IJSAP Volume 04, Number 04

WellBeing International WBI Studies Repository

10-1983

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This material is brought to you for free and open access by WellBeing International. It has been accepted for inclusion by an authorized administrator of the WBI Studies Repository. For more information, please contact [email protected]. OCTOBER-DECEMBER 1983 International Journal for the Study of Animal Problems

VOLUME 4 NUMBER 4 EDITORIAL OFFICERS JOURNAL SUBSCRIPTIONS Contents 4[4] 1983 Editors-in-Chief The International journal for the Study of Animal Michael W. Fox, Director Problems is published quarterly. Printed in the Institute for the Study of Animal Problems U.S.A. Second-class postage paid at Washington, LETTERS 268-269 David B. Wilkins, Deputy Chief Veterinary D.C., and additional mailing offices. Articles pub Officer, RSPCA lished in the journal do not necessarily reflect the EDITORIALS 269-272 john E. McArdle, Director views of either the sponsors or the publisher. Ar Laboratory Animal Welfare, The HSUS ticles appearing in this journal are indexed in Envi NEWS AND ANALYSIS 273-278 ronmental Periodicals Bibliography and Current Agribusiness Chicken Myth Dispelled • Tuna Fishing and Improved Associate Editors Contents. Roger Ewbank, Director Monitoring of Dolphin Mortality • A Clear Mandate to Abolish (U S) $45; $25; $17.50 Universities Federation for Animal Welfare Factory Farming 273 Stefan Ormrod, Chief Wildlife Officer (Foreign) $55/£25; $30/£15; $22.50/£9 Relief for Iguana Lizards • Dogs Endanger Wolves 274 Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty (Institution, Individual and Student, respectively) to Animals Make check payable in U.S funds on U S. bank to: DES in Veal • The Welfare of Adult Pigs: The Effects of Five Housing Karl Frucht, Regional Director HSUS for I SAP. Send to: journal Order Dept., Insti Treatments on Behavior, Plasma Corticosteroids and World Society for the Protection of Animals tute for the Study of Animal Problems, 2100 L St., Injuries 275 N.W, Washington, DC 20037. Reflections of an Ex- Veal Farmer 276 (USPS 558-290) (ISSN 0195-7554) Research Into Bizarre Alternatives • Animal Models in Biomedical ©1983 Institute for the Study of Animal Problems. All rights reserved. Research- Some Paradoxical Findings 277 COMMENTS 279-294 A Survey of Animal Behavior-Related Research and Teaching Activities in North American Agricultural and Veterinary Medical Colleges- W.R. Stricklin 279 Some Preliminary Thoughts on Permitting Animals to Sue in EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD Contract and Tort- Henry Cohen 284 J.S. Cass, Veterans Administration, USA N. Myers, Consultant in Environment and Humane Ethics and Animal Rights- M.W. Fox 286 S. Clark, University of Glasgow, UK Development, UK The Potential Role of Local Ethical Committees in the Moderation I. Ekesbo, Swedish Agricultural University, F.W. Oehme, Kansas State University, USA Sweden J Remfry, Universities Federation for Animal of Experiments on Animals in Britain- D.P. Britt 290 S.K. Eltringham, Cambridge University, UK Welfare, UK L.C. Faulkner, Oklahoma State University, USA B. Rollin, Colorado State University, USA ORIGINAL AND REVIEW ARTICLES 295-342 AF Fraser, Memorial University of H.C. Rowsell, Canadian Council on Animal Environmental Psychology and Great Ape Reproduction Newfoundland, Canada Care, Canada T.H. Friend, Texas A & M University, USA H. H. Sambraus, University of Munich, FRC - T.L. Maple 295 W.B. Cross, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and P. Singer, Monash University, Australia Prostaglandin F2a Induced Nest Building Behavior in the State University, USA G.M. Teutsch, Teachers' College of Karlsruhe, Non-Pregnant Sow, and Some Welfare Considerations J. Hoyt, The Humane Society of the United FRC States, USA D. Wood-Gush, Edinburgh School of - J.K. Blackshaw 299 F.M. Loew, Tufts University, USA Agriculture, UK Biological Control of Aleutian Island Arctic Fox: A Preliminary TS Meth, Theodore Sager Meth P.A., USA Strategy- E.W. West and R.L. Rudd 305 R. Mugford, Consultant in Animal Behavior, UK Attitudes Toward Animals in Greco- Roman Antiquity L. Bodson 312 The Care and Abuse of Pets Within Child Abusing Families -E. DeViney, J. Dickert and R. Lockwood 321 Ethologic and Economic Examination of Aviary Housing for Commercial Laying Flocks- D.W. Folsch et al. 330 Review of Literature on Use of T-61 as an Euthanasic Agent - L.D. Barocio 336 LEGISLATION AND REGULATION 343-346 CURRENT EVENTS 346-347 International Journal for BOOK NEWS 347-349 the Study of Animal Problems is published by

The Humane Society of the United States The Royal Society for the Prevention John A. Hoyt, President of Cruelty to Animals EDITORIAL OFFICERS JOURNAL SUBSCRIPTIONS Contents 4[4] 1983 Editors-in-Chief The International journal for the Study of Animal Michael W. Fox, Director Problems is published quarterly. Printed in the Institute for the Study of Animal Problems U.S.A. Second-class postage paid at Washington, LETTERS 268-269 David B. Wilkins, Deputy Chief Veterinary D.C., and additional mailing offices. Articles pub Officer, RSPCA lished in the journal do not necessarily reflect the EDITORIALS 269-272 john E. McArdle, Director views of either the sponsors or the publisher. Ar Laboratory Animal Welfare, The HSUS ticles appearing in this journal are indexed in Envi NEWS AND ANALYSIS 273-278 ronmental Periodicals Bibliography and Current Agribusiness Chicken Myth Dispelled • Tuna Fishing and Improved Associate Editors Contents. Roger Ewbank, Director Monitoring of Dolphin Mortality • A Clear Mandate to Abolish (U S) $45; $25; $17.50 Universities Federation for Animal Welfare Factory Farming 273 Stefan Ormrod, Chief Wildlife Officer (Foreign) $55/£25; $30/£15; $22.50/£9 Relief for Iguana Lizards • Dogs Endanger Wolves 274 Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty (Institution, Individual and Student, respectively) to Animals Make check payable in U.S funds on U S. bank to: DES in Veal • The Welfare of Adult Pigs: The Effects of Five Housing Karl Frucht, Regional Director HSUS for I SAP. Send to: journal Order Dept., Insti Treatments on Behavior, Plasma Corticosteroids and World Society for the Protection of Animals tute for the Study of Animal Problems, 2100 L St., Injuries 275 N.W, Washington, DC 20037. Reflections of an Ex- Veal Farmer 276 (USPS 558-290) (ISSN 0195-7554) Research Into Bizarre Alternatives • Animal Models in Biomedical ©1983 Institute for the Study of Animal Problems. All rights reserved. Research- Some Paradoxical Findings 277 COMMENTS 279-294 A Survey of Animal Behavior-Related Research and Teaching Activities in North American Agricultural and Veterinary Medical Colleges- W.R. Stricklin 279 Some Preliminary Thoughts on Permitting Animals to Sue in EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD Contract and Tort- Henry Cohen 284 J.S. Cass, Veterans Administration, USA N. Myers, Consultant in Environment and Humane Ethics and Animal Rights- M.W. Fox 286 S. Clark, University of Glasgow, UK Development, UK The Potential Role of Local Ethical Committees in the Moderation I. Ekesbo, Swedish Agricultural University, F.W. Oehme, Kansas State University, USA Sweden J Remfry, Universities Federation for Animal of Experiments on Animals in Britain- D.P. Britt 290 S.K. Eltringham, Cambridge University, UK Welfare, UK L.C. Faulkner, Oklahoma State University, USA B. Rollin, Colorado State University, USA ORIGINAL AND REVIEW ARTICLES 295-342 AF Fraser, Memorial University of H.C. Rowsell, Canadian Council on Animal Environmental Psychology and Great Ape Reproduction Newfoundland, Canada Care, Canada T.H. Friend, Texas A & M University, USA H. H. Sambraus, University of Munich, FRC - T.L. Maple 295 W.B. Cross, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and P. Singer, Monash University, Australia Prostaglandin F2a Induced Nest Building Behavior in the State University, USA G.M. Teutsch, Teachers' College of Karlsruhe, Non-Pregnant Sow, and Some Welfare Considerations J. Hoyt, The Humane Society of the United FRC States, USA D. Wood-Gush, Edinburgh School of - J.K. Blackshaw 299 F.M. Loew, Tufts University, USA Agriculture, UK Biological Control of Aleutian Island Arctic Fox: A Preliminary TS Meth, Theodore Sager Meth P.A., USA Strategy- E.W. West and R.L. Rudd 305 R. Mugford, Consultant in Animal Behavior, UK Attitudes Toward Animals in Greco- Roman Antiquity L. Bodson 312 The Care and Abuse of Pets Within Child Abusing Families -E. DeViney, J. Dickert and R. Lockwood 321 Ethologic and Economic Examination of Aviary Housing for Commercial Laying Flocks- D.W. Folsch et al. 330 Review of Literature on Use of T-61 as an Euthanasic Agent - L.D. Barocio 336 LEGISLATION AND REGULATION 343-346 CURRENT EVENTS 346-347 International Journal for BOOK NEWS 347-349 the Study of Animal Problems is published by

