. mals did not evolve along with its agricultural Most programs that deal with germplasm plant activities. conservation as such (i. e., separate from efforts The department has concentrated on identify- to use that diversity within the livestock indus- ing foreign germplasm of potential importance try) are undertaken and funded by the private in U.S. livestock production. Beginning in the sector, Many minor livestock breeds in the mid-1960s, a substantial number of foreign United States are maintained by one person or breeds were introduced into the United States a few individuals, working relatively independ- (6). The importation of cattle was emphasized, ently (25,59). but several breeds of sheep and swine were also introduced. Breeds were chosen for their likely The American Minor Breeds Conservancie (AMBC), a nonprofit organization, is currently contribution to U.S. agriculture and without seeking to identify these people and open lines particular attention to the degree of endanger- of communication among them, (For further ment in their country of origin. Several of these stocks have since become firmly established discussion of AMBC and the contributions of individuals and breed associations to domes- within the United States. tic animal genetic diversity, see ref. 59.) AMBC USDA evaluated the breeds and in some cases recently completed a census of North Amer- (especially for sheep and swine) initiated their ican livestock that identifies some 80 breeds, importation. A key group in this effort was the including cattle, pigs, sheep, donkeys and

Table 9-5.—Active Breed Associations in the United States

Number of – —- - Number of reg~strationsa Species associations Minimum Maximum Average Beef cattle .-. ..-.., ...... 18 297 195,267 43,976 Dairy cattle ...... 6 4,085 425,385 89,382 Sheep ...... 8 4<568 58,994 18,675 Swine ., ...... 10 382 245,423 61,050 Horses . . . . 15 631 68,346 22.260 aFor fiscal fear 1983 SOURCE National Soc(ety of Ltvestock Record Assoclattons 1983 240 ● Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity mules, and goats, needing special attention to ally updated and acts as an important catalog ensure their survival (26). of existing poultry resources (53). University animal or veterinary science departments may private companies also make significant con- maintain small breeding populations of live- tributions to animal germplasm maintenance. stock for experimental and educational pur- For example, the majority of poultry germplasm poses (26). is maintained by firms that operate both domes- tically and internationally (6). Several maintain U.S. universities with programs for domes- unselected, random-bred control lines that tic animal research and utilization also play a serve as reservoirs of genetic diversity. These role at the international level. The International lines, however, are vulnerable to changes in Sheep and Goat Institute associated with Utah economic conditions, and their maintenance State University, for example, works with re- does not currently represent public or indus- searchers and livestock operators in other country policy. tries to identify and propagate genotypes of Artificial insemination (A. I.) firms control sheep and goats. Although the focus of the in- and distribute the majority of U.S. dairy cattle stitute is to assist countries in the production germplasm. These companies have formed of sheep and goats best-suited to local environ- pools of individual breeders involved in ments, its members are also involved in train- planned matings, testing progeny of specific ing international institutions in the storage and germplasm strains, and development of im- management of sheep and goat genetic re- proved breeding lines (6). Companies focus sources (29). almost entirely on Holstein cattle because the Even with these various efforts, the overall market is so large. Increased emphases on diversity within many domestic animal breeds planned matings among superior individuals is declining (6). In summary: have been required to maximize genetic improvement within the dairy industry because Storage facilities do not exist for in vitro of intense competition among A.I. organi- maintenance of sheep, swine, or poultry zations, genetic stocks. Breed associations report that although a As a result, new bulls for use in artificial in- few breeds of sheep in the United States semination often represent the offspring of a have declined to very small numbers, global small sample of bulls from the previous gener- diversity of sheep germplasm remains ation. For example, of the 6 to 7 million dairy adequate. cows bred each year in the United States, about Genetic diversity in dairy and meat goats 65 percent are impregnated by only 400 to 500 A.I. sires, In addition, of the approximately does not appear to be changing signifi- 1,000 performance-tested dairy bulls in a given cantly. year, nearly half are sons of the 10 best bulls Because relatively few competitive strains of highly specialized egg and meat chickens, of the previous generation (67). This process turkeys, and waterfowl account for much tends to maximize rates of genetic improvement and almost certainly will result in an excessive of the world poultry populations, there is narrowing of the genetic base. concern about maintaining adequate genetic diversity for future needs. Researchers affiliated with universities and The increasing emphasis on whole-milk Agricultural Experiment Stations help identify production dairy cattle favors the adoption genetic resources or help maintain and develop of Holstein breeds among milk producers, germplasm resources, although not as much as causing the decline of other minor dairy breed associations or private industries do, For breeds, example, one researcher at the University of Genetic diversity appears to be stabilized Connecticut has produced an international or increasing slightly in beef cattle in the registry of poultry genetic stocks that is annu- United States. \Ch. 9—Maintaining Biological Diversity in the United States ● 241

Public awareness of the potential problems In one case, zoos are working together to associated with loss of genetic diversity and in- maintain viable populations of wild animals stitutional concern about the issue are not as bred in captivity. The American Association evident for domestic animal species as they are of Zoological Parks and Aquariums coordinates for agricultural crop species. Concern about breeding programs for selected endangered loss of agricultural animal diversity is increas- wild species. These programs, known as Spe- ing, however, at the international level, where cies Survival Plans (SSPS), are being imple- a perception exists that a significant amount mented for some 30 species that are critically of genetic diversity is disappearing (see ch. 10). endangered in the wild, that have sufficient Insufficient information exists on the status and numbers at various zoos to ensure genetic via- trends of domestic animal breeds at the global bility within a captive breeding program, and level to substantiate this belief (19), But it is the that have a sufficient nucleus of professionals unregistered and unrecognized breeds that are at the cooperating institutions to carry out the in the greatest danger of becoming extinct. plan (l). (For a discussion of captive breeding techniques, see ch, 6.) Wild Animals Breeding programs are designed by experts with knowledge of the species and carried out Federal efforts to maintain wild animals off- by scientists within the zoological community site occur only through the captive breeding (l). Since more animal species meet the SSP programs of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Serv- criteria than zoos realistically have resources ice, Individual specimens of critically endan- to implement, further criteria exist for deter- gered species may be selected for captive breed- mining which species to include: ing programs at the Patuxent Wildlife Research Center in Patuxent, MD. The center has been 1, a high probability’ of successful implemen- responsible for the captive breeding and rein- tation of the plan, troduction of more than 60 species of birds, 2. a high relative degree of endangerment, mammals, and reptiles native to the United and States (37). 3, a high relative degree of uniqueness within the animal kingdom. Endangered fish species have been propagated at the Fish and Wildlife Service’s National Species Survival Plans are designed to over- Fish Hatchery in Dexter, NH, Additionally, come the space and population limitations of FWS provides nominal funding for captive most zoos. For many institutions, adequate fa- breeding and reintroduction programs for en- cilities to maintain a viable breeding popula- dangered animal species to the private sector, tion of at least 250 animals simply do not exist. and in one case, to the State of Wyoming to re- The SSP outlines agreements between partici- cover the black-footed ferret. Overall, however, pants in the program for the translocation of programs for the offsite maintenance of diver- breeding adults or their reproductive products sit y in wild animals are controlled and financed (e.g., eggs, sperm, or embryos) among zoos to primarily by universities and institutions in the simulate a much larger breeding population private sector (37). than could exist at and one facility, Informa- tion on the breeding programs must be care- zoos are well-known storehouses for wild ani- fully recorded and entered into a master data- mal species, although historically they made base, the International Species inventory few contributions to maintaining biological System (ISIS). These programs are too new to diversity. But their role in this area is becom- assess their effectiveness in maintaining genetic ing significant, especially in terms of public diversity. education. More institutions are identifying the need for expanded activity in research and tech- ISIS was developed at the Minnesota Zoo to nology development to maintain genetic diver- catalog information about the genetic makeup sit}r of zoo animals. of individual animals from more than 200 zoo- 242 ● Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity logical institutions worldwide. One goal in the exotic birds or reptiles to the management of database development was to address the prob- large herds of Asian and African antelope spe- lem of inbreeding among species within zoos. cies by Texas game ranchers. (For further dis- ISIS acts as a computerized matching service, cussion, see ref. 59.) helping zoos around the world identify other institutions that have distinct bloodlines in Microbial Resource Programs breeding populations of a particular wild animal (14), Other goals include identifying cap- No U.S. institution or institutional mecha- tive management problems, monitoring the cap- nism addresses the preservation of microbial tive status of some 2,500 species, and providing diversity. Numerous collections of micro- information to managers. It appears that ISIS organisms exist in the United States in both the is widely used by zoological institutions and public and private sectors. Most were estab- therefore makes important contributions to lished to study a particular taxonomic group maintaining genetic diversity. of micro-organisms, and they represent detailed sampling within that group. Several hundred A large number of zoos are not involved with specialized working collections of microbial the SSP or ISIS, yet still provide offsite main- germplasm are part of the basic and applied tenance of selected wild animal species. These research programs of scientists working in both institutions may support populations of locally the public and private sectors (7). endemic wild animals or include individuals of internationally rare species. Maintenance of a diversity of species or of individuals within a species is generally not an objective at these The largest public microbial culture collec- institutions, however. tion in the United States is the Northern Re- gional Research Laboratory (NRRL) collection Much of the work undertaken by zoos to pre- held by USDA’s Agricultural Research Serv- serve species involves internationally endan- ice. It is an archival collection with a taxonom- gered ones, with less attention given to threat- ically broad range of micro-organisms stored ened and endangered species found in the for long-term preservation, NRRL does not pub- United States. The focus on species from else- lish a catalog of its holdings and does not en- where in the world or exotic animals is due, courage general distribution of the germplasm in part, to the degree of endangerment of these it holds, in part because of the high cost of animals. Those that are critically endangered distribution. No moderately sized collections in the United States, such as the California con- (3,000 to 10,000 accessions) of micro-organisms dor or the black-footed ferret, are also the fo- function as national repositories or resource cus of active captive breeding programs at U.S. collections for a range of microbial classes (24). zoos (8,36). Compared with zoos, most aquariums accord the maintenance of aquatic spe- Several collections supported by the U.S. Gov- cies diversity a low priority. Almost no work ernment are devoted to assembling microbial has been done at U.S. aquariums to maintain strains within a particular taxonomic group. the diversity of species found in U.S. waters The largest of these is held by the Neisseria (38). When they need specimens, they gener- Reference Laboratory of the U.S. Public Health ally collect them from the wild (37). Service. Similar taxonomically specific collections supported by USDA, such as the cereal Fairly large collections of breeding wild ani- rust collections at the Universities of Minnesota mals are maintained by individuals, In many and Kansas, distribute microbial germplasm on cases, these people establish societies around request, but they generally do not catalog their a particular species or group of species to ex- holdings (24). change information and breeding stock among society members. Their efforts range from the Like many scientific institutions, organiza- small-scale activities of individuals that breed tions holding culture collections are currently Ch, 9—Maintaining Biological Diversity in the United States s 243 suffering from financial cutbacks (24). Fund- (7). Such efforts commonly depend on the con- ing from USDA has been reduced or redirected tinued interests and abilities of individuals who to other areas at the expense of the network initiated them. of archival collections (table 9-6). The result is Unless sources of support and personnel are a diminished capacity to maintain the record- available, institutional commitments to micro- keeping, authentication, and taxonomic charac- bial collections, where they exist, may not con- terization necessary for a collection. Expansion tinue after key individuals leave, retire, or die— of existing collections is restricted by such fi- a problem noted earlier with regard to agricul- nancial constraints. tural plant germplasm collections, When the curator of an extensive collection of Rhizobium State Collections germplasm died in 1975, his university was un- No organized State efforts to collect and able to provide future management for the ex- maintain microbial diversity, apart from spe- tensive collection—at that time considered the richest collection in the world of soil bacteria cialized collections, seem to exist. The many in this group (24), It would have been lost had specialized collections that exist at State univer- it not been acquired by the University of Ha- sities and colleges are typically the responsi- waii as part of a U.S. Agency for International bility of individual scientists. Some have gained institutional support and achieved national sig- Development (USAID) research project in 1976. nificance. Pennsylvania State University sup- It was not until 1981 that the university agreed ports the major U.S. collection of Fusarium spe- to accept responsibility to maintain the collec- cies, a plant fungus of major interest to breeders tion in perpetuity as part of an international

Table 9-6.—Microbial Culture Collections in the United States With More Than 1,000 Accessions

Number of Collection Sponsor cu It u res Living re;ource: American type culture collection ...... Private 27,630 (Rockville, MD) Reference and archival: Northern Regional Research Center...... Government 63,000 (Peoria, IL) USDA Rhizobium Culture Center ...... Government 1,200 (Beltsville, MD) Neisseria Repository, School of Public Health ...... Government 1,700 (Berkeley, CA) Neisseria Reference Laboratory ...... Government 30,000 (Seattle, WA) NiFTAL Rhizobium Germplasm Resource ...... Government and 2,000 (Paia, Hi) university Plasmid Reference Center ...... Government and 2,000 (Stanford, CA) u n iversity Education and research: Fungal Genetics Stock Center ...... Government 7,755 (Arcata, CA) L.L. Collection Waksman Institute of Microbiology...... (Piscataway, NJ) University 3,070 Industry: Microbial and Fermentation Products Research ...... Industry 66,060 (Indianapolis, IN) Upjohn Culture Collection ...... Industry 7,755 (Kalamazoo, Ml) SOURCE V F McGowen and V B D Skerman, World Drec(ory of Co//ect/ons of Cu/;ures of A4/;roorganwms (Brisbane Austra. Ila World Data Center, 1982) 244 ● Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity agreement designating them as an international sourcefulness of its curator. When a curator Microbiological Resource Center, under the leaves a company, or when business consider- auspices of UNESCO and the United Nations ations force redirection of that person’s efforts, Environment Programme / International Cell a specialized collection like this can be lost. Research Organization Panel on Microbiology The costs of maintaining a collection pose (see ch. 10). Such an agreement would not have significant constraints for commercial collec- been possible if the University of Hawaii had tions, In fact, recordkeeping and distribution not obtained USAID funding. expenses are important factors in many corporate decisions not to make materials from Private Collections their collections generally available (24). Spe- The best microbial resource reference collec- cialized collections are vulnerable to deterio- tion in the United States is maintained by the ration if funding cannot be obtained for their American Type Culture Collection (ATCC). upkeep. For commercial collections such as ATCC is a national nonprofit repository for ATCC, cultures must be maintained on a no- medical, industrial, and agricultural microbial 10SS basis. Accessions that are not requested germplasm, as well as a national and interna- or used frequently and have no current intrin- tional repository for patented microbes. Its col- sic value may be discarded. lection of approximately 36,000 strains includes bacteria, fungi, clamydiae, rickettsiae, pro- Quarantine tozoans, algae, cell lines, and viruses. Although Maintaining biological diversity frequently its holdings are smaller and it charges for each involves the importation of foreign materials culture sent, actual distributions from ATCC far exceed those of the government-sponsored to increase the available genetic base for crop and livestock species or for offsite maintenance NRRL (24). Of the U.S. collections of more than in zoos, botanic gardens, or arboretums. Quar- 30,000 accessions, only ATCC distributes a antine regulations are designed to prevent ac- catalog. cidental introduction by imports of exotic pests Many collections are also held for specific and diseases that could be harmful to U.S. agri- purposes by U.S. corporations or universities. culture, For both plants and animals, quaran- These are usually personal collections of indi- tine procedures are a combination of regula- vidual scientists and may receive little or no tory requirements controlling importation and direct financial support. Private specialized distribution of germplasm and inspection or microbial collections, like their counterparts testing procedures designed to detect pests and in universities, usually begin as personal col- diseases (for specific testing methods, see chs. lections accumulated and maintained over a 6 and 7). Regulations, administered by the career. Although typically holding a limited Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service number of microbial genera, they are unequaled (APHIS) of USDA, have been viewed by some for taxonomic detail and are an important facet as restrictive with regard to importation of new of the total microbial diversity conservation genetic diversity (34,45). effort. Quarantine regulations classify both plant The Frankia culture collection, for example, and animal germplasm ranging from materi- held at the Battelle-Kettering Laboratory in Yel- als considered to be of low risk of carrying dis- low Springs, OH, began as a personal commit- ease organisms to those prohibited entry due ment by one scientist to isolate and culture to the extreme hazard they pose of introduc- frankiae, the symbiotic actinomycetes of some ing disease. Rice is prohibited from all coun- nitrogen-fixing plants (24). This internationally tries and sorghum from many countries— respected collection is not supported by an insti- except for germplasm that may enter under a tutional commitment or extramural funding USDA permit specifying the safeguard condi- and thus depends on the dedication and re- tions, which often result in extensive delays. Ch. 9—Maintaining Biological Diversity in the United States c 245 — — .— — —

Likewise, limited numbers of cloven-footed ani- expensive, and difficult. For example, most bird mals can be imported with heavy restrictions species are very difficult to import due to from areas known to harbor foot-and-mouth dis- APHIS concerns over the introduction of New- ease (41). For most materials, some degree of castle’s disease, a serious threat to domestic restriction is required and the plants or animals poultry stocks. must enter through a designated port of entry State programs regulating movement of plants for inspection. Most plants, for example, must and animals vary and are most stringent for enter the United States through one of 14 States with economies based heavily on agri- APHIS Plant Inspection Stations, where they cultural crops (e.g., California and Florida). Ef- are inspected, treated if necessary, and released forts to prevent the spread of pests and diseases within 1 to 3 days (35). can include restrictions on the carrying of fruits Some materials enter under conditions of and vegetables into a State or requirements for post-entry quarantine, whereby they are in- treatment of potentially infected materials be- spected at an appropriate facility and released fore entry, For importation of germplasm from to the importer under an agreement that regu- outside the country, States cannot place restric- lates their maintenance and release. Such agree- tions on materials that are greater than those ments exist for some zoo animals, including imposed by the Federal Government (35). most ungulates, Animals subject to post-entry Biological diversity maintenance has not been quarantine are permanently consigned to the a concern in the establishment of quarantine designated facilities, and only their offspring regulations. Although such regulations and pro- can be distributed or moved to other institu- cedures can be important to protecting agri- tions. Plant materials are generally exempt from cultural diversity, they also, paradoxically, in- restriction if no pests or diseases are detected hibit the development of new \arieties by during the normal detention period of 2 years restricting or slowing the flow of new materi- (35), als into the country. Importation of wild animal species posing threats to agricultural livestock can be length},

NEEDS AND OPPORTUNITIES

A variety of activities in the United States ad- the public sector does not, cannot, or will not. dress the maintenance of some aspect of bio- A number of private groups supplement the Na- logical diversity. These efforts are carried out tional Plant Germplasm System by maintaining by both government and the private sector. Ben- heirloom and endangered commercial varieties efits from maintaining diversity, such as im- of vegetables, for example, including many that provements in agriculture and the ecological are not contained in existing national collec- processes that support life, accrue to all indi- tions, Private crop breeders have been influen- viduals though they seldom pay for them. The tial in elevating the issue of genetic diversity public nature of these benefits makes it the loss to a national concern and have been pro- major responsibility of the public sector to viding increasing input in public germplasm maintain. maintenance activities. To date, these private activities have received little recognition, and Private sector activities, nonetheless, comple- minimal effort has been made to encourage and ment government efforts in important ways. support private initiatives. Increased coopera- Activities of some groups and individuals may tion between public and private efforts could back up national programs. In other cases, pri- not only strengthen the latter but also improve vate actii’ities maintain diversity in ways that maintenance of diversity. 246 Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity

The various laws and programs of Federal, An examination of trends in Federal budget State, and private organizations provide an allocations for natural resource conservation— elaborate framework on which a concerted bio- including pollution control, water resources, logical diversity effort could be built. But be- public lands, recreation, and soil conserva- cause few of these activities cite the mainte- tion—reveals a considerable decline over the nance of biological diversity as an explicit last decade. This decline stands in contrast with objective, the goal is not considered in a com- real spending increases between 1978 and 1986 prehensive or coherent manner. Duplication for defense (5o percent), payments to individu- of effort, conflicts in goals, and gaps in geo- als—e. g., social security, Medicare, veterans’ graphic and taxonomic coverage consequently benefits, food stamps, and so on–and a tripling exist. of interest payments on the national debt (51). The proportion of U.S. Government research One means of addressing biological diversity and development (R&D) expenditures devoted maintenance in a comprehensive way is to de- to environmental R&D has also declined in re- velop a national strategy, The process of de- cent years and assumes a smaller proportion veloping a plan would help pinpoint areas of total government R&D funding compared where activities overlap or are lacking. At the with other industrial countries (48), least, such a process would initiate coordination of Federal agencies’ activities. Those ad- Programs of particular relevance to biologi- ministering programs related to biological cal diversity maintenance, namely the Endan- diversity would have to provide detailed reports gered Species Program and the National Plant on how programs are being implemented to Germplasm System, have been stretched to the conserve diversity. In particular, they would point of being unable to adequately meet their need to identify measures being undertaken to objectives. These programs are able to prevail, reduce program overlap, minimize jurisdic- in light of the constraints, mainly because of tional problems, and identify areas for new ini- the dedication and ingenuity of the individuals tiatives. The latter is most evident in the lack working in them. The National Plant Germ- of a national animal genetic resources program plasm System, for instance, has been under- and of a system of protected representative eco- funded for years. Within 2 years, the National systems in the United States. Seed Storage Laboratory’s storage facilities will be full, and aging equipment and buildings at Any strategy, no matter how good it appears NSSL and other facilities require major repair, on paper, cannot be effectively implemented upgrading, or replacement. Similarly, the ef- without adequate resources. Sustained long- fectiveness of the Endangered Species Program term funding, in turn, requires consistent com- in preventing extinctions has been hindered by mitment to the process, The inconsistent fund- a shortage of resources. ing and staffing of many existing programs illustrate the complexity and accompanying uncertainty of the political process.

CHAPTER 9 REFERENCES

1. American Association of Zoological Parks and ing to the Maintenance of 13iological Diversity Aquariums, Species Sur\ri\al Pliin (Wheeling, on Federal and Private l,ands, ” OTA commis- WV: undated). sioned paper, 1985. 2. Anonymous, “Block Announces Pioneer Grant, ” 5 Bonner, F., “Technologies TO Maintain Tree Ili\rersitLV 7:9-10, fall 1985. Germplasm Divers ity, ” OTA commissioned pa- 3. Bean, ~M. J., The Evolution of’ A’atiunal Wildlife per, 1985. Lan~ (New York: Prae,ger Publishers, 1983). 6 Council for Agricultural Science and Technol- 4. Bean, M., “ Federal Laws and Policies Pertain- ogy, Animal Germplasm Presert’ation and [Jti- Ch. 9—Maintaining Biological Diversity in the United States ● 247

Iization in Agriculture, Report No. 101 (Ames, 21. Greeter, S., South Carolina State Heritage Trust, 1A: 1984). personal communication, Apr. 7. 1985. 7. Council for Agricultural Science and Technol- 22. Gregg, W. P., and Fretz, P. R., “Biosphere Re- ogy, Plant Gcrmplasm Prescr\ration and Utili- serves: A Background Paper for the Task Force zation in U.S. Agriculture, Report No. 106 on Conserving Gene Pools, ” unpublished U.S. (Ames, 1A: 1985). National Park Ser\ice report, 1986. 8. Crawford, M., “condor Reco~er} Effect 1 lurt 23. Gulick, P., and \an Sloten, D. H., Directory of by Strateg}r Debate,’” ,$(;ience 23 1:2 13-214, Jan. Germplasm Collections: Tropical and Subtrop- 17, 1986. ic] Fruits and Tree IVuts (Rome: International 9. Crumpacker, W. D., Potentia] Di[rersitJr and ~uJ= Board for Plant Genetic Resources, 1984). rent Protection Status of hlajor Aratural Eco.~J’s- 24, Halliday, J,, and Baker, D., “Technologies To tems in the LJnited States: A PrelinlinarJ Report Maintain Microbial Di\ersit~,” OTA commis- to the Heritage Conscr\’ation and Recreation sioned paper, 1985. Ser~ice (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of 25, Henson, E., “An Assessment of the Conserva- the Interior, Heritage [;onst:ri’at ion anci Recre- tion of Animal Genetic Di\rersit}’ at the Grass- ation Ser\’ice, 1979). roots Level, ” OTA commissioned paper, 1985. 10, Crumpacker, W. D., ‘‘Stat us and Trends of U.S. 26. Henson, E., 198.5 North American Litestock Natural Ecosystems, ” OTA commissioned pa- Census (Pittsboro, NC: American Minor Breeds per, 1985. Conservancy, 1985). 11 Crumpacker, W. D., University of Colorado, per- 27, Hougas, R. W., “Plant Germplasrn Policy, ” Plant sonal communication, June 1986. Genetic Resources: A Conser~ration Imperative, 12 Davis, G. D., “Natural Ditersity for Future Gen- C.W. Yeatman, D. Kafton, and G. Wilkes (eds.), erations: The Role of Wilderness, “ Proceedings AAAS Selected Symposium 87:15-30 (Washing- A’atura] DitcrsitJr in Forest Eco.sjstem.s Work- ton, DC: American Association for the Advance- shop, J. L. Cooley and J. H. Coole~’ (eds. ) (Athens, ment of Science, 1984). GA: Uni\rersity of Georgia, 1984). Zn: Crum- 28 Hyland, H. L., “Histor~’ of Plant Introduction in packer, 1985. the United States, ” C.W. Yeatman, D. Kafton, 13 13rabelle, D., “The Endangered Species Pro- and G. Wilkes (eds. ), AAAS Selected Symposium gram, ” Audubon 11’i]d]ifc Report, 1985 (Netv 87: 5-14 (Washington, DC: American Associa- York: h’ational Audubon Society, 1985). tion for the Advancement of Science, 1984). 14. Dresser, B., and I,eibo, S., “Te(:hnologies To 29. International Sheep and Goat Institute, un- Maintain Animal Germplasm, ” OTA commis- titled pamphlet (Logan: Utah State University, sioned paper, 1986. undated). 15. Dunstan, F., assistant director, Sanctuarjr Pro- 30. Jenkins, R,, science director, The Nature Con- gram, National Audubon Societj, personal com- servancy’s State Natural Conservancy Program, munication, May 18, 1984. personal communication, Feb. 6, 1987. 16. Falk, D., and Walker, K., “Networking To Save 31. Jones, B., Office of Endangered Species, Fish Imperiled Plants, ” Garden, January-February and Wildlife Ser\’ice, U.S. Department of the In- 1986, Pp. 2-6. terior, Washington, DC, personal communica- 17. Fernald, E. A., et al., Guidelines for identifica- tions, August 1986. tion, Evaluation, and Selection of Biosphere Re- 32. Jordan, W., Peters, R., and Allen, E., “Ecologi- serves in the LJnited States, OES/ENR, U.S. Man cal Restoration as a Strategy for Conserving B io- and the Biosphere Report No. 1 (Washington, diversity, ” OTA commissioned paper, 1986. DC: U.S. Department of State, 1983). In: Crum- 33. Kafton, D., “The California Gene Resource Con- packer, 1985. servation Program, ” C.W. Yeatman, D. Kafton, 18. Fitzgerald, J., and Meese, G. M., Saving Endan- and G. Wilkes (eds. ) AAAS Selected Symposium gered Species (Washington, DC: Defenders of 87:55-62 (Washington, DC: American Associa- Wildlife, 1986). tion for the Advancement of Science, 1984). 19. Fitzhugh, H., Getz, W., and Baker, F., “Status 34 Kahn, R, P,, “Plant Quarantine: Principles, Meth- and Trends of Domesticated Animals, ” OTA odology, and Suggested Approaches, ” P~ant commissioned paper, 1985. Health and Quarantine in International Trans- 20. Fom]er, C,, *’Report on Grassroots Genetic Con- fer of Plant Genetic Resources, W .B. Hewitt and servation Efforts, ’ OTA commissioned paper, L. Chiarappa (eds.) (Cleveland, OH: CRC Press, 1985. 1977). 248 ● Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity

35, Kahn, R. P., “Technologies To Maintain Biologi- Cooley (eds), Naturaj Diversity in Forest Eco- cal Diversity: Assessment of Plant Quarantine sJ’sten]s: Proceedings of the Workshop, NOV. 29- Practices, ” OTA commissioned paper, 1985. Dec. 1, 1982, Institute of Ecology, Athens, GA, 36. Kline, L., Office of Endangered Species, Fish 1984. and Wildlife Service, U.S. Department of the In- 51, Sampson, N., “Natural Resources Get the Axe, ” terior, personal communication, 1986. American Forests 92:10-1 1, 58-59, 1986. 37. Lucas, G., and Oldfield, S,, “Living Collections 52, Sharp, C., National Plant Materials Specialist, (Plants and Animals),” OTA commissioned pa- Soil Conservation Service, U.S. Department of per, 1985. Agriculture, personal communications, Jan. 7, 38. Lynch, M. P., and Ray, C., “Preserving the Diver- 1986. sity of Marine and Coastal Ecosystems, ” OTA 53, Somes, R. G., Jr., International Registry of Poul- commissioned paper, 1985. tr~ Genetic Stocks, Bulletin 469, Storrs Agricul- 39. Matia, W, T., director of stewardship, “Public tural Experiment Station (Storrs, CT: Univer- Information Flyer on Stewardship Program, ” sity of Connecticut, 1984). In: Henson (OTA The Nature Conservancy, 1986. commissioned paper), 1985. 40. McMahan, L., “Participating Gardens Vital to 54. Spinks, J., Office of Endangered Species, U.S. Center’s Work, ” The Center for Plant Conser- Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Department of vation 1:1, summer 1986. the Interior, personal communication, January 41. Moulton, W. M., “Constraints to International 1986. Exchange of Animal Germplasm, ” OTA com- 55. Stone, P., 1985-1986 National Directory of Lo- missioned paper, 1985, cal and Regional Land Conservation Organiza- 42. Murphy, C., National Germplasm Program Co- tions (Bar Harbor, ME: Land Trust Exchange, ordinator (acting), Agricultural Research Serv- 1985), ice, U.S. Department of Agriculture, personal 56 U.S. Congress, General Accounting Office, Bet- communication, Dec. 16, 1985, ter Collection and Maintenance Procedures 43 Murphy, C., National Program Staff, Agricul- Needed To Help Protect Agriculture’s Germ- tural Research Service, U.S. Department of plasm Resources (Washington, DC: U.S. Gov- Agriculture, personal communication, Aug. 11, ernment Printing Office, 1981), 1986. 57. U.S. Congress, General Accounting Office, 44. Nabhan, G., and Dahl, K., “Role of Grassroots Comptroller General, The Department of Agri- Activities in the Maintenance of Biological Di- culture Can Minimize the Risk of Potential Crop versity: Living Plants Collection of North Amer- Failures (Washington, DC: U.S. Government ican Genetic Resources, ” OTA commissioned Printing Office, 1981). paper, 1985, 58. U.S. Congress, National Seed Protection Act of 45. National Plant Genetic Resources Board, Min- 1985, H,R, 3973, Dec. 17, 1985. utes of the Meeting of the National Plant Genetic 59. U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assess- Resources Board, Washington, DC, May 14-15, ment, Grassroots Conservation of Biological 1986. Diversity in the United States—Background Pa- 46. The Nature Conservancy, Preserving Our Nat- per #l, OTA-BP-F-38 (Washington, DC: U.S. ural Heritage (Washington, DC: U.S. Govern- Government Printing Office, March 1986). ment Printing Office, 1977). 60, U.S. Department of Agriculture, “The National 47. Norse, E. A., “Grassroots Groups Concerned Plant Germplasm System—Current Status, With Zn-Situ Preservation of Biological Diver- Strengths and Weaknesses, Long-Range Plans” sity in the United States, ” OTA commissioned (Washington, DC: 1981). paper, 1985. 61, U.S. Department of Agriculture, “Germplasm 48. Organization for Economic Cooperation and Evaluation Program, ” Progress Report No. 11, Development, The State of the Environment USDA/ARS-1, 1984. 1985 (Paris: 1985). 62. U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wild- 49. Qualset, C., Agriculture Department, University life Service, 1980 National Survey of Fishing, of California at Davis, personal communication, Hunting and Wildlife Associated Recreation 1986. (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Of- 50. Salwasser, H,, Thomas, J. W., and Samson, F,, fice, 1982). “Applying the Diversity Concept to National 63. U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wild- Forest Mana~ement. ” In: I.L, Coolev, 1.H. life Service, Division of Refuge Management, Ch. 9—Maintaining Biological Diversity in the United States ● 249

“Preliminary Sur~ey of Contaminant Issues of search Scrv ice, “.Mandates To Federal Agencies Concern on National Wildlife Refuges, ” (Wash- To Conduct Biological Inventories,” OTA com- ington, DC: 1986). miss ioned paper, 1985. 64 U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park 66. Williamson, 1,.1,. (cd.), *’Senate Approves Farm Service, Office of Science and Technology, State Bill, ” out[ioor ,\’CItrS Bu]]etin 39(29):1, No\. 29, of the Parks 1980: A Report to the Congress 1985. [Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Of- 67. }’oung, C. W., “Inbreeding and the Gene Pool, ” fice, 1980). [ourna] of llairjr Science 67:472-477, 1984. 65 U.S. I.ibrary of Congress, Congressional Re- Chapter 10 Maintaining Biological CONTENTS Page Highlights ...... ,.253

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International Law ● .**,.. .*.***** *******. ● *..**.* ● .**.** .. !...... 254 International Laws Relating to Onsite Maintenance ...... 255 International Laws Relating to Offsite Maintenance ...... 259 International Programs and Networks .,...... 262 Onsite Programs...... 264 Offsite programs ...... 269 Needs and Opportunities ...... ● **.**. ● ....*.* ● ****,** ● *.*. 275 Onsite Activities ● ****.. ● **,***. *,**,*** ● ***,*.* ● **..*,* ● **.**** ,,, 275 Offsite Activities...... **** ● *****.* ● **.*.** ● ****,*...... 277

Integration. . ,..,.,. ● ******. ...***** .******* .**,*.*. ● *****,. ..,*,, 278 Chapter l0 References ...... 278

Tables TableNo. Page 10-1. International Treaties and Conventions for Onsite Maintenance...... 258 lo-2. Countries Where National Conservation Strategies Are Being Developed .,..*.* ● ,*..*.. ● .*.**.* ● ******, ....0.,. ● *** 259 10-3. International Agricultura Research Centers Supported bythe Consultative Group on Internationid Agricultura lResearch ...... 270 10-4.International Agricultura Research Centers Designated as Base Seed Conservation Centers for Particdar Crops ...... 271 Figure Figure No. Page 10-1. Distribution of Biosphere Reserves Worldwide ...... 265

80X BoxNo. Page 10-A. Patent Law And Biological Diversity ● ****** ● **...*. ,******* ,...., 261 Chapter 10 Maintaining Biological Diversity Internationally

HIGHLIGHTS Existing international laws and programs to maintain biological diversity are too disconnected to address the full range of concerns over the loss of biological diversity. As a result, redundancies and gaps exist. ● Concerns over free flow of genetic resources have led to heated political controversy in international fora. However, debates have been largely counterproductive and could benefit from a more informed and less impassioned analysis of the issues. ● Intergovernmental and nongovernmental organizations are making significant contributions to maintaining biological diversity worldwide. These organizations, however, have different strengths and weaknesses; those of nongovernmental groups are largely the converse of intergovernmental groups.

OVERVIEW

International laws and programs relevant to activity to determine gaps in the current sys- maintaining biological diversity have evolved tem and methods to fill them. on an ad hoc basis. Efforts tend to be focused Onsite laws and programs have their roots on particular species or habitat types and under- in early 19th century Europe and a narrow taken in relative isolation from other conserva- constituency concerned with the protection of tion and development activities. Consequently, certain bird species (10). Since World War II, overall efforts fail to deal comprehensively with however, the number of organizations, legal in- diversity maintenance concerns. Redundancy struments, and scope of activities in the inter- and gaps in coverage result, and benefits of in- national arena has increased dramatically. teractions between different activities go un- There has also been a shift in focus from pro- realized. tecting particular species to recognizing the importance of habitat in species maintenance. Pro- As a relatively new platform, biological diver- grams for maintaining genetic resources offsite sity maintenance has yet to achieve prominence are barely a decade old, and increased atten- on international agendas. Increasingly, how- tion has led to efforts to define national obliga- ever, international conservation and develop- tions to maintain and provide access to genetic ment organizations, both public and private, resources. Growing realization of the threats are redefining their activities around the con- to diversity has also focused attention on the cept of diversity maintenance. What remains importance of cooperation between onsite and to be accomplished is an overall accounting of offsite programs. Efforts to control trade in en- the scope and effectiveness of this increased dangered species on an international scale and

253 254 ● Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity — — . initiatives to link conservation activities of zoos standards and rules supervision, and opera- and botanic gardens with onsite conservation tional activities (62). programs highlight these potentials. This chapter outlines the major international The diversity of international institutions and laws and programs with particular bearing on programs dealing with conservation defies maintaining biological diversity. International complete enumeration or simple categoriza- laws are described by the breadth of diversity tion. In general, however, their principal func- they cover, ranging from global conventions tions encompass one or more of the following: on ecosystems to treaties concerned with par- problem identification, monitoring and evalu- ticular species. International conservation pro- ation, data gathering, risk estimation and im- grams and institutional networks are also high- pact assessment, information exchange and dis- lighted. Onsite and offsite program activities semination, national and international program are addressed separately because of the distinct- coordination, standard setting and rulemaking, ness of their operations.

INTERNATIONAL LAW

Public international law governs relations be- In international law, a state has authority over tween countries, compared with private inter- all natural resources within its territory. When national law, which governs relations between a state ratifies a treaty, however, it voluntarily individuals, Public international law provides restricts some of its rights and assumes certain a variety of direct and indirect tools for main- obligations. The early development of interna- taining onsite biological diversity. Most are part tional conservation law was inspired by inter- of broader conservation objectives, commonly ests in protecting Iarge game mammals and focused on protection of single species, groups birds. Less attention has been paid to onsite con- of species, or habitats. servation of wild plants, unless they are indirectly protected by international traffic con- The instruments of international law dealing trols to protect commercial and agricultural with conservation have varying levels of bind- plants from pests or pathogens, An exception ing obligation. The terms “hard” and “soft” law is the convention to control trade in endangered are used to distinguish levels of legal signifi- wild species of fauna and flora (discussed later cance (52). “Hard” law refers to binding obli- in this chapter). gations reflected either in treaties or custom- ary international law. “Soft” law refers to The extensive array of international laws that instruments that have little legally binding force deal with various aspects of biological diver- but may carry persuasive influence and policy sity maintenance should not be interpreted as guidance for state conduct (e.g., international evidence that concerns for diversity loss have declarations and resolutions from international been adequately addressed. As noted previ- conferences or intergovernmental organi- ously, many laws deal with specific species or zations). habitat types. Comprehensive coverage is lacking. Further, it is important to consider the de- The effectiveness of international law degree of obligation (e.g., hard v. soft law) and pends on the support, implementation, and en- effectiveness of legal instruments (e. g., exis- forcement at the national level. The uneven dis- tence or adequacy of a secretariat or other oper- tribution of diversity creates major complexities ational support). in promulgating binding international law in this area. The difficulty is compounded because The following discussion of international law regions with the greatest diversity are often examines onsite and offsite maintenance, the those with the most limited financial and tech- former being the focus of the majority of legal nical capacities to devote to these efforts. instruments. The onsite discussion examines Ch. 10—Maintaining Biological Divers[ty Internationally ● 255 various hard-law treaties and several soft-law The Convention on International Trade in documents. Although international laws related Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora to off site maintenance are scant, several soft- [CITES), established in 1973, controls interna- law agreements exist. Relevant hard-law agree- tional trade in wild species of plants and ani- ments deal with tangential issues of interna- mals listed in the convention appendices as en- tional patenting and quarantine, dangered or threatened. with 91 countries now party to it (48), CITES has been called the most International Laws Relating to successful international treaty concerned with Onsite Maintenance wildlife conservation (52).

The existence of an internationally recog- The convention has been reinforced by U.S. nized and established obligation to conserva- legislation. U.S. importation of wildlife taken tion can be of substantial importance to main- or exported in violation of another country’s taining biological diversity onsite at national laws was prohibited by amendments in 1981 and international levels, Increasingly, inter- (Public Law 97-79) to the Lacey Act of 1900. national obligations are providing national con- This legislation supports other nations’ efforts servation authorities with the extra justification to conserve their wildlife resources and the in- needed to strengthen their own conservation ternational controls under CITES. It provides programs. Particularly because of this grow- a Powerful tool for wildlife conservation ing role, international conservation conven- throughout the world because of the significant tions and soft-law documents are important amount of wildlife imported by the United legal and policy tools to be used with other tech- States. nical, administrative, and financial measures. The Convention on Wetlands of International Global and regional treaties are also impor- Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat tant tools for long-term conservation, although (commonly known as Ramsar, after the town many are not effectively implemented. For in Iran where the convention was signed), some treaties, lack of institutional machinery, passed in 1971, established a wetlands network such as a secretariat and a budget, is a major and promotes the wise use of all wetlands with drawback. Many are difficult to enforce be- special protection for those on the List of Wet- cause incentives are weak and early signs of lands of International Importance, As of mid- success are hard to identify, making retaliation 1985, there were 40 contracting parties to the difficult if a party chooses to ignore the treaty convention and about 300 wetland sites, cov- or fails in its obligations. Some global conven- ering some 20 million hectares, on the List of tions have too few non-European parties. Fi- Wetlands of International Importance (47). Once nally, in many developing countries in particu- a site is on the list, the party concerned has a lar, technical and financial resources for legal obligation to conserve the site (article 3(1)), implementation are scarce (47). The Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, Global Conventions signed in 1972, established a network of pro- Of the five conventions discussed here, the tected areas and provides a permanent legal, first four are commonly referred to as the “big administrative, and financial framework for four” wildlife conventions and are the most im- identification and conservation of areas of out- portant for protection of flora, fauna, and their standing cultural and natural importance. It habitats (47). The Law of the Sea Convention organized a world Heritage Committee, a is also included because of its global scope, (For world Heritage List, a List of World Heritage texts of these international and regional trea- in Danger, and a World Heritage Fund to help ties, see ref. 11; for summaries of major envi- achieve convention goals. (The World Heritage ronmental treaties, see ref. 73, ) program is discussed later in this chapter.) 256 . Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity

The Convention on the Conservation of level, largely due to financial and technical Migratory Species of Wild Animals (commonly limitations. The more recently developed Asso- cited as the Bonn Convention), passed in 1979, ciation of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) provides strict protection for migratory species Convention involved regional consultations to in danger of extinction throughout all or a sig- incorporate management and conservation nificant part of their range, and encourages techniques and therefore elicits greater hopes range states to conclude agreements for man- for success. agement of species that would benefit from international cooperation. Fifteen states were The regional seas programs developed by the party to the convention as of 1984, and the first United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) meeting of the parties in October 1985 estab- in cooperation with other agencies, particularly lished machinery for implementing the con- the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the vention, United Nations (FAO) and the International Meteorological Organization, involve 10 re- Marine conservation also has received in- gions encompassing about 120 of the 130 or so creased attention, particularly in the past two coastal states in the world. (The 10 regions are decades, The Convention on the Law of the Sea, the Caribbean, Mediterranean, Persian Gulf, adopted in 1982 at Montego Bay and yet to West and Central Africa, East Africa, East Asia, come into force, identifies a number of general Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, South Pacific, South- obligations relevant to conservation. Article 192 East Pacific, and South-West Atlantic.) The ob- imposes an obligation on states to protect and jective is to reduce pollution and conserve bio- preserve the marine environment. Coastal logical resources through cooperative manage- states are obliged to ensure through proper con- ment efforts. The legal mechanisms include servation and management measures that liv- action plans and regional conventions. The re- ing resources in their exclusive economic zones gional seas conventions include articles on pol- are not endangered by exploitation (article lution from ships, aircraft, and land-based 61(2)). Activities outside national jurisdiction sources; pollution monitoring; and scientific are to be undertaken “in accordance with sound and technological cooperation. Protocols are principles of conservation” (article 15(b)). authorized in each convention text and address specific approaches to certain problems. Tech- nical annexes provide standards for regulatory Regional Conventions or cooperative activity. Other regional treaties have emphasized con- protocols are also being explored for protec- servation of habitat through creation of pro- tion of easily disrupted marine ecosystems and tected areas and other programs. The major for habitats of depleted or endangered marine conventions in force are the Convention on Na- ture Protection and Wildlife Preservation in the life through the creation of protected areas. The Convention for the Protection and Develop- Western Hemisphere from 1940; the African ment of the Marine Environment of the Wider Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Caribbean Region, signed in Cartagena, Colom- Natural Resources from 1968; the Convention bia in 1983, is generating government discus- on the Conservation of European Wildlife and sion on protected areas and wildlife in this re- Natural Habitats from 1979; and the ASEAN Agreement on the Conservation of Nature and gion, Resolutions adopted call for preparation of draft protocols (19). U.S. technical support Natural Resources from 1985. With habitat de- could be a key factor in the ratification and im- struction being a principal threat to biological plementation of such protocols (2o). diversity, treaties that call for protection of flora and fauna through habitat protection are par- The Convention on the Conservation of Ant- ticularly important and need long-term support. arctic Marine Living Resources, passed in 1980, The Western Hemisphere and African conven- contains important innovations on the conser- tions, however, have had difficulties with im- vation of biotic resources. It obliges parties to plementation and enforcement at the national adopt an ecosystem approach to exploitation Ch, 10—Maintaining Biological Diversity Internationally ● 257

of Antarctic resources, thus requiring consid- The strategy was launched worldwide in 1980 eration of impacts on interdependent species in some 30 countries. It provides broad policy and the marine system as a whole when set- guidelines for determining development priori- ting harvest limits. Article I(2) of the conven- ties to secure sustainable use of renewable re- tion defines marine living resources to include sources, and it links conservation and devel- all species of living organisms, including birds, opment, The world Conservation Strategy has found south of the Antarctic convergence three principal objectives: 1) maintenance of (where the warm and cold waters of the Ant- essential ecological processes and life-support arctic Ocean meet). systems, 2) preservation of genetic diversity, and 3) sustainable use of species and ecosystems. Species-Oriented Treaties Introductory sections of the WCS define con- A group of species-oriented treaties focus on servation as: controlling exploitation of specific wildlife, . . . the management of human use of the bio- such as polar bears, vicka, northern fur seals, sphere so that it may yield the greatest sustaina- whales, and Antarctic seals (52). Although these ble benefit to present generations while main- treaties are concerned primarily with control- taining its potential to meet the needs and ling harvesting, attention to specific species aspirations of future generations (43). commonly extends to concerns for their habitat, thus potentially serving biological diversity Development is defined as: more broadly, The major species-oriented trea- . . . the modification of the biosphere and the ties are listed in table 10-1. application of human, financial, living, and non-living resources to satisfy human needs Declarations and Resolutions and improve the quality of human life. The United Nations Conference on the Hu- As defined and used in the WCS, conservation man Environment, held in Stockholm, Sweden and sustainable development are mutually de- in 1972, adopted a Declaration on the Human pendent processes. Environment that remains a key soft-law document on international environmental issues. A key WCS priority is the promotion of na- The Stockholm Declaration contained 26 prin- tional conservation strategies. These conserva- ciples to guide the international effort to pro- tion planning tools are now completed or in tect the environment, Principle 2 addresses con- preparation in 29 countries (see table 10-2), servation of the Earth’s biological resources: Their long-term purpose is to integrate conservation and development planning and provide The natural resources of the earth including an important tool for all stages of development. the air, water, land, flora and fauna, and especially representative samples of natural ecosys- The World Charter for Nature offers a third tems must be safeguarded for the benefit of example of soft law that is becoming increas- present and future generations through care- ingly influential in development. This docu- ful planning or management as appropriate, ment, the result of 7 years of effort by international organizations and the United Nations, Another important soft-law is the World Con- servation Strategy (WCS), a comprehensive doc- proclaims 24 principles of conservation by ument prepared by the International Union for which all human conduct affecting nature is Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources to be guided and judged. In 1982, the United (IUCN). Advice, cooperation, and financial Nations General Assembly, by a vote of 111 to assistance for the preparation of WCS were pro- 1, adopted the charter sponsored by the Gov- vided by UNEP and the World Wildlife Fund, ernment of Zaire and 35 other nations, with collaboration from FAO and the United The United States, the only dissenting vote, Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural objected to the mandatory language contained Organization (UNESCO). in the supposedly nonbinding document (14). 258 . Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity

Table 10-1 .—International Treaties and Conventions for Onsite Maintenance

Title Established U.S. signed Global conventions Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat ...... , , 1971 pending Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage ...... 1972 1973 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora ...... 1973 1975 Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals ...... 1979 Convention on the Law of the Sea ...... 1982 not signed Regional conventions Convention on Nature Protection and Wildlife Presentation in the Western Hemisphere ...... 1940 1942 African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources ...... 1968 NA Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats ...... 1979 NA Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources ...... 1980 1982 ASEAN Agreement on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources ., ...... , . 1985 NA Convention for the Protection of Mediterranean Seas Against Pollution ...... 1976 NA Kuwait Regional Convention for Cooperation on Protection of Marine Environment and Pollution 1978 NA Convention for Cooperation in the Protection and Development of the Marine and Coastal Environment of the West and Central African Regions ...... 1981 NA Convention for the Protection of Marine Environment and Coastal Areas of Southeast Pacific . . . 1981 NA Convention for the Conservation of Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Environment ...... 1982 Convention for Protection and Development of Marine Resources of the Wider Caribbean Region ...... 1983 1983 Convention for Protection and Development of the Natural Resources and Environment of the South Pacific Region ...... 1985 pending Species-oriented treaties Birds: Convention for the Protection of Birds Useful to Agriculture (Europe) ...... 1905 NA Convention for the Protection of Migratory Birds (Canada/U. S. A.) ...... 1916 1916 Convention for the Protection of Migratory Birds and Game Animals (Mexico/U. S. A.) ...... 1936 1936 International Convention for the Protection of Birds (Europe)...... 1950 NA Benelux Convention on the Hunting and Protection of Birds (Europe) ...... 1972 NA Convention for the Protection of Migratory Birds and Birds in Danger of Extinction and Their Environment (Japan/U. S. A.) ...... 1972 1972 Convention for the Protection of Migratory Birds and Birds Under Threat of Extinction and on the Means of Protecting Them (U.S.S.R./Japan) ...... 1973 NA Agreement for the Protection of Migratory Birds and Birds in Danger of Extinction and Their Environment (Japan/Australia) ...... 1974 NA Convention Concerning the Conservation of Migratory Birds and Their Environment (U. S. S. R./U. S. A.) ...... 1976 1976 Directive of the Council of the European Economic Community on the Conservation of Wild Birds (EEC) ...... 1979 NA Polar bears Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears ...... 1973 1976 Seals Interim Convention on the Conservation of North Pacific Fur Seals ...... 1957 1957 Agreement on Measures To Regulate Sealing and To Protect Seal Stocks in the Northeastern Part of the Atlantic Ocean ...... 1957 Agreement on Sealing and the Conservation of Seal Stock in the Northwest Atlantic...... 1971 Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals ...... 1972 1978 Vicuna: Convention for the Conservation of Vicufia ...... 1969 NA Convention on the Conservation and Management of Vicuria...... 1979 NA Agreement Between the Bolivian and Argentinean Governments for the Protection and Conservation of Vicufia ...... 1981 NA Whale: Convention for the Regulation of Whaling ...... 1931 1935 International Convention for the Regulation of Whalina...... 1946 1948 SOURCES Simon Lyster, lnterrrat~onal kViM/lfe Law (Cambrldae, Enaland ” Grotlus Publ!catlons Ltd , 1985); Barbara Lausche, “lnternatlonal Laws and Associated Pro. grams for /n-Situ Conservation of Wild Species, ” O -TA co;mlss!oned paper, 1985, Federal Interagency Global Issues Work Group, U S Goverrrrnerrt /Jart/c/- paffon in /nternaf/ona/ Treaties, Agreements, Organizations and Programs, In the F/eIds of Environment, Natural Resources and Popu/af/err, 1984, United Nations Environment Programme, Reg/ona/ Seas Ach/evernenf and Planned Development of UNEP’S Regional Seas Prograrnrnes and Cornparab/e Programrnes Sponsored by Other Bed/es, UNEP Regional Seas Reports and Studies No 1, 1982, and M Wecker, Council on Ocean Law, personal communication 1986 Ch. 10—Maintaining Biological Diversity Internationally 259

Table 10-2.—Countries Where National Conservation Other documents include action plans and Strategies Are Being Developed recommendations from international organi- Australia Madagascar Sierra Leone zations, such as the UNESCO Action Plan for Bangladesh Malawi Spain Biosphere Reserves (discussed later in this Belize Malaysia Sri Lanka chapter), the IUCN Bali Action Plan and Rec- Botswana Mauritania St. Lucia Great Britain Nepal Switzerland ommendations (resulting from the 1982 World Canada Netherlands Togo National Parks Congress), and IUCN General Costa Rica New Zealand Uganda Assembly Resolutions. A recently developed Fiji Norway Vanuatu tropical forests action plan (84) has also been Guinea Bissau Oman Venezuela Honduras Pakistan Zambia receiving increased recognition by various Indonesia Panama Zimbabwe countries and intergovernmental and interna- Italy Philippines Jordon Senegal tional nongovernmental agencies. SOURCE Mark Halle, deputy director, Conservation for Development Center, international Un!on for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources Gland, Switzerland, personal communication Oct 17, 1986 lnternational Laws Relating to Offsite Maintenance That is, the document used “shall” rather than “should,” despite a general recognition that “by The scope of international law addressing off- its very nature, the charter could not have any site maintenance of diversity is far more limited binding force, nor have a regime of sanctions than that for onsite maintenance. Growing in- attached to it” [83). ternational concern over loss of genetic resources and recognition of the increased im- The charter includes several principles rele- portance of offsite maintenance in supporting vant to biological diversity: national and international conservation initia- ● The genetic viability on the Earth shall not tives have focused attention on this gap in in- be compromised; the population levels of ternational law (21,47). all life forms, wild and domesticated, must To date, attention has been largely focused beat least sufficient for their survival, and on defining national responsibilities with re- to this end, necessary habitats shall be safe- gard to crop germplasm maintenance and ex- guarded. change between countries. Tangentially related ● The allocation of areas of the Earth to vari- international legal instruments deal with inter- ous uses shall be planned, and account national patent protection of biological mate- shall be taken of the physical constraints, rial and processes, as well as international the biological productivity and diversity, quarantine as it relates to the flow of plants, and the natural beauty of the areas con- animals, and microbes between countries. cerned. ● The principles set forth in the present char- Germplasm Maintenance and Exchange ter shall be reflected in the law and practice of each State, as well as at the interna- Issues of offsite germplasm maintenance, tional level. control, and exchange have assumed a promi- ● All planning shall include among its essen- nent, if controversial, position in international tial elements the formulation of strategies debates in recent years. Declarations of the im- for the conservation of nature, the estab- portance of genetic diversity can be traced to lishment of inventories of ecosystems, and the 1972 Stockholm Conference on the Human assessments of the effects on nature of pro- Environment. In addition to the Stockholm posed policies and activities; all of these Declaration mentioned earlier, the conference elements shall be disclosed to the public produced 106 recommendations as tasks and by appropriate means in time to permit ef- guidelines that should be adopted by govern- fective consultation and participation. ments and international organizations (76). Rec- 260 ● Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity —

ommendation 39 called on governments to agree U.S. position and options is needed. (Further to an international program to preserve genetic consideration of this issue is provided in the resources. This recommendation has been im- following discussion of international offsite plemented most actively with offsite conserva- programs.) tion of cultivated and domesticated materials, particularly crop germplasm. In fact, the crea- International Patent Law tion of the international plant germplasm sys- International patent law is tangentially rele- tem that now exists has been credited, in large vant to genetic resource maintenance because part, to the Stockholm conference (63). the proprietary status that patenting living or- The only other international agreement deal- ganisms provides is central to the debate on ing specifically with offsite maintenance of international access to germplasm. Current de- germplasm is the FAO International Undertak- bate focuses on plant patenting, although it ing on Plant Genetic Resources. This initiative could well extend to microbial patenting, for to establish, among other things, an interna- example, in the future. Advances in biotech- tional convention dealing with the maintenance nology have brought increased attention to and free flow of plant germplasm has been con- patenting living organisms because of the lucra- troversial since its inception in 1981. Although tive possibilities the technology offers and be- initiated as a binding convention, for political cause of the likelihood that these advances will expediency it emerged as a nonbinding agree- accelerate trends toward patenting (e.g., through ment in 1983, although efforts to make it bind- the ability to establish genetic “signatures” on ing continue (3). As outlined in article 1 of the human-altered organisms). The ability of leg- resolution (26): islation to keep pace with rapidly evolving biotechnologies is uncertain and raises serious The objective of this undertaking is to ensure questions for policymakers (67). Effects of patent- that plant genetic resources of economic and/or ing on genetic diversity in agricultural crops social interest, particularly for agriculture, will raise further concerns (see box 1O-A). be explored, preserved, evaluated, and made available for plant breeding and scientific pur- The expansion of plant patenting into inter- poses. This undertaking is based on the univer- national law occurred with the establishment sally accepted principle that plant genetic in 1961 of the International Union for the Pro- resources are a heritage of mankind and conse- tection of Nevv Varieties of Plants (I UPOV), con- quently should be available without restriction. sisting of countries party to the international Subscription to the FAO undertaking has convention on this issue. The convention itself been polarized along industrial and developing- does not provide global patent protection. How- country lines, with some exceptions on both ever, the parties to the convention—almost ex- sides (68,82). Developing-country charges that clusively industrial countries—agreed to enact industrialized countries have been capitalizing plant breeders’ rights (PBR) legislation and to on Third World genetic resources without re- guarantee citizens the right to obtain protec- muneration is central to the debate (53). The tion under their respective national patent sys- most hotly contested aspect, however, is free tems (6). access to private breeders’ germlines. Indus- The system does not affect the free flow of trial countries with plant breeders’ rights leg- germplasm as such. It typically permits pro- islation (discussed later in this chapter), which tected material to be used for research and include the United States, are unable, if not un- breeding by nations that have obtained the willing, to subscribe to the undertaking with- rights. Further, there is currently no legal ob- out major reservations. stacle in using the same material in other countries (6). The issues of control and free flow of genetic resources are likely to be debated further in in- Critics charge that since the inception of ternational fora. A closer examination of the IUPOV, there has been a concerted effort to Ch. 10—Maintaining Biological Diversity Internationally ● 261

Box 10-A.—Patent Law And Biological Diversity Patent law essentially entitles inventors to profit from their inventions for a specified period in return for disclosing the secrets of the invention in the public domain, presumably to allow others to build on it. Although the patent system has engendered much controversy since it was formalized, legislation enabling the patenting of living organisms has become one of its most controversial aspects (8,81). The U.S. Congress passed the Plant Patent Act of 1930 covering asexually propagated plant species. Coverage was extended to sexually propagated species with the 1970 Plant Variety Protection Act (PVPA). With the Supreme Court decision in Diamond v. Chakrabarty in 1980, microbes became patentable products under the basic patent act (Section 101}. A recent decision by the Board of Patent Ap- peals of the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office has now extended patentability under Section 101 of the Patent Act to included plant material, a reversal of an earlier decision [4). European countries have a similar system of plant varietal protection, commonly referred to as plant breeders’ rights (PBR). In addition to providing patent protection, however, the European system establishes a system of seed control using common catalog requirements to establish legitimate cultivars that can be grown legally (5,61). The European control system is cited as having greater detrimental implications for biological diversity, by increasing uniformity and reducing crop genetic variability, than the basic legislative protection that exists in the United States (9). Since the emergence of PBR, concerns have been expressed that the proprietary controls it provides may create undesirable trends in the agricultural economy, including several of consequence to biological diversity. Specifically, concerns exist that such legislation is contributing to a consolidation in the seed industry, a reduction of sharing of germplasm and information among researchers, and the loss of genetic diversity. A review of studies on these linkages (12,49,50,56) reveals different interpretations of their magni- tudes, with most analysts agreeing that a strong link is not apparent or at least is difficult to determine. Most pronounced is the degree of consolidation in the seed industry, but separating the specific impact of PBR from other factors is difficult. Studies do, however, reveal that plant patents tend to be concentrated among larger companies and for certain types of crops. Some of these companies have petrochemical interests, which has raised concerns that their research will be directed by efforts to promote agrochemical sales (e.g., emphasizing development of pesticide-tolerant or fertilizer- dependent plant varieties). With regard to the other concerns (reduced exchange of germplasm and research information, or loss of genetic diversity), evaluation is hampered by a lack of objective measures. The conclusion is that careful monitoring in each of these areas seems warranted (8,9). Perhaps more important is the finding that plant breeding by public agencies plays a critical role in countering the potential negative consequences of the patent system by contributing to competition in the seed industry, to the flow of information and germplasm, and to crop diversity (12). This finding suggests that continued support of national and international (e.g., International Agricultural Research Centers) plant breeding programs is important for maintaining and enhancing genetic diversity. Their contributions should be considered in the context of concerns that interest in biotechnology has detracted from emphasis on traditional breeding and cultivar development (9).

encourage developing countries to adopt plant velop varieties suited to conditions in each breeders’ rights laws and become members of country and that private firms would be less the union (56). The trade-offs for a developing reluctant to export seeds to countries having country enacting a plant patent system, how- such legislation (2,5). Without adopting PBR, ever, are different from those for industrial however, a country would still be able to take countries (5). The arguments for adoption are advantage of publicly developed varieties, which that it would encourage private breeders to re- constitute the most important source of im- 262 ● Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity — -.

proved seeds for most crops (81). In addition, humans. Regulated articles include plants, ani- developing countries are not restricted from mals, propagative material (e.g., seeds, cuttings, using seeds protected under IUPOV. cultures, sperm, and embryos), commodities, soil, packing materials, nonagricultural cargo, The extent to which private investment would and used vehicles and farm equipment, as well be encouraged by instituting PBR, given that as their containers and means of conveyance. markets and infrastructures in many developing countries are weak and thus unattractive The legal umbrella under which international to many private seed companies, is not clear plant quarantine activities are covered is the (5), Concerns also are expressed over the im- International Plant Protection Convention pact that PBR would have on research activi- (IPPC) of 1951 (known as the Rome Conven- ties at international agricultural research cen- tion). The IPPC provided the international ters. In the final analysis, whether a country model for the phytosanitary certificate that ac- decides to adopt PBR will depend on how gov- companies certain articles in transit (45) and ernments perceive their own best interests proposed creation of inspection services (6), given these and other considerations, However, the program seems to have suffered from lack of funds and attention (13,35). Since Microbes are patentable (at least for specific the mid-1970's, FAO has explored the possibil- process applications) in most industrial nations. ity of establishing a special phytosanitary cer- The Treaty on the International Recognition tificate for the international transfer of germ- of Deposit of Micro-organisms for the Purposes plasm (6). of Patent Protection (known as the Budapest Treaty), however, supports a degree of inter- Though no equivalent to IPPC exists for ani- nationalization of the microbial patenting sys- mals, many countries have signed bilateral tem. This treaty, established in 1977, was in- agreements on import health requirements of stituted in part as a means to provide “enabling animals, including the establishment of pro- disclosure” (as required under patent law) that tocols. In general, these international treaties permits third parties to understand an inven- or commissions between governments deal tion and presumably build on it. It establishes with the movement of live animals or specific an agreement among participants to recognize animal products such as meat or semen. Re- deposit of a micro-organism in another coun- strictive requirements for commerce are gentry as adequate for patenting purposes. The erally under the jurisdiction of the respective Budapest Treaty also sets standards and pro- veterinary services because of hazards related cedures for such depositories (6). This system to disease prevention and control (57). has engendered much less controversy than the Policies on international commerce in live IUPOV system, which may reflect the current animals have generally been established and limited concern among developing countries accepted. Research has been considerable and over microbe patenting, although this may will likely continue, and relaxation of current change in the future (5). health-related constraints is anticipated. Pol- International Quarantine Restrictions icies on international shipment of animal semen are still largely based on the health status Plant and animal quarantine rules, actions, of the donors. The technology of embryo trans- or procedures are established by governments fer is now at the point where research could to prevent entry of pests or pathogens in or on facilitate international transfer of animal germ- articles imported along pathways created by plasm (57).