The Humane Society of the United States The Royal Society for the Prevention John A. Hoyt, President of Cruelty to Animals ciates." Dr. Morris is entitled to his opin ly two of many areas that have been or ions, but the author should not interpret now are being supported to increase our Letters Dr. Morris' opinions as proven scientific knowledge of diet and nutrition in rela fact without adequate research. tion to canine health and disease. We are proud of the contributions we have Allen Products Company has always met to continuous or repeated release of made and continue to make towards the Alpo Bites Back such charges with research to get at the welfare of animals. these hormones and eventual depletion facts. The work of Bovee was sponsored "Too Much of a Good Thing: Protein of protein reserves. This can be pre by a grant to the University of Penn and a Dog's Diet" (April-June 1983) in vented or slowed by feeding of a high sylvania by the ALPO Center for Advanced Charles A. Banta, Ph.D. cluded two points to which we take strong protein, energy dense diet. The red Pet Study. The materials for the booklet Director, ALPO Center for Advanced exception. The article discussed infor blood cell response was used in the "Stress and Your Dog" came out of re Pet Study mation in "Stress and Your Dog", a pet stress studies as a measure of the ade search headed by Dr. David Kronfeld Allen Products Company, Inc. owner information booklet published by quacy of protein reserves. and funded by a grant to the same uni P. 0. Box 2187 the ALPO Center for Advanced Pet Study. versity. Stress and kidney disease are on- Allentown, PA 18001 This booklet, which has been praised by The article not only questions the need such groups as the American Institute of for added protein in meeting the de Stress and the Latham Foundation, de mands of stress, it quotes Dr. Mark Mor scribes the causes and signs of stress in ris, Jr. as stating that, "High protein dog dogs and what pet owners can do to min food is not good for your dog." Such state imize stress and its effects. ments have long been made by Dr. Mor ris, but he has never presented anything The first point in contention is the author's more than opinion to back them up. The inference that the stress of a twenty-mile work of Bovee, which Dr. Morris so readily sled dog race cannot be related to the dismissed, showed that high protein diets Editorials everyday stress experienced by household were not detrimental to dogs with re pets. In this, the author fails to recognize duced renal mass and actually improved the cumulative nature of stress. We real the function of the remnant kidneys in ize that an isolated incident such as be these dogs. The paper of Brenner, et a/. ing left alone may not evoke a response so often quoted by Dr. Morris was not a equal to that of a race, but add to it the report of original research, but a review The Agricide Treadmill other everyday stresses such as being of old literature covering research in placed in unfamiliar surroundings, meet rats and other species which admittedly and Farm Animal Welfare ing a hostile dog in the park, a trip to the by Dr. Brenner, if not by Dr. Morris, does veterinarian for an annual checkup, and not fit the dog. one ends up with an accumulation of cir Michael W. Fox cumstances which in total may equal or The final point that I would like to make exceed the stress of a big race. is one totally ignored by the article and The "factory farming" of animals is, ing was the foundation for inventive and one that could put the comments of Dr. in essence, a product of what W.W. Co innovative activity in insect-control tech The second point in your article questioned Morris in a different light for many chrane in Farm Prices, Myth and Reality* nology." In the face of year after year of the value of increased dietary protein readers. Dr. Morris, head of Mark Morris terms the "agricultural treadmill." As food-surpluses from over-production, it for stressed dogs. It was repeatedly stated Associates, is professionally related to a with the research development and ap is ironic that chemical crop farming and that protein is mobilized during stress company, Hill's Pet Products, Inc., which plication of insecticides,** the develop "factory" farming of animals should for the purpose of providing energy, only manufactures a line of diets, Prescrip ment of intensive confinement systems have evolved, but this is because of the after carbohydrate stores are expended. tion Diets, the mainstay of which is a low for raising livestock and poultry was not treadmill effect of farmers competing to It further suggested that increased car protein diet purported to be, though never motivated by hunger or the threat of reduce production costs (and not, as bohydrate might be more in order. Such shown in controlled clinical trials, effi famine but by the treadmill effect of in agribusiness claims, to produce cheap does not agree with available facts as cacious in the dietary management of creasing capital rather than labor-inten and wholesome food for all). Perkins sum found in basic physiology textbooks. acute or chronic renal failure, urolithia sive farming practices. J .H. Perkins ob marizes this phenomenon as follows: serves, "Apples, corn (for feeding live Tissue protein is mobilized to provide sis, hepatic disease, congestive heart fail " ... As Willard W. Cochrane so e/o- amino acids for synthesis of glucose. ure, and endocrine imbalances. Included stock) and cotton became the largest This is an immediate response to the in Hill's company literature is the follow users of insecticides after 1950, and the *Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, 1958. release of adrenocorticord hormones. ing statement: "Formulation, ingredients context of their use on those crops pro * * J. H. Perkins, Insects, food and hunger: the para Continuous or repeated stimulation of and product specifications of all Prescrip vides an interesting demonstration that dox of plenty for U.S. entomology 1920-1970. En the adrenal in response to stressors leads tion Diet products by Mark Morris Asso- the protection of capital-intensive farm- vironmental Review 7:71-96. 1983.

/NT j STUD ANIM PROB 4{4) 1983 /NT J STUD ANIM PROB 4{4) 1983 269 268 ciates." Dr. Morris is entitled to his opin ly two of many areas that have been or ions, but the author should not interpret now are being supported to increase our Letters Dr. Morris' opinions as proven scientific knowledge of diet and nutrition in rela fact without adequate research. tion to canine health and disease. We are proud of the contributions we have Allen Products Company has always met to continuous or repeated release of made and continue to make towards the Alpo Bites Back such charges with research to get at the welfare of animals. these hormones and eventual depletion facts. The work of Bovee was sponsored "Too Much of a Good Thing: Protein of protein reserves. This can be pre by a grant to the University of Penn and a Dog's Diet" (April-June 1983) in vented or slowed by feeding of a high sylvania by the ALPO Center for Advanced Charles A. Banta, Ph.D. cluded two points to which we take strong protein, energy dense diet. The red Pet Study. The materials for the booklet Director, ALPO Center for Advanced exception. The article discussed infor blood cell response was used in the "Stress and Your Dog" came out of re Pet Study mation in "Stress and Your Dog", a pet stress studies as a measure of the ade search headed by Dr. David Kronfeld Allen Products Company, Inc. owner information booklet published by quacy of protein reserves. and funded by a grant to the same uni P. 0. Box 2187 the ALPO Center for Advanced Pet Study. versity. Stress and kidney disease are on- Allentown, PA 18001 This booklet, which has been praised by The article not only questions the need such groups as the American Institute of for added protein in meeting the de Stress and the Latham Foundation, de mands of stress, it quotes Dr. Mark Mor scribes the causes and signs of stress in ris, Jr. as stating that, "High protein dog dogs and what pet owners can do to min food is not good for your dog." Such state imize stress and its effects. ments have long been made by Dr. Mor ris, but he has never presented anything The first point in contention is the author's more than opinion to back them up. The inference that the stress of a twenty-mile work of Bovee, which Dr. Morris so readily sled dog race cannot be related to the dismissed, showed that high protein diets Editorials everyday stress experienced by household were not detrimental to dogs with re pets. In this, the author fails to recognize duced renal mass and actually improved the cumulative nature of stress. We real the function of the remnant kidneys in ize that an isolated incident such as be these dogs. The paper of Brenner, et a/. ing left alone may not evoke a response so often quoted by Dr. Morris was not a equal to that of a race, but add to it the report of original research, but a review The Agricide Treadmill other everyday stresses such as being of old literature covering research in placed in unfamiliar surroundings, meet rats and other species which admittedly and Farm Animal Welfare ing a hostile dog in the park, a trip to the by Dr. Brenner, if not by Dr. Morris, does veterinarian for an annual checkup, and not fit the dog. one ends up with an accumulation of cir Michael W. Fox cumstances which in total may equal or The final point that I would like to make exceed the stress of a big race. is one totally ignored by the article and The "factory farming" of animals is, ing was the foundation for inventive and one that could put the comments of Dr. in essence, a product of what W.W. Co innovative activity in insect-control tech The second point in your article questioned Morris in a different light for many chrane in Farm Prices, Myth and Reality* nology." In the face of year after year of the value of increased dietary protein readers. Dr. Morris, head of Mark Morris terms the "agricultural treadmill." As food-surpluses from over-production, it for stressed dogs. It was repeatedly stated Associates, is professionally related to a with the research development and ap is ironic that chemical crop farming and that protein is mobilized during stress company, Hill's Pet Products, Inc., which plication of insecticides,** the develop "factory" farming of animals should for the purpose of providing energy, only manufactures a line of diets, Prescrip ment of intensive confinement systems have evolved, but this is because of the after carbohydrate stores are expended. tion Diets, the mainstay of which is a low for raising livestock and poultry was not treadmill effect of farmers competing to It further suggested that increased car protein diet purported to be, though never motivated by hunger or the threat of reduce production costs (and not, as bohydrate might be more in order. Such shown in controlled clinical trials, effi famine but by the treadmill effect of in agribusiness claims, to produce cheap does not agree with available facts as cacious in the dietary management of creasing capital rather than labor-inten and wholesome food for all). Perkins sum found in basic physiology textbooks. acute or chronic renal failure, urolithia sive farming practices. J .H. Perkins ob marizes this phenomenon as follows: serves, "Apples, corn (for feeding live Tissue protein is mobilized to provide sis, hepatic disease, congestive heart fail " ... As Willard W. Cochrane so e/o- amino acids for synthesis of glucose. ure, and endocrine imbalances. Included stock) and cotton became the largest This is an immediate response to the in Hill's company literature is the follow users of insecticides after 1950, and the *Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, 1958. release of adrenocorticord hormones. ing statement: "Formulation, ingredients context of their use on those crops pro * * J. H. Perkins, Insects, food and hunger: the para Continuous or repeated stimulation of and product specifications of all Prescrip vides an interesting demonstration that dox of plenty for U.S. entomology 1920-1970. En the adrenal in response to stressors leads tion Diet products by Mark Morris Asso- the protection of capital-intensive farm- vironmental Review 7:71-96. 1983.