INTERNATIONAL PROGRAMS AND NETWORKS

There are so many different organizations in- about their effectiveness. Nonetheless, the volved in international programs to maintain strengths and weaknesses of two basic catego- biological diversity, it is difficult to generalize ries of organizations—intergovernmental and Ch. 10—Maintaining Biological Diversity Internationally 263 —

nongovernmental—are evident. Three intergov- The strengths and weaknesses of NGOs are ernmental organizations, all part of the United largely the obverse of those of intergovernmen- Nations, are most prominent: tal organizations (62). Their major advantage is the ability to adopt a problem-oriented ap- 1, FAO, by virtue of its interest in crops, live- proach outside a governmental framework, stock, forestry, and wildlife (the latter pri- thus minimizing problems associated with po- marily in terms of exploitable resources); litical interests and conflicts. This is not to im- 2, UNESCO, whose involvement in biologi- ply that such activities should ignore the polit- cal diversity emphasizes a more scientific ical nature of conservation activities. As one and cultural approach (reflected in the Man analyst has noted: in the Biosphere concept, outlined below); and For the conservationist to argue that nature 3. UNEP, which extends intergovernmental is apolitical can be a useful strategy. For him involvement into more traditional conser- actually to believe this is a recipe for ineffec- vation activities (10). tiveness (10). Perhaps the greatest asset of intergovernmen- Lack of financial resources is the major limit- tal organizations is their ability to elevate ising factor of international NGOs. Yet, limited sues to international prominence, based largely funds are likely to be applied in a more flexible on the organizations’ access to top-level author- and responsive way than in intergovernmen- ities. They may also be able to influence na- tal institutions, and NGOs often benefit from tional agendas in various ways. Funding to sup- the voluntarism and enthusiasm characteris- port activities is central to the influence of these tic of such groups. However, what is lacking organizations. In recent years, however, the is the ability to influence national governments functions and effectiveness of certain offices directly. International NGOs must be cautious have been questioned, particularly in the case to avoid the impression that they are meddling of UNESCO. Of concern have been the costs in the affairs of state or impinging on national of programs in relation to their accomplish- sovereignty. ments and the politicization of activities and rhetoric, reflecting the dominance of a num- The emergence of the International Union ber of developing countries with an anti-Wes- for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Re- tern bias (62). In general, however, there has sources marked a departure from the traditional been less political volatility and controversy dichotomy. IUCN is unique not only because where scientific activity and personnel are cen- of its emphasis on biological diversity but be- tral elements of particular intergovernmental cause of a membership arrangement that com- initiatives. In fact, UNESCO’s most important bines a number of state and government agen- program dealing with onsite maintenance of cies with an array of national and international biological diversity, Man in the Biosphere, has conservation groups and scientific organiza- been singled out for its integrity, tions. In a sense, it reflects a hybrid institution. The linkages IUCN has cultivated with FAO, Nongovernmental organizations (NGOS) are UNESCO, and UNEP reinforce its dual nature. most effective as catalysts of international con- Certain advantages are evident in such an ar- servation activities, The early work of institu- rangement: tions such as the International Council for Bird Preservation (ICBP) and the International Coun- The combination of the two types of organi- cil of Scientific Unions influenced the evolu- zations provides two approaches to the resolution of international environmental organization of problems: the individual scientists working in the non-governmental organization are tions (10). Considerable activity on maintaining able to provide a problem-oriented approach diversity has also resulted from extending na- with an analysis of the studies being under- tional programs to the global arena, a trend that taken that is independent and has a minimum continues and that supports the maxim “envi- of political bias, while the intergovernmental ronmentalism breeds globalism” (10). organization can provide political and finan- 264 ● Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity

cial support for programmed and can make Heritage Convention mentioned earlier pro- available the time of scientists working in the motes preservation of sites that have outstand- national research councils and national insti- ing examples of nature. tutes (23). The Man and the Biosphere Program is an Cooperation between intergovernmental or- international scientific cooperative program ganizations and NGOs has not been without supporting research, training, and field inves- conflict, however, especially over how to treat tigation. Research focuses on understanding conservation concerns within the context of de- the structure and function of ecosystems and velopment, The rapid increase in U.N. mem- the environmental impacts of different types bership that occurred in the 1960s, as many de- of human intervention. The program involves veloping countries became independent, led to disciplines from the social, biological, and phys- an increasing emphasis on development issues. ical sciences; it is supervised by an Interna- The landmark 1972 U. N.-sponsored Conference tional Coordination Council and is tied to the on the Human Environment emphasized the field through national-level scientific MAB need to incorporate economic development committees. concerns in conservation activities. IUCN responded gradually at first but today the integra- Launched in 1971, MAB took as one of its tion of conservation and development has themes the “conservation of natural areas and emerged as a central theme of IUCN activity the genetic material they contain. ” The con- as reflected in its development of such docu- cept of biosphere reserve was introduced as a ments as the World Conservation Strategy and series of protected areas linked through a global the emergence of its Conservation for Devel- network that could demonstrate the relation- opment Center. ship between conservation and development. Building this network has formed a focus for Although IUCN and the affiliated World implementing the program through national- Wildlife Fund represent the central interna- Ievel scientific committees. The first biosphere tional NGOS, a large number of actors are reserves were designated in 1976. At present, present in the international conservation arena. the network consists of 252 reserves in 66 coun- These organizations vary greatly in size, func- tries (see figure 10-1) (30). tion, constituency, approach, and focus. Al- though the contributions of these many groups In view ‘of their joint interests, UNESCO, is acknowledged, the following discussion is nec- FAO, UNEP, and IUCN convened the First In- essarily restricted to the largest and most prom- ternational Biosphere Reserve Congress in 1983 inent international organizations. to review experiences and lessons and to develop general guidance for future action. One result of the congress was the preparation of Onsite Programs an Action Plan for Biosphere Reserves, which has three main thrusts: Ecosystem and Species Maintenance 1. improving and expanding the biosphere re- Among the array of international programs serves network; dealing with onsite diversity maintenance, sev- 2. developing basic knowledge for conserv- eral stand out for their breadth of coverage. Un- ing ecosystems and biological diversity; der the umbrella of UNESCO are two independ- and ent programs involved in protection of specific . making biosphere reserves more effective sites, partially chosen for and indirectly con- in linking conservation and development, cerned with protection of biological diversity. as envisioned by the World Conservation The Man in the Biosphere Program (MAB) sup- Strategy (71). ports conservation of sites representing the Earth’s different ecosystems, based on the Ud- The biosphere reserve concept is being ap- vardy system described in chapter 5. The World plied in a number of cases, but evaluation of

Ch. 10—Maintaining Biological Diversify Internationally ● 265 266 Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity

success is premature. Full application of the the important work in research on human needs concept, essentially as a conservation and de- and impacts within its conservation approach velopment tool, presents complex problems as reflected in its four recently approved re- both legally and administratively. The program search areas (72): has not required special legislation, which 1. ecosystem functioning under different in- leaves each country to adapt existing laws, tensities of human impact, which are often too weak and too segmented 2. management and restoration of resources for the kind of integrated multiple-use planning affected by humans, and conservation required (ranging from core 3. human investment and resource use, and areas receiving strict protection to buffer zones 4. human response to environmental stress. in agricultural or other compatible uses). Critical review of the existing system has Moreover, because large areas are involved, prompted greater attention to ensuring that all generally with some human settlement, appli- three basic elements of biosphere reserves are cation of such a concept necessarily involves incorporated into existing and future reserves. many levels of government as well as several These basic elements are the following: technical agencies. Most government admin- istrations tend to be sector-oriented and inex- 1. Conservation Role: conservation of genetic perienced in coordinating jurisdiction and pro- material and ecosystems. gram reponsibilities in such areas as public 2. Development Role: association of environ- health, agriculture, forestry, wildlife conserva- ment with development. tion, and public works—all of which may be 3. Logistic Role: international network for re- required for an effective long-term biosphere search and monitoring (7). reserve program. Special councils or commit- Placing greater emphasis on the last two roles, tees of governmental and nongovernmental rep- as opposed to the first role which has been pre- resentatives may need to be formed to play this dominant to date, will likely contribute increased coordinating role. opportunities and benefits to the biosphere re- Notwithstanding the program’s practical serve system. Finally, the MAB program may problems, the planning and management prin- be able to provide important contributions and ciples in the biosphere reserves concept reflect cooperation within the most recently launched what an international conservation program international environmental program, the In- needs to endorse—’’conservation as an open ternational Geosphere/Biosphere Program, be- system, ” where areas of undisturbed natural ing formulated by the International Council of ecosystems can be surrounded by areas of “syn- Scientific Unions (54). thetic and compatible use, ” and where people The United States withdrawal from UNESCO are considered part of the system (71). has had a number of implications for U.S. participation in MAB (59). An evaluation of the A number of more recent developments sug- impacts of this withdrawal suggests that, be- gest that the MAB program will become an in- cause MAB activities are largely undertaken creasingly important investment opportunity as national projects or bilateral arrangements, for biological diversity maintenance. First, the the short-term impacts on MAB are not very concept and purpose of biosphere reserves has significant. Long-term impacts, however, could been sharpened and clarified to reflect prag- seriously compromise the effectiveness and po- matic lessons learned over the 10 years since tential of international MAB unless alternatives the first biosphere reserve was established (7). can be found to provide U.S. scientific and fi- The establishment of the Scientific Advisory nancial participation (59). Panel for Biosphere Reserves in 1985 promises a more informed, consistent, and structured ap- The Convention Concerning the Protection proach to the MAB system. Current directions of the world Cultural and Natural Heritage be- also suggest that MAB will continue to stress gan in 1975 and at present has 85 member states Ch. 10—Maintaining Biological Diversify Internationa//y ● 267

and 52 natural sites—8 in the United States. amount, the contribution will be made, which Sites are selected by domestic committees, tech- means the United States, having contributed nically reviewed by IUCN, and then evaluated for two consecutive years, can run for a seat and described by the Bureau of the World Her- on the World Heritage Committee. itage Committee. Approved sites are placed on IUCN, is the central nongovernmental orga- the World Heritage List. nization dealing with onsite diversity mainte- Site-selection criteria do not specifically men- nance on a global scale, As noted earlier, IUCN tion biological diversity but include areas of on- is actually a network of governments, nongov- going biological evolution, areas of superlative ernmental organizations, scientists, and other natural phenomena, and habitats of endangered conservationists, organized to promote the pro- species important to science and conservation. tection and sustainable use of living resources. Only exceptional sites are chosen, and the fo- Founded in 1948, IUCN’S membership now in- cus is on well-known animals, especially mam- cludes 57 governments, 123 government agen- mals. Sites must have domestic protection in cies, 292 national NGOS, 23 international NGOS, place before being listed. Most nations select and 6 affiliates in at least 100 countries. Dev- already protected sites, such as national parks, eloping-country representation has become a rather than new ones. Managers of such sites more visible component of the network in re- may have different priorities than those of the cent years, although limited active participa- convention. The impact of becoming a World tion by African, Asian, and Latin American Heritage Site on management practices is not countries remains a problem. fully known. Establishment of IUCN resulted from a de- In signing the convention, members agree to sire to open up channels of communication be- protect their properties and those of other na- tween different countries and to serve as an tions, Although the language in agreement is umbrella for various organizations and individ- strong, its legal strength has not been estab- uals active in international conservation. Early lished and member governments often ignore initiatives focused on research and education provisions, Members are assigned a fee or vol- activities, in part reflecting the initial funding untarily contribute to a World Heritage Fund. provided through UNESCO. With the establish- Resources are used for training, equipment pur- ment of the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) in 1961 chases for members with few resources, and (largely to serve as a fund-raising initiative for assistance in identifying candidate sites. This IUCN and ICBP) and of UNEP in 1972 (which support, though small, can be crucial to iden- provided contract work for IUCN), the empha- tifying and protecting sites especially in less sis shifted back to species and habitat conser- well-off nations. vation. Today, IUCN and WWF have emerged as central actors in international environmental The convention’s annual budget averages $1 policy, with influence in both intergovernmen- million, The United States, one of the forces tal and national conservation work (10). IUCN behind the convention’s founding, normally support for national programs includes the fol- contributes at least one-fourth of the budget. lowing: In fiscal years 1977 and from 1979 through 1982, U.S. voluntary contributions averaged ● provision of aid and technical assistance $300,000. No contributions were made the fol- to countries and organizations; lowing two years. The United States contribu- ● development of a series of poIicy aids, par- tion in fiscal year 1985 was $238,903. In fiscal ticularly in relation to the creation and year 1986, $250,000 was appropriated (cut to management of national parks and other $239,000 under budget-reduction legislation), protected areas, the framing of legislative but no money has yet been contributed. Unless instruments, and the making of develop- Congress agrees to an Office of Management ment policy; and and Budget request for recision of the entire ● preparation, on request from governments, 268 Technologies to Maintain Biological Diversity

of specific policy recommendations per- zations are involved in the inventory and mon- taining to conservation and development itoring of biological diversity. Most prominent plans (10). are the efforts of UNEP, FAO, UNESCO, IUCN, WWF, and ICBP. Several components of IUCN are particularly relevant to international conservation efforts. UNEP has an assessment arm, Earthwatch, These include the three centers that form part whose function has been to acquire, monitor, of the IUCN network—the Conservation for De- and assess global environmental data. At the velopment Center (Gland, Switzerland), the heart of Earthwatch is the Global Environment Conservation Monitoring Center (Cambridge, Monitoring System (GEMS), an international England), and the Environmental Law Center effort to collect data needed for environmental (Bonn, West Germany). Central to IUCN prom- management. GEMS current activities are inence and legitimacy in international conser- divided into monitoring renewable natural re- vation are its six commissions of experts on sources, climates, health, oceans, and long- threatened species, protected areas, ecology, range transport of pollutants, These activities environmental planning, environmental policy, are coordinated from the GEMS Programme law and administration, and environmental Activity Center in Nairobi which, like UNEP, education. works mainly through the intermediary of the specialized agencies of the United Nations— The Conservation for Development Center notably FAO, the International Labour Orga- has emerged as one of IUCN’S most successful nization, UNESCO, the World Health Organiza- components. In particular, its role in assisting tion, and the World Meteorological Organization countries in the development of national con- —together with appropriate intergovernmen- servation strategies has received growing sup- tal organizations such as IUCN (15). port. The growth in the program reflects not only the importance of integrating conserva- To provide access to the databanks, UNEP- tion and development interests but IUCN’S GEMS has begun a 2-year pilot project to set growing commitment to following this ap- up a computerized Global Resource Informa- proach. tion Database (GRID) (74), If successful, GRID may prove to be a powerful tool for interna- The Environmental Law Center has been in- tional inventory and monitoring, not only of dexing national and international environmental biological diversity but of other areas too (15), legislation since the early 1960s, Some 20,000 GRID will provide a centralized data-manage- titles are now part of the center’s Environ- ment service within the U.N. system, designed mental Law Information System. The center to convert environmental data into information has recently developed a species law index that usable by decisionmakers. The main data-proc- codes protected species of wild fauna to the cor- essing facility will be in Geneva, Switzerland, responding national legislation. This index is but it will be controlled from UNEP headquar- computerized, allowing manipulation by spe- ters in Nairobi. cies, region, or country, and it is becoming a valuable databank for program and policy plan- The pilot phase of GRID is to result in an oper- ning by governments and NGOS when used in ational system with preliminary results and the conjunction with scientific information about training of some personnel. An initial evalua- endangered species, ranges, and protection tion could be expected by the end of UNEP’S needs. 1986/87 biennium, A full assessment of the system is unlikely before several more years of Ecosystem and Species Monitoring operations (74). Information on the status and trends in loss Inventory and monitoring activities at the of the world’s fauna and flora is a critical ele- species level are also undertaken by the Con- ment in defining strategies and priorities, For servation Monitoring Center (CMC), one of sev- this reason, a number of international organi- eral centers operating under the auspices of the Ch. 10—Maintaining Bio/ogical Diversity Internationa//y 269 —

IUCN. Its mandate is to analyze and dissemi- 2. setting up some kind of procedure whereby nate information on conservation worldwide common platforms and goals could be artic- and provide services to governments and the ulated and, ultimately, a measure of influ- conservation and development communities. ence exerted on public policy (10). CMC supplies information in the form of books, The Ecosystem Conservation Group (ECG), specialist publications, and reports. Major out- consisting of FAO, UNEP, UNESCO, and IUCN, put includes Red Data Books on endangered was established in 1975 to advise on planning species, protected-area directories, conserva- and execution of international conservation tion site directories and reports, threatened activities by the four organizations (75). ECG plant and animal lists, U.N. Lists of National has recently begun to take a more active role Parks and Equivalent Reserves, preliminary in conservation, ECG agreed at its 1 lth Gen- environmental profiles of individual areas (by eral Meeting, held in Rome in February 1984, request), comparative tabulations of trans- to institute an ad hoc Working Group on On- actions under CITES, and analyses of wildlife site Conservation of Plant Genetic Resources trade data for individual countries and taxo- (40). The working group consists of FAO (lead nomic groups (15). agency), UNESCO, UNEP, IUCN, and the In- The International Council for Bird Preserva- ternational Board for Plant Genetic Resources tion (ICBP) takes responsibility for ornitholog- (IBPGR). The first meeting of the working group ical aspects of IUCN’S activities and shares the was held at IUCN headquarters in April 1985, IUCN database at CMC, ICBP is also in the during the 12th General Meeting of ECG. The process of establishing an oceanic-islands data- charge to the working group was twofold: base to identify areas where action is required 1. review ongoing and planned activities in for numerous threatened endemic bird species. onsite conservation in light of recommen- The initial target is to collect details about some dations of the First Session of the FAO 160 islands that support endemic species of Commission of Plant Genetic Resources, birds, especially islands smaller than 20,000 UNESCO’s Action Plan for Biosphere Re- square kilometers (15). serves (see earlier discussion), and the An important supplement to these initiatives IUCN Bali Action Plan; and is the growing number of national organiza- 2. identify ways to strengthen action and co- tions taking an international perspective in their operation in response to these recommen- data collection efforts. Of particular importance dations, with particular attention to im- is The Nature Conservancy International (TNCI), proving information flow and promoting based in the United States. TNCI has developed pilot demonstration activities (40). a regional database on distribution of fauna and Six major goals for coordination and action flora in the neotropics that is the most compre- were recognized at the first meeting of the ECG hensive of its kind and is promoting establish- working group and activities were identified ment of country-level conservation data centers within the framework of these goals. This de- (see ch. 11). velopment signifies an important step among involved organizations to focus their programs International Network on plant genetic resources within a common framework, and, as reflected by the addition The emergence of IUCN as a recognized net- of IBPGR, begin to build a mechanism to inte- work of conservation specialists has both gal- grate onsite and offsite efforts. vanized international conservation activities and established conservation programs as sci- Offsite Programs entific initiatives. It also established two major functions of the organization: International institutions dealing with offsite 1. promoting contacts among institutes and in- maintenance are most easily considered under dividuals, primarily by acting as a device for the separate headings of plant, animal, and the exchange of information; and microbial genetic resources. The level of exist- 270 ● Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity —

ing international activity between and within Table 10-3.—lnternational Agricultural Research these categories of organisms varies consider- Centers Supported by the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research ably. Major factors determining the level of attention devoted to offsite maintenance include CIAT —Centro International de Agricultural Tropical economic importance, threat of loss, and abil- Cali, Columbia CIMMYT—Centro International de Mejoramiento ity to maintain viable collections offsite, de Maiz y Trigo Mexico City, Mexico Plant Diversity CIP —Centro International de la Papa Lima, Peru International programs and networks are IBPGR —International Board for Plant Genetic Resources Rome, Italy differentiated by the types of plants they deal ICARDA —International Center for Agricultural Research with. By far, the most developed institutions in the Dry Areas are those concerned with major agricultural Aleppo, Syria ICRISAT—lnternational Crops Research Institute for the plants. For the most part, these offsite collec- Semi-Arid Tropics tions are maintained in association with agri- Hyderabad, India cultural research institutions. Concern over loss IFPRI —International Food Policy Research Institute Washington, DC, U.S.A. of wild species of nonagricultural plants in their IITA —International Institute of Tropical Agriculture natural habitats has prompted the establish- Ibadan, Nigeria ment of an international network of botanic in- ILCA —International Livestock Centre for Africa Addis Ababa, Ethiopia stitutions for preserving rare and endangered ILRAD —International Laboratory for Research on species in living collections, Animal Diseases Nairobi, Kenya The focus, extent, and effectiveness of inter- IRRI —International Rice Research Institute national genebank efforts in recent years have Manila, Philippines ISNAR —International Service for National Agricultural been largely shaped by International Agricul- Research tural Research Centers (IARCS) supported by The Hague, Netherlands the Consultative Group on International Agri- WARDA —West Africa Rice Development Association cultural Research (CGIAR). This organization Monrovia. Liberia SOURCE” Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research, Summary was founded in 1971 and consists of donors that of lnternat~ortal Agricultural Research Centers” A Study of Achieve- fund a network of centers doing research on merrts and Potentia/ (Washington, DC 1985). increasing agricultural productivity, primarily in developing countries (see table 1o-3). Impe- tus to form the group stemmed from early suc- Today, most CGIAR centers have specific cesses of two institutes (later to become the first responsibilities in crop varietal development members of the CGIAR system), the Interna- and germplasm conservation, and in certain tional Maize and Wheat Improvement Center cases serve as international base and active col- (better known by its Spanish acronym CIM- lections for specific crops (see table 1o-4). A MYT), and the International Rice Research In- number of IARCs also operate outside the stitute (IRRI). Both programs were the out- CGIAR system, including several with respon- growth of research centers supported by the sibilities for germplasm maintenance. This Rockefeller and Ford Foundations. group includes the International Soybean Pro- gram in Urbana, Illinois and the Asian Vegeta- Financial obligations soon became too great ble Research and Development Center in Shan- for the two U.S. foundations as budget costs hua, Taiwan (18), grew with the establishment of two more centers. The desire on the part of several interna- The most prominent international institution tional development institutions, including FAO, dealing with offsite conservation of plant ge- UNEP, and the World Bank, to expand the sys- netic diversity is IBPGR. Established in 1974 tem into a network of international centers led by CGIAR, it serves as a focal point for govern- to the formation of the CGIAR, supported by ments, foundations, international organiza- a group of government and international donor tions, and individual researchers with interests agencies. in maintaining genetic diversity of crop spe- Ch. 10–Maintaining Biological Diversity Internationally . 271

Table 10-4.— International Agricultural Research The achievements of IBPGR are impressive, Centers Designated as Base Seed Conservation measured in its own terms and against the list Centers for Particular Crops of objectives. Ten years after IBPGR was estab- Nature of lished, the network for base collection storage Center Crop collection included 35 institutions in 28 countries. Re- AVRDC mung bean (Vfgna radlata) global gional maize collections exist in Japan, Portu- sweet potato (seed) ...... Asia gal, Thailand, and the United States, for ex- CIAT beans (Phaseo/us): cultivated species . . global ample, and one in the Soviet Union is under cassava (seed) ...... global negotiation. For rice, a global collection has CIP potato (seed) ...... global been established in Japan and the Philippines, ICARDA barley ...... global and regional collections are found in Nigeria chickpea . . global and the United States (27). National programs faba bean (Vicia faba) . . global were created during IBPGR’s first 10 years in ICRISAT sorghum . . global about 50 countries, and by 1986 some 50 base pearl mi!let ...... global minor millets (E/eusine, Se(aria, collection centers had been designated for Panicurn) ...... global about 40 crops of major importance (38,79). The pigeon pea ..., ..., ...... global groundnut ...... global program has limited itself to a particular group chickpea . . . global of plants and has been successful in coordina- IITA rice ...... Africa tion, in encouragement of national programs, cowpea (Vigna unguicu/ata) . global and in scientific and educational assistance (33). cassava (Manihot escu/enta; seed). Africa In all, IBPGR has links with more than 500 in- IRRI tropical rtce (wild species and cultivated varieties) . . . . global stitutes in 106 countries (79). SOURCE Consultative Group on international Agricultural Research, Summary of /nternal/ona/ Agr/cu/fura/ Research Centers A Study of Actr/eve- In part, due to the success of IBPGR in focus- rnents and Potent~a/ (Washington DC 1985) ing attention on the need to conserve genetic diversity, the issue has become embroiled in political controversy. IBPGR regards itself as cies. IBPGR is a small group; part of the secre- a technical and scientific organization. But a tariat is provided by FAO Its mission has been number of critics regard the issue of plant a coordinating one, of setting priorities and cre- genetic resources as much more politicaI. They ating a network of national programs and re- maintain that IBPGR is implicitly working for gional centers for the conservation of plant the corporate and agribusiness interests of the germplasm. It has provided training facilities, industrial world, particularly the United States supported research in techniques of plant germ- (36,56). Critics also argue that the current ge- plasm conservation, sponsored numerous col- netic material exchange system is inadequate lection missions, and provided limited finan- to ensure that material will continue to be avail- cial assistance for conservation facilities (see able, particularly to developing countries. The ch. 11). It does not operate any germplasm stor- debate has become quite acrimonious, with age facilities itself, however. proponents of IBPGR emphasizing their scientific and pragmatic approach to the issue, and As envisioned by IBPGR, collection efforts critics emphasizing their fear that multinational were to focus on crop plants, based on priori- corporations will gain control over plant germ- ties set by the board and reflecting the economic plasm. Plant patenting and access to plant ge- importance of the crop, the quality of existing netic resources are also important elements in collections, and the threat that diversity would the current controversy (see earlier section) (6). disappear. The collected materials were to be kept in national programs and duplicated out- This entire controversy helped catalyze a side the nation in which they were collected. move toward deeper FAO involvement in the A global base collection was to be established germplasm area and toward a new interna- for major crops, and there were hopes of cre- tional approach (70). FAO argued that it should ating regional programs, be taking the lead in plant genetic conserva-

272 ● Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity

IBPGR Network

The International Board for Plant Genetic Resources has had a catalytic effect on efforts to conserve dwindling plant genetic resources. tion; it could provide the framework for devel- tional germplasm conservation network under oping nations to obtain a greater political voice the auspices of the FAO, stated a duty of each in the international conservation structure. It nation to make all plant genetic material— was further argued that IBPGR was not a for- including advanced breeding material—freely mal organization, and it would therefore have available, and called for development of a pro- only limited legal ability to enforce any com- cedure under which a germplasm conservation mitment to make germplasm available (26). This center could be placed under the auspices of legal status argument is questionable, however FAO. IBPGR was to continue its current work, (6). IBPGR proponents responded that the but it would be monitored by FAO (6). board’s technical emphasis works effectively, The other part of the new FAO system is the and it is in fact an asset in surmounting politi- Commission on Plant Genetic Resources, a cal problems and dealing with nations outside group established to meet biannually to review FAO. progress in germplasm conservation. The com- The alternative approach that evolved con- mission held its first meeting in March 1985, sisted of an undertaking and a new commis- with the United States present as an observer, sion. The International undertaking on Plant Much of the discussion focused on concerns Genetic Resources was negotiated within the expressed in the FAO undertaking and on is- framework of the FAO. (The United States and sues that had regularly been dealt with by a number of other developed countries reserved IBPGR, such as base collections, training, and their positions.) The undertaking was nonbind- information systems. In addition, discussions ing, probably to increase participation in such and resolutions paid significant attention to on- a controversial area. It called for an interna- site conservation and emphasized the impor- Ch. 10—Maintaining Biological Diversity /internationally ● 273 tance of this area, which has received little at- The planning of conservation collections by tention from IBPGR. collaborating botanic gardens is encouraged by BGCCB by drawing attention to rare and threat- It is not yet clear whether a practical and co- ened species that are poorly represented or not operative division of responsibilities between in cultivation at all. This is done through the the two entities can be developed. One approach provision of reports and an annual computer that has been suggested is to have each entity printout for each member garden, detailing the assume different responsibilities, such as giv- conservation plans IUCN has been provided ing IBPGR responsibility for offsite mainte- by the garden. The printouts allow an analysis nance and letting FAO focus on onsite gene- of the garden’s holdings in relation to other banks. An alternative would be to have IBPGR gardens. Members are encouraged to propagate assume responsibility for technical aspects of and distribute species that are represented, germplasm collection and maintenance and especially if they are endangered or extinct in give FAO responsibility for legal and political the wild. BGCCB also has circulated lists of factors (28). threatened plants to its members and stores the information on holdings in the CMC database Botanic gardens and arboretums are increas- (51), ingly viewed as important for conservation of IUCN has located 3,948 threatened plant spe- wild plant species. Efforts to establish an international network of botanic gardens for the cies in cultivation by members of BGCCB, which is at least one-quarter of the known purpose of conserving threatened plant species were formalized in an international conference threatened plants in the CMC computerized database (78). However, these collections con- at the Royal Botanical Garden at Kew (United stitute only a tiny proportion of the genetic Kingdom) in 1978. IUCN’S Species Survival range of threatened species, They also repre- Commission set up a Botanical Gardens Con- sent only a small proportion of the biological servation Coordinating Body (BGCCB). This diversity maintained by botanic gardens, which body, established in 1979, is coordinated by the implies that greater emphasis on cultivation of Threatened Plants Unit of IUCN’S Conserva- rare and threatened species could be under- tion Monitoring Center and now has 136 mem- taken (51). Although it maybe theoretically pos- bers, In addition, the Moscow Botanic Garden coordinates for BGCCB the response of 116 sible for the botanic gardens of the world to gardens in the Soviet Union (51). The function grow the estimated 25,000 to 40,000 threatened of such a network was reviewed at an IUCN species of flowering plants, cultivating suffi- conference in Las Palmas in 1985. Represent- cient populations to maintain diversity is un- realistic. Consequently, protecting a diversity atives of the botanic gardens meetings recommended a new conservation secretariat with of wild species will rest on maintaining them IUCN support to coordinate their conservation in the wild. activities and the establishment of a Botanic AnimaI Diversity Garden Conservation Strategy (39). Just as institutions split offsite maintenance Representation of developing nations is poor of plants into agricultural and nonagricultural in BGCCB. The Montevideo Botanic Garden species, offsite maintenance of animals is bro- is the only South American member, for exam- ken down into categories of domesticated and ple, Efforts are being made to involve more wild species. The former category has fallen developing-country institutions and to encour- under international agricultural institutions, age twinning arrangements between institu- such as FAO or regional institutions, such as tions, whereby expertise in seed maintenance, the International Livestock Centre for Africa. curation, and fund raising could be promoted. Responsibility for offsite maintenance of wild Mechanisms to fund such activities, however, species has been almost exclusively assumed are not well established (39). by an international network of zoos. 274 ● Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity

Concern over loss of genetic diversity in agri- ber of larger zoos have concentrated on breed- cultural animals has been much less pronounced ing rare or endangered species, usually birds than that for agricultural plants. Consequently, and mammals. These efforts have also extended no analog to IBPGR currently exists. Growing to the creation of regional and international net- concern over the loss of potentially valuable works to enhance the effectiveness and collec- genetic diversity for livestock, however, has tive conservation potential of the zoological prompted limited efforts in this area. community. FAO and UNEP launched a pilot project in An International Species Inventory System 1973 to conserve animal genetic resources. Ini- (ISIS) was created in 1974 in response to ma- tial efforts focused on developing a preliminary jor problems of inbreeding in zoo populations list of endangered breeds and of those with and in recognition of the fact that, for an in- economic potential, especially for developing creasing number of wild animals, captive pop- countries. A 1980 FAO/UNEP Technical Con- ulations held the best hope for survival of the sultation extended this work by defining re- species. Coverage has grown from 55 facilities quirements for creating “supranational infra- to 211 as of 1985. About 65,000 1iving speci- structure resources for animal breeding and mens of 2,300 species are included. Informa- genetics” (37). These covered a range of efforts tion currently comes from facilities in 14 coun- to develop animal genetic resources. of par- tries, but coverage is best for U.S. and Canadian ticular significance were guidelines in the fol- institutions (see ch, 9). The system is not re- lowing areas (37): stricted to endangered species (25), ● databanks for animal genetic resources, ISIS publishes biannual survey reports. These which would also identify endangered include information on the sex ratio and age breeds; distribution; the proportion of captive-bred; and ● genebanks to store semen and embryos of the birth, death, and import trends for all mam- endangered breeds; and mals and birds held in captivity by the mem- ● training of scientists and administrators in bers. The system has also recently begun to in- genetic - resources conservation and use, corporate information on holdings of reptiles and amphibians (25). Endangered livestock breeds can be maintained either in living collections or through The American Association of Zoological cryogenic storage of semen or embryos (see ch. Parks and Aquariums (AAZPA) setup the Spe- 6). Although the former option has proved via- cies Survival Plan (29) in September 1980, ble in certain European countries (34), wide- AAZPA has identified certain species in need spread success is unlikely. Thus, cryogenic stor- of immediate attention and has established a age will become increasingly important as committee for each, consisting of a species threats to livestock increase. Concern over loss coordinator and propagation group. A major of livestock diversity is greatest for developing committee function is to provide direction for countries, but creating cryogenic genebanks in maintenance of studbooks. many countries would be very difficult. Thus, A studbook is an international register that the value of establishing supranational storage facilities becomes apparent. lists and records all captive individuals of species that are rare or endangered in the wild. International networking for conservation of The concept, initially developed for the selec- living collections of wild animals is largely re- tive breeding of domesticated animals, was first stricted to the zoological community, although used on a wild species (the European bison) in IUCN’S Species Survival Commission has been 1932. Studbooks are now kept for about 40 en- involved in formulating conservation plans that dangered species and are a valuable tool in in- include captive breeding (51), Zoos have tradi- ternational cooperation in captive breeding, tionally been established for public education permitting intelligent recommendations to zoos and entertainment, But in recent years, a num- around the world concerning such things as Ch. 10—Maintaining Biological Diversity Internationally ● 275 optimal pairings, trades, and management (24). The establishment of these microbiological re- Official studbooks are those recognized and en- source centers (M IRCENS) began at that time dorsed by IUCN’S Survival Commission and and the specialized collections are now located the International Union of Directors of Zoolog- in 15 locations (17): including Brisbane, Aus- ical Gardens, and they are coordinated by the tralia; Stockholm, Sweden; Bangkok, Thailand; editor of the International Zoo Yearbook. Nairobi, Kenya; Porto Alegre, Brazil; Guatemala City, Guatemala; Cairo, Egypt; Paia, Hawaii, Microbial Diversity United States; and Dakar, Senegal (32). MIRCENS were established to develop and A directory of institutions maintaining micro- enhance an infrastructure for a world network bial culture collections was published in 1972, of regional and interregional laboratories. This under the sponsorship of UNESCO, the World network provides a base of knowledge in micro- Health Organization, and the Commonwealth biology and biotechnology to support the bio- Scientific and Industrial Research Organiza- technology industry in developed and devel- tion. The directory was revised and updated oping countries. Activities of MI RCENS include in 1982 [55) and remains the primary compre- collection, maintenance, testing and distribu- hensive source of information on international tion of Rhizobium, and training of personnel culture collections. In addition, the American (46). Training has perhaps been the most im- Phytopathological Society convened a panel of portant activity towards developing research scientists to discuss the importance and future capabilities and diffusion of technology, espe- of microbial culture collections (l). Informa- cially in developing countries (16). Though each tion from these sources indicates that probably MIRCEN works according to its own set of pri- 1,200 to 1,550 collections exist throughout the orities, they share a common goal of working world. A brief history of several of the more together to strengthen the network and advance important collections is available (64). the knowledge in microbiology and biotechnol- In 1985, UNEP, the International Cell Re- ogy. In doing so, MI RCENS provide incentives search Organization, and UNESCO recognized to develop and maintain offsite microbial col- the need for moderately sized culture collec- lections in support of national programs. They tions. Each collection as envisioned would have also offer a framework that could provide a se- a special purpose and together they would form cure custodial system for national and inter- a network of collections around the world (6). national microbial resources.

NEEDS AND OPPORTUNITIES

The United States has historically played an A number of opportunities exist whereby the important leadership role in international con- United States could reestablish itself as a lead- servation initiatives. The establishment of Yel- ing actor in international efforts to promote the lowstone Park in 1872 heralded the international maintenance of biological diversity. movement to create national parks worldwide. The United States also was a central actor in Onsite Activities the 1972 Stockholm Conference on the Human Environment, in the creation of the United Na- A major problem in developing a coherent tions Environment Programme, the World Her- strategy to address concerns over loss of bio- itage Convention, and numerous other initia- logical diversity is the uncertainty that sur- tives (see previous sections). In recent years, rounds the issue. Estimates of the scope of spe- U.S. leadership in international conservation cies diversity vary by orders of magnitude, has waned, which is reflected in funding and which illustrates obvious impediments to defin- personnel support for international programs. ing and addressing the problem. Further, lim- 276 . Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity — ited and unreliable data on the rates and im- It maybe possible to establish an international pacts of habitat conversion exacerbate the network of protected areas within the framework problem of refining a strategy and determin- of existing programs, specifically UNESCO’s ing the level of resources that should be directed Man in the Biosphere and World Heritage pro- to address concerns. Clearly, biological diver- grams. To do so, however, would require adopt- sity in certain regions is acutely threatened and ing a more organized and strategic policy, fur- deserves priority attention. However, attention ther invigorating both programs, and providing is also needed on gaining a better grasp on increased resources. This would require a more defining the scope of diversity and the degree concerted effort on the part of national govern- to which it is threatened. ments, intergovernmental agencies, and the participation of specific international non- Many questions remain even as understand- governmental groups (especially IUCN). ing of the magnitude of threats to diversity continues to improve. Critics suggest that a better Two other issues are prominent with respect grasp of the situation is needed before large to the effectiveness of international laws and amounts of resources are devoted to the prob- programs (47). First, there is debate over the lem (66). It should be noted, however, that funds value of a global treaty to fill what some per- currently spent on diversity maintenance are ceive as a serious gap in hard law. Second, alter- relatively small and are not likely to increase natives to conventional protected areas need dramatically. More important perhaps is the to be considered to provide protection beyond realization that funding, both public and pri- such areas or at sites where the conventional vate, continues to be directed to well-defined approach is not feasible. threats. That is, the situation as it currently ex- The notion of a world treaty to conserve ists is essentially reactionary—responding to genetic resources of wild species was proposed acute threats that have already materialized. at the IUCN World National Parks Congress Recognition of the importance of biological in 1982. A similar recommendation by the diversity has yet to assume the prominence that World Resources Institute was proposed for the would make most national governments take U.S. Government to develop an international systematic and preemptive approaches to threat- convention. However, one key question that ened diversity, which in the long run might needs to be addressed before implementation prove less costly. Increased attention and rec- is whether a new global treaty could be adopted ognition of national and regional conservation and enforced in time to address the problem. strategies as important elements of integrated In addition, consideration must be given to fi- development planning may represent move- nancial and technical resources still needed for ment to adopt this approach. treaties that currently play a role in resource Considerable discussion among international conservation. conservation organizations has been directed Existing treaties have been difficult to im- toward the need to develop an international net- plement because of a lack of administrative work of protected areas that would include rep- machinery (e. g., well-funded and staffed sec- resentative and unique ecosystems. To date, retariats); lack of financial support for on-the- however, organizing, implementing, and sup- ground programs (e.g., equipment, training, and porting such a system remains difficult. Efforts staff); and lack of reciprocal obligations that to establish such a system have not suffered serve as incentives to comply (21), A possible from lack of creativity, as reflected in two large- exception is CITES, which has mechanisms to scale proposals: one to create a major interna- facilitate reciprocal trade controls and a tech- tional program to finance the preservation of nical secretariat, although inadequately funded. 10 percent of the remaining tropical forests (65) and another to establish a world conservation Creating protected areas is the conventional bank (69). approach in most international conservation Ch. 10—Maintaining Biological Diversity Internationally w 277 programs. The modern interpretation of pro- Zoning ordinances could become a power- tected areas includes the full range of conser- ful conservation tool if extended not only to vation uses, from strict protection to multiple construction but to all changes in land use, in- use (44). The question of alternatives and sup- cluding agriculture. Programs to preserve areas portive measures outside protected areas has where only small natural or seminatural sites also become a growing concern. The 1984 State remain within cultivated fields, for example, of the Environment Report of the Organisation are also important. Such efforts can help main- for Economic Cooperation and Development tain at least a minimum amount of natural vege- (O EC D), for example, urges that protected areas tation in hedgerows, tree groves, riparian, and are not enough. Environmentally sensitive pol- other areas. Giving conservation advice to icies for nondesignated lands are also needed farmers about the value of protected lands (60). This conclusion is reinforced by IUCN’S would be an important component of such Commission on Ecology: controls. The idea of basing conservation on the fate In many countries, however, land manage- of particular species or even on the maintenance ment agencies have little or no authority to over- of a natural diversity of species will become see activities of other agencies or to veto ac- even less tenable as the number of threatened tions that would be detrimental to maintaining species increases and their refuges disappear. the land’s natural condition. Although a vari- Natural areas will have to be designed in con- ety of land-use planning tools are being con- duction with the goals of regional development sidered, two prerequisites exist for using them: and justified on the basis of ecological processes operating within the entire developed re- 1. to strengthen the technical capacity to gion and not just within natural areas. identify, inventory, and monitor valuable Land-use planning may help integrate envi- natural areas; and ronmentally sensitive policies in nondesignated 2. to provide the legal authority to protect areas. Control options to safeguard genetic such areas. diversity outside protected areas could also be explored (21,22). Where private land is involved, Offsite Activities general controls could be enforced by impos- ing restrictions on land use or by instituting Offsite maintenance of biological diversity a permit system. These practices are commonly is assuming increased prominence due to con- used for nature conservation and environmental cern over 10SS of genetic resources. Its promi- protection in many western countries, particu- nence is also the result of a greater appreciation larly Europe. Permits could be required for all of the important role that offsite maintenance activities likely to harm certain natural habitats of wild species can play in conserving species or ecosystems. This approach requires legisla- diversity, especially when linked to onsite pro- tion to authorize the requirement, procedures, grams. However, a number of major resources decisions on the conditions to be imposed, and remain unprotected in the existing framework, activities excluded from the permit requirement. These include medicinal plants; some industrial plants, such as rubber; a number of ani- Nonstatutory protection of specific sites mals, including wild and domesticated varieties could be achieved through voluntary agree- and possibly some marine species, for which ments between the landowner and conserva- commercial breeding techniques are evolving tion authorities. Such agreements are more at- (58). tractive when the landowner is offered certain incentives, such as tax subsidies or deductions, To cover existing gaps in maintaining plant for preserving sites. In the United States, such genetic resources, efforts could be made to ex- “conservation easements” are valuable mech- tend IBPGR’s mandate to assume responsibili- anisms for conserving private lands (77). ties for medicinal plants, industrial plants, and 278 . Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity minor crops. IBPGR has already expressed to what is conserved in smaller collections, such reluctance to assume principal responsibility as those maintained by university faculty or pri- for these areas, noting that in many cases, such vate breeders. This exchange often occurs in- efforts should be relegated to national programs formally through working networks of research- (79). Another option, however, is creation of ers. In some cases, however, improved data a new group to cover these particular interests. management systems may be appropriate. Such an effort should try to establish some or- ganizational affiliation capitalizing on the ex- integration pertise already acquired by IBPGR. Diversity maintenance programs require com- Perhaps the most blatant gap, however, is in plementary efforts between onsite and offsite the area of animal genetic resources. Although conservation, and finding the balance of em- FAO and UNEP have initiated investigations phasis is key. The first session of the FAO Com- in this area, no national, regional, or interna- mission on Plant Genetic Resources discussed tional programs have yet emerged. An inter- building this integration by establishing na- national board on animal resources could be tional plant genetic resource centers that would established, with a mandate and approach sim- be closely linked to offsite genebanks and pro- ilar to IBPGR’s, But instead of establishing a tected area management (41). Such efforts will network of national programs, a more reason- require improved cooperation at international able approach might include creating a network and national levels, along with creative use of of regional programs, promoting conservation existing laws and programs to meet emerging of animal germplasm and monitoring endan- management and scientific needs. gered livestock breeds. Additional international exchange of information is also needed, particularly with respect

CHAPTER 10 REFERENCES

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40. International Union for Conservation of Nature Change, The Proceeding of a Symposium spon- and Natural Resources, 1985 United Nations sored by the International Council of Scientific List of National Parks and Protected Areas Unions (ICSU) during its 20th General Assem- (Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, England: bly in Ottawa, Canada on Dec. 25, 1984 (New 1985). York: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 41, International Union for Conservation of Nature 55. McGowan, V, F., and Skerman, V.B. D. (eds.), and Natural Resources, “Report of the First World Directory of Collections of Micro-orga- Meeting of the ECG Working Group on In Situ nisms (Brisbane, Australia: World Data Center, Conservation of Plant Genetic Resources,” Apr. 1982). 11-12, 1985 (Gland, Switzerland: 1985), In: 56. Mooney, P. R., “The Law of the Seed, ” Devel- Lausche, 1985. opment Dialogue 1(2), 1983. 42. International Union for Conservation of Nature 57. Moulton, W., “Constraints to International Ex- and Natural Resources, “Report on IUCN’S Par- change of Animal Germplasm, ” OTA commis- ticipation in the First Session of the FAO Com- sioned paper, 1985. mission on Plant Genetic Resources, ” Rome, 58, National Council on Gene Resources, Anadro- Mar. 11-15, 1985 (Gland, Switzerland: IUCN, mous Salmonid Genetic Resources: An Assess- 1985), In: Lausche, 1985. ment and Plan for California, prepared for Cali- 43. International Union for Conservation of Nature fornia Gene Resources Program, 1982. and Natural Resources, World Conservation 59. National Research Council, UNESCO Science Strategy (Gland, Switzerland: 1980). Program: Impacts of U.S. Withdrawal and Sug- 44. International Union for Conservation of Nature gestions for Alternative Interim Arrangements, and Natural Resources, Categories, Objectives, A Preliminary Assessment (Washington DC: Na- and Criteria for Protected Areas (Gland, Swit- tional Academy Press, 1984). zerland: 1978). 60. Organisation for Economic Cooperation and 45. Kahn, R., “Assessment of Plant Quarantine Development (OECD), 1984 State of the Envi- Practices,” OTA commissioned paper, 1985. ronment Report (Paris: 1985), 46, Keya, S.0., Freire, J,, and DaSilva, E. J., “MIR- 61. Perrin, R. K., Kunnings, K. A., and Ihnen, L, A,, CENS: Catalytic Tools in Agricultural Training Some Effects of the U.S. Plant Variety Protec- and Development, ” Impact of Science on Soci- tion Act of 1970, Economics Research Report ety 142:142-151, 1986. No. 46 (Raleigh, NC: North Carolina State Uni- 47. Lausche, B., “International Laws and Associ- versity, Department of Economics and Business, ated Programs for In-Situ Conservation of Wild 1983). In: Bliss, 1985. Species,” OTA commissioned paper, 1985. 62. Perry, J, S,, “Managing the World Environment, ” 48. Lausche, B,, World Wildlife Fund, ~ersonal Environment 28(1):10-15, 37-40, January/Febru- communication, June 1986. ary 1986. 49, Lesser, W, H., and Masson, R, T., An Economic 63. Plucknett, et al,, “Crop Germplasm Conserva- Analysis of the Plant Variety Protection Act tion and Developing Countries, ” Science 22o: (Washington, DC: American Seed Trade Asso- 163-169, Apr. 8, 1983. ciation, 1983). 64. Porter, J. R,, “The World View of Culture Col- 50, Loyns, R. M. A., and Begleiter, A, J., “An Exami- lections,” The Role of Culture Collections in the nation of Potential Economic Effects of Plant Era of Molecu)ar Biology, R.R. Colwell (cd.) Breeder Rights on Canada, ” Working Paper, (Washington, DC: American Society for Micro- Policy Coordination Bureau, Consumer and biology, 1976]. In: Halliday and Baker, 1985. Corporate Affairs Canada, no date. 65. Rubinoff, I., “The Preservation of Tropical 51, Lucas, G., and Oldfield, S., “The Role of Zoos, Moist Forests: A Plan for the South, ” unpub- Botanical Gardens, and Similar Institutions in lished, 1984. the Maintenance of Biological Diversity, ” OTA 66. Simon, J., “Disappearing Species, Deforestation, commissioned paper, 1985. and Data,” New Scientist, May 15, 1986, pp. 52. Lyster, S., International Wildlife Law (Cam- 60-63. bridge, England: Grotius Publications, Ltd., 67. Stiles, S., “Biotechnology: Revolution or Evo- 1985). lution for Agriculture?” Diversity 8:29-30, win- 53. MacFadyen, J. T,, “United Nations: A Battle ter 1986. Over Seeds,” The Atlantic 256(5):36-44, Novem- 68, Sun, M,, “The Global Fight Over Plant Genes, ” ber 1985. Science 231:445-447, Jan. 31, 1986. 54. Malone, T. F,, and Roederer, J.G. (eds.), Global 69. Sweatman, I. M,, “The World Conservation Ch. 10—Maintaining Biological Diversity Internationally ● 281

Bank, ” Project of the International Wilderness DiversitJ in the united States, OTA-BP-F-38 I,eadership Foundation, 1986. (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Of- 70. Tooze, W., “S~~dS of Dis[;ord, ” ~arron ‘s, July fice, February 1986). 30, 1984. 78 Walter, S. M., and Birks, H., “Botanic Gardens 71. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cul- and Conservation, ” WWF Plants Campaign- tural Organization, “Action Plan for Biosphere Plant pac No. 5 (Gland, Switzerland: World Reserves, IVat[lre and Resources XX(4):1 1-22, Wildlife Fund, 1984). 1984. 79. Williams, J. T., “A Decade of Crop Genetic Re- 72 IJnitd N’ations Educational Scientific, and Cul- sources Research. ” In: J.H. W. Holden and I.T. tural Organization, International Co-ordinating Williams, Crop Genetic Resources: Conseri~a- Council for the Programme on Man and the Bio- tion and Et~aluation (Boston: George Allen & Un- sphere, Ninth Session, MAB/Icc-9/coNF.4, win, 1984), Paris, Oct. 23, 1986. 80, Williams, S. B,, “Protection of Plant Varieties 73. United Nations Environment Programme, Reg- and Parts as Intellectual Property, ” Science ister of International Treaties and Other Agree- 225:18-23, July 6, 1984. ments in the Field of the Environment (Nairobi, 81. Witt, S. C,, Biotechnology and Genetic Di~~ersit}~ Kenya: 1984), In: Lausche, 1985, (San Francisco: California Agricultural Lan(fs 74. United Nations Environment Programme, Glo- Project, 1985). hal Resources Information Database (Nairobi: 82< Witt, S. C., “FAO Still Debating Germplasm Is- UNEP/GEMS, 1985]. sues, ” Di~ersitJ (8):24w25, winter 1986. 75. United Nations Environment Pro,qramme, “UNEP 83< Wood, H. W., Jr., “The United Nations World and Protected Areas—Review of Joint Activities Charter for Nature: The Developing Nations’ Carried Out by CJNEP and FAO, IUCN and the Initiative To Establish Protections for the Envi- UNESCO MAB Program me 1973 -1982,” paper ronment ,“ Environmental Lawr Quarter]J 12(4): presented at the World National Parks Congress, 977-998, 1985. Bali, Indonesia, Oct. 11-22, 1982 (Nairobi: 1982). 84, World Resources Institute, Tropical Forests; A 76,. United Nations Conference on the Human Envi- CaZl for Action, Report of an International Task ronment, “Declaration on the Human Environ- Force convened by the World Resources Insti- merit, ” Keesing’s Contemporary Archives, Sept. tute, The World Bank, and the United Nations 16-23, 1972, pp. 25476-25479. In: Lausche, 1985. Development Programme (Washington DC: 77. U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assess- 1985). ment, Grassroots Conservation of Biological Chapter 11 Biological Diversity and Development Assistance CONTENTS Page Highlights .o. Q*a***, *o** .*oo*** **ee*o* o*. *@*************e********** 285 Introduction ...... ● ***,*..,**********.******************.*** 285 Integration of Economic Development and Biological Diversity

Maintenance *., ***. *o*. .#. c*o*.O* **** .*** ***o *a** O*@o****. ****a0* 287 U.S. Response ● .*.,,**.*.**************.* ● ***.*,**,**************** 289 Implementation of U.S. Initiatives: The Agency for International Development *.** .*** 6*. *.** o#e***. *.. **. **. ***@ *.. **o* . *********a 291 The Role of Multilateral Development Banks b e************************* 294 Promotion of Capacity and Initiatives in Developing Countries ...... 296 ~ÿ Building Public Support ...... $ ● ● . ● * ● , . * ● ● ● ● ● . . . ● ● ● ● .296 Establishing an Information Base ...... ● .* , ...... 298 Building Institutional Support ...... ● * * ● ● ● ● .0 ● ● * , ● ● . ● . ● . . . ● ..299 Promoting Planning and Management...... ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● . ● . ● ● ● ● ● ● 300 Increasing Technical Capacity...... 0....,,.,,...... ,0.0.. 302 Increasing Direct Economic Benefits of Wild Species Q * 4. * ● s ● ● . ● . ● ● . ● . ● 303 Chapter 11 ‘References ...... , . . * ...... * * *.*,**.** 305

Table No. 11-1. Country Environmental Profiles Undertaken or Supported by the Agency for International Development ...... 293

Boxes Box NO. Page 11-A. U.S. Stake in Maintaining Biological Diversity in Developing Countries *., *o. **69 **o* 0*. ..*. .. ***@Q*.***********"***'""*"** 286 11-B, Amendments to Foreign Assistance Act Concerning International Environmental Protection ● ..**,..**************@*************** 290 Chapter 11 Biological Diversity and Development Assistance

HIGHLIGHTS The United States has a stake in maintaining biological diversity in developing countries. Many of these nations are in regions where biological systems are highly diverse, pressures that degrade diversity are most pronounced, and the ability to forestall a reduction in diversity is least well developed. With recent amendments to the Foreign Assistance Act and earmarking of finds, the United States has defined maintaining biological diversity as an important objective in U.S. development assistance. It is unclear, however, whether the Agency for International Development (the principle U.S. development assistance agency) can effectively promote conservation of biological diversity. Development assistance can help improve the capacity of developing countries to maintain diversity by 1) building public support; 2) establishing an information base; 3) building institutional support; 4) promoting planning and management; 5) increasing technical capacity; and 6) increasing the direct economic benefits from sustainable use of biological resources. Multilateral development banks strongly influence the nature of resource development in developing countries. Recent congressional pressures to encourage these banks to place greater emphasis on environmental implications of their activities, including threats to biological diversity, have met with some success. Continued monitoring of progress in this area is necessary to enhance progress made to date.

INTRODUCTION

Concern about the loss of biological diver- The United States has a stake in maintaining sity is acute for developing countries for sev- biological diversity, particularly in developing eral reasons. First, the level of diversity is countries, The rationale for assisting develop- greater in developing countries particularly in ing countries rests on the following: tropical locations, than it is in industrial countries. Second, biological diversity is less well- 1. recognition of the substantial benefits of documented in developing countries. Third, a diversity of plants, animals, and micro- conversions of natural ecosystems to human- organisms; modified landscapes are more pronounced and 2. evidence that degradation of ecosystems likely to accelerate in developing countries due can undermine U.S. support of economic to the combined pressures of population growth development efforts; and and poverty. Fina]]y, developing countries 3. esthetic and ethical motivations to avoid characteristically lack both the technical and irreversible loss of unique life forms (see financial resources to address these issues. box 11-A).

285 286 • Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity

Bexlt-A.-U.S. Stake la Malatalatnl Bioloslcal Di..... llJ In DeYeloplaIJ Ceaatrles PolIIbII,.,.,. tries' economic and todaldeveloptoeDt, which in turn is linked inextricaDlJ to aequality and intearity of the world-s natural ~urce base. • The United Statest~lI .. bein8 re quattadby 8ov...... ?~ODIld. veiopment ol'laniztdtou to~tIduUcal a~ and fla8JiCiaI.luppod·lorconserva.. tion.. related activities in tIevelopiaa countries. B.ri,...... taI1.",,..,. • TheUnitedStat..... withSouthUd -tral America and the Caribheaas-hUndreds of speclesofmi8ratorY ~ insects. m.arine turtles, manunaJa-w... IUYiVal depends on .meiDt.iDtftt ...... :tu.bltatl, . • The Ufllted States .. c.Ifd'" to ..pre serve the world·s flora. fawla. iDtl vUlnerable 8Coeyatemi by Vilt.. ·of·~·ltIWation . .—. and national poIiciea,' •.•. ~'.• party to a Iarae number of in~>i:r.itventlon8 ang~ Princl1W~tI...... ures.arethe-E~ ... .MS0I1913, the eonv.aU_ ••...... :.' ..~iaBn .. dan,eredSpecles of Wild .. Mod--: FIlID8. and theCo~ventiob·ODN8f.ute~OD and . Wildlife PMMtvatloJ:( ••· .. w.tCtm Hemi.. sphere. " . .,..""_.,,,.IJ dfll -IM"·'-' . • Advan~ tit mecllctJl.~ad~ OIl re- . search amma1a f~ti'ld~~tries. n. United. States accl)Utlted··tor· m.ere than halftb- 88umated 3O.000.)Jri.... tr.. ed in.. ternattonally ill 1_ for u.ae • Jnedtca1 1'8: search... ' .. '. '..... • Rich ~11"8JI ofltviils ..t!IIII, ~"tathe p tllaaJ. wa. '~.'".' .... "...... _~ ...... ~ ... - .... MtIl...... ;;..... - b .. le and often,~"'."'i">llMlCenVi ~.""",,,,;-" ...... provide uaparalleW-...... tB.... stand complex ,...... I .• -of~" interaction. . .. Ch. 11—Biological Diversity and Development Assistance ● 287

INTEGRATION OF ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY MAINTENANCE

Interests and activities of development agen- tance Act (described in the next section), Con- cies and conservation organizations have gress directed the Agency for International De- merged in recent years, in light of the chang- velopment (AID) to support projects that have ing perspectives of these two groups, His- maintenance of biological diversity as a spe- torically, conservation organizations and de- cific objective, such as establishing protected velopment agencies planned their efforts areas and controlling poaching. independently in developing countries (64). Conservation organizations, in turn, realized Conservation groups focused almost exclu- that their traditional emphasis on establishing sively on natural areas, promoting protection parks and protected areas would be insufficient from human exploitation and preservation of to protect biological diversity and began to particular wild species and their habitats. In contrast, development organizations focused broaden their approach. These groups have increasingly realized that failure to account for on raising the standard of living in both rural the needs of rural people jeopardizes the long- and urban areas and concentrated on the ma- term success of conservation projects. jor agricultural species. A clear manifestation of conservationists’ ef- Increasingly, development assistance agen- forts to reorient their activities is the develop- cies and developing country governments are ment of the World Conservation Strategy establishing policies that recognize the impor- (WCS). This document links conservation with tance of environmental factors in development development and provides policy guidelines for strategies. These policies stem from a growing determining development priorities that secure awareness in development planning of the costs sustainable use of resources (20). The WCS has of ignoring environmental factors. The greater three principal objectives: 1) the maintenance reliance of developing-country economies on of essential ecological processes, 2) the preser- their natural resource base—soils, fisheries, and vation of genetic diversity, and 3) the sustaina- forests—underlies this growing appreciation for ble use of species and ecosystems. The docu- sustainability in development initiatives. ment is used to increase dialog on the interests and approaches of the development and con- Planning began to include environmental servation communities. It has been only par- considerations in cost-benefit and similar anal- tially successful, however. The WCS has been yses during the 1970s. The emphasis was on effective in narrowing the gap of conservation mitigating side effects, such as pollution and and development interests in policy documents, salinization. By the late 1970s, development but on a practical basis this gap remains. agencies began to include components to sustain the resource base that affected a project. Part of the problem with linking development Watershed protection above irrigation systems and conservation lies in the failure to identify received funding, for instance, Development common criteria and benefits. Conservation assistance in the early 1980s supported projects activities generally justify projects by biologi- to deal directly with the problems associated cal and esthetic criteria. For example, conser- with natural resource degradation, such as fuel- vation organizations would draw attention to wood shortages in arid regions. the Tuatara (Sphenodon punctatus) of New Zealand because it is the last remaining spe- Although maintaining biological diversity has cies of an entire order of reptiles (32). Unique not become an objective of assistance projects, or spectacular habitats are also given special these steps led toward development that gen- attention. Conservation organizations also fo- erally caused less resource degradation and cus on spectacular species of birds or mammals, thus generally benefited diversity maintenance, largely in response to the esthetic interests of In the 1983 Amendment to the Foreign Assis- contributors, 288 ● Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity

Development initiatives, on the other hand, on the people it is intended to help? Current are directed by economic criteria. Internal rates legislation (discussed later in this chapter) of return and similar economic analyses, for stresses the beneficial aspects of maintaining example, are important steps in justifying par- diversity in overall development. But some ticular projects. This emphasis can be detrimen- diversity maintenance projects can conflict tal for biological diversity because many values with local development interests. For instance, associated with maintaining diversity are dif- conflict can arise by denying access to re- ficult to measure (see ch. 2) and thus are un- sources on protected lands. Wildlife conserva- dervalued in development project decisions tion efforts in proximity to agricultural lands (28). The standard economic approach may be may also threaten crops, domestic livestock, unable to account for the loss of biological and even humans (9). diversity, where time horizons are long, benefits are diffuse, and losses are irreversible (37), In examining the issue of possible conflicts The problem is particularly acute for weakened between development and diversity mainte- economies where overexploiting renewable re- nance, it is perhaps useful to define two ap- sources to meet immediate needs often under- proaches to maintaining diversity. First is the mines the chances for long-term sustainability symptomatic approach. This is the approach of resources. typically undertaken by environmental groups and is often directed at protecting a particular Lack of institutional overlap also presents species and its habitat. Because of the focused problems in defining common ground among nature of this approach, needed interventions, development and conservation interests. usually involving strict protective measures, are Responsibilities for natural resources are gen- often easy to define. However, such a program erally split among agencies (e. g., agriculture, can be costly and difficult to implement, espe- forestry, and wildlife). Despite efforts by devel- cially if initiated only after threats reach a crit- oping countries to establish offices responsi- ical point. Problematic from a development per- ble for broader environmental issues, the agen- spective is the case where strict protective cies are frequently unable to add conservation measures impinge on the interests of local pop- components to development activities, let alone ulations. to compete with other agencies for financial or administrative support. Alternatively, there is a curative approach to Another management problem that can hin- threats to diversity. This approach attempts to der efforts to protect a particular habitat or spe- address the root causes of the threats to diver- cies is the imbalance between the means sity. It generally involves a much broader ar- devoted to conservation enforcement and the ray of initiatives and is less focused on diver- market value of the protected resource. The sal- sity per se. It emphasizes the human element aries of officials assigned to enforce conserva- of the conservation equation. tion measures can be extremely low compared to the worth of the resources they are guard- The greatest threats to diversity in developing. Perhaps a more difficult dilemma is trying countries stems less from the impacts of ing to dissuade local populations from ex- development than from a lack of development. ploiting or degrading protected areas when Addressing the root causes of threats to diver- subsistence requirements and lack of alterna- sity will therefore need to emphasize the avail- tives compel them to do so. ability of opportunities for individuals in developing countries to enhance their quality of This problem raises a central question in life. This is the approach generally taken by de- defining the role of development assistance in velopment assistance agencies in their efforts maintaining biological diversity. Should devel- to elevate standards of living by creating em- opment assistance support diversity mainte- ployment opportunities and increasing access nance if such initiatives have adverse impacts to education, health care, and family planning. _—

Ch. 1 l—Biological Diversity and Development Assistance . 289

Both approaches will be necessary in meet- ticipation of local populations. It seems reason- ing the challenges of diversity maintenance, able, therefore, to stress these criteria in de- Within the context of U.S. interests to promote velopment assistance projects supporting diversity maintenance through the channels of biological diversity. These criteria provide con- development assistance, it is important to stress sistency in U.S. interests in conservation and areas of overlap between these two approaches, development and promote projects most likely That is, emphasis should be placed on promot- to succeed. Cases will arise in which the paring the type of projects that, on the one hand, ticular focus of protection inevitably conflicts promote opportunities for local populations with local demands. Resolving such conflicts and, on the other hand, maintain the diversity is the responsibility of local or national gov- within biological systems. ernments, although foreign assistance can be useful, especially in providing resources to fa- This approach is based on the proposition cilitate or compensate for a particular interven- that the best way to maintain diversity within tion. Whether such support should be consid- a development initiative is to use that diversity, ered under particular development assistance Examples abound of efforts to capitalize on or through other channels is not clear, diversity maintenance in areas ranging from tourism to biological resource development (9). The greatest opportunities, however, lie in This utilitarian approach should be approached taking a more forward-looking and anticipatory with caution, however. It is important to en- approach by helping countries define strategies sure that initiatives will be environmentally, and policies to preempt such conflicts. Support economically, and institutionally sustainable for planning, management, and inventory of over the long term. Identifying possibilities for diversity, promoting in-country expertise, and multiple uses of an area or biological resource constituencies to support diversity mainte- should be stressed. Further, it is important to nance initiatives help reduce the incidence of ensure that the benefits of such interventions conflict between development and diversity actually accrue to the people affected, maintenance. In the final analysis, the success of U.S. support for maintaining diversity in de- A consensus exists that long-term conserva- veloping countries will depend on success in tion must have a base of support at the national promoting the capacity in the developing coun- level and account for the interests and par- tries themselves.

After nearly a decade of legislative and ● directs the Administrator of AID, in con- administrative concern about the role of U.S. sultation with the heads of other appropri- foreign assistance in environmental protection ate government agencies, to deveIop a U.S. (see box 11-B), the case for U.S. action to con- strategy including specific policies and serve diversity in developing countries was rec- programs to protect and conserve biologi- ognized in Section 119 of the Foreign Assis- cal diversity in developing countries (Sec. tance Act (FAA), added by Congress as part of 119(c)); and the International Environment Protection Act ● requires the President to report annually of 1983 (Public Law 180-64). This amendment to Congress on the implementation of Sec- includes the following: tion 119 (Sec. l19(d)). authorizes the President to furnish assis- Section 119 signals Congress’ belief that U.S. tance to countries in protecting and main- development assistance should specifically ini- taining wildlife habitats and in developing tiate projects traditionally undertaken by con- sound wildlife management and plant conservation organizations. In effect, AID has been servation programs (Sec. l19(b)); directed to deal not only with the foundations 290 . Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity

Box 11-Ih-Amamdmamm w I%m#gn AtMstamca Am Cwmming

fkmgreasionalcmmern withtal proteetim has Wmmwd markedly over the last decade. U.% foreign aasi~tqnco @qpmns bqym iwmgpomting mwkmmental concerns in the lata 1970a when a mriaa of to b Foreign Assistance Aat defined the Agency fbr International Dtwekqmwnt% [AID) mandate in the area of emdronment and natural reimurcas, ‘I%esa arnendmentd gave sptwific emphasis to promoting efforts to hah tropical deforestation, a major threat to conserving biokgical diversity. addrwm ● 1977: Added rww Section 118 on “R@ronrnent and Natural Resources,” authorizing AID to fortify “the capacity of less dtwdqed countries to protect and manage their environment and natural resources” and to “maintain and where possible restore the land, vegetation, water, wildlife, and other resourcw upon which depend economic growth and well-being, especially that of the poor.” ~ ● 1978: Amended Section 118, requiring AID to carry out country studies in the developing world to identifi natural resource problems and institutional mechanisms to solve them. ● 1078/7$: Amended Section 103 to emphasiza formtry assistance, acknowledging that deforestation, with its attendant specias loss, constituted an impediment to meeting basic human naeds in devekqh~ cmmtrif3s. ● 1$81: Amended Section 118, maktng AID’s environmental review regulations part of the act, and added a mbmctkm [d], #xpressing that “CQngrms is particularly concerned about the continuiq and aecsbating alteration, destruction, and loss of tropical forests in developing countries.” Instructs the Presickmt to take them concerns into account in formulating policies and programs r&ting to bilatwal and multilateral assistance and to private sector activities in the developing world. ● 1988: Added Section 119, directing AID in consultation with other Federal agencies to develop a U.S. strat~gy on conserving biological diversity in developing countries. Redesignated Se&on 11$ as Section 117 with the new Section 118 addressing tropical forest issues. Amended Section 119, whi~h among other things earmarked money for biological diversity projects. SOURCE: Adapted from B. Rich and S. Schwartzmani ‘The Role of Development Assistance in Maintaining Biological Diversity k$ftu in Developing Countries,” (3TA commissioned paper, 19S5.

of the threats but also with some of the conse- but this is done without any indication of fund- quences. ing mechanisms. Some critics have questioned whether the strategy advances a cohesive plan The U.S. Strategy on the Conservation of Bio- and whether U.S. Government agencies are sig- logical Diversity: An Interagency Task Force nificantly increasing their allocation of re- Report to Congress was delivered to Congress sources to address this issue (54,58). Severe bud- in February 1985, in response to Section 119. get constraints undoubtedly limit the degree to This report was followed by an annual report, which new programs can be put forward. It is Progress in Conserving Biological Diversity in therefore critical for agencies to establish clear Developing Countries FY1985, which outlines priorities and to indicate which actions need implementation of Section 119 a year later. to be taken and how much they will cost. The strategy has been criticized for lack of AID drafted an Action Plan on Conserving commitment to action, even though it contains Biological Diversity in Developing Countries, 67 recommendations. Its most concrete aspect to apply the general recommendations to spe- is allocation of responsibilities among agencies, cific agency programs and policies (51). It pro- — ——

Ch. 11—Biological Diversity and Development Assistance . 291 poses specific actions based on strategy rec- the need to develop a more refined strategy for ommendations and assigns them a priority of identifying priority projects. near-term (within the next two fiscal years) or Despite the criticisms of AID’s draft action long-term (requiring additional or redirected plan, it represents the agency’s effort to iden- resources). However, it is clear that initiatives tify its responsibilities for about half of the 67 are determined by funding restrictions rather recommendations contained in the strategy. than by critical needs. Other Interagency Task Force members have Another difficult y with the draft action plan yet to identify how their resources and exper- is reflected in responses from various AID mis- tise could be applied to the strategy. Develop- sions. Reviews of the draft express skepticism ment of action plans by other Federal agencies that specific initiatives can be implemented at may be a useful way to identify strengths and the mission level, based solely on the broad, opportunities within each agency, to identify generalized directions it contains. Recent con- areas for cooperation, and to provide a way to gressional earmarking of the AID budget to examine agency commitments more effectively. support diversity projects further emphasizes

IMPLEMENTATION OF U.S. INITIATIVES: THE AGENCY FOR INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Overall, AID has developed an extensive set may hamper efficient management of agency of guidelines and procedures for programs to resources (16,53,60). incorporate concerns for the environment. To AID has been forced to allocate declining re- this extent, it deserves high marks compared sources in response to various congressional with other development assistance agencies, mandates. It is unlikely that programs to safe- both bilateral and multilateral. Less evident, guard diversity can compete successfully for however, are indications that these procedures an increased share of the AID budget. Reviews are being consistently implemented, Critics of AID’s implementation of environmental question AID’s incorporation of environmental projects provide reason to be skeptical (16,41). assessments of project development at a stage when modifications can be easily made (67), Because diversity conservation is related to many factors (e. g., poverty, population pres- Several factors limit AID’s implementation sure, pollution, and agricultural policies), AID of biological diversity initiatives in developing believes its obligations are largely addressed countries, including a belief by the agency that by conventional assistance projects (41), For in- it is adequately addressing biological diversity, stance, the February 1985 task force report to declining budgets and staff to initiate projects, Congress identified 253 projects as having a and an inadequate number of trained person- conservation component (62). Few of these, nel to address conservation issues. however, are the types of projects identified in Section 119. Most involve more indirect con- Defining the maintenance of biological diver- tributions, such as reducing destructive pres- sity as a priority is viewed with some trepida- sures on habitats. tion at the highest levels of AID (27), The issue is seen as one among many priorities (e. g., These indirect initiatives are critical, of women in development, child welfare, and so course. Without them, the long-term prospects on) identified in the Foreign Assistance Act, for biological diversity would be dismal. per- Although such mandates have been partially haps projects identified in Section 119 should effective, their numbers, the frequency of be viewed as supplemental measures or as at- changes, and the lack of priority among them tempts to designate important conservation 292 “ Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity

areas while they can still be easily protected. One proposed way to increase the emphasis One concern, however, is that Section 119, as and visibility of environmentally related issues the central piece of legislation addressing con- is to elevate FNR to a bureau (10). Because many cerns for maintaining diversity in developing of the funding allocation decisions are made countries, may define biological diversity, and at the bureau level, this change in status may the initiatives to conserve it too narrowly. increase the share of resources devoted to diversity projects. Such an action, on the other hand, Congress has expressed dissatisfaction with could isolate a newly established bureau. the level of funding AID has directed to meeting the provisions of Section 119 by earmark- An alternative is to establish a separate funding $2.5 million for diversity projects in fiscal ing source, such as a Forestry, Natural Re- year 1987. This amount represents the only sources, and Environment account, for vari- specified funding for environmental projects ous bureaus and offices as well as overseas contained in the FAA. That this appropriation missions to draw on, Several functional ac- is intended to account for diversity on three counts (e. g., Agriculture, Rural Development, continents, however, stresses the need to allo- and Nutrition; and Population and Health) al- cate this funding judiciously. Also of concern ready exist. Establishing an additional account is the impact of this earmarking on support for will likely be seen as further constraining AID’s other conservation initiatives, such as those in flexibility. It would, however, place resources Sections 117 and 118 of FAA that lack any spe- behind congressional concerns for biological cific funding provisions. diversity and the environment and natural resources generally, as outlined in Section 119 Yet simply allocating new funds for diversity as well as Sections 117 and 118. projects may not be an adequate response. If projects are proposed to meet a spending tar- Another approach would seek to incorporate get without allocations based on an established biological diversity concerns into AID devel- set of priorities, efforts may be inefficient or opment activities at different levels of the even counterproductive. agency ranging from general policy documents at the agency level to more strategic efforts at The agency’s commitments to biological the regional bureau and missions levels. AID diversity projects and to acting on environ- could prepare a policy determination (PD) doc- mental concerns have been eroded by the ument on biological diversity that would serve Gramm-Rudman-Hollings Act (70). Overall, 4.3 as a general statement that maintaining diver- percent of AID’s 1986 budget was sequestered, sity is an explicit objective of the agency. but the Office of Forestry, Natural Resources, and the Environment (FNR) had its budget cut Existence of a PD could mean that consider- 25 percent (26). Such reductions indicate where ation of diversity concerns would, where appro- agency priorities lie and add credence to claims priate, become an integral part of sectoral pro- that despite a commitment to environmental gramming and project design. Further, it would concerns, commitment in the form of resource require that projects be reviewed and evaluated allocation lags. by the Bureau of Program and Policy Coordi- nation for consistency with the objectives of It should also be noted, however, that the two the PD. Because of the increase in bureaucratic major funding sources (the Agricultural, Ru- provisions this would create, the formulation ral Development, and Nutrition account and of a PD on diversity would probably not be well the Selected Development Activities account) received within AID. that support most environmental projects also suffered disproportionate cuts—15.5 and 20.6 The three regional bureaus (i.e., Africa, Asia percent (50). These reductions reflect congres- and Near East, and Latin America and the sional, not AID, appropriations. Caribbean) could also prepare documents that Ch. 1 l—Biological Diversity and Development Assistance ● 293 identify important biological diversity initia- Statements and other country-level documents tives in their regions. The Asia and Near East prepared by AID address diversity concerns. Bureau, in fact, has already prepared such a Most missions, however, lack the expertise or document. But the lack of agency commitment adequate access to expertise needed to address and the hesitancy of the bureau to redirect this provision of Section 119 as amended. scarce funds have reduced the document’s util- AID has recently developed a concept paper ity thus far. The Africa Bureau is currently com- to explore the desirability of establishing a pleting a natural resources management plan diversity project within AID’s Bureau of Sci- that includes an assessment of regional priori- ence and Technology. Benefits of such a project ties for biological diversity maintenance. include centralizing access to funding and per- The development of such reports for each re- haps expertise on biological diversity. The pre- gional bureau is considered an effective way liminary nature of the concept paper, however, to identify priorities for projects, especially makes more critical assessment premature. given the earmarking of funds. A network of In response to AID funding cuts, staff cuts, specialists and information sources already ex- and a move to cut management units, conser- ists to help identify priority areas. For exam- vation groups have proposed several ways to ple, committees of the International Union for loosen up money for biological diversity proj- the Conservation of Nature and Natural Re- ects (2,6). Of particular interest are calls for sources (I UC N), and especially its Conserva- greater use of Public Law 480 funds for con- tion Monitoring Center in Cambridge, England, servation projects. This option has both prece- are major sources of such information. dence (52) and the potential to increase activi- AID country-level environmental profiles can ties in this area. It would enable a relatively also identify priorities for diversity projects. small dollar amount to be supplemented with The agency has completed 50 preliminary larger amounts of foreign currency. The use Phase I profiles and 17 in-depth Phase II pro- of excess foreign currencies by the U.S. Fish files (see table 11-1), AID has also supported and Wildlife Service (discussed later in this “state of the environment” reports in five coun- chapter) provides further opportunities. tries, which are similar to environmental pro- Matching grants provided to conservation files but generally prepared within the coun- organizations offers another cost-effective way try by a local group (18). to promote projects. AID matching grants to The most important focus of biological diver- World Wildlife Fund-U.S. for its Wildlands and sity strategies is at the mission level, where Human Needs Projects and to The Nature Con- projects are implemented. Congress has already servancy International for its network of Con- mandated that Country Development Strategy servation Data Centers are good examples of such public/private cost-sharing initiatives. Table 11-1 .—Count~ Environmental Profiles Another constraint to implementing Section Undertaken or Supported by the Agency 119 is the lack of adequately trained personnel for International Development in environmental sciences within AID (6,10,67). State of the Although AID designates an environmental of- Phase I Phase II environment ficer at each mission, the person may have lit- Areas with ~rofiles profile profile report tle background in environmentally related is- AsidNear East/North Africa ...... 15 1 2 sues. The duties of an environmental officer Latin America/Caribbean . 14 14 2 are included with numerous other duties; few Sub-Saharan Africa . . . . . 21 2 1 AID personnel are full-time environmental Total ...... 50 17 5 officers. SOURCE International Institute for Enwronment and Development, Environmen- tal Planning and Management Project, “Country Environmental Pro- ftles, Natural Resource Assessments and Other Reports on the State The agency could recruit personnel with envi- of the Environment “ Washington, DC, May 1986 ronmental science backgrounds and provide 294 Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity further training to officers to address this prob- that focus on biological diversity, Increased col- lem. Developing-country professionals could laboration between AID and the Peace Corps also be enlisted as environmental officers can be mutually beneficial. within the missions. This action would be consistent with recent agency emphasis on reduc- Section 119 states the following: ing the U.S. presence in AID missions for eco- . . . whenever feasible, the objectives of this sec- nomic as well as security reasons. tion shall be accomplished through projects Taking advantage of expertise that exists managed by appropriate private and voluntary within other U.S. agencies (e.g., National Park organizations, or international, regional, or national nongovernmental organizations INGOs] Service, Fish and Wildlife Service, the Nation- that are active in the region or country where al Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, the project is located. Smithsonian Institution, and Peace Corps) could also significantly enhance the effective- A number of NGOs are already working with ness of development assistance. The agency al- AID in developing capacity to maintain diver- ready has a Resource Services Support Agree- sity in developing countries. These include im- ment with the U.S. Department of Agriculture portant initiatives in the areas of conservation to provide forestry expertise and services. Such data centers, of supporting development of na- mechanisms can be used to establish a formal tional conservation strategies, and of imple- agreement with agencies such as the Depart- menting field projects. AID is also using a pri- ment of the Interior to provide AID missions vate NGO to maintain a listing of environmental with access to conservation expertise, In addi- management experts. Such partnership could tion, other agencies such as the Peace Corps continue to be encouraged by Congress through are already supporting some projects in the field oversight hearings, for instance.

Multilateral development banks (MDBs) are pressures. An important element is the devel- the largest providers of development assistance oping-country sector work of the MDBs-policy and have considerable influence on develop- documents produced as background material ment policy and financing. In this capacity, to help identify priorities in lending. they are uniquely situated to influence environmental aspects of development (40). In 1983, MDB’s influence on policy can be the single the World Bank, the Inter-American Develop- most important influence in many countries on ment Bank, the African Development Bank, and the development model adopted (41). Because the Asian Development Bank in 1983 loaned agricultural, rural development, and energy pol- at least $20 billion to fund projects in develop- icies can have profound effects on habitats, ing countries—nearly three times the amount diversity in developing countries can be sig- committed by the U.S. Agency for International nificantly affected by MDB policies. Development, the largest bilateral agency. The most immediate effect of MDBs on main- Funds loaned by MDBs are supplemented by taining biological diversity may be support for larger amounts from governments of recipient creating protected areas. The World Bank has countries, and many projects receive cofinanc- been the leader among development banks in ing from other development agencies and pri- this area—the bank has financed the protection vate banks. For every dollar loaned by the of 59,000 square kilometers in 17 countries. It World Bank, for example, more than 2 addi- has funded entire conservation projects—for tional dollars are raised from other sources (41). instance, a wildlife reserve and tourism project Many countries modify their development in Kenya. More often, it has included conser- policies in response to MDB suggestions and vation components in larger projects—for in- Ch. 11—Biological Diversity and Development Assistance ● 295 . stance, a protected area in conjunction with their use. We suggest that some agencies never an irrigation project in Indonesia. In this case, put some guidelines into operation because the designated area protects tropical forest and their function is to improve public relations. wildlife while providing key watershed man- . . . In many cases, staff do not use guidelines agement services. Even conservation compo- because agencies do not require their use, nor provide appropriate training and resources, nents that represent a small fraction of a nor establish any institutional penalties for fail- project’s total cost can play a substantial role ing to use them (16). in preserving diversity. A number of congressional hearings have The performance of MDBs in preserving di- brought to light evidence of serious ecological versity depends on their more general environ- problems resulting from projects supported by mental policies and the degree to which these MDBs (54,55,56,57). Through testimony pre- policies are implemented. In this regard, the sented at these hearings, several categories of banks have issued statements emphasizing the projects were identified that may directly con- need for sound environmental management tribute to large-scale environmental destruc- projects. tion. Categories cited as problematic included The World Bank, the Inter-American Devel- large-scale cattle ranching (especially in the opment Bank, the Asian Development Bank, tropics), hydroelectric power projects and ir- and six other multilateral in 1980 signed a rigation systems, and resettlement projects (41). “Declaration of Environmental Policies and Evidence of low economic returns and high Procedures Relating to Economic Develop- environmental costs associated with a number merit. ” As a result, these organizations formed of these projects suggest that greater scrutiny the Committee of International Development of environmental impacts should be applied be- Institutions on the Environment (CIDIE), un- fore MDBs provide financing. der the auspices of the United Nations Envi- Following these hearings, the House Subcom- ronment Programme (UNEP). CIDIE has met mittee on International Development Institu- five times since 1980 to exchange information tions and Finance issued a series of recommen- on progress and plans of MDBs for improving dations to the U.S. Treasury Department, in their environmental performance. Under the effect proposing a U.S. environmental policy terms of agreement, the agencies will perform for MDBs (41). These recommendations were systematic environmental analyses of activities, largely supported by the Treasury Department, fund programs and projects designed to solve the lead Federal agency for U.S. participation environmental problems, manage resources in these organizations. Included were calls for sustainably, and provide support for improving increased environmental staffing and manda- environmental policymaking institutions and tory procedures for project review, and for the their capacity to implement environmental con- U.S. executive directors of the MDBs to try to trols in developing countries. modify or oppose projects that would erode the A study prepared by the International Insti- natural resource base. Recommendations also tute for Environment and Development for the emphasized the needs for institution-building fourth CIDIE meeting found, however, that the and training in conservation, improved man- commitment of MDBs to sound environmental agement of protected areas, involvement of in- management in development projects was not digenous peoples in development planning, and effectively translated into action. The study withdrawal of support from projects that cause came to the following conclusions: extensive damage to habitats in species-rich areas. The fact that we found so little evidence of the application of existing guidelines suggests Because U.S. influence in MDBs has tradi- that either they have been tried and found use- tionally been strong, a concerted effort from less, or that agencies have not made sufficient the U.S. executive directors no doubt could im- resources and incentives available to sustain prove MDB environmental performance and 296 ● Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity

make significant contributions to maintaining executive directors is likely to be needed, such biological diversity. Emergence of a Wildlands as in efforts to enlist greater environmental ex- Management Policy at the World Bank may, pertise within the banks. Language contained in part, reflect congressional and public atten- in the fiscal year 1986 appropriations bill clearly tion on the subject. The recently approved pol- reflects congressional interest on this subject icy sets guidelines for the management of nat- (21). ural areas in bank projects. These include Consideration could also be given to promot- avoiding conversion of wildlands of special ing the approach to diversity maintenance em- concern, giving preference to using already bodied in the recent World Bank policy. To this converted lands, compensating for the loss of end, U.S. representatives could be encouraged wildlands by setting aside similar areas, and to establish a similar approach within CIDIE. preserving relevant wildland areas. To maintain momentum, however, continued congressional oversight and input from U.S.

PROMOTION OF CAPACITY AND INITIATIVES IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

A large number of initiatives at the interna- These arguments may be insufficient or un- tional level have addressed various aspects of convincing for many developing countries, diversity maintenance in developing countries especially when national resources would have (see ch. 10). These range from international to be devoted to maintaining diversity, yet the meetings to treaties and conventions such as benefits would accrue outside their borders. In the Convention on International Trade in En- other cases, a country may acknowledge its na- dangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna. tional interests in maintaining diversity but lack Such initiatives can be important in raising the resources—both financial and technical— awareness of the issue and of national respon- to stem the loss, sibilities. They can effectively set standards, Six priority areas where U.S. bilateral assis- monitor progress, serve as promotional work, tance could promote abilities and initiatives in and establish legal norms (8). An international developing countries have been identified: perspective also enables interested parties to building public support, establishing an infor- define global priorities. However, translating mation base, building institutional support, these initiatives into concrete activities requires promoting planning and management, increas- that they be implemented and supported at the ing technical capacity, and increasing eco- national and local levels, underlining the im- nomic benefits derived from wild species, Al- portance of developing national capacities and though described separately, these areas are constituencies to address loss of diversity. mutually reinforcing. The responsibility for maintaining biological diversity within a country’s borders ultimately Building Public Support falls on national governments. Yet it can be argued that national governments have respon- Creating a favorable climate of public opin- sibilities to the international community. Avoid- ion is critical to the success of conservation pro- ing loss of genetic resources that may meet the grams, Developing countries commonly lack needs of future generations and maintaining an organized base of citizen support; in the few diversity because it represents the biological cases where support has existed, in Ecuador heritage of the planet are commonly heard argu- for example, it has been a key element in ef- ments in this regard, forts to launch programs.