/NT j STUD ANIM PROB 4{4) 1983 /NT J STUD ANIM PROB 4{4) 1983 269 268 M.W. Fox Editorial M. W. Fox Editorial

quently put it, farmers in the United were not enough to pay for the pro the direction that biomedical research upon an aggressive dominionistic attitude States were on a 'treadmill' during duction inputs. Subsequent new in and development have taken. And if and toward disease and toward life itself. This most of the twentieth century but ventions started a new round on the when they do become ill, they have the attitude extends also into our dealings especially after 1945. Farm sur treadmill process. Again, early hope and promise of a cure. And relief with other nations and with the forces of pluses, which depressed prices, were adopters profited handsomely, mid and gratitude if they are cured. nature: an adversary mentality prepared the hallmark of American agricul dle adopters stayed in business, and But is it not more of a mark of pro to fight, to self-righteously intervene or ture. Individual farmers could bet late and non-adopters were the gress to be able to prevent cancer and rescue, rather than through understand ter their own income only by lower ones who left farming." other diseases than to possess only an ing and humility prevent the need for ing the unit production costs of armament of cures? Without preventive violent intervention. Until a change in their crops so as to compete favora and health care maintenance programs, attitude occurs, a paradigm or gestalt bly in a market place that could not The consequences of this treadmill including environmental health and eco shift in awareness, physical and mental absorb all of the produce entering it effect can be summed up in the one logical medicine, human suffering and suffering, and environmental problems at a price commensurate with pro word: agricide. So far as meat is con= sickness will only increase as our en will exacerbate, as will the need for more duction costs. Lowering of produc cerned, it is simply a convenience food. vironment, air, water, and food become medical and technological "fixes." tion costs was achieved primarily By being touted for its high, almost even more contaminated with agricultu While there is no intent to deny that by adopting new technology in the "complete" nutritional value (which no ral and industrial chemicals. people who are sick should have the ben form of machines, fertilizers, pesti single vegetable product can provide by Yet what options do we have, real is efit of interventive and curative treatment, cides, and other items. Farmers adopt itself). meat has become a staple in our tically, when advances in preventive the grand illusion that new cures (in the ing the new production practices diets. Yet with a combination of vegeta medicine are in politicized limbo? This is absence of concerted disease-preven first tended to profit the most, but ble products, a more nutritionally com because the U.S. Department of Agricul tive programs) represents progress,. must they also tended to raise the amount plete meal can be prepared without ture, Environmental Protection Agency be shattered. Otherwise the quality of of produce reaching an already meat, and one that is more healthful, and other government departments are human life and of all life on this planet glutted market, thus depressing than one based primarily upon the "con in a state of "bureaucratic gridlock" will continue to decline, becoming in prices further. Farmers who adopted venience" of meat, the continuing over with allied industries responsible for creasingly dependent upon interventive new practices later were able to production and consumption of which food quality and environmental health, remedies and supports and upon the ex stay in business but not able to earn contributes significantly to agricide and the two complementary pillars of health ploitation of laboratory animals as handsome returns. Those who did not to even more animal suffering and depri maintenance. Furthermore, the kind of "models" of our diseased states. Medi adopt new technology were grad vation, as the treadmill forces farmers to research that is funded by pharmaceuti cal nemesis is inevitable, if, for political, ually forced to retire from business adopt even more intensive and inhumane cal and medical biotechnology industries economic and ideological reasons, society because the prices they received husbandry practices. (for diagnosis as well as for treatment) is continues to ignore the importance of oriented primarily toward "treating disease preventive medicine and the increasing as it comes" (venienti occurrite morbo) ly pathogenic state of the world in which rather than in its prevention, which is we live. A first step, which our democra less profitable. cy once tried, but failed abysmally, would Preventive Medicine and the Politics of Disease The domain of disease prevention be for all proposed medical, biological, has been relegated to the Federal Govern agricultural, chemical, and industrial ad ment, while the vainglorious war against vances and innovations to be first eval Michael W. Fox human sickness is the almost exclusive, uated by democratically constituted re legally protected monopoly of the A.M.A. view boards and not by self-serving, ideo Great strides are being made in bio These successes justify, in the pub -biomedical establishment. But when logically fixated panels of specialists. medical research in the development of lic's eye, the continued and unrestricted organized and establishment medicine Most decisions are made on the basis of cures for cancer, much of which comes exploitation of laboratory animals for hu and research focus primarily upon inter corporate interest, and when not balanced from research studies on animals and af man benefit. Any questioning of the ethics ventive treatment-oriented cures and with enlightened self-interest, as the his of using laboratory animals in such re flicted humans. As these successes are garners public funds to find more cures, torical record of industrial society attests, publicized (as on CBS national news, May search is perceived as being tantamount we are faced with something more in the good of society will not be served. to ignoring human welfare and of placing 2-3, 1983). and the promise that all can sidious than profit motives and the polit society attests, the good of society will animals before people. The public has cers will be eventually treatable, the icized intertia of progressive preventive not be served. been conditioned to believe in biomedi 850,000 people who will be diagnosed as medicine. What we have is a hypnotic In the final analysis, life has mean having cancer this year will certainly have cal science and technology as a kind of ideological fixation on a wholly mecha ing when it is loved, served, nurtured, some hope. truth and trustingly does not question nistic, interventive kind of medicine based and protected, and no meaning when it /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 270 /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 271 M. W. Fox Editorial News &Analysis is simply objectified, controlled, ex are the basis of human and environmen ploited or destroyed for purely selfish tal health and well-being. We have over motives. The difference in attitude, as compensated on the side of domination ified ratio estimator (kill-per-day] between reverence and domination, and and intervention. lnterventive medicine Agribusiness Chicken Myth Dispelled has been used to measure the kill rate between preventive and interventive med has its place, not as a panacea, but to during the year. Vessel trips are strati icine, reflects the dialectical tension and alleviate sickness and suffering, when It has been claimed by poultry sci fied by fishing time period. The mor nature of our existence. We cannot be the need arises. Preventive medicine is entists and producers that the modern tality data from 1976 through 1978 well without both complementary polar the essence of self-dominion, a comple hybrid birds that are kept in battery suggests a sample-size procedure ities being equal: reverence and domina ment of humane stewardship through cages are especially adapted (genetical based on the coefficient of varia tion together give rise to humane steward which we may indeed heal and redeem ly) to these conditions, so they don't tion rather than on the absolute var ship of animals and Earth: and preven ourselves, and in the process restore our really suffer. Recent research does not iance of kill data. The sample size tive and interventive medicine together planet for the benefit of all life to come. support such claims however. Scientists for each stratum is computed accord B.O. Hughes and P. Dun (in the British ing to the desired precision of the Society for Veterinary Ethology Newslet stratum estimates rather than by al ter, No. 28, March 1983) carried out a location of a yearly sample size. small-scale trial comparing the produc The probability that the estimated tion and behavior of hens in outside mortality exceeds the quota, when pens with hens in battery cages. The in fact the quota is higher than the birds outside produced on average as true mortality, is computed. This sam many eggs as those inside but they ate ple-size procedure is recommended more food. In addition, they supple for data that have a standard devia mented their diet with up to 30 g. of tion proportional to the mean and grass/hen/day. Mortality was similar in Journal Termination the situation where the estimate with the two systems. There was no evidence in stratum is as important as the It is with regret that we announce that this will be the last publi that modern hybrids are specifically overall estimate. cation of the International Journal for the Study of Animal Problems. adapted to either intensive or extensive Increasing publication and other related costs have become prohibi systems. The behavioural observations suggest however that the fu II repertoire A Clear Mandate to Abolish tive. The Institute's editorial staff wish to convey their gratitude to of foraging behaviour is still present. the editorial advisory board and to contributing authors & subscribers Factory Farming for their continued support and encouragement during the life of this Journal, which has done much to help establish a scientific and Tuna Fishing and Improved The British farm animal welfare re philosophical basis for the understanding and care of domesticated Monitoring of Dolphin Mortality form magazine Ag (No. 71, May-June 1983) published the results of a National and wild animals. Opinion Poll that shows overwhelming Nancy Lo of the National Marine public opposition to factory farming, In recognition of the continuing importance of science and philo Fisheries Service, P.O. Box 271, La jolla, ritual slaughter and export of live animals. sophy to animal welfare, the Institute plans to publish an annual col CA 92038, in a paper entitled "Sample The Poll was carried out by NOP Market lection of original and review articles, provisionally titled: Annual size for estimating dolphin mortality Research Limited at the request of the associated with the tuna fishery" (} Review of Animal Welfare, Science and Philosophy. Persons inter General Election Co-ordinating Com Wildlife Management 47:413-421, 1983), ested in contributing and subscribing to this new series should con mittee on Animal Protection (GECCAP) has developed an improved statistical It shows clearly that the animal issues tact the editor Dr. Michael W. Fox, Institute for the Study of Ani method for more accurately determin are vote-switching issues and with more mal Problems, 2100 L Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20037. It is ing dolphin losses. She summarizes her concern expressed about farm animals anticipated that this new Annual will continue to provide the same report: kind of scholarly material for the humane and animal rights move than any other section of animal welfare. "Dolphin (Stene/la spp., Delphinus The survey was based on a quota ment that the International Journal has done over the past four years, de/phis) mortality caused by U.S. sample of 2,135 respondents in 107 con thus providing a stimulus for further advances in the science and tuna purse seiners in the eastern tropi stituencies across Great Britain. NOP philosophy of animal welfare. cal Pacific has been monitored un was careful to sample a good "environ der a quota system since 1976. A strat- mental mix", to be representative of the