Ch. 11-Biologica/ Diversity and Development Assistance 297

A study of poor farmers in Costa Rica found (36). A major constraint at all school levels is that: the shortage of appropriate teaching materials in local languages (67). Furthermore, most text- . . . farmers could not comprehend the concept books use examples drawn from temperate of “untouchable” forest reserves, The values of outdoor recreation, wildlife, and biological zone ecosystems, which can be difficult for stu- diversity may be seen by wealthy policy makers dents in the tropics to understand. Development but they are generally alien to poor farmers of teaching materials could help remedy this. struggling for survival (45). In Costa Rica, the World Wildlife Fund’s con- Consequently, efforts to protect habitats may servation and education program, working with depend on demonstrating to rural populations the Ministry of Education and educators and that they will benefit from such activities and conservationists from local universities, devel- on soliciting their support in project design and oped educational material in Spanish for ele- implementation (36). mentary school ecology courses. The material was tested by 70 teachers in 11 schools, reach- Benefits to those in rural areas can be in the ing 2,000 students in 1982. The success of the form of actual financial compensation, as in program led to its adoption by the Ministry of the Amboseli game reserve in Kenya. Here, Education and to the distribution of materials Masai pastoralists participated in designing a to all public elementary schools in the country conservation program, and they now benefit in 1984. World Wildlife Fund expanded the pro- financially from the arrangement through tour- gram into Colombia and Honduras in 1984 and ist revenues and through employment oppor- to Brazil and Guatemala in 1985 (4). tunities (63). Alternatively, local support can be solicited by convincing people of the impor- Mobilizing public support through mass in- tance of maintaining diversity. In Malaysia, for formation campaigns has also been successful example, public support was marshaled to pro- in developing countries. In Malaysia, for ex- tect the Batu caves from quarrying by pointing ample, numerous private voluntary and non- out that the durian, a highly valued fruit crop, governmental organizations, such as the depends on cave-nesting bats for pollination (36), The opening of the Kuna Indian Udirbi Trop- ical Forest Reserve, a 5,000-acre park on Pana- ma’s Atlantic coast, resulted from integrating local peoples’ desire to protect a forested area of cultural and religious importance with the establishment of income-generating facilities for visiting scientists and naturalists. The project is unusual because it was initiated by the Kuna themselves and had unanimous support. A number of organizations (including the Centro Agronomic Tropical de Investigation y Ensenanze, the Smithsonian Tropical Re- search Institute, AID, the Inter-American Foun- dation, and the World wildlife Fund-U. S.) have provided technical and financial support, although both the benefits and management credit G responsibilities are being directed toward the An education project in Costa Rica funded by the World Kuna (41,69), Wildlife Fund allows elementary school students to study ecology with textbooks in their native language. Above, sixth graders study relationships between different plant species Emphasis on environmental education is The program, begun in 1982, has been expanded to Colombia, another strategy for building public support Honduras, Guatemala, and Brazil. 298 ● Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity

Malayan Nature Society, the Friends of the organizations (e. g., the Environmental Liaison Earth, and the Consumers’ Association of Centre in Nairobi) or through American groups Penang, conduct information programs to de- that have local counterparts or affiliates in develop public understanding (1), veloping countries. Another option is to have agencies with more experience working at the In a number of campaigns, flagship species grassroots level (e.g., the Peace Corps or the are identified. These are species with high es- Inter-American Foundation) take a lead in this thetic appeal that are often endemic to a coun- area. try, and consequently capable of generating public interest and pride in the nation’s biota. For instance, the yellow-tailed woolly monkey Establishing an Information Base —Peru’s largest and most endangered primate— Conducting an inventory and monitoring the is the centerpiece of a campaign to protect its biota are two key steps that facilitate correc- cloud forest habitat in a project begun in 1984 tive action in situations where human activity by the World Wildlife Fund-U.S. in conjunc- threatens diversity (5). An inventory can com- tion with the Natural History Museum of Lima bine a traditional biological survey with the and the Peruvian Conservation Foundation (69). most modern technology such as remote sens- Although this approach has been criticized for ing. It might also simply involve pulling to- focusing inordinate attention on large mam- gether information on the status, distribution, mals at the expense of other endangered taxa, and threats to major ecosystems and species it has been effective in rallying public support to determine conservation priorities and affect around certain species, promoting public land-use decisions. awareness and in the process protecting other endangered species through habitat preser- Monitoring biological diversity refers to sur- vation. veillance of the distribution and abundance of flora and fauna. The purpose is to detect ad- Support for indigenous private and voluntary verse impacts on species or habitats, assess the organizations has also been identified as an im- extent to which human activities are responsi- portant component of building public support. ble, and then promote corrective measures Bolstering such organizations can create relia- wherever possible (5). ble recipients and managers of conservation funding with the potential of becoming self- Although nationally instituted programs to supporting, a national constituency for exert- conduct inventories and monitor biological ing pressure on decisionmakers, public aware- diversity are rare, a few examples do serve as ness for biological diversity, and a grassroots models. The Mexican National Research Insti- capacity to respond quickly and flexibly where tute for Biological Resources (INIREB, from the governments cannot or will not (13,59). Moni- full title in Spanish), for instance, prepares an toring development projects for undesirable inventory of plant and animal resources, studies environmental impacts is another important threatened and endangered species, establishes role for these groups. reserves and protects habitats of ecological importance, develops alternative land-use strate- Experience has shown, however, that this ap- gies, and trains professionals in conservation- proach has certain constraints (18,59,60). These oriented fields. The range of activities under- include saturating particular groups with fund- taken by INIREB indicates the balanced ap- ing and distorting the natural growth of these proach of this organization. small organizations. AID, as a large agency usually dealing with large amounts of money, may Promoting national or regional databases to be reluctant to initiate contact with many small monitor biological diversity is an effective way organizations to promote small-scale projects. to synthesize information and help define re- These concerns can be addressed by working search and conservation priorities, A number more closely with umbrella nongovernmental of international organizations have developed Ch. 11-Biological Diversity and Development Assistance . 299 databases of use to governments, assistance Inventorying and monitoring biological re- agencies, and conservation organizations, Still, sources are also important in maintaining promoting in-country capacity for such activi- genetic diversity among domesticated species. ties is an important goal, First, these databases The rate at which farmers are replacing tradi- can provide a finer evacuation (i. e., of higher tional, genetically diverse crop varieties with resolution), defining local priorities within a more uniform, high-yielding varieties is the sub- regional context, than is possible with infor- ject of much concern in industrial and devel- mation covering larger areas. Second, the proc- oping countries. Considerable effort to collect ess can foster in-country expertise and bolster and store germplasm has already been made environmental effectiveness. for major crop varieties, with less done for mi- nor crops and wild relatives. A major initiative to develop country-level Conservation Data Centers (CDCS) in Latin Efforts have been made to collect data, in- America and the Caribbean is currently being cluding prototypes for national databases, on undertaken by The Nature Conservancy Inter- threatened breeds of livestock in developing national (TNCI). CDCS are modeled on the State countries (12). But, information on genotype Heritage Programs begun 15 years ago in the loss is inadequate to focus initiatives, USDA United States. To date, six CDCS have been could provide assistance in this area through established in partnership with local institu- increased support to the FAO and the Interna- tions, with plans to expand this to 35 programs tional Board for Plant Genetic Resources, for by the end of the decade, In terms of bolster- example, to heIp develop abilities to monitor ing national capacity, the strengths of CDC pro- losses of livestock and crop genetic resources, grams lie in their employment of scientists (a zoologist, a botanist, an ecologist, and a data BuildIng lnstitutional Support handler); their emphasis on institutionalizing the system; and their pressure to have local col- The greatest obstacles to addressing the loss laborating agencies adopt operational funding of diversity are less technical than economic after 3 to 5 years [13). and political. Consequently, building institutional capacity—in both the public and private The CDC programs devote little attention, sectors—is of paramount importance. However, however, to public education components. Fur- institution-building through development assis- thermore, although the programs assemble ex- tance is a difficult process that requires both isting information difficult for foreign institu- long-term commitment and a stronp apprecia- tions (e.g., from world museums and herbaria), tion of national sovereignty. they do little to provide new information in a region where at least five-sixths of the organ- Concern about the environment is a relatively isms are unknown (38). Overall these programs new addition to the political agendas of devel- are very useful in identifying areas of conser- oping countries—for many, it dates to the 1972 vation interest. Accordingly, the U.S. Fish and U.N. Conference on the Human Environment Wildlife Service has contracted with TNC1 to held in Stockholm, Sweden. At that time, much develop databases on distribution of natural of the attention on environmental problems in plant communities and to identify areas of high developing count ries was generated from out- endemism and diversity in Latin America (25). side, notably from industrial countries. Most lacked a national constituency among govern- In lieu of formal CDCS, which could take con- ment agencies, scientists, environmental siderable time, resources, and effort to dissem- groups, or the general public that perceived a inate broadly, some developing countries could threat stemming from degradation of the envi- benefit from more modest systems (35). A sim- ronment {17), ple computer in the office in a ministry or university could record existing studies and A great deal has changed since then. The represent a major improvement in national ca- Stockholm Conference accentuated pollution pacity, problems and the need for industrial standard 300 Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity setting—concerns most developing country logical diversity throughout a country’s insti- governments felt were industrial country prob- tutions (66). This AID-supported project, car- lems (23). Since then, environmental concerns ried out by the National Planning Secretariat have broadened to emphasize conservation of of the Presidency, involved some two dozen natural resources. Developing countries are on Paraguayan scientists, technicians, and other average six times more dependent on a produc- specialists. The emphases on increasing reli- tive resource base—soils, fisheries, and ance on national scientists and policy makers, forests—which provides rationale for greater on a broad intersectoral approach, and on sup- developing country concerns in this area (43). port from the highest levels of government are keys to meeting the objectives of building in- Discussions on environmental issues are now stitutions. being initiated by developing countries. The number of environmental agencies has in- Promoting Planning and creased since 1972 from about one dozen to 110 (43). However, most agencies have been ineffec- f Management tive in addressing environmental concerns. As pressures on natural resources in devel- This ineffectiveness is due to the constraints oping countries increase, the need to integrate discussed earlier, including a lack of person- conservation and development interests will be- nel, training, and resources; an inability to com- come more critical. Planning and management pete with established interests; and a lack of strategies should be included in resource de- legal authority. velopment initiatives—from habitat protection Encouraging the development of institutional onsite to germplasm storage offsite—and these capacity is not easy, but U.S. development assis- initiatives should consider wild species as well tance agencies have the experience and the le- as domesticates. gal mandate to help in the process. Initiatives Developing a national strategy to conserve to enhance the stature, effectiveness, and re- biological diversity should account for the sources of agencies responsible for conserva- mixed objectives for maintaining the array of tion have been identified (10). These initiatives species, and the mixed status of these groups include requiring developing country officials (29). A biological continuum of ecosystems, spe- to submit comments on environmental and nat- cies, populations, and varieties fills various ural resource aspects of U.S. development assis- needs, and various management programs and tance projects and soliciting greater input from techniques are appropriate. Consequently, ministries in AID’s development of country management objectives and technologies and environmental profiles and natural resource the links between them should be taken into assessments (10). account, as well as the most urgent problems The process of infusing an awareness of bio- to address (29). logical resources in overall development plan- One activity that addresses this problem is ning was an objective in an AID-supported nat- the development of national conservation strat- ural resources profile undertaken by the Thai egies (NCSS), which are general policy state- Development Research Institute—a national ments on the role of conservation in develop- policy analysis group (22). The process is im- ment planning (19). AID began support of an portant because it involves identification of NCS for Nepal in fiscal year 1985 through the needs and responsibilities of the 24 agencies International Union for the Conservation of Na- in Thailand responsible for natural resources. ture and Natural Resources (IUCN), and it is Ultimately, the profile should be incorporated continuing to assist in the preparation or im- into the country’s 5-year development plan. plementation of similar strategies for Sri Lanka, An environmental profile of Paraguay illus- the Philippines, and Zimbabwe (52). Although trates the importance of the process, as much the general nature of these documents may limit as the product, for infusing awareness of bio- their usefulness in implementing specific proj- Ch. 11—Biological Diversity and Development Assistance ● 301

ects, they can be important vehicles for present- esses affecting protected areas (see ch. 5 for fur- ing the case for maintaining biological diver- ther discussion). Strategies for conserving sity (evidenced by the NCS for Zambia) (44). diversity are starting to consider this, Conser- vationists are beginning to promote strategies The lack of management plans for specific that surround protected areas with zones of protected areas has been identified as a major compatible land use (such as the UNESCO bio- problem in almost all developing countries. sphere reserve program) and to encourage the without them, most areas suffer from inap- use of regional plans to manage resources (such propriate development, sporadic and inconsist- as the Organization of American States’ inent management, and lack of clearly defined tegrated regional development planning). management objectives, ways to develop such plans have been proposed and are being applied The potential of botanic gardens and zoolog- to six major protected areas: Amboseli, Kenya; ical gardens as a management tool in develop- Simen Mountains, Ethiopia; Sapo, Liberia; ing countries is unclear, but it could be en- Khao, Thailand; Sinharaja, Sri Lanka; and Am- hanced through links with other institutions boro, Bolivia (44). A country may also analyze and with existing international networks (see its existing parks and protected areas to develop ch. 10) (24). These institutions occupy a unique plans for an orderly allocation of natural areas position because of their links between onsite (44). Although few examples of such plans ex- and offsite efforts. One example proving suc- ist, methods for doing this analysis have also cessful is the Rio de Janeiro Primate Center that been developed. Systems are currently in place is involved with the captive breeding and rein- in Brazil, Indonesia, and Dominica (44). troduction of the golden lion tamarin (69).

In situ genebanks have received some atten- Concern over loss of agriculturally important tion as a way to conserve gene pools of wild resources suggests a need to devote more at- economic plants (see ch. 5). The strategy has tention to better management of germplasm col- particular relevance for developing countries, lection, storage, and use in developing coun- where most of the ancestral stock of current tries, preliminary studies have been conducted economic species occurs. General guidelines on the feasibility of enhancing national pro- for managing such units have been developed grams in animal germplasm maintenance. A (34). Sri Lanka (for wild medicinal plants), In- number of obstacles have been identified: tech- dia (for citrus and sugarcane), and Mexico (for nical constraints, problems of isolation of teosinte) have either prepared or are develop- breeds, disease control, funding sources for ing plans for in situ genebanks. Efforts are un- long-term facilities, and political concerns, such der way to expand this strategy to tropical South as where to locate genebanks and who owns America (35). them (15).

Maintaining diversity through traditional As mentioned earlier, several regional insti- parks and protected areas is becoming difficult tutions have already identified threatened for some nations for economic and political rea- breeds of livestock and maintained data on sons, and it is likely to become less common them. This work is also a starting point for en- in the future. Setting aside land for a single use hancing regional capacities to develop offsite can often be an economic impossibility. Some storage facilities. These institutions, which nations, particularly small countries and is- could benefit from financial or technical sup- lands, do not have the large, undisturbed tracts port, include the Inter-African Bureau for Ani- of land. The trend is toward integrating reserves mal Resources in Nairobi, Kenya; International as part of overall development plans, rather Livestock Centre for Africa in Addis Ababa, than adding them later as areas separate from Ethiopia; Asociacion Latinoamericana de development. Production Animal in Maracay, Venezuela; and the Society for the Advancement of Breed- Few approaches, however, have considered ing Research in Asia and Oceania in Kuala Lam- the role of human activities in ecological proc- pur, Malaysia (39). 302 ● Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity — .—

The number of crop genetic resource pro- For a total of 50 developing countries, there grams in developing countries has increased are only six technical colleges established to dramatically over the last decade. In part, this meet regional training needs for protected area increase reflects an awareness of the impor- managers: at Bariloche in Argentina, the Cen- tance of collecting, maintaining, and evaluat- tro Agronomic Tropical de Investigation y En- ing plant germplasm as a prerequisite to meet- senanze in Costa Rica, the Ecole de Fauna in ing future food requirements. Much of the Cameroon, the College of African Wildlife Man- change is also credited to the International agement in Tanzania, the Wildlife Institute of Board for Plant Genetic Resources (IBPGR), India in Dehra Dun, and the School of Conser- which has played a catalytic role in encourag- vation Management in Indonesia at Bogor (44). ing and supporting national genebanks. Most of these colleges need external support, and all could be encouraged to augment bio- Ten years ago, only a handful of genebank logical diversity concerns in their curricula. collections existed, primarily in industrial countries. As of 1985, 72 countries—45 of them in The efforts of several U.S. Federal agencies the developing world—had long- or medium- to provide training, technical assistance, and term germplasm storage facilities in operation distribution of technical information hold po- or under construction (33). IBPGR currently has tential for increasing technical capacity in de- agreements with 31 countries (25 of them developing countries. Those involved include the veloping ones) to serve as international base U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), National collections for long-term storage of plant germ- Park Service (NPS), U.S. Forest Service, the plasm, As the network of long-term collections Smithsonian Institution, and National Oceanic approaches its goal of 50, covering 40 major and Atmospheric Administration, Activities crops before the end of the century, greater at- have been outlined in several documents (e.g., tention will be focused on bolstering medium- ref. 61). For example, congressional legislation term collections, 100 of which have already to implement the Western Hemisphere Conven- been identified. Facilitating medium-term col- tion directs FWS to devote attention to person- lections is particularly important for those de- nel development in Latin America. This devel- veloping countries where the costs and tech- opment has been accomplished through several nical requirements make the establishment of initiatives, with special emphasis on training long-term facilities impractical. wildlife biologists, where possible, through in- The operation and effectiveness of various country workshops. The Foreign Service Cur- national plant germplasm programs is uneven. rency Program allows FWS to provide train- Particularly disconcerting has been the failure ing in Egypt, India, and Pakistan, Authorized of some national programs to respond to an in Section 8(a) of the Endangered Species Act, IBPGR Seed Storage Advisory Committee this program allows excess foreign currencies recommendation to rectify inadequacies and to be used toward conserving threatened or en- improve scientific standards at existing facil- dangered species in those countries (25). ities (65). AID and other government agencies have developed cooperative arrangements with several Increasing TechnicaI Capacity U.S. universities, other scientific institutions (e.g., botanic and zoological institutions), and The availability of trained personnel is private conservation organizations. These ar- another constraint to conservation. The prob- rangements provide avenues to direct assis- lem has been studied intensively in the Latin tance funding toward increasing technical ca- American region and in Africa since the mid- pacity and training of country personnel. 1970s (11,31,46,47,48,68). However, neither governments nor international or bilateral devel- The University of Michigan, through fund- opment assistance agencies have come forward ing from Federal agencies (e. g., NPS), has in- with sufficient funding to meet the needs out- ternational seminars that provide training in lined in these studies. areas such as park management, forest man-

Ch. 1 l—Biological Diversity and Development Assistance w 303

agement, and coastal-marine management. FWS has undertaken several projects with World Wildlife Fund-U.S. to promote expertise in species and habitat conservation. The University of Florida, in conjunction with a program offered by the National Zoo’s Conserva- tion and Research Center in Front Royal, VA, provides hands-on research and training to developing-country students (4). U.S. development assistance could promote technical training through national and regional germplasm conservation and storage programs. Although most of the support for training currently comes from international organizations, principally the IBPGR and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), USDA could enhance its activities in this area through the National Plant Germplasm System and the Forest Serv- ice, The thrust of these U.S. agency efforts, however, may be better directed at identifying areas where assistance could be channeled through existing training programs. Specific training on conserving animal resources has been organized through FAO and UNEP. A 2-week course (taught in English) is offered through the University of Veterinary Photo ” Board Resources Science in Budapest, Hungary. The primary Genetic resources conservation requires a cadre of qualified goal of this course is to provide developing- personnel. The University of Birmingham in England has an country participants with an overview of the international postgraduate program In genetic conservation. present state of theory and practice (3). Al- though this type of training usefully draws attention to the importance of animal genetic re- country scientists have benefited from IBPGR- sources, conservation strategies will depend on supported courses on plant genetic resource a commitment by national governments to management and from internship programs at avoid haphazard crossing of indigenous breeds international agricultural research centers. In and to monitor the most endangered ones (15). addition, IBPGR has helped incorporate rele- Training and management are also critical vant courses in universities in several devel- for operating plant germplasm storage facilities, oping countries (65). Despite these advances, A l-year graduate program in conservation and training in genetic resource conservation and use of plant resources at the University of Bir- use still needs increased attention. mingham in England has provided training to more than 100 developing-country scientists Increasing Direct Econmic Benefits (14). Some graduates now direct genetic re- Of Wild Species sources programs in their home countries, IBPGR has also established a training program One of the most forceful arguments for the (taught in French) at Gembloux, Belgium, and need to maintain biological diversity has been a training program to be taught in Spanish is the potential that wild species hold to improve under consideration (14). Some 500 developing- the ‘quality of human life. The examples of

304 Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity perennial corn and rosy periwinkle (an anti- elsewhere. Given that the greatest diversity of Ieukemia drug) are commonly cited in the liter- potentially important organisms is located in ature on this subject. For the most part, how- developing countries (e.g., centers of diversity ever, this rationale has been expounded by sci- of crop species and moist tropical forests as entific, conservation, and political groups in sources of medicinal products), enhancing the industrial countries, where motivations as well incentives for developing countries is critically as technologies to exploit genetic resources are important. comparatively well-developed. Various mechanisms exist to promote iden- The point has been less forcefully argued or tification and development of biological re- acted on in developing countries. The reason sources in developing countries. Supporting re- may be because these countries have been un- search by developing-country scientists, such able to capitalize on their biological resources; as through the AID Program in Science and the products and profits from them—for man y Technology Cooperation (49), offers opportu- reasons, including differences in levels of tech- nities not only to promote development of in- nology, research facilities, and interest—accrue digenous biological resources but also to cultivate scientific expertise and supporting

credit: Nations/photo by S Stokes Ptrofo credit: 154002, S

Crocodile farm in Papua New Guinea has potential to provide To reduce dependence on tea, rubber, and coconut exports, direct economic benefits and encourages protection Lanka is promoting the of of biological resources. minor export crops such as citronella. —.

Ch. 11—Biological Diversity and Development Assistance ● 305

institutions as well. Ethnobotanical surveys and and improving indigenous agricultural systems research represent another promising avenue is seen as a high priority for development assis- for encouraging greater recognition of the im- tance. Increasing attention is also being ad- portance and opportunities of maintaining bio- dressed at incorporating traditional agroeco- logical diversity. Wildlife-based tourism and systems within biosphere reserves programs other wildlife utilization enterprises offer fur- (30). ther possibilities. However, these should be ap- The prospects and promises of biotechnol- proached with some caution to ensure that ben- ogy have prompted a few developing countries efits actually accrue to the country and account to place a premium on developing their capac- for the interests of local populations (9). ities in this field. Although biotechnology’s con- Loss of agricultural genetic resources in de- tributions to biological diversity maintenance veloping countries is a pronounced concern. is mixed, the incentives it may provide devel- Addressing it will depend on enhancing capac- oping countries to protect and develop their ity in national agricultural programs and in- genetic resources argues for supporting devel- creasing awareness of the potential of germ- oping-country expertise. Access to technical plasm to contribute to development needs. procedures, however, is generally restricted to Continued U.S. support for International Agri- countries with well-developed capabilities. A cultural Research Centers, especially the Inter- large number of developing countries could ap- national Board for Plant Genetic Resources, ply these technologies to exploit genetic reserves an important role in this regard. Bilateral sources if access to information, training, and programs through the U.S. Department of Agri- technology were improved. Microbiological Re- culture, such as the one that currently exists search Centers, otherwise known as MIRCENS with Mexico, could also be promoted, Account- (see ch. 10), place a strong emphasis on training for the unique contributions of traditional ing developing-country scientists, The recently agricultural systems will also need special at- created International Center for Genetic Engi- tention, Ongoing research provides strong evi- neering and Biotechnology, established by the dence on the importance and potential of these United Nations Industrial Development Orga- high diversity, low input systems in address- nization, also has as its main function the dis- ing the particular needs and limitations of most semination of these technologies to developing developing-country agriculturalists (42), countries. Greater support for research in investigating

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10. Environment and EnergV StudV Institute Task 22, Kux, M., U.S. Agency for International Devel- Force, “A Congressional”Agenda for Improved opment, Rosslyn, VA, personal communica- Resource and Environmental Management in tions, June 1986. the Third World: Helping Developing Coun- 23, Lausche, B., World Wildlife Fund-U. S., Wash- tries Help Themselves, ” Washington, DC, ington, DC, personaI communications, June 1985. 1986, 11 Fahrenkrog, E., Fired Report: Study for the 24. Lucas, G., and Oldfield, S., “The Role of Zoos, Establishm-ent of an Inter-_American -Training Botanical Gardens, and Similar Institutions in Center for Management and Operations Per- the Maintenance of Biological Diversity,” OTA sonnel of National Parks and Similar Areas commissioned paper, 1985. (Washington, DC: World Wildlife Fund, 1978). 25. Mason, L., “InternationaI Assistance Programs In: Saunier and Meganck, 1985. of the Department of the Interior, Forest Serv- 12. Food and Agriculture Organization of the ice, and Advisory Council on Historic Preser- United Nations, Animal Genetic Resources vation,” U.S. Congress, House Committee on Conservation by Management, Data Banks, Interior and Insular Affairs, Subcommittee on and Training (Rome: FAO, 1984). Public Lands, Hearings, Oct. 8, 1985. 13. Goebel, M., The Nature Conservancy Interna- 26, McPherson, M. P,, administrator of Agency for tional, Arlington, VA, personal communica- International Development, letter to Congress- tions, June 1986. man Gus Yatron, chairman, U.S. Congress, 14. Hawkes, J. G,, Plant Genetic Resources, CGIAR House Committee on Foreign Affairs, Subcom- Study Paper No. 3 (Washington, DC: World mittee on Human Rights and International Bank, 1985). Organizations, Mar. 21, 1986a. 15. Hodges, J., “Annual Genetics Resources in the 27. McPherson, M. P., Agency for International Developing World: Goals, Strategies, Manage- Development Oversight Hearing, Apr. 21, ment and Current Status, ” Proceedings of 1986, Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, Third World Congress on Genetics Applied to Washington, DC, 1986b, Livestock Production, Lincoln, NE, vol. 10, July 28. Mueller-Dombois, D., Karawinata, K., and 16-22, 1986, Handley, L. L., “Conservation of Species and 16. Horberry, J., “Accountability of Development Habitats: A Major Responsibility in Develop- Assistance Agencies: The Case of Environ- ment Planning. ” In: Carpenter, R. (cd.), Natu- mental Policy,” Eco]ogy Law Quarter]y 23:817- ral Systems for Development: What Planners 869, 1986. Need to Know (New York: Macmillan Publish- 17. Howard-Clinton, E. G., “The Emerging Con- ing Co., 1983). cepts of Environmental Issues in Africa, n Envi- 29. Namkoong, G., “Conservation of Biological ronmental Management 8(3):187-190, 1984. Diversity by In-situ and Ex-situ Methods,” 18 International Institute for Environment and OTA commissioned paper, 1986.

Development, “Environmental Planning and 300 Oldfield, M. L., and Alcorn, J. B,, “Conservation Management Project, Country Environmental of Traditional Agroecosystems: A Reevalua- Profiles, Natural Resource Assessment and tion,” Bioscience, March 1987. Other Reports on the State of the Environ- 31. Organization of American States, Final Report: ment,” Washington, DC, May 1986, Technical Meeting on Education and Train- 19. International Union for Conservation of Na- ing for the Administration of National Parks, ture and Natural Resources, Conservation for Wildlife Reserves and Other Protected Areas, Development Center, National Conservation Regional Scientific Technological, Develop- Strategies: A Framework for Sustainable De- ment Program, Sept. 25-29, 1978, Merida, Ven- velopment (Gland, Switzerland: 1984). ezuela, 1978. In: Saunier and Meganck, 1985. 20. International Union for Conservation of Na- 32. Orians, G., and Kunin, W., “An Ecological Per- ture and Natural Resources/United Nations spective on the Valuation of Biological Diver- Environment Programme/WorId Wildlife sity, ” OTA commissioned paper, 1985. Fund, World Conservation Strategy (Gland, 33. Plucknett, D,, Smith, N., Williams, J. T., and Switzerland: IUCN, 1980). Anishetty, N. M., Gene Banks and The World’s 21. Kasten, Sen. R. W,, “Development Banks: Sub- Food (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University sidizing Third World Pollution, ” The Washing- Press, forthcoming). ton Quarterly, summer 1986, pp. 109-114. 34. Prescott-Allen, R., “Management of In Situ Ch. 1 l—Biological Diversity and Development Assistance ● 307 ——

Gene Banks, ” Proceedings of the 24th Work- 1983 y Sugerencias de Programaci6n para ing Session of CNPRA, Madrid, Spain, 1984. 1984, UNEP/I.G, 47/4, 1984. In: Saunier and In: Thorsell, 1985. Meganck, 1985. 35. Prescott-Allen, R., consultant, British Colum- 48 United Nations Environment Programme, Fi- bia, Canada, personal communications, May nal Report, Fourth Inter-Governmental Re- 1986, gional Meeting on the Environment in Latin 36. Rambo, T., “Socioeconomic Considerations America and the Caribbean, Cancb, Mexico, for the In-Situ Maintenance of Biological UN EP/l. G. 57/8, 1985. In: Saunier and Diversity in Developing Countries, ” OTA com- Meganck, 1985. missioned paper, 1985. 49. U.S. Agency for International Development, 37. Randall, A., “Human Preferences, Economics, The Office of the Science Advisor, Develop- and Preservation of Species, ” The Preserva- ment Through Innovative Research (Washing- tion of Species: The Value of Biological Diver- ton, DC: 1985). sity, B .G. Norton (cd. ) (Princeton, NJ: Prince- 50. U.S. Agency for International Development, ton University Press, 1986). Congressional Presentation Fiscal Year 1987: 38. Raven, P., Missouri Botanical Gardens, St, Main Volume (Washington, DC: 1986).

Louis, MO, personal communications, June 51% U.S. Agency for International Development, 1986. “Draft AID Action Plan on Conserving Biologi- 39. Rendel, J., Animal Genetic Resources Data cal Diversity in Developing Countries, ” pre- Banks (Rome: Food and Agriculture Organiza- pared by Bureau of Science and Technology, tion of the United Nations, 1984). Office of Forestry, Environment, and Natural 40. Rich, B., “The Multilateral Development Resources, Washington, DC, January 1986. Banks, Environmental Policy and the United 52< U.S. Agency for International Development, States, ” Eco]ogy Law Quarterly, spring 1985. “Progress in Conserving Biological Diversity 41. Rich, B., and Schwartzman, S., “The Role of in Developing Countries FY1985, ” Washing- Development Assistance in Maintaining Bio- ton, DC, February 1986. logical Diversity In-Situ in Developing Coun- 53. U.S. Congress, Congressional Research Serv- tries, ” OTA commissioned paper, 1985, ice, “U.S. Foreign Assistance in an Era of 42. Richards, P., Indigenous Agricultural Revolu- Declining Resources: Issues for Congress in tion (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1985). 1986, ” prepared by L,Q. Newels, CRS Rpt. No. 42a. Saunier, R., and Meganck, R., “Compatibility 86-95F, Washington, DC, 1986. of Development and the In-Situ Maintenance 54. U.S. Congress, House of Representatives, Com- of Biological Diversity in Developing Coun- mittee on Foreign Affairs, Subcommittee on tries, ” OTA commissioned paper, 1985. Human Rights and International Organiza- 43. Talbot, L., “Helping Developing Countries tions, U.S. Policy on Biological Diversity (hear- Help Themselves: Toward a Congressional ings on June 6, 1985) (Washington, DC: U.S. Agenda for Improved Resource and Environ- Government Printing Office, 1985). mental Management in the Third World, ” 55. U.S. Congress, House of Representatives, Envi- working paper (Washington, DC: World Re- ronmental Impact of Multilateral Development sources Institute, 1985). Bank-Funded Projects: Hearing before the Sub- 44 Thorsell, J., “The Role of Protected Areas in committee on International Development In- Maintaining Biological Diversity in Tropical stitutions and Finance of the House Commit- Developing Countries, ” OTA commissioned tee on Banking, Finance, and Urban Affairs, paper, 1985, 98th Cong., 1st sess,, 1983. 45, Thrupp, A,, “The Peasant View of Conserva- 56. U.S. Congress, House of Representatives, Draft tion, ” Ceres 14(4):31-34, 1981. Recommendations on the Multilateral Devel- 46. United Nations Environment Programme, Pro- opment Banks and the Environment: Hearing jet de Programme d’Action pour l’Education before the Subcommittee on International De- et la Formation en Matiere d’Environnement velopment Institutions and Finance of the en Afrique, UN EP/W. G. 87/2., 1983. In: Sau- House Committee on Banking, Finance, and nier and Meganck, 1985. Urban Affairs, 98th Cong., Zd sess., 1984. 47. United Nations Environment Programme, Red 57. U.S. Congress, House of Representatives, Regional de Instituciones para la Formaci6n Tropical Forest Development Projects—Status Ambiental, Informe de Actividades de 1982- of En vironmen tal and Amicultural Research: 308 ● Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity

Hearing before the Subcommittee on Natural gress on National Parks, Bali, Indonesia, Oct. Resources, Agriculture Research and Environ- 11-22, 1982, J.A. McNeely and K.R. Miller (eds.) ment of the House Committee on Science and (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Technology, 98th Cong., 2d sess., 1984. Press, 1984), 58. U.S. Congress, Senate Committee on Foreign 64. Western, D., “Conservation-Based Rural De- Relations, Hearings: Issues on Biological velopment, ” Sustaining Tomorrow: A Strategy Diversity and Tropical Deforestation, Mar. 19, for World Conservation and Development, F.R. 1986 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Print- Thibodeau and H.H. Field (eds.) (Hanover, NH: ing Office, 1986). University Press of New England, 1984). 59, U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assess- 65. Williams, J. T,, “A Decade of Crop Genetic Re- ment, Grassroots Conservation of Biological sources Research, ” Crop Genetic Resources: Diversity in the United States—Background Pa- Conservation and Evaluation, J.H.W. Holden per #1, OTA-13P-F-38 (Washington, DC: U.S. and J.T. Williams (eds.) (London: George Al- Government Printing Office, February 1986). len & Unwin, 1984). 60, U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assess- 66, Winterbottom, R., International Institute for ment, Continuing the Commitment: A Special Environment and Development, Washington, Report on the Sahel, OTA-F-308 [Washington, DC, personal communications, June 1986. DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, August 67, World Resources Institute, Recommendations 1986). for a United States Strategy To Conserve Bio- 61, U.S. Department of State, Conserving Interna- logical Diversity in Developing Countries tional Wildlife Resources: The United States (Washington, DC: 1984). Response (Washington, DC: U.S. Government 68. World Wildlife Fund, Strategy for Training in Printing Office, 1984), Natural Resources and Environment (Wash- 62, U.S. Interagency Task Force, U.S. Strategy on ington, DC: 1980). the Conservation of Biological Diversity: An 69, World Wildlife Fund-U. S., Annual Report 1984 Interagency Task Force Report to Congress [Washington, DC: WWF, 1984), (Washington, DC: Agency for International De- 70. Yatron, G., chairman, U.S. Congress, House velopment, 1985). Committee on Foreign Affairs, Subcommittee 63, Western, D., “Amboseli National Park: Human on Human Rights and International Organiza- Values and the Conservation of a Savanna Eco- tions, letter to M. Peter McPherson, adminis- system,” National Parks, Conservation, and trator, Agency for International Development, Deve]oDment. Droceedines of the World Con- lan. 29. 1986. Appendixes Appendix A Glossary of Acronyms

AAZPA —American Association of Zoological FAA —Foreign Assistance Act Parks and Aquariums FAO —Food and Agriculture Organisation AID —U.S. Agency for International Devel- (UN.) opment FNR —Forestry, Natural Resources, and the AIDS —acquired immune deficiency syndrome Environment Office (AID) AMBC —American Minor Breeds Conservancy FWS —Fish and Wildlife Service (Depart- APHIS —Animal and Plant Health Inspection ment of the Interior) Service (USDA) FWS/ESO —Fish and Wildlife Service, Endangered ARS –Agricultural Research Service (USDA) Species Office (Department of the In- ATCC —American Type Culture Collection terior) BGCCB —Botanical Gardens Conservation Co- GAO –General Accounting Office (U.S. ordinating Body Congress) CACS –Crop Advisory Committees (USDA] GEMS –Global Environment Monitoring Sys- CAMCORE—The Central America and Mexico tem (UNEP) Coniferous Resources Cooperative GIS —Geographic Information Systems CAST —Council for Agricultural Science and GRID —Global Resources Information Data- Technology base (GEMS, UNEP) CDCs –Conservation Data Centers (TNCI) GRIN —Germplasm Resources Information CDSS —Country Development Strategy Network (NPGS,USDA) Statements HPLC —high-performance liquid chroma- CEQ —Council for Environmental Quality tography CGIAR —Consultative Group on International IARCs —International Agricultural Research Agricultural Research Centers CIAT —Centro International de Agricultural IBPGR —International Board for Plant Genetic Tropical (CGIAR, Colombia) Resources CIDIE —Committee of International Develop- ICBP —International Council for Bird Pres- ment Institutions on the Environment ervation CIMMYT —Centro International de Mejoramiento IITA —International Institute of Tropical de Maiz y Trigo (CGIAR, Mexico) Agriculture (CGIAR, Nigeria) CIP —Centro International de la Papa IMS —Institute of Museum Services (CGIAR, Peru) IPPC —International Plant Protection Con- CITES —Convention on International Trade in vention Endangered Species of Wild Flora IRDP —Integrated Regional Development and Fauna Planning (OAS) CMC —Conservation Monitoring Center IRRI —International Rice Research Institute (IUCN) (CGIAR, Philippines) CPC —Center for Plant Conservation ISIS —International Species Inventory System CRGO —Competitive Research Grants Office IUCN —International Union for the Conser- (USDA) vation of Nature and Natural Resources CSRS —Cooperative State Research Service IUPOV —International Union for the Protec- (USDA) tion of New Varieties of Plants DNA –deoxyribonucleic acid MAB —Man in the Biosphere Program DOE —U.S. Department of Energy (UNESCO) ECG –Ecosystem Conservation Group (FAO, MARC –Meat Animal Research Center [USDA] UNEP, UNESCO, and IUCN) MDBs —Multilateral Development Banks ELISA —enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay MI RCENS —Microbiological Resource Centers EPA —U.S. Environmental Protection Agency NAS —National Academy of Sciences ESF –Economic Support Funds (AID) NCS —National Conservation Strategy

311 312 ● Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity

NGO —nongovernmental organization PVPA —Plant Variety Protection Act NMFS —National Marine Fisheries Service R&D —Research and Development (Department of Commerce) RFLP —restriction fragment length polymor- NMR —nuclear magnetic resonance phisms NOAA —National Oceanic and Atmospheric RNA —Research Natural Area Administration (Department of RNA —ribonucleic acid Commerce) RPIS —Regional Plant Introduction Station NPGS —National Plant Germplasm System (USDA) (USDA) RSSA —Resource Services Support Agreements NPS —National Park Service (Department of SAF —Society of American Foresters the Interior) SCMU —Species Conservation Monitoring Unit NRRL —Northern Regional Research Labora- (IUCN) tory (USDA) SCS –Soil Conservation Service (USDA) NSF —National Science Foundation SMCRA —Surface Mining Control and Recla- NSSL —National Seed Storage Laboratory mation Act (NPGS, USDA) SSPS –Species Survival Plans (AAZPA) OAS —Organization of American States TNC —The Nature Conservancy OECD —Organisation for Economic Cooper- TNCI —The Nature Conservancy International ation and Development UN —United Nations OTA —Office of Technology Assessment UNEP —United Nations Environment (U.S. Congress) Programme PASA —Participating Agency Service UNESCO —United Nations Educational, Scien- Agreement tific, and Cultural Organization PBR —plant breeders’ rights USDA —U.S. Department of Agriculture PD –Policy Determination (USAID) Wcs —World Conservation Strategy PNV —potential natural vegetation Appendix B Glossary of Terms

Artificial insemination: A breeding technique, Centers of diversity: The regions where most of commonly used in domestic animals, in which the major crop species were originally domesti- semen is introduced into the female reproduc- cated and developed. These regions may coin- tive tract by artificial means. cide with centers of origin. Biochemical analysis: The analysis of proteins or Chromatography: A chemical analysis technique DNA using various techniques, including elec- whereby an extract of compounds is separated trophoretic testing and restriction fragment length by allowing it to migrate over or through an polymorphism (RFLP) analysis. These techniques adsorbent (such as clay or paper) so that the com- are useful methods for assessing plant diversity pounds are distinguished as separate layers. and have also been used to identify many strains Clonal propagation: The multiplication of an organ- of micro-organisms. ism by asexual means such that all progeny are Biogeography: A branch of geography that deals genetically identical. In plants, it is commonly with the geographical distribution of animals and achieved through use of cuttings or in vitro cul- plants. ture. For animals, embryo splitting is a method Biological diversity: The variety and variability of clonal propagation. among living organisms and the ecological com- Community: A group of ecologically related popu- plexes in which they occur. lations of various species of organisms occurring Biologically unique species: A species that is the in a particular place and time. only representative of an entire genus or family, Critical habitats: A technical classification of areas Biosphere reserves: Established under UNESCO’s in the United States that refers to habitats essen- Man in the Biosphere (MAB) Program, biosphere tial for the conservation of endangered or threat- reserves are a series of protected areas linked ened species. The term may be used to designate through a global network, intended to demon- portions of habitat areas, the entire area, or even strate the relationship between conservation and areas outside the current range of the species. development, Cryogenic storage: The preservation of seeds, se- Biota: The living organisms of a region. men, embryos, or micro-organisms at extremely 0 Biotechnology: Techniques that use living organ- low temperatures, below – 130 C. At these tem- isms or substances from organisms to make or peratures, water is absent, molecular kinetic modify a product, The most recent advances in energy is low, diffusion is virtually nil, and stor- biotechnology involve the use of recombinant age potential is expected to be extremely long. DNA techniques and other sophisticated tools to Cryopreservation: See cryogenic storage. harness and manipulate genetic materials. Cultivar: International term denoting certain cul- Breed: A group of animals or plants related by de- tivated plants that are clearly distinguishable scent from common ancestors and visibly simi- from others by one or more characteristics and lar in most characteristics. Taxonomically, a spe- that when reproduced retain their distinguish- cies can have numerous breeds. ing characteristics, In the United States, “vari- Breeding line: Genetic lines of particular signifi- ety” is considered to be synonymous with culti- cance to plant or animal breeders that provide var (derived from “cultivated variety”). the basis for modern varieties, Cutting: A plant piece (stem, leaf, or root) removed Buffer zones: Areas on the edge of protected areas from a parent plant that is capable of developing that have land use controls and allow only activ- into a new plant. ities compatible with protection of the core area, Cycad: Any of an order of gymnosperm of the fam- such as research, environmental education, rec- ily cycadaceae. Cycads are tropical plants that reation, and tourism. resemble palms but reproduce by means of sper- Captive breeding: The propagation or preservation matozoids. of animals outside their natural habitat, involv- Database: An organized collection of data that can ing control by humans of the animals chosen to be used for analysis. constitute a population and of mating choices DNA: Deoxyribonucleic acid. The nucleic acid in within that population. chromosomes that codes for genetic information.

313 314 ● Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity

The molecule is double stranded, with an exter- associated with collections of plants and animals nal “backbone” formed by a chain of alternating in storage facilities, botanic gardens, or zoos. phosphate and sugar (deoxyribose) units and an Extinct species: As defined by the IUCN, extinct internal ladder-like structure formed by nucleo- taxa are species or other taxa that are no longer tide base-pairs held together by hydrogen bonds. known to exist in the wild after repeated search Domestication: The adaptation of an animal or of their type of locality and other locations where plant to life in intimate association with and to they were known or likely to have occurred. the advantage of man. Extinction: Disappearance of a taxonomic group Ecology: A branch of science concerned with the of organisms from existence in all regions. interrelationship of organisms and their envi- Fauna: Organisms of the animal kingdom. ronment. Feral: A domesticated species that has adapted to Ecosystem: An ecological community together with existence in the wild state but remains distinct its physical environment, considered as a unit. from other wild species. Examples are the wild Ecosystem diversity: The variety of ecosystems that horses and burros of the West and the wild goats occurs within a larger landscape, ranging from and pigs of Hawaii. biome (the largest ecological unit) to microhabitat. Flora: Organisms of the plant kingdom. Electrophoresis: Application of an electric field to Gamete: The sperm or unfertilized egg of animals a mixture of charged particles in a solution for that transmit the parental genetic information to the purpose of separating (e. g., mixture of pro- offspring. In plants, functionally equivalent struc- teins) as they migrate through a porous support- tures are found in pollen and ovules. ing medium of filter paper, cellulose acetate, or Gene: A chemical unit of hereditary information gel. that can be passed from one generation to another. Embryo transfer: An animal breeding technique Gene-pool: The collection of genes in an interbreed- in which viable and healthy embryos are artifi- ing population. cially transferred to recipient animals for nor- Genetic diversity: The variety of genes within a par- mal gestation and delivery. ticular species, variety, or breed. Endangered species: A technical definition used Genetic drift: A cumulative process involving the for classification in the United States referring chance loss of some genes and the disproportion- to a species that is in danger of extinction through- ate replication of others over successive genera- out all or a significant portion of its range. The tions in a small population, so that the frequen- International Union for the Conservation of Na- cies of genes in the population is altered. The ture and Natural Resources (IUCN) definition, process can lead to a population that differs ge- used outside the United States, defines species netically and in appearance from the original as endangered if the factors causing their vul- population. nerability or decline continue to operate. Genotype: The genetic constitution of an organism, Endemism: The occurrence of a species in a par- as distinguished from its physical appearance. ticular locality or region. Genus: A category of biological classification rank- Equilibrium theory: A theory of island biogeogra- ing between the family and the species, compris- phy maintaining that greater numbers of species ing structurally or phylogenetically related spe- are found on larger islands because the popula- cies or an isolated species exhibiting unusual tions on smaller islands are more vulnerable to differentiation. extinction. This theory can also be applied to ter- Germplasm: Imprecise term generally used to re- restrial analogs such as forest patches in agricul- fer to the genetic information of an organism or tural or suburban areas or nature reserves where group of organisms. it has become known as “insular ecology. ” Grow-out (growing-out): The process of growing Exotic species: An organism that exists in the free a plant for the purpose of producing fresh viable state in an area but is not native to that area. Also seed to evaluate its varietal characteristics. refers to animals from outside the country in Habitat: The place or type of site where an organ- which they are held in captive or free-ranging ism naturally occurs. populations. Hybrid: An offspring of a cross between two ge- Ex-situ: Pertaining to study or maintenance of an netically unlike individuals, organism or groups of organisms away from the Inbreeding: Mating of close relatives resulting in place where they naturally occur. Commonly increased genetic uniformity in the offspring. App. B—Glossary of Terms 315 — .

In-situ: Maintenance or study of organisms within Open-pollinated: Plants that are pollinated by phys- an organism’s native environment. ical or biological agents (e.g., wind, insects) and In-situ gene banks: Protected areas designated spe- without human intervention or control. cifically to protect genetic variability of particu- Orthodox seeds: Seeds that are able to withstand lar species. the reductions in moisture and temperature nec- Interspecies: Between different species. essary for long-term storage and remain viable. Intrinsic value: The value of creatures and plants Pathogen: A specific causative agent of disease. independent of human recognition and estima- Phenotype: The observable appearance of an organ- tion of their worth, ism, as determined by environmental and genetic Inventory: onsite collection of data on natural re- influences (in contrast to genotype). sources and their properties. Phytochemical: Chemicals found naturally in In vitro: (Literally “in glass”). The growing of cells, plants. tissues, or organs in plastic vessels under sterile Population: A group consisting of individuals of conditions on an artificially prepared medium. one species that are found in a distinct portion Isoenzyme (Isozyne): The protein product of an in- of the species range and that interbreed with dividual gene and one of a group of such prod- some regularity and therefore have a common ucts with differing chemical structures but simi- set of genetic characteristics. lar enzymatic function. Predator: An animal that obtains its food primar- Landrace: Primitive or antique varieties usually ily by killing and consuming other animals. associated with traditional agriculture. Often Protected areas: Areas usually established by offi- highly adapted to local conditions. cial acts designating that the uses of these par- Living collections: A management system involv- ticular sites will be restricted to those compati- ing the use of off site methods such as zoological ble with natural ecological conditions, in order parks, botanic gardens, arboretums, and captive to conserve ecosystem diversity and to protect breeding programs to protect and maintain bio- and study species or areas of special cultural or logical diversity in plants, animals, and microbiological significance. organisms. Provinciality effect: Increased diversity of species Micro-organisms: In practice, a diverse classifica- because of geographical isolation. tion of all those organisms not classed as plants Recalcitrant seeds: Seeds that cannot survive the or animals, usually minute microscopic or sub- reductions in moisture content or lowering of microscopic and found in nearly all environ- temperature necessary for long-term storage. ments, Examples are bacteria, cyanobacteria Recombinant DNA technology: Techniques involv- (blue-green algae), mycoplasma, protozoa, fungi ing modifications of an organism by incorpora- (including yeasts), and viruses. tion of DNA fragments from other organisms Minor breed: A livestock breed not generally found using molecular biology techniques. in commercial production. Restoration: The re-creation of entire communities Modeling: The use of mathematical and computer- of organisms closely modeled on communities based simulations as a planning technique in the that occur naturally. It is closely linked to recla- development of protected areas. mation. Morphology: A branch of biology that deals with Riparian: Related to, living, or located on the bank form and structure of organisms. of a natural watercourse, usually a river, some- Multiple use: An onsite management strategy that times a lake or tidewater. encourages an optimum mix of several uses on Serological testing: Immunologic testing of blood a parcel of land or water or by creating a mosaic serum for the presence of infectious foreign dis- of land or water parcels, each with a designated ease agents. use within a larger geographic area. Somaclonal variations: Structural, physiological, Native: A plant or animal indigenous to a particu- or biochemical changes in a tissue, organ, or lar locality. plant that arise during the process of in vitro Offsite: Propagation and preservation of plant, ani- culture. mal, and micro-organism species outside their Species: A taxonomic category ranking immedi- natural habitat. ately below genus and including closely related, Onsite: Preservation of species in their natural envi- morphologically similar individuals that actually ronment. or potentially interbreed. 316 ● Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity

Species diversity: The number and variety of spe- out all or a significant portion of its range. These cies found in a given area in a region. species are defined as vulnerable taxa outside the Species richness: Areas with many species, espe- United States by the IUCN. cially the equatorial regions. Tissue culture: A technique in which portions of Spectroscopy: Any of several methods of chemical a plant or animal are grown on an artificial cul- analysis that identify or classify compounds ture medium in an organized (e.g., as plantlets) based on examination of their spectral properties. or unorganized (e. g., as callus) state. (See also in Stochastic: Models, processes, or procedures that vitro culture.) are based on elements of chance or probability. Variety: See cultivar. Subspecies: A distinct form or race of a species. Wild relative: Plant species that are taxonomically Taxon: A taxonomic group or entity (pi. taxa). related to crop species and serve as potential Taxonomy: A hierarchical system of classification sources for genes in breeding of new varieties of organisms that reflects the totality of similari- of those crops. ties and differences. Wild species: Organisms captive or living in the Threatened species: A U.S. technical classification wild that have not been subject to breeding to referring to a species that is likely to become en- alter them from their native state. dangered within the foreseeable future, through- Wildlife: Living, nondomesticated animals. Appendix C Participants of Technical Workgroup

Five technical workgroups comprised of preeminent biological, physical, and social scientists from the public and private sectors provided input and reviewed much of the technical information for this study. OTA greatly appreciates the time and effort of each member of these workgroups.

Gardner M. Brown, Jr. Margery L. Oldfield Department of Economics Department of Zoology University of Washington University of Texas Seattle, WA Austin, TX Holmes Rolston, 111 Malcolm McPherson Department of Philosophy Harvard Institute for International Development Colorado State University Cambridge, MA Fort Collins, CO

Robert Hanneman Jack Kloppenburg Department of Horticulture Department of Rural Sociology University of Wisconsin University of Wisconsin Madison, WI Madison, WI Thomas Orton Jake Halliday DNA Plant Technology Corp. Battelle-Kettering Research Lab Watsonville, CA Yellow Springs, OH Robert Stevenson Gary Nabhan American Type Culture Collection Desert Botanical Garden Rockville, MD Phoenix, AZ

Betsy Dresser Warren Foote Director of Research International Sheep and Goat Institute Cincinnati Wildlife Research Federation Utah State University Cincinnati, OH Logan, UT Keith Gregory Ulysses Seal USDA/ARS VA Medical Center U.S. Meat Animal Research Center Minneapolis, MN Clay Center, NE Dale Schwindaman David Netter USDA/APHIS Department of Animal Science Veterinary Services Virginia Polytechnic Institute Hyattsville, MD Blacksburg, VA

377 318 ● Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity

Robert Jenkins Hal Salwasser The Nature Conservancy US Forest Service ArIington, VA Washington, DC Bruce Jones Dan TarIock USDI/FWS Chicago Kent College of Law Office of Endangered Species Chicago, IL Arlington, VA Nancy Foster Orie Loucks NOAA/Marine Sanctuaries Holcomb Research Institute Washington, DC Butler University Indianapolis, IN

NATURAL ECOSYSTEMS- INTERNATIONAL

Raymond Dasmann Kathy Parker Department of Environmental Studies Office of Technology Assessment University of California Washington, DC Santa Cruz, CA Daniel Simberloff Barbara Lausche Department of Zoology World Wildlife Fund/Conservation Foundation Florida State University Washington, DC Tallahassee, FL Gene Namkoong Department of Genetics North Carolina State University Raleigh, NC ——.——

Appendix D Grassroots Workshop Participants

George Fell Edward Schmitt Natural Lands Institute Brookfield Zoo Rockford, IL Brookfield, IL Elizabeth Henson Jonathan A. Shaw American Minor Breeds Conservancy Bok Tower Gardens Pittsboro, NC Lake Wales, FL Hans Neuhauser Kent Wheally The Georgia Conservancy, Inc. Seed Savers Exchange Savannah, GA Decorah, IA

319 Appendix E Commissioned Papers and Authors

This report was possible because of the valuable information and analyses contained in the background reports commissioned by OTA. These papers were reviewed and critiqued by the advisory panel, workgroups, and outside reviewers. The papers are available in a separate six-part volume through the National Technical Information Service,l

VALUES

Papers Author(s) An Economic Perspective of the Valuation of Alan Randall Biological Diversity University of Kentucky Values and Biological Diversity Bryan G, Norton New College of the University of South Florida An Ecological Perspective on the Valuation of Gordon Orians and William Kunin Biological Diversity University of Washington Impact of Changing Technologies on the Lawrence A. Riggs Valuation of Genetic Resources (Ist draft only) Genrec Critical Assessment of the Value of and Malcolm F. McPherson Concern for the Maintenance of Biological Harvard Institute for International Development Diversity

Status and Trends of Wild Plants Hugh Synge Conservation Monitoring Center Status and Trends of Agricultural Crop Species Christine Prescott-Allen PADATA, Inc. Diversity and Distribution of Wild Plants Marshall Crosby and Peter H. Raven Missouri Botanical Garden New Technologies and the Enhancement of Tom J. Orton Plant Germ Plasm Diversity DNA Plant Technology Corp. Plant Germplasm Storage Technologies Leigh Towill, Eric E, Roos, and Phillip C. Stanwood National Seed Storage Laboratory Technologies To Evaluate and Characterize Norm F. Weeden and David A. Young Plant Germplasm Cornell University Assessment of Plant Quarantine Practices Robert P. Kahn USDA-APHIS-PPQ Assessment of Market Institutional Factors Frederick A. Bliss Affecting the Plant Breeding System University of Wisconsin Historical Analysis of Genetic Resources Jean Pierre Ber]an-University Daix Marsaille Valuation Richard Lowentin-Harvard University Technologies To Maintain Microbial Diversity Jake Halliday and Dwight D. Baker Battelle-Kettering

IThe National Technical information Service, 5285 Port Royal Rd., ATTN: Sales Department, Springfield VA 22161 (703) 487-4650.

320 App. E—Commissioned Papers and Authors . 321

Status and Trends of Wild Animal Diversity Nate Flesness ISIS—Minnesota Zoo Status and Trends of Domesticated Animals Hank A. Fitzhugh, WiIl Getz, and F.H. Baker Winrock International Technologies To Maintain Animal Germplasm Betsy Dresser—Cincinatti Wildlife Federation (draft form) Stan Liebo—Real Vista International Concepts and Strategies To Maintain Domestic David R. Notter—Virginia Polytechnic Institute and Wild Animal Germplasm Thorn J. Foose—Minneapolis Zoo Management of Animal Disease Agents and Werner P. Heuschele Vectors Potentially Hazardous for Animal San Diego Zoo Germplasm Resources Constraints to International Exchange of William M. Moulton Animal Germplasm Consultant

Status and Trends of U.S. Natural Ecosystems David Crumpacker University of Colorado Geographic Information Systems As A Tool To Duane Marble Assist in the Preservation of Biological SUNY–Buffalo Diversity Planning and Management Techniques for Herman H. Shugart NTatural Systems University of Virginia A Science of Refuge Design and Management Daniel Simberloff Florida State University Assessment of Application of Species Viability Mark L. Shaffer Theories U.S. Agency for International Development Diversity of Marine/Coastal Ecosystems Maurice P. Lynch and Carleton Ray Coastal Environment Associates, Inc, Federal Laws and Policies Pertaining to the Michael Bean Maintenance of Biological Diversity on Environmental Defense Fund Federal and Private Lands Mandates to Federal Agencies To Conduct Lynn Corn Biological Inventories Congressional Research Service Ecological Restoration As A Strategy for Bill Jordan—University of Wisconsin Arboretum Conserving Biological Diversity Edith Allen—Utah State University Rob Peters—WWF/Conservation Foundation

Status and Trends of Natural Ecosystems Jeremy Harrison Worldwide Conservation Monitoring Center International Inventory and Monitoring for the N, Mark Collins Maintenance of Biological Diversity Conservation Monitoring Center The Role of protected Areas in Maintaining James W. Thorsell Biological Diversity in Tropical Developing IUCN Countries 322 ● Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity

Role of Traditional Agriculture in Preserving Gene Wilken Biological Diversity Colorado State University Compatibility of Development and the In-Situ Richard Saunier and Richard Meganck Maintenance of Biological Diversity in Organization of American States Developing Countries The Role of Development Assistance in Bruce Rich and Stephen Schwartzman Maintaining Biological Diversity In-Situ in Environmental Defense Fund Developing Countries Socioeconomic Considerations for the In-Situ Terry Rambo Maintenance of Biological Diversity in East-West Center Developing Countries Conservation of Biological Diversity by In-Situ Gene Namkoong and Ex-Situ Methods North Carolina State University International Institutional/Legal Frameworks for John Barton Ex-Situ Conservation of Biological Diversity International Technology Development International Laws and Associated Programs Barbara Lausche for In-Situ Conservation of Wild Species World Wildlife Fund/Conservation Foundation International Laws and Associated Programs Barton/Lausche for Conservation of Biological Diversity— Joint Options for Congress Living Collections (Plants and Animals) Grenville Lucas and S. Oldfield Kew Gardens Technologies to Maintain Tree Germplasm Frank T. Bonner Diversity US Forest Service Causes of Loss of Biological Diversity Norman Myers Consultant

GRASSROOTS

Role of Grassroots Activities in the Maintenance Gary Nabhan and Kevin Dahl of Biological Diversity: Living Plants Collection Native Seeds Search of North American Genetic Resources Report on Grass Roots Genetic Conservation Cary Fowler Efforts Rural Advancement Fund An Assessment of the Conservation of Animal Elizabeth Henson Genetic Diversity at the Grassroots level American Minor Breeds Conservancy Grassroots Groups Concerned with In-Situ Elliott A. Norse Preservation of Biological Diversity in the U.S. Ecological Society of America Index Index

Action Plan on Conservin,g Biological Diversity’ in American Minor Breeds Conservanc\r (Ahl13C), 143, Developing Countries, 29, 290-291 239 Africa, 2.5, 125, 302 American Type Culture Collection (ATCC), 210, 211, agricultural development in, 122 244 biological diversity in, 39, 41, 49 Angola, 80 diversity loss in, 75, 79 Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (A PHI S), NGOs in, 14 146, 147, 161, 196, 244-245 threatened species in, 75 Antarctica, 117, 172 African Development Bank, 294 Arctic, 46, 50 Agency for International Development, U.S. (AID], Argentina 27, 243-244 personnel training in, 302 Action Plan on Conserving Biological Diversity in seed storage in, 172 Developing Countries, 29, 290-291 Arizona, 46 Biden-Pell grants’ use by, 15 agricultural diversity in, 122 biological diversity funding for, 27, 28-29, 31-32 diversity loss in, 66, 67 breed resource assessment by, 160 protected area in, 115 Bureau of Program and Policy Coordination, 29, Army Corps of Engineers, U. S., 232 292 wetlands value estimate by, 5, 40-41 Bureau of Science and Technology, 29, 293 Arnold Arboretum (Harvard University), 173, 184, development assistance and, 289-294, 297, 298, 302, 237 304, 290 artificial insemination (A. I.), 152 environmental expertise in, 29-31, 293-294 organizations, 240 natural resource assessments development by, 300 Asia, 25, 47, 80 Office of Forestry, Natural Resources, and the En- agricultural breeding in, 53, 160 vironment of, 292 domestic animal monitoring in, 143 preservation approach to conservation and, 122, quarantine facilities in, 147 129 Asian Development Bank, 24 resource degradation observations by, 67-68 development assistance funding by, 294-295 Agricultural Marketing Act of 1946, 222, 233 Assessing Biological Diversiy in the United States: Agricultural Research Service (ARS), 222, 233, 235, Data Considerations, 127 242 Association Latinoamericana de Production Animal budget of, 238 (Venezuela), 143, 301 funding by, 16, 195, 196, 236 Audubon Society, 119 germplasm conservation by, 19 Australia, 74, 125 interpretation of Research and Marketing Act by, azonal ecosystems, 103, 111 10-11 Plant Protection and Quarantine facilities of, 177 Bangladesh, 74 Agricultural Trade Development and Assistance Act Battelle-Kettering Laboratory (Ohio), 209, 244 of 1954, proposed amending of, 31-32 Belgium, 303 Agriculture Biden-Pell matching grants, 15 breeding, 52-53, 138-139, 144, 149-156, 229, 156 biological resources, components of diveristy in, 38 diversity loss caused by, 5, 66, 75-77, 78-79, 82-83, biosphere reserves, cluster concept for, 225-226, 118 94 biotechnology, 4 diversity loss’ effect on, 4, 67, 76-78, 94 in developing countries, 305 diversity maintenance’s value to, 4, 37, 47-48, 49-53 micro-organisms’ use in, 209, 206 economics of biological diversity to, 49-50, 76 plant improvement through, 191-194, 196 genetic diversity for, 121-122, 159-161, 305 seed collection and, 185-187 micro-organisms’ use in, 206 Birmingham, University of (UK], 303 offsite maintenance progams for, 169-171, 186, Black Mesa (Arizona), 46 232-241, 174 Bolivia, 301 preservation approach to conservation in, 123 Bonn Convention, 256 research for, 187, 192-195, 196, 305 Borlaug, Norman, 292 agroecosystems, 67, 79 Botanical Gardens Conservation Coordinating 130dy maintaining, 90, 94 (BGCCB), 173, 273 Alaska, 46, 47 Botanic Garden Conservation Strategy, 273 Amboseli game reserve (Kenya), 297 Botswana, 50, 51, 54 American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquar- Brazil iums (AAZPA], 241, 274 conservation education in, 297