/NT] STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 272 /NT] STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 273 M. W. Fox Editorial News &Analysis is simply objectified, controlled, ex are the basis of human and environmen ploited or destroyed for purely selfish tal health and well-being. We have over motives. The difference in attitude, as compensated on the side of domination ified ratio estimator (kill-per-day] between reverence and domination, and and intervention. lnterventive medicine Agribusiness Chicken Myth Dispelled has been used to measure the kill rate between preventive and interventive med has its place, not as a panacea, but to during the year. Vessel trips are strati icine, reflects the dialectical tension and alleviate sickness and suffering, when It has been claimed by poultry sci fied by fishing time period. The mor nature of our existence. We cannot be the need arises. Preventive medicine is entists and producers that the modern tality data from 1976 through 1978 well without both complementary polar the essence of self-dominion, a comple hybrid birds that are kept in battery suggests a sample-size procedure ities being equal: reverence and domina ment of humane stewardship through cages are especially adapted (genetical based on the coefficient of varia tion together give rise to humane steward which we may indeed heal and redeem ly) to these conditions, so they don't tion rather than on the absolute var ship of animals and Earth: and preven ourselves, and in the process restore our really suffer. Recent research does not iance of kill data. The sample size tive and interventive medicine together planet for the benefit of all life to come. support such claims however. Scientists for each stratum is computed accord B.O. Hughes and P. Dun (in the British ing to the desired precision of the Society for Veterinary Ethology Newslet stratum estimates rather than by al ter, No. 28, March 1983) carried out a location of a yearly sample size. small-scale trial comparing the produc The probability that the estimated tion and behavior of hens in outside mortality exceeds the quota, when pens with hens in battery cages. The in fact the quota is higher than the birds outside produced on average as true mortality, is computed. This sam many eggs as those inside but they ate ple-size procedure is recommended more food. In addition, they supple for data that have a standard devia mented their diet with up to 30 g. of tion proportional to the mean and grass/hen/day. Mortality was similar in Journal Termination the situation where the estimate with the two systems. There was no evidence in stratum is as important as the It is with regret that we announce that this will be the last publi that modern hybrids are specifically overall estimate. cation of the International Journal for the Study of Animal Problems. adapted to either intensive or extensive Increasing publication and other related costs have become prohibi systems. The behavioural observations suggest however that the fu II repertoire A Clear Mandate to Abolish tive. The Institute's editorial staff wish to convey their gratitude to of foraging behaviour is still present. the editorial advisory board and to contributing authors & subscribers Factory Farming for their continued support and encouragement during the life of this Journal, which has done much to help establish a scientific and Tuna Fishing and Improved The British farm animal welfare re philosophical basis for the understanding and care of domesticated Monitoring of Dolphin Mortality form magazine Ag (No. 71, May-June 1983) published the results of a National and wild animals. Opinion Poll that shows overwhelming Nancy Lo of the National Marine public opposition to factory farming, In recognition of the continuing importance of science and philo Fisheries Service, P.O. Box 271, La jolla, ritual slaughter and export of live animals. sophy to animal welfare, the Institute plans to publish an annual col CA 92038, in a paper entitled "Sample The Poll was carried out by NOP Market lection of original and review articles, provisionally titled: Annual size for estimating dolphin mortality Research Limited at the request of the associated with the tuna fishery" (} Review of Animal Welfare, Science and Philosophy. Persons inter General Election Co-ordinating Com Wildlife Management 47:413-421, 1983), ested in contributing and subscribing to this new series should con mittee on Animal Protection (GECCAP) has developed an improved statistical It shows clearly that the animal issues tact the editor Dr. Michael W. Fox, Institute for the Study of Ani method for more accurately determin are vote-switching issues and with more mal Problems, 2100 L Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20037. It is ing dolphin losses. She summarizes her concern expressed about farm animals anticipated that this new Annual will continue to provide the same report: kind of scholarly material for the humane and animal rights move than any other section of animal welfare. "Dolphin (Stene/la spp., Delphinus The survey was based on a quota ment that the International Journal has done over the past four years, de/phis) mortality caused by U.S. sample of 2,135 respondents in 107 con thus providing a stimulus for further advances in the science and tuna purse seiners in the eastern tropi stituencies across Great Britain. NOP philosophy of animal welfare. cal Pacific has been monitored un was careful to sample a good "environ der a quota system since 1976. A strat- mental mix", to be representative of the

/NT] STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 272 /NT] STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 273 whole country in terms of voting- urban, in this way especially the 18 to 24-year humans are rare because these genuine nine-month investigation into the illegal rural, age, sex, etc. olds-11% said they would definitely ly wild dogs are aversive to human pre purchase and use of DES by veal producers. 88% of the people questioned do so. sence. However, these large packs of This court action is the first involving favoured the reform of factory farming Finally, 72% are opposed to the use feral dogs are now recognized as the veal producers and DES since the ban in conditions, with 48% strongly in favour of snares to trap wild animals and think most serious threat to the survival of the 1979 on the use of this hormone, although of reform. snares should be banned. Italian wolf, since they compete for the widespread illegal use of DES in beef cat 90% said that the law should be same food sources. The problem is com tle was uncovered in 1980 where several changed to give factory farm animals suf pounded by the fact that wolves and thousand animals had to be impounded. dogs will interbreed. Wryly, author Han ficient freedom of movement to turn round, Relief for Iguana lizards There is an allegedly well-recognized stretch their limbs and groom themselves. sen concludes that the Italian wolf, which blackmarket industry for DES implant This would mean banning sow stalls and ·is perilously close to extinction, may sur pellets in the beef industry. As to how tie stalls as well as veal crates. Land iguanas (Conolophus subcrista vive after all as a hybrid dog. It is esti much DES contaminated veal had been 82% said that if battery cages con tus) have been returned to their ances mated that approximately 25% of Italy's sold and consumed prior to USDA's in tinue to be used, the law should be changed tral home on Isabella Island in the Gala total dog population of around 3.5 mil tervention, no one knows. to ensure that the battery hens can always pagos. These I izards were threatened lion is made up of animals which are stretch their wings. with extinction by feral dogs on the free-ranging, if not actually stray animals. island and several adults were removed Although the Italian government has not Only 13 Y2% approved of battery The Welfare of Adult Pigs: The in 1976 for captive breeding at the Dar taken such stringent measures yet as en cages and 72% of those against, thought Effects of Five Housing Treatments win station. The feral dogs responsible deavoring to depopulate the feral dog they should be banned by law. This can on Behavior, Plasma Corticosteroids for the decline have now been eliminated population, this action may soon be tak be summarised: 40% want battery egg and Injuries from Cartago Bay where the lizards have en, not primarily to save wolves, but production banned; 15 Y2% are against been reintroduced. Of the 37 juvenile igua because of the omnipresent threat of cages but don't necessarily want them nas released there last year, most have rabies which is now moving towards Italy The effects of five housing treatments banned; 13Y2% in favour of battery egg taken up residence in old iguana burrows. out of Eastern Europe. If the Italian gov (tethers, pairs, and group indoors, a yard production; and 31% had no opinion. Of If the dog eradication program on the ernment uses poison bait as a method to and a paddock) on the behavior, physiology the 56% that are definitely opposed to island of Santa Cruz proves as successful control the wild dog problem, then an (stress physiology and blood metabolites), battery cages, there was no significant as the Isabella program, iguanas will be even greater threat to wolves and other health (injury status) and production difference between town and country released there also. wildlife will be created. (food eaten and oestrous expression) of dwellers (which, as Ag emphasizes, gives 30 non-pregnant, adult female pigs were the answer to agribusiness' smear cam determined at regular intervals over 12 paign that a ban on battery cages is only months. Pigs housed in pairs exhibited a DES in Veal supported by 'ignorant townies'). Dogs Endanger Wolves chronic stress response; they had highest 75% were in favour of a ban on the free corticosteroid levels "at rest", a dis Live Export of farm animals. Only 14% James Hansen writing in New Scientist Confinement-raised, "fancy" or "milk rupted diurnal rhythm of plasma corti were opposed to Parliament banning Live (March 3, 1983) describes how free- roam fed" veal gets more than milk and milk costeroids and a slower corticosteroid Exports, and once again there was little ing and feral dogs in Italy are now com substitutes, according to USDA inspec response to and recovery from transport. difference between town and country peting with the few wolf packs that are tors. The U.S. District Court judge in Syr Behaviorally these pigs spent more time dwellers. still surviving in that country. It is esti acuse, New York, recently placed four lying alone than pigs in other treatments, 77% said that the ritual slaughter mated that fully wild feral dogs in Italy veal producers in New York state under and there was a significant regression be of farm animals should stop- with only have exploded to about 80,000 animals, injunction because evidence was brought tween lying alone behavior and free cor 12% remaining in favour of the exemp this number being fueled by a pool of forward to show that they had been using ticosteroid levels suggesting this behav tions from the human slaughter laws at some ten times as many stray and free the illegal carcinogenic growth hormone ior may be a useful indicator of welfare present granted to certain ethnic groups. roaming dogs. The feral dogs apparently diethylstilbestrol (DES) in their calves status. The group of six pigs housed in Vote Switching behave much as wolves do, running in and had marketed these calves for slaugh doors showed the consistently lowest to 5% said that they would definitely packs of up to 20 or 30 members and be ter containing illegal residues of this syn tal and free corticosteroid levels during change the party they vote for if another ing active mainly at night in order to thetic hormone. Under the terms of the the entire experiment, and also the least political party promised to introduce laws avoid humans. They prey on larger herbi injunction, these four producers have lying alone behavior; however these re to give more protection to animals. vores such as deer, and domesticated been ordered not to use DES or to mar sponses may have been influenced by their 15% more said that they might switch animals such as cattle, horses, and par ket DES-treated animals. Furthermore, similar rearing and experimental environ their vote. ticularly sheep. Competition and natural they will have to pay for FDA and USDA ment. While the occurrence of inappro There is a clear indication here that selection in the wild is favoring larger residue testing of more than 1,000 ani priate behaviors such as champing, biting the animals issue could be the deciding breeds and their hybrids, notably setters, mals currently on hand and will be un and excessive drinking was generally low, facror in many marginal seats. The young German shepherds, mastiffs, and the larger able to sell the calves for food if residues it was higher in pigs housed indoors partic are seen to be more likely to change votes hunting and herding breeds. Attacks on are found. This court action followed a ularly the tether and pair treatments, sug-

/NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 275 274 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(4] 1983 whole country in terms of voting- urban, in this way especially the 18 to 24-year humans are rare because these genuine nine-month investigation into the illegal rural, age, sex, etc. olds-11% said they would definitely ly wild dogs are aversive to human pre purchase and use of DES by veal producers. 88% of the people questioned do so. sence. However, these large packs of This court action is the first involving favoured the reform of factory farming Finally, 72% are opposed to the use feral dogs are now recognized as the veal producers and DES since the ban in conditions, with 48% strongly in favour of snares to trap wild animals and think most serious threat to the survival of the 1979 on the use of this hormone, although of reform. snares should be banned. Italian wolf, since they compete for the widespread illegal use of DES in beef cat 90% said that the law should be same food sources. The problem is com tle was uncovered in 1980 where several changed to give factory farm animals suf pounded by the fact that wolves and thousand animals had to be impounded. dogs will interbreed. Wryly, author Han ficient freedom of movement to turn round, Relief for Iguana lizards There is an allegedly well-recognized stretch their limbs and groom themselves. sen concludes that the Italian wolf, which blackmarket industry for DES implant This would mean banning sow stalls and ·is perilously close to extinction, may sur pellets in the beef industry. As to how tie stalls as well as veal crates. Land iguanas (Conolophus subcrista vive after all as a hybrid dog. It is esti much DES contaminated veal had been 82% said that if battery cages con tus) have been returned to their ances mated that approximately 25% of Italy's sold and consumed prior to USDA's in tinue to be used, the law should be changed tral home on Isabella Island in the Gala total dog population of around 3.5 mil tervention, no one knows. to ensure that the battery hens can always pagos. These I izards were threatened lion is made up of animals which are stretch their wings. with extinction by feral dogs on the free-ranging, if not actually stray animals. island and several adults were removed Although the Italian government has not Only 13 Y2% approved of battery The Welfare of Adult Pigs: The in 1976 for captive breeding at the Dar taken such stringent measures yet as en cages and 72% of those against, thought Effects of Five Housing Treatments win station. The feral dogs responsible deavoring to depopulate the feral dog they should be banned by law. This can on Behavior, Plasma Corticosteroids for the decline have now been eliminated population, this action may soon be tak be summarised: 40% want battery egg and Injuries from Cartago Bay where the lizards have en, not primarily to save wolves, but production banned; 15 Y2% are against been reintroduced. Of the 37 juvenile igua because of the omnipresent threat of cages but don't necessarily want them nas released there last year, most have rabies which is now moving towards Italy The effects of five housing treatments banned; 13Y2% in favour of battery egg taken up residence in old iguana burrows. out of Eastern Europe. If the Italian gov (tethers, pairs, and group indoors, a yard production; and 31% had no opinion. Of If the dog eradication program on the ernment uses poison bait as a method to and a paddock) on the behavior, physiology the 56% that are definitely opposed to island of Santa Cruz proves as successful control the wild dog problem, then an (stress physiology and blood metabolites), battery cages, there was no significant as the Isabella program, iguanas will be even greater threat to wolves and other health (injury status) and production difference between town and country released there also. wildlife will be created. (food eaten and oestrous expression) of dwellers (which, as Ag emphasizes, gives 30 non-pregnant, adult female pigs were the answer to agribusiness' smear cam determined at regular intervals over 12 paign that a ban on battery cages is only months. Pigs housed in pairs exhibited a DES in Veal supported by 'ignorant townies'). Dogs Endanger Wolves chronic stress response; they had highest 75% were in favour of a ban on the free corticosteroid levels "at rest", a dis Live Export of farm animals. Only 14% James Hansen writing in New Scientist Confinement-raised, "fancy" or "milk rupted diurnal rhythm of plasma corti were opposed to Parliament banning Live (March 3, 1983) describes how free- roam fed" veal gets more than milk and milk costeroids and a slower corticosteroid Exports, and once again there was little ing and feral dogs in Italy are now com substitutes, according to USDA inspec response to and recovery from transport. difference between town and country peting with the few wolf packs that are tors. The U.S. District Court judge in Syr Behaviorally these pigs spent more time dwellers. still surviving in that country. It is esti acuse, New York, recently placed four lying alone than pigs in other treatments, 77% said that the ritual slaughter mated that fully wild feral dogs in Italy veal producers in New York state under and there was a significant regression be of farm animals should stop- with only have exploded to about 80,000 animals, injunction because evidence was brought tween lying alone behavior and free cor 12% remaining in favour of the exemp this number being fueled by a pool of forward to show that they had been using ticosteroid levels suggesting this behav tions from the human slaughter laws at some ten times as many stray and free the illegal carcinogenic growth hormone ior may be a useful indicator of welfare present granted to certain ethnic groups. roaming dogs. The feral dogs apparently diethylstilbestrol (DES) in their calves status. The group of six pigs housed in Vote Switching behave much as wolves do, running in and had marketed these calves for slaugh doors showed the consistently lowest to 5% said that they would definitely packs of up to 20 or 30 members and be ter containing illegal residues of this syn tal and free corticosteroid levels during change the party they vote for if another ing active mainly at night in order to thetic hormone. Under the terms of the the entire experiment, and also the least political party promised to introduce laws avoid humans. They prey on larger herbi injunction, these four producers have lying alone behavior; however these re to give more protection to animals. vores such as deer, and domesticated been ordered not to use DES or to mar sponses may have been influenced by their 15% more said that they might switch animals such as cattle, horses, and par ket DES-treated animals. Furthermore, similar rearing and experimental environ their vote. ticularly sheep. Competition and natural they will have to pay for FDA and USDA ment. While the occurrence of inappro There is a clear indication here that selection in the wild is favoring larger residue testing of more than 1,000 ani priate behaviors such as champing, biting the animals issue could be the deciding breeds and their hybrids, notably setters, mals currently on hand and will be un and excessive drinking was generally low, facror in many marginal seats. The young German shepherds, mastiffs, and the larger able to sell the calves for food if residues it was higher in pigs housed indoors partic are seen to be more likely to change votes hunting and herding breeds. Attacks on are found. This court action followed a ularly the tether and pair treatments, sug-

/NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 275 274 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(4] 1983 gesting mild frustration in these latter they bruise easily which has caused some out of the business included boredom Research into Bizarre Alternatives two treatments. deaths, and they always seem short of and the desire to make a career change. A comparison of the two most con breath as if they had lung congestion. At one point he tried switching to a trasting environments (tethers and pad Jim thinks that even with the best ventila Authors K. Shamsuzzaman and M.F. pen raising system with automatic feed dock treatments) showed no clear welfare tion systems the air in the barns is humid. Haard, affiliated with the Department of ers, but it didn't work out, mainly because advantage to housing dry, adult pigs in a Swollen joints is also fairly common, but Biochemistry, Memorial University of the feeding system didn't work, and he more extensive (natural) environment. most of the problems with the older calves Newfoundland, St. Johns, Newfound was forced to go back to the narrow crate Ironically this study, reported in the come from accidents. The health of the land, write in The journal of Food Science system. At the time he was trying this agribusiness weekly Feedstuffs was enti calves in their later stages was much less (Vol. 48, p. 179-182, 1983) that a crude new system he had not heard of the straw tled, Study shows sows fare same when trouble than in their first few weeks. preparation of gastric proteases from yard system employed by Quantock veal housed inside, outside! (Feedstuffs, May 9, harp seals was found to coagulate milk At the end of his involvement in in the United Kingdom and felt that if he 1983.) over a wider pH range than porcine pep raising veal calves, disease was still a ma had, he could have benefited greatly from sin, which is commonly used in the jor problem. The mortality rate for his their knowledge and experience. Before Barnett, }.L., Cronin, C.M., manufacture of cheese. These authors pre last group of calves was 45 percent. He he got started Jim traveled to a few Winfield, C.C. and Dewar, A.M. pared cheddar cheese with seal gastric took 30 calves he thought were going to states trying to find the optimal system. Animal Research Institute proteases and found that this gave sig die out of their crates and put them out He found there was little choice and Australia nificantly higher "sensory scores" than side where they were fed on grass and feels that nobody was doing any better cheese made with calf rennet. The authors hay. These calves became considerably than he had done. After finding out about conclude their paper by stating that "the more healthy than they had been. Those the straw yard system through this inter total annual catch of pups and adult Reflections of an Ex- Veal Farmer calves who had not previously stood up view he wished he had gone to Europe in harp seals in Newfoundland is about voluntarily while still in confinement search of a model. He was pleased to 91,000, taking an average of the data for Jim Pittenger raised veal calves for stalls were now standing up on their hear of the great success of this system the years 1976-1979. By following a five years, from 1970 to 1975. He stumbled own. Many of the calves became playful in the U.K. and, if he was still in the modified extraction method, the esti into the business, as he believes many and would chase or otherwise interact business, he said he would reduce the mated total yield of coagulant from the do, after seeing an advertisement by with Jim's cat and dog. Of the 30 only number of calves he raised and would seals' stomachs would be sufficient to Agway Inc. for milk-fed veal. He started one calf died. become active in developing a straw out with 10 calves and when that went It was a personal decision for Jim yard system. clot about 31 million liters of milk. Such serendipitous use of a by-product of the well increased to 100. He eventually Pittenger to stop raising veal calves with One observation that Jim made was enlarged his operation to handle 200 more than one factor acting upon that that those calves he singled out as his seal industry, while on the surface seems calves at a time. All the calves were ap decision. Part of the reason he quit had favorites and so had relationships with exemplary in terms of its innovativeness proximately the same age and he tried to to do with animals' rights. He feels that seemed to be happier than the rest of and efficiency, can surely only lead to get two-and-one-half groups through the present system of raising veal calves the calves. It seems that those animals further justification for continued slaughter to slaughter each year. By the end of his is too hard on the animals and that it is who were allowed outside freedom, a of seals in Canada, especially if the business 600 calves per year were going not an ideal system in which to raise proper diet, personable human contact, Canadian cheese industry becomes de to slaughter. them. The neighboring farms were fami who were in some way treated with nor pendent upon seals for their cheese pro It is during the first month that the ly operations, the people were old-time mality, were the healthiest and the hap duction." health of the calves is the most precar farmers using time-tested methods, the piest. Jim believes that the psyche or ious. At this stage there is a high in animals were well cared for and as a re spirit of the animals is overlooked. He cidence of illness and a lot of money is sult they had low mortality rates. Jim thinks that people get caught in cycles Animal Models in Biomedical spent on medications. It is also during saw that his neighbors had a lot of per and are not aware of what they are do Research- Some Paradoxical Findings this period that the mortality rate is sonal pride in their farms and their ani ing. "I rationalized what I was doing. highest. On a good operation the highest mals, which he doesn't feel is possible in You need to stand back to say, 'I am do In Science (Vol. 208, 1980, p. 1475- mortality rate would be between 10 and raising veal calves. He gradually became ing this. What are my alternatives?'" If 1476), Robert M. Neren and co-workers 15 percent. As a personal goal Jim Pit more and more demoralized, partly due Jim was ever to go back to animal farm found that rabbits on a two percent tenger tried to keep his mortality rate to the high mortality rates experienced ing his first choice would be to raise cholesterol diet that were individually below 5 percent. in raising calves for veal. Jim feels that sheep or cattle; his last choice would be petted, held, and talked to, and played By the sixth week the calves' health although veal is a delicious product, it is to raise veal calves, and then, only in with on a regular basis, had a 60 percent usually stabilizes and the raising of the somewhat of a human gimmick, especially straw yards or group-pens. reduction in the percentage of aortic ser veal becomes mainly a feeding operation. white veal, and is not in the best interest vice area exhibiting atherosclerotic lesions Their health is good considering their of the animals. He feels that the system Sherry Showell compared to other rabbits which were situation. If they were being raised out presently being used for producing veal /SAP Intern given the same diet and normal labora side they would be hardier. As it is they can be improved and indeed has to be tory animal care. This research shows still have little resistance to diseases, improved. Other reasons for Jim getting how the routine treatment of laboratory

276 /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 277 gesting mild frustration in these latter they bruise easily which has caused some out of the business included boredom Research into Bizarre Alternatives two treatments. deaths, and they always seem short of and the desire to make a career change. A comparison of the two most con breath as if they had lung congestion. At one point he tried switching to a trasting environments (tethers and pad Jim thinks that even with the best ventila Authors K. Shamsuzzaman and M.F. pen raising system with automatic feed dock treatments) showed no clear welfare tion systems the air in the barns is humid. Haard, affiliated with the Department of ers, but it didn't work out, mainly because advantage to housing dry, adult pigs in a Swollen joints is also fairly common, but Biochemistry, Memorial University of the feeding system didn't work, and he more extensive (natural) environment. most of the problems with the older calves Newfoundland, St. Johns, Newfound was forced to go back to the narrow crate Ironically this study, reported in the come from accidents. The health of the land, write in The journal of Food Science system. At the time he was trying this agribusiness weekly Feedstuffs was enti calves in their later stages was much less (Vol. 48, p. 179-182, 1983) that a crude new system he had not heard of the straw tled, Study shows sows fare same when trouble than in their first few weeks. preparation of gastric proteases from yard system employed by Quantock veal housed inside, outside! (Feedstuffs, May 9, harp seals was found to coagulate milk At the end of his involvement in in the United Kingdom and felt that if he 1983.) over a wider pH range than porcine pep raising veal calves, disease was still a ma had, he could have benefited greatly from sin, which is commonly used in the jor problem. The mortality rate for his their knowledge and experience. Before Barnett, }.L., Cronin, C.M., manufacture of cheese. These authors pre last group of calves was 45 percent. He he got started Jim traveled to a few Winfield, C.C. and Dewar, A.M. pared cheddar cheese with seal gastric took 30 calves he thought were going to states trying to find the optimal system. Animal Research Institute proteases and found that this gave sig die out of their crates and put them out He found there was little choice and Australia nificantly higher "sensory scores" than side where they were fed on grass and feels that nobody was doing any better cheese made with calf rennet. The authors hay. These calves became considerably than he had done. After finding out about conclude their paper by stating that "the more healthy than they had been. Those the straw yard system through this inter total annual catch of pups and adult Reflections of an Ex- Veal Farmer calves who had not previously stood up view he wished he had gone to Europe in harp seals in Newfoundland is about voluntarily while still in confinement search of a model. He was pleased to 91,000, taking an average of the data for Jim Pittenger raised veal calves for stalls were now standing up on their hear of the great success of this system the years 1976-1979. By following a five years, from 1970 to 1975. He stumbled own. Many of the calves became playful in the U.K. and, if he was still in the modified extraction method, the esti into the business, as he believes many and would chase or otherwise interact business, he said he would reduce the mated total yield of coagulant from the do, after seeing an advertisement by with Jim's cat and dog. Of the 30 only number of calves he raised and would seals' stomachs would be sufficient to Agway Inc. for milk-fed veal. He started one calf died. become active in developing a straw out with 10 calves and when that went It was a personal decision for Jim yard system. clot about 31 million liters of milk. Such serendipitous use of a by-product of the well increased to 100. He eventually Pittenger to stop raising veal calves with One observation that Jim made was enlarged his operation to handle 200 more than one factor acting upon that that those calves he singled out as his seal industry, while on the surface seems calves at a time. All the calves were ap decision. Part of the reason he quit had favorites and so had relationships with exemplary in terms of its innovativeness proximately the same age and he tried to to do with animals' rights. He feels that seemed to be happier than the rest of and efficiency, can surely only lead to get two-and-one-half groups through the present system of raising veal calves the calves. It seems that those animals further justification for continued slaughter to slaughter each year. By the end of his is too hard on the animals and that it is who were allowed outside freedom, a of seals in Canada, especially if the business 600 calves per year were going not an ideal system in which to raise proper diet, personable human contact, Canadian cheese industry becomes de to slaughter. them. The neighboring farms were fami who were in some way treated with nor pendent upon seals for their cheese pro It is during the first month that the ly operations, the people were old-time mality, were the healthiest and the hap duction." health of the calves is the most precar farmers using time-tested methods, the piest. Jim believes that the psyche or ious. At this stage there is a high in animals were well cared for and as a re spirit of the animals is overlooked. He cidence of illness and a lot of money is sult they had low mortality rates. Jim thinks that people get caught in cycles Animal Models in Biomedical spent on medications. It is also during saw that his neighbors had a lot of per and are not aware of what they are do Research- Some Paradoxical Findings this period that the mortality rate is sonal pride in their farms and their ani ing. "I rationalized what I was doing. highest. On a good operation the highest mals, which he doesn't feel is possible in You need to stand back to say, 'I am do In Science (Vol. 208, 1980, p. 1475- mortality rate would be between 10 and raising veal calves. He gradually became ing this. What are my alternatives?'" If 1476), Robert M. Neren and co-workers 15 percent. As a personal goal Jim Pit more and more demoralized, partly due Jim was ever to go back to animal farm found that rabbits on a two percent tenger tried to keep his mortality rate to the high mortality rates experienced ing his first choice would be to raise cholesterol diet that were individually below 5 percent. in raising calves for veal. Jim feels that sheep or cattle; his last choice would be petted, held, and talked to, and played By the sixth week the calves' health although veal is a delicious product, it is to raise veal calves, and then, only in with on a regular basis, had a 60 percent usually stabilizes and the raising of the somewhat of a human gimmick, especially straw yards or group-pens. reduction in the percentage of aortic ser veal becomes mainly a feeding operation. white veal, and is not in the best interest vice area exhibiting atherosclerotic lesions Their health is good considering their of the animals. He feels that the system Sherry Showell compared to other rabbits which were situation. If they were being raised out presently being used for producing veal /SAP Intern given the same diet and normal labora side they would be hardier. As it is they can be improved and indeed has to be tory animal care. This research shows still have little resistance to diseases, improved. Other reasons for Jim getting how the routine treatment of laboratory

276 /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 277 animals may actually bias certain research ports have indicated that introduction conclusions, especially in toxicity studies of strangers fosters a high degree of Comments and in research investigations of such social instability in macaques monkeys. multifactor diseases as atherosclerosis. The results of this study suggest that More recently social stress has been im psychosocial factors may influence the plicated in the development of athero development of atherosclerosis. These sclerosis in monkeys. two scientific reports illustrate a new J.R. Kaplan writing in Science (Vol. dimension in biomedical research which 220, 1983, p. 733-735), reported that so has been called behavioral medicine, cially stressed adult male cynomologus through which a greater understanding A Survey monkeys fed a low fat, low cholesterol of the emotional and social factors in diet developed more extensive coronary, volved in human disease and disease pre of Animal Behavior- Related artery atherosclerosis than unstressed vention may be more fully understood. monkeys. The stress was induced by per Furthermore, such studies provide in Research and Teaching Activities iodically altering group memberships by sights into the importance of social and redistributing animals among three emotional factors in the development of in North American Agricultural and groups. The monkeys were redistributed disease in animals such that researchers once every 12 weeks in the first year of and others can no longer ignore the fact Veterinary Medical Colleges 1 the study and once every four weeks in that animals are likely to suffer emo the following nine months. Reorganiza tionally as well as physically, in ways tion of groups was selected as a means more similar to us than we might other of inducing stress because previous re- wise wish to believe. W.R. Stricklin

'Scientific Article No. 3385, Contribution No. 6457, of the Maryland Agricultural Experiment Station. Dr. Stricklin is with the Department of Animal Sciences, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20742 (U.S A).

A Psychic Dog? A letter questionnaire was used to survey animal behavior-related research and teaching efforts in U.S.A. and Canadian university animal sciences departments (agri For nearly 30 hours, a search party combed the rugged cliffs culture) and veterinary medical colleges. The objectives of the eleven questions of the on the island of Minorca for a missing three-year-old boy in the survey were to identify behavior workers and to determine the current and planned spring of 1983. The search party abandoned its search and the levels of emphasis on research and teaching activities in domestic animal behavior. leader of the party, Mayor Jose Tadeo, returned to his home two During 1981, questionnaires were mailed to 162 deans and chairmen, and 102 were miles away where his four-year-old Irish setter, Harpo, who had answered and returned. Twenty-three persons were identified as having appointments not been with his master during the search, would not let him rest. specifically or primarily in animal behavior, and 99 persons were identified as having Constantly whining, the dog scratched at the door until it was appointments that had some responsibilities in animal behavior. Twenty-two respon opened. The dog led the way to where the boy had disappeared and dents reported that they offer an undergraduate course in animal behavior, ten of suddenly stopped barking and wagging his tail on the edge of a which were colleges of veterinary medicine. The behavior course was required for graduation by six of the veterinary medical colleges, but only two animal sciences de small crevice hidden by thick undergrowth. Search parties had partments taught a required course in animal behavior. Seventeen graduate programs three times passed within feet of this crevice but had not seen in behavior were identified. Plans to increase the amount of effort in areas related to anything. The Mayor smashed his way through the undergrowth animal behavior were reported on 32 of the returned questionnaires. and found the little boy whose name was Oscar lying there semi conscious. How did the dog, which had been two miles away at the time of the search, sense where to find the boy? Reported in the Sunday Express, April 24, 1983. Introduction and research activities in U.S.A. and Can Abraham Lincoln once said, "If we adian agricultural and veterinary medi could first know where we are and cal colleges. It is suggested that this in where we are tending, we could better formation will be helpful to persons who judge what to do and how to do it." This make decisions about the future of the paper reports efforts to determine the discipline of animal behavior in agricul current status of animal behavior teaching ture and veterinary medicine.

278 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 279 animals may actually bias certain research ports have indicated that introduction conclusions, especially in toxicity studies of strangers fosters a high degree of Comments and in research investigations of such social instability in macaques monkeys. multifactor diseases as atherosclerosis. The results of this study suggest that More recently social stress has been im psychosocial factors may influence the plicated in the development of athero development of atherosclerosis. These sclerosis in monkeys. two scientific reports illustrate a new J.R. Kaplan writing in Science (Vol. dimension in biomedical research which 220, 1983, p. 733-735), reported that so has been called behavioral medicine, cially stressed adult male cynomologus through which a greater understanding A Survey monkeys fed a low fat, low cholesterol of the emotional and social factors in diet developed more extensive coronary, volved in human disease and disease pre of Animal Behavior- Related artery atherosclerosis than unstressed vention may be more fully understood. monkeys. The stress was induced by per Furthermore, such studies provide in Research and Teaching Activities iodically altering group memberships by sights into the importance of social and redistributing animals among three emotional factors in the development of in North American Agricultural and groups. The monkeys were redistributed disease in animals such that researchers once every 12 weeks in the first year of and others can no longer ignore the fact Veterinary Medical Colleges 1 the study and once every four weeks in that animals are likely to suffer emo the following nine months. Reorganiza tionally as well as physically, in ways tion of groups was selected as a means more similar to us than we might other of inducing stress because previous re- wise wish to believe. W.R. Stricklin

278 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 279 W.R. Stricklin Comment W.R. Stricklin Comment

Methods 50 land-grant universities, but in general, these are smaller departments that focus During 1981, a questionnaire was on undergraduate teaching and not re mailed to 133 chairs of departments that search activity. Additionally, six major deal with animal agriculture and 29 deans Canadian animal sciences departments of colleges of veterinary medicine of with graduate programs were identified, North American (Canadian and U.S.A.) uni Number Question and 29 veterinary medical colleges were versities. EIeven questions were pre surveyed, three of which were Canadian. sented with the objectives of identifying Does your Department employ a person whose primary job involves teaching or re Approximately six of the veterinary med search in animal behavior? personnel working in animal behavior ical schools were started within the last and determining present and planned ac 2 Does your Department employ a person who has some involvement with teaching or 5 to 7 years and some were still develop research in animal behavior? tivities in domestic animal behavior, ing new programs and hiring new faculty 3 Is animal behavior included in your introductory animal science (poultry, dairy, or vet especially farm or agricultural animals. at the time this survey was conducted. erinary science for respective departments) course? The questions are listed in Table 1. Addi 4 Do you have a required course in animal behavior taught in your Department? tional information, such as names of work Survey Response and Results 5 Do you have an elective course in animal behavior taught by a member of your De ers and number of lectures, was requested A total of 102, or 63 percent, of the partment? for each question. questionnaires was completed and re 6 Do you have a graduate course or seminar in animal behavior taught by a departmen The animal sciences department from turned. Results of the returned forms are tal member? the largest agricultural university of summarized in Table 2. Twenty-three per 7 Is animal behavior taught in any of your management, nutrition, physiology, produc- each state was identified (Anonymous, sons were identified as having teaching tion, etc. courses? 1980). These were primarily land-grant or research activities specifically in ani 8 Is animal welfare covered in any of your Department's courses? universities and therefore have federally mal behavior, and 99 persons were identi 9 Do you have a graduate program in animal behavior? supported research programs (Arnold, fied whose work included some involve 10 Do you have graduate students whose research topics deal with animal behavior? 1971 ). In general, these 50 selected animal ment with animal behavior. A prelimina 11 Do you have plans to increase your teaching or research endeavors in animal sciences departments have larger stu ry list of these persons including names, behavior in the near future? dent enrollments and more faculty than addresses, and areas of interest was pub do other agricultural schools in the lished in the North American Applied Ani U.S.A. An additional17 poultry science, mal Ethology Newsletter (Friend, 1981 ). ety. They identified ten graduate pro This survey was an underestimate 11 dairy science, and 12 veterinary science In most cases, it appeared that the grams from departments in agricultural of the total number of researchers in departments were identified within chair or dean passed the questionnaire and veterinary medical colleges, and the North America. For example, researchers these 50 universities. The disciplines re on to a person who had interests or work current survey identified those ten pro with the U.S. Department of Agriculture lating to poultry, dairy, and veterinary related to behavior who then answered grams and seven others. It was not possi and the Canadian Department of Agricul science (primarily health) are typically and returned the form. The responses ble to accurately assess the total number ture research centers were not included part of the animal sciences department, were probably more indicative of the of students currently in graduate studies in the survey. However, Curtis and and when the collegial organization has total amount of farm animal behavior related to animal behavior. However, McGlone (1982) determined the status of a separate department for one or more interest and activity in North American partial I istings identified over 60 grad farm animal behavior research in North of these areas, the faculty tend to have universities than a representative sam uate projects which included domestic America using journal reviews, compu primarily research appointments. ple of the 162 departments. Based on my animal behavior in some way. ter data bank searches, and letter com An additional 36 animal science pro knowledge of behavior programs, it ap There was some tendency for rela munications with identified researchers. grams in Canada and the U.S.A. that of peared that departments with behavior tively greater emphasis on behavior in Alexander (1982) reported that of the fer a bachelor of science degree or higher programs tended to reply, and those with Canadian animal sciences programs than first 200 articles of Applied Animal were identified from "The College Blue out programs tended not to reply. An ex in U.S.A. animal sciences programs. Ethology, 53 articles were by U.S.A. Book" (Anonymous, 1981 ). These pro ception may have been veterinary colleges There was also considerable emphasis workers and 16 from Can ad ian workers. grams included 15 smaller land-grant uni which are organized with several depart on behavior in veterinary medical col Thirty-two respondents indicated versities, branch campuses of land-grant ments, and thus, the questionnaire may leges with six programs having required that their departments plan to increase universities, private colleges, and state not have reached all appropriate depart courses in animal behavior. The smaller teaching or research endeavors in ani or provincially supported universities. ments. colleges tended to cover animal behav mal behavior (Question 11 ). Three gave Some of these programs are larger in Aspey and Christenson (1982) prepared ior in introductory or management courses no details, six mentioned possible new number of students and faculty than the a listing of graduate programs in animal rather than in courses specifically on courses, eight referred to specific re smaller animal sciences programs of the behavior for the Animal Behavior Soci- animal behavior. search projects, seven indicated they

280 /NT] STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 /NT] STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 281 W.R. Stricklin Comment W.R. Stricklin Comment

were considering new faculty positions, > ...... Anonymous (1980) Professional Workers .-I s.. . v ro o one listed adding animal welfare lectures, in State Agricultural Experiment Sta- t:'Ot: \0 t- co .::t .::t co C'IJ 0'1 s;::s;:: ...... (Y') 0'1 and six mentioned adding animal behavior tions and Other Cooperating State In- 00.!>1: Ill 0 s.. lectures to existing courses. Three re- stitutions. 1979-80. United States De- s.. Q) 0 Q)CI):J: 0. spondents qualified their answers by partment of Agriculture. Agriculture s.. . mentioning budget concerns, and an ad- Handbook Number 305. 232 pp. 0 >. 0 ...... s.. t: (Y') 0'1 C'IJ 0 0 co (Y') ditional four responded "no" but gave Anonymous (1981)The College Blue Book; >ro ...... C'IJ ro ..c: .~ .!><: details indicating that they would like to Degrees offered by college and sub- !IlO...!iQ) s.. s.. increase activities when their budgets per- ject. (18th ed.). Macmillan Publishing mitted. Co., Inc., New York, 879 pp. While this survey was not intended Arnold, C.K. (1971) Land-grant colleges. l.{) (Y') 0 co .::t C'IJ (Y') to determine the impact of animal wei- In: L.C. Deighton (editor). The Ency- fare on animal behavior teaching and clopedia of Education. The MacMillan 0 (Y') \0 .::t 0 (Y') l.{) C'IJ (Y') research, it appeared that the majority Company and the Free Press, New York. of the identified behavior programs 5:318-322. 0'1 C'IJ co (Y') 0 0 .::t 0 t- were developed before or shortly after Aspey, W.P. and