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325 326 ● Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity

deforestation in, 75, 106 College of African Wildlife Management (Tanzania), management technology in, 94 302 threatened species list in, 71 Colombia, 75 breeding conservation education in, 297 funding technologies for, 158, 159, 160-162, 235, plant collection in, 186 236 Colorado, 46 programs for animal diversity, 52-53, 138-139, 144, Commission on Ecology, 122-23 149-156, 229, 156 Committee on International Development Institutions programs for plants, 191-194, 235, 236, 192 on the Environment (CIDIE), 24, 295, 296 species criteria for, 241 Commission on Plant Genetic Resources, 25, 26 breeds, report’s definition of, 139 Competitive Research Grants Office (CRGO), 17, 195, Brookfield Zoo (Chicago), 129 196 Budapest Treaty, 262 Connecticut, University of, 240 Bureau of Land Management, U.S. (BLM) Conservation Biology, 129 onsite maintenance and, 115, 117-118, 128, 227 Conservation Data Centers (CDCS) onsite restoration by, 231 for developing countries, 299 Resource Management Plan of, 114 development assistance projects by, 293 Bureau of Program and Policy Coordination, 29, 292 Conservation Monitoring Center (CMC), 112, 268-69, Bureau of Science and Technology, 293 273 Burma, 47 data collection by, 124, 125, 127, 293 Conservation Needs Inventory, 66 California, 47 Consultative Group on International Agricultural agricultural breeding in, 53 Research (CGIAR), 270 biological diversity in, 49, 50 Consumers’ Association of Penang (Malaysia), 298 diversity loss in, 66, 67 Convention Concerning the Protection of the World threatened species in, 70 Cultural and Natural Heritage, 255, 266-68 California at Davis, University of, 45, 175, 236 Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species California Desert Conservation Area, 117-118 of Wild Animals, 256 California Gene Resources Conservation Program, Convention on International Trade in Endangered 236 Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES], 22, California, University of, 44 23, 255, 296, 286 Canada, 12, 47 Convention on the Law of the Sea, 256 diversity loss in, 5, 81 Convention on Wetlands of International Importance diversity management strategy in, 117 Especially as Waterfowl Habitat, 255 onsite management plans in, 115 conventions Carolina Bird Club, 231 global, 255-56, 258 Cary Arboretum (New York), 232 regional, 256, 258 Center for Environmental Education, 14 Cooperative State Research Service (CSRS), 233, 235 Center for Plant Conservation (CPC), 173, 184 Costa Rica data collection by, 238 conservation education in, 297 NSSI. and, 19 ecosystem restoration in, 120 offsite maintenance by, 196 Council for Agricultural Science and Technology, wild plant maintenance by, 237-238 144-45 Center for Restoration Ecology (Wisconsin), 232 Council for Environmental Quality (CEQ), 12 Central African Republic, 80 Coweeta Hydrological Station, 118 Central America, 25 crop advisory committees (CACs), 195, 235-36 Central America and Mexico Coniferous Resources cryogenic storage Cooperative (CAMCORE), 175, 184 for animal diversity maintenance, 139-42, 144-45, Centro Agronomic Tropical de Investigaciones y En- 148-49, 158-59, 274 senanza (Costa Rica), 122, 297, 302 of micro-organisms, 210-11 Centro International de Mejoramiento de Ma{z y for plant collections, 171-73, 182-84, 187, 194-95 Trigo (CIMMYT), 122 of seeds, 169, 171-72, 172-73 Centro International de la Papa (CIP), 184, 186, 187, cryopreservation. See cryogenic storage 188 Chad, 80 data collection Charles River (Massachusetts), 5, 40-41 biogeographic systems of, 103, 104, 111 Chesapeake Bay, 64, 71 for breed assessment, 160 Chile, 71 coordinating, 15, 20-22, 95-96, 126-127 China, 125 for diversity maintenance, 124, 268-269, 298-299 diversity loss in, 63-64, 156 enhancing, 19-22, 95-96 Index ● 327 —

for microbial diversity, 212-213 development for onsite maintenance programs, 115, 123-127, 130 agricultural, 121-122 for plant collecting, 175 conservation as, 122-123, 264 for plant storage technologies, 180, 189-190 effect of, on diversity maintenance systems, 78-7{], for policy formation, 95-96 102 for population models, 108-109 insular ecology and, 106 for reproductive biology, 158-159 development assistance, 31-32 socioeconomic, 127 diversitl maintenance and, 287-289 on threatened species, 68-75, 77-78, 83 funding, 291-293, 294-296, 298, 302 for wild plant species, 237-238 genetic conservation and, 78 Declaration on the Human Environment, 2,57 multilateral development banks and, 294-296 deforest at ion reports of constraints on, 69 causes of, 81 diversity loss, 67 of developing countries, 3-5, 27-28, 67, 73-75, 80, biological concepts involving, 65 106 causes of, 3-5, 63-64, 71, 73-74, 75-82, 127 diversity loss caused by, 73-74 through crossbreeding, 162 historically, 63-64 in domestic animals, 240-241 Department of Agriculture, [J, S. (USDA), 294, 299 extent of, 3-5, 82-83 Agricultural Research Servrice, 10-11, 16, 19, 177, historically, 63-64, 66, 68, 75 195, 196, 210, 222, 233, 236, 238, 242 diversity maintenance, 273-275 Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service of, breed replacement for, 139 146, 147, 161, 196, 244-245 conserving, 8-22, 221-246, 253-278 bilateral programs and, 305 esthetic and ethical Values of, 37, 46-49, 54 breed resource assessment by, 160 federal mandates affecting, 222-224 Competitive Research Grants Office, 17, 195, 196 funding, 29, 31-32 development assistance and, 303 improvements needed for, 245-246, 275-278 funding plant storage technology by, 194-195 integration of economic development and, 287-289 germplasm maintenance by, 239 international initiatives for, 22-26 germp]asm quarantine and, 146, 147 interventions encouraging, 6-8, 89-96 germp]asm transfer and, 146, 147, 161, 162 linkages of management systerns for, 8-13, 18-19, microbial research by, 239 30-32, 92-96 National Plant Germplasm System, 8 management systems for, 6-8, 89-96 onsite restoration by, 232 micro-organism, 205-213 plant diversity maintenance by, 191, 232, 233 patent law and, 260-262, 261 plant importation and, 177, 196 personnel training for, 302-303 RSSA between AID and, 30 private sector’s contribution to, 16, 17, 30-31, 227, Soil Conservation Service of, 121, 231, 237 228, 230-232, 236-238, 239-240, 245 Department of Commerce, 111 program coordination for, 8-13, 18-19, 30-32, 89, Department of Education, U. S., 14 92-96, 115, 120, 278 Department of Energy, U.S. (DOE), 213, 118 promoting planning and management for, 300-302 Department of the Interior, 30, 294 public support for, 13, 54-55, 230, 241, 296-298 Desert Fishes Council, 231 value of maintaining, 4-5, 37-54 desertification, 69 for wild plants, 237-238 developing countries, 12 Dominican Republic, 79 agricultural breeding in, 53 biotechnology’s use in, 305 Earthwatch, 268 data collection for biological diversity in, 298-299 East Germany, 113, 156 deforestation in, 3-5, 27-28, 67, 73-75, 80, 81, 306 Ecole de Fauna [Cameroon), 302 diversity loss in, 27-32, 285 economics economic benefits of wild species in, 303-305 of biological diversity, 4-5, 8, 39-41, 48, 49, 50, genetic resources of, 260-262, 305 53-54 MDBs and, 294-296 data on, 127 onsite technology for, 129 of diversity loss, 76, 80, 81-82 preservation approach to conservation in, 122 of diversity maintenance systems, 4-5, 102, 105, promotion of biological diversity projects in, 111, 114 296-305 of diversity management systems, 7, 89-90, 90-91, protected areas in, 109 92 U.S. state in maintaining biological diversity in, of ecosystem restoration, 120, 121 286 of microbial diversity, 208, 210, 211, 212, 244

N()”l’li Page numbers appearing In ]t,il]( s ,ir(, referrl ng tI) I nf(]rnl~tlon n)ent]oned In th(> I)(]\[>\ 328 ● Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity

of offsite animal maintenance, 144 Endangered Species Program of, 11, 18 of offsite plant collection technologies, 172-173, 195 endangered species protection and, 228-229, 230 of offsite seed storage technologies, 183, 195 Foreign Service Currency Program and, 293, 302 of onsite maintenance programs, 229, 232 Habitat Evaluation Procedure of, 114 of preservation conservation, 123 National Fish Hatchery of, 241 of U.S. development assistance, 288, 291-292 onsite maintenance technology and, 128 of worldwide network of protected areas, 111 onsite restoration by, 232 ecosystem RSSA between AID and, 30 approach for protected areas, 111-112 species documentation by, 68 azonal, 103, 111 wetlands inventories by, 66 benefits from, diversity, 37, 38, 39-41, 43-44, 46, Florida, 50, 119-120, 129 48-49, 49-50, 53-54 Florida, University of, 129, 303 diversity loss, 64-65 Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), 25, 67-68, diversity maintenance, 3, 19, 224-228 124, 256, 257, 260, 262, 263, 264, 269, 274, 278 onsite, maintenance, 89-90 breed resource assessment by, 160 restoration, 119-121 data collection by, 299 scales of, diversity, 39 development assistance and, 303 status of, diversity, 66-68 domestic animal breed monitoring by, 143 Ecosystem Conservation Group (ECG), 269 Food for Peace Program, 31-32 Ecuador, 296 Food Security Act of 1985, 232 edge effect, 107 Ford Foundation, 270 embryo transfer, 7, 15, 94, 152-155, 153 Foreign Assistance Act of 1983 (FAA), 27, 222, 289 Endangered Species Act of 1973, 11, 228-229, 286, amendment to, 287, 289, 291, 292, 290 302 proposed restructuring of, 28 coordinating onsite maintenance under, 10, 11, 112, Forest and Rangeland Renewable Resources Research 222 Act, 232 proposed amending of, 18-19 Forest Service, U. S., 117, 222, 302 threatened species definition of, 7’o database integration and, 125 Endangered Species Office (ESO), 68, 115, 228-229 development assistance and, 303 Endangered Species Program, 11, 246 diversity management strategy by, 117, 118 funding for, 18 ecosystem diversity protection by, 227 habitat protection and, 228-229 germplasm maintenance by, 237 endemism, 104, 112, 299 onsite maintenance technology and, 115, 128 England, See United Kingdom onsite restoration by, 231 Environmental Education Act of 1974, 14 Renewable Resources Evaluation of, 103 Environmental Law Center, 268 species protection by, 47 Environmental Liaison Center (Kenya), 298 Frankia culture collection, 244 Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 71 freeze drying. See lyophilization microbial research by, 213 Fresh Water Game and Fish Commission (Florida), onsite restoration by, 232 230 enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (E LISA), 146-147 Friends of the Earth, 298 Ethiopia, 25, 80, 301 Europe, 151 Gaines wheat, 192 breed resource categorization in, 160 Galapagos Islands, 53 captive breeding in, 156 General Accounting Office (GAO), 32, 233-235 diversity loss in, 79 genetic drift threatened species lists in, 70 inbreeding and, 150 Export Administration Act, proposed amending of, preventing, 150-156 26 genetics benefits of diversity in, 37-38, 41, 45, 47-48, 49, Federal Committee on Ecological Reserves, 226 51-54 Federal Register, 228, 229 diversity in, for agriculture, 121-122 Federal Threatened and Endangered Species List, 68, diversity loss and, 65-66 115 diversity of, in protected areas, 108, 112-113 Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. (FWS), 68, 228-229, ecological-evolutionary, 105 241, 294, 299, 303 evolution and diversity in, 41 data collection by, 125, 126 status of diversity and, 75-78 diversity management strategy of, 116 Geographic Information Systems (GIS), 125 ecosystem diversity protection by, 227 germplasm Endangered Species Office, 68, 115, 228-229 collection programs, 121-122 Index ● 329 —

constraints on international exchange of, 24-26 Inter-African Bureau of Animal Resources (Kenya), international] transfer of, 145-147, 152, 161-162, 143, 301 177-178, 244-245 Inter-American Development Bank, 24, 294-295 storage, 7, !31, 94 Inter-American Foundation, 297 Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN), International Agricultural Research Centers (IA RCS), 190, 191 191, 270, 305 Database Management Unit, 233, 235 International Board for Animal Genetic Resources Glacier National Park, 227 (IBAGR), proposed establishment of, 19 Global Environmental Monitoring System (GEMS), International Board on Domestic Animal Resour(;es, 124, 268 proposal for, 162 Global Resource Information Database (GRID), 124, International Board for Plant Genetic Resources 125, 127, 268 (IBPGR), 19, 23, 233, 235, 269-273, 277-278 Gramm-Rudman-Hollings Balanced Budget and Emer- conservation training program by, 303 gency Deficit Control Act, 23, 292 crop diversity reports by, 77 Great Smoky Mountains National Park, 118 data collection by, 299 Green Revolution, 53, 192 germplasm exchange and, 25 Guanacaste National Park (Costa Rica), 120 national genebanks and, 302, 303 Guatemala plant collection strategies by, 173 conservation education in, 297 U.S. support of, 305 teosinte habitat in, 122 International Cell Research Organization, 275 International Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, 305 Haiti, 79, 80 International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), Harris Poll, 13, 55 186 Hawaii International Council for Bird Preser\ration (ICBP), biological diversity in, 44 124, 263, 267, 269 Hawaii, University of, 243-244 International Council for Research in Agroforestry’, H.J. Andrews Experimental Ecological Reserve, 43 122 Honduras, 69 International Council for Scientific Unions, 263, 266 conservation education in, 297 International Environment Protection Act of 1983, teosinte habitat in, 122 289 International Institute for Environment and Develop- Idaho, 115 ment, 295 Illinois, 66 International Institute for Tropical Agriculture Illinois River, 41 (IITA), 186 Imperial Zoological Museum (Soviet Union), 156 International Livestock Centre for Africa, 143, 273, India, 47 301 deforestation in, 74 International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center in-situ conservation in, 113 (CIMMYT), 270 protected areas in, 110 International Meteorological organization, 256 resource degradation in, 79, 69 International Plant Protection Convention (I PPC), 262 threatened species lists in, 71 International Rice Research Institute (I RRI), 270 Indiana, 66 IR36 development by, 53, 169-171 Indonesia, 295 International Security and Development Cooperation industry Act of 1980, 14-15 as constituency for diversity maintenance, 13 International Sheep and Goat Institute, 240 diversity loss’ effect on, 4 International Species Inventory System (ISIS), 140, diversity maintenance importance to, 37 151, 241-242, 274 germplasm maintenance by, 236-238 International Union for the Conservation of Nature micro-organisms’ use in, 206 and Natural Resources (I UCN), 257, 263, 264, in-situ genebanks, 112-113, 301 267-269, 273-277, 300 Institute of Museum Services ([MS) Botanic Gardens Conservation Coordinating Body, diversity maintenance research by, 16-17 173 funding seed storage facilities by, 195 Commission on Ecology, 122-123 institutions Conservation for Development Center, 268 diversity maintenance by, 7-8, 94-96 Conservation Monitoring Center, 112, 268, 293 linkages between, 8-13, 18-19, 30-32, 94-96, 225-226, data collection by, 21, 83, 124, 125, 293 293-294, 297-298, 299-300 ecosystem conservation by, 129 insular ecology, 105-106 protected area categorization by, 110-111, 112 Integrated Regional Development Planning (IRPD], Species Conservation Monitoring Unit, 68, 69, 142 123 threatened species definition of, 70

N’()’I’E: Page numhcrs appearing III ltall(, s arc referring to i nform~tlon mentinnc(] in the hexes. 330 . Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity

International Union for the Protection of New Varie- Mexican National Research Institute for Biological ties of Plants (IUPOV), 260-262 Resources (INIREB), 298 in-vitro culture, 7, 15, 94 Mexico for animal diversity maintenance, 155 bilateral program in, 305 for offsite plant collections, 172, 172, 177, 186, diversity loss in, 80 192-193, 194 diversity management strategy in, 118-119 Iowa, 66 in situ genebank for, 301 Ireland, 139 teosinte habitat in, 122 Izaak Walton League of America, 231 Michigan, University of, 302 Microbiological Resource Center (Hawaii), 244 Japan, 15, 47 Microbiological Resource Centers, 213, 275, 305 micro-organisms Kafue National Park (Zambia), 44 collections of, 242-244 Kansas, University of, 242 cultures of, 211-212, 213 Kenya, 46, 49, 301 diversity maintenance for, 205-213, 275, 206 diversity project, in, 294 identification of, 209 protected areas in, 109 isolation of, 7, 91, 208-209, 213 Keystone Center storage methods for, 209-212 germplasm exchange and, 26 Minnesota, 14, 46, 200, 241 Kingman Resource Area (Arizona), 115 Minnesota, University of, 242 Kiribati, 109 modeling Kobuk Valley (Alaska), 46 data collection for, 108-109 Kuna Indian Udirbi Tropical Forest Reserve (Pana- for plant collecting, 173-175 ma), 297 for protected areas, 107, 108-109, 114 of species-area relationships, 71-74 Lacey Act of 1900, amendments to, 23, 255 Mongolia, 119, 156 Land and Water Conservation Fund Montana State University, 129 data collection and, 2I Montevideo Botanic Gardens, 273 refuges funded by, 230 Morrocoy National Park (Venezuela), 49 Latin America, 22, 25, 302 Moscow Botanic Gardens, 273 biological diversity in, 75 Mount Everest, 46 breed resource categorization in, 160 Mount Kenya, 46 Conservation Data Centers in, 299 Mount Taishan (China), 46 quarantine facilities in, 147 Mozambique, 80 legislation multilateral development banks (MDBs), 23-24, diversity maintenance, 7-8, 11-13, 18, 23, 26, 27-28, 294-296 31-32, 254-262, 223, 258 international, 254-262, 258 National Academy of Sciences (NAS), 26, 160 plant patenting, 25 National Agricultural Library, 160 U. S., 222, 228, 230,233, 223, 261 National Audubon Society, 231 Liberia, 301 National Biological Diversity Act, proposal for, 11-12 Longleaf-Slash Pine Forest, 41 National Board for Domestic Animal Resources, lyophilization, 210, 212 proposal for, 162 national clonal repository (Oregon), 235 Madagascar, 71 National Conservation Education Act, proposal for, Malayan Nature Society, 71, 298 14 Malaysia, 47, 50, 71, 81 National Conservation Strategy (NCS), 12, 115, 300 development assistance to, 297, 298 National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, 12, 80-81, Man in the Biosphere Program (MAB), 30, 128-129, 127 225, 264-266 National Forest Management Act of 1976, 11, 222, database of, 21 226, 231-232 diversity maintenance strategy of, 118 National Forest System, 225, 231-232 onsite maintenance as goal of, 225 National Foundation on Arts and Humanities Act of protected areas and, 107, 112 1965, 17 U.S. support for, 22, 23 National Heritage Data Centers, 21 Marine Sanctuary Program, 111 National Institutes of Health (NIH], 213 Massachusetts, 5, 40-41 National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS), 228-229 Mauritania, 69 National Microbial Resource Network, proposed crea- Meat Animal Research Center (MARC), 239 tion of, 212-213 Mesa Verde (Colorado), 46 National Natural Landmarks, 227 Index “ 331

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, linkages with AID by, 294, 298 111, 294, 302 Nordic Gene Bank (Sweden, 172 National Park Service (NPS], U. S., 30, 302 North America, 25, 41, 125, 151 Boundary Model of, 114 agricultural breeding in, 52-53 database integration by, 125 captive breeding in, 156 diversity maintenance as objective in, 226-227 data collection in, 124 diversity management strategy of, 117, 118 diversity loss in, 63 ecosystem restoration by, 119 threatened species in, 70 environmental expertise in, 294 North American Fruit Explorers, 190 onsite maintenance technology by, 128 Northern Regional Research Laboratory (NRRI,), 242, onsite restoration by, 232 244 threats from areas adjacent to, 224 North Yemen, 80 National Plant Genetic Resources Board, 233, 235 National Plant Germplasm Committee, 233, 235 Oak Ridge National Environmental Research Park, National Plant Germplasm System (NPGS), 8, 18, 19, 118 222, 232-237, 246, 303 Oceania clonal repositories, 186, 187, 188 breed resource categorization in, 160 diversity assessment by, 188, 189 diversity loss in, 80 evolution of, 174 domestic animal monitoring in, 143 Germplasm Resources Information Network, 190, threatened species lists in, 70 191 Office of Endangered Species, 237 seed storage by, 180 Office of Forestry, Natural Resources, and the En- technology development by, 195 vironment (FNR), 292 National Sanctuaries Program, 115 Office of Management and Budget, 267 National Science Foundation [NSF), 16 off site diversity maintenance Division of Biotic Systems and Resources, 16 animal programs for, 238-242 experimental ecological areas and, 226 choosing strategies for, 138-142 offsite maintenance research and, 159 classification of plant collections for, 170-171 offsite management training by, 158 facilities for, 158 research and, 16, 129-130, 196, 213 funding for, 158, 159, 160-162, 235-238, 242-244, National Seed Storage Laboratory (NSSL), 19, 233, 246 246 improvements needed for, 157-162, 194-196 facilities of, 236 international laws relating to, 259-262 funding for, 18 international programs for, 259-275 storage practices of, 180-181, 183 micro-organism, 208, 213, 242-244 National Small Grains collection, U. S., 190, 233 objectives of, 137-138, 169-171 National Water Commission, 12 plant programs for, 90-91, 173-178, 232-238 National Wilderness Preservation System, 224 population sampling strategies for, 142-145 management strategy for, 117 storing samples for, 91, 178-190, 194-195 National Wildlife Refuge System, 224, 229-230 technology for, 6-8, 15-16, 90-91, 95, 137-162, National Wildlife Refuges, 226 169-196 National Zoo (Washington, D.C.), 158 using plants stored for, 190-194 National Zoo Conservation and Research Center [Vir- Oklahoma, 227 ginia), 303 Olympic National Park, 43 Native Seeds/SEARCH, 122 onsite diversity maintenance Natural History Museum of Lima, 298 data collection for, 123-127, 130 Navaho Nation, 230 for ecosystems, 89-90, 111-112, 128-129 Nebraska, 151 funding programs for, 229 Neisseria Reference I.aboratory, 242 improvements needed for, 128-130 Nepal, 47, 49 international laws for, 255-259 Department of Medicinal Plants in, 51 international programs for, 264-268 national conservation strategy for, 300 management, 115-119 threatened species list in, 71 micro-organism, 207-208, 206 Nevada, 66 personnel development for, 130 New Hampshire, 66 planning techniques, 113-116 New Zealand, 287 restoring, 231-232 nongovernmental organizations (NGOS], 263-264, for species, 90 267-268 technology for, 6, 15, 89-90, 95, 103-130, 224 diversity maintenance programs of, 16, 17, 30-31 trade-offs involving, 113 international conservation operations of, 14-15 Oregon, 47 332 Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity

Oregon State University, 47 offsite, 232-245 Organization of American States (OAS), 122, 123, onsite, U. S., 224-232 129, 301 protected areas orthodox seeds, 171, 183 classifying, 102-105, 111 for coastal-marine ecosystems, 111, 115, 118-119, Pakistan, 71, 69 224, 105 Panama, 122 criteria for selection of, 111-113 Paraguay, 300 designing, 102, 105-109 Participating Agency Service Agreements (PASAS), 30 “edge effect” on, 107 Patuxent Wildlife Research Center (Maryland), 241 establishing, 109-113 Peace Corps, 30-31, 294, 298 genetic considerations for, 108 Pennsylvania State University, 243 models for, 107, 108-109, 114 Peru, 47, 298 population dynamics in, 108-109 plant collection in, 184 restoration of, 119-121 species diversity in, 4, 68 Przewalski, N. M., 156 Peruvian Conservation Foundation, 298 Public Health Service, U. S., 242 pharmacology, 4 Public Land Law Review Commission, 12 diversity maintenance’s value to, 37, 44-45 Puerto Rico, 230, 128 micro-organisms’ use in, 206 Philippines quarantine, of germplasm, 146-147, 152, 244-245 deforestation in, 74 national conservation strategy for, 300 RAMSAR, 255 Pioneer Hi-Bred International, Inc., 237 Rare Breeds Survival Trust (United Kingdom), 49 plant breeders’ rights (PBR) legislation, 260-262, 261 recalcitrant seeds, 171, 187, 195 plant collection Redwood National Park, 232 definitions relevant to offsite, 170-171 Regional Plant Introduction Stations (RPISS), 233 for diversity maintenance, 7, 90-91 research, 4, 305 of endangered wild species, 195-196 biological diversity’s benefit to, 43-45 funding, 270 ecosystem diversity maintenance, 225, 226, 266 history of, I74 ecosystem restoration, 232 importing samples for, 177-178, 196 funding, 16-17 international, 270-273 genetic diversity, 122, 185-187, 191-194, 196 in vitro culture use in, 186, 192-193, 194 goal-oriented, 15-16, 95 objectives of, 169-171 micro-organism, 208-209, 213, 242, 206 quarantine policies for, 175-178, 244-245, 262 multidisciplinary, 129-130 technologies for, 169, 171-173, 178-190, 194-195 plant germplasm, 187, 192-195, 196 Plant Genetics and Germplasm Institute, 233 in population genetics, 159 Plant Introduction Office, 233 problems impeding, 15-16, 95-96 Plant Molecular Genetics Laboratory, 233 on protected area design, 106-107 Plant Patent Act of 1930, 261 resource management, 118 Plant Variety Protection Act (PVPA), 261 socioeconomic, 127 policy Research and Marketing Act of 1946, 10 bases for forming biological diversity, 55 Research Natural Area Program, 224-225 data collection for, formation, 20, 95-96 Research Natural Areas (RNAs), 19 MDBs’ influence on developing countries, 294-295 diversity maintenance coordination by, 226 options available to Congress, 8-32 size of, 224 quarantine, 175-178, 244-245, 262 Resource Management Plan, 114 U. S., for diversity maintenance, 8-13, 222-224 Resource Services Support Agreements (RSSA), 30 politics Rhode Island, 230 effect of, on diversity maintenance systems, 102, Rhododendron Species Foundation, 237 105, 107, 114 Rio de Janeiro Primate Center, 301 effect of, on diversity management systems, 7, 90, Rockefeller Foundation, 270 91-92, 127 Royal Botanic Gardens (U.K.), 180, 273, 174 potential natural vegetation (PNV), 66 data collection by, 190 programs, diversity maintenance in vitro storage by, 187 animal, 238-242 coordination for, 8-13, 18-19, 30-32, 89, 92-96 St. Helena (island), 94 funding, 229, 263 St. John (Virgin Islands), 118 international, 262-275 Salonga National Park (Zaire), 117 linkages in, 278 San Lorenzo Canyon (Mexico), 118 Index ● 333 —

Santa Rosa National Park (Costa Rica), 120 Sudan, 80, 69 School of Conservation Management (Indonesia), 302 Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act seed (SMCRA), 120, 231 collections, 188-189, 190-191 Sweden, 125 storage, 7, 15, 94, 169, 171-172, 173 Switzerland. 139 Seed Savers Exchange, 190, 236 Selkirk Mountain Caribou Management Plan/Recov- Tanzania, 75 ery Plan, 115 Technologies To Sustain Tropical Forest Resources, Serengeti national Park (Tanzania), 44 102 serological procedures, 146-147, 177-178 technology Smithsonian Institution, 302 developing, for biological diversity, 5, 15-16, 94-96 Biological Diversity Program of, 30-31 for microbial diversity maintenance, 208-212 data collection by, 125 off site maintenance, 6-8, 15-16, 90-91, 95, 137-162, environmental expertise in, 294 169-196 wild plant maintenance by, 237 onsite maintenance, 6, 15, 89-90, 95, 101-130, 224 Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, 297 plant storage, 189-190 Society for the Advancement of Breeding Research in recombinant DNA, 195 Asia and Oceania (Malaysia], 301 Tennessee Valley Authority, 230 Society for the Advancement of Breeding Research- Texas, 227 ers, 143 Texas Agricultural Experiment Station, 191 Society of American Foresters (SAF), 103 Thai Development Research Institute, 300 Society for Conservation Biology, 16, 129 Thailand, 301 Society Islands, 44 The Nature Conservancy (TNC), 228 Soil Conservation Service (SCS] data collection by, 83 onsite restoration by, 231 ecosystem restoration by’, 119 Plant Material Centers of, 121, 237 National Heritage Data Centers, 21, 22, 127 somaclonal variation, 192-193 objectives of, 228 Somalia, 80 onsite maintenance and, 129 somatic hybridization, 193-194 species management and, 112 South America State Natural Heritage Programs of, 125, 130, 228, data collection ia, 123-124 230 in situ genebanks in, 301 The Nature Conservancy International (TNC1), 269 threatened species in, 75 Conservation Data Centers of, 293, 299 South Carolina, 230 database of, 21, 124 Southern Appalachian Biosphere Reserve, 118 Treasury Department, U. S., 295 Soviet Union, 125 Trout Unlimited, 231 in-situ conservation in, 113 threatened species list in, 70 Spain, 47, 110 Udvardy biogeographic classification system, 111, species 129, 264 benefits of, diversity, 37, 38, 41, 44-45, 46-47, 49, United Brands, 236-237 50-51, 53-54 United Kingdom, 12, 49, 68 definitions of threatened, 70 agricultural breeding in, 53 diversity maintenance, 90, 112, 228-231 protected areas in, 110 habitat protection, 228-231 restoration project by, 156 loss of, diversity, 41, 65 United Nations Conference on the Human Environ- oriental treaties, 257, 258 ment. See Stockholm Conference on the Human status of, diversity, 68-75 Environment Species Conservation Monitoring Unit (SCMU), 68, United Nations Development Program me. 67-68 69, 142 United Nations Educational, S(; ientific, and Cultural Spucies Survival Plans (SSPS), 241, 242 Organization (UNESCO], 244. 257, 263-270, Sri I.anka, 67, 300, 301 275-276 Stanford University, Center for Conservation Biology, biosphere reserve program of, 301 129 database of, 124 State National Heritage Programs, 299 data coordination by, 127 data collection by, 125, 228, 230 Man and the Biosphere Program of, 21, 22, 23, 30, workings of, 230-231 107, 112, 118, 128-129, 225, 264-266 Stockholm Conference on the Human Environment, microbial database and, 213 22, 257, 259-260, 264, 299 [Jnited Nations Environment Programme (U N13P), 22,

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23, 24, 143, 244, 256, 257, 263-264, 267-270, Vavilov, N. I., 174 274-275, 295 Venezuela, 46, 49, 81 conservation training by, 303 Virgin Islands, 118 database of, 124 V.I. National Park, 118 Global Environment Monitoring System of (GEMS), Voyageurs Park (Minnesota), 46 124 United Nations Food and Agricultural Organizations Washington State, 115 (FAO), 124, 256, 257, 260, 262, 263, 264, 269, West Germany, 156 274, 278 wetlands germplasm conservation and, 25 restoration of, 232 resource degradation observations by, 67-68 value of, 4-5, 40 United Nations Industrial Development Organiza- Weyerhaeuser Company, 237 tions, 305 Wildlife Institute of India, 302 United States Willamette National Forest, 43 agricultural breeding in, 52-53 Wind Cave National Park (South Dakota), 41, 44 animal breed monitoring in, 162 Wisconsin, 14, 20, 232 assessing plant germplasm in, 191 Wisconsin, University of, 232 biological diversity in, 49-51 Wood Buffalo National Park (Canada), 117 data collection in, 125, 127 World Bank, 270 data sharing in, 126, 127 development assistance funding by, 294-296 development assistance by, 289-294, 296-298 preservation approach to conservation and, 122, diversity loss in, 66-67, 79, 94 129 diversity maintenance in, 8-22, 114, 157, 221-246 resource degradation observations by, 67-68 diversity management in, 117-118, 125 wildland policy of, 24, 29 ecosystem diversity program for, 128-129 Wildlife Management Policy of, 296 embryo transfer in, 153 World Charter for Nature, 257-259 endangered species protection in, 7, 8, 11 World Conservation Strategy (WCS), 28, 257, 264, 287 genetic diversity in, 4 World Health Organization (WHO), 268, 275 germplasm quarantine in, 146-147, 161, 244-245 World Heritage Convention, 22, 23, 264 influence on MDBs, 24, 295-296 World Heritage Program, 22, 255, 266-268, 276 National Parks and Forests in, 46, 48 World Meteorological Organization, 268 plant breeders’ rights legislation in, 260 World Resources Institute, 276 plant breeding in, 191, 192 World Wildlife Fund (WWF) /U.S., 30, 257, 264, 267 plant collections in, 184 conservation training by, 303 plant importation into, 177 database of, 124 protected area design in, 107-108, 109, 110 development assistance projects by, 293, 297-298 restoration project by, 156 ecosystem conservation and, 129 species diversity in, 68 Minimum Critical Size of Ecosystems Project of, support for international conservation efforts, 22-24 106 threatened species lists in, 70 World Wildlife Fund/The Conservation Foundation. wetlands in, 40 See World Wildlife Fund/U.S U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. See Army Corps of Wyoming, 241 Engineers, U.S. U.S. Geological Survey, 125 Zaire, 117 U.S. Plant Introduction Stations, 180 Zambezi Teak Forest, 41, 44 U.S. Strategy on the Conservation of Biological Zambia, 41, 44, 51, 81 Diversity, 14, 29, 290 National Conservation Strategy of, 115, 301 University of Veterinary Science (Hungary), 303 Zimbabwe, 300 Utah, 66, 121 Utah State University, 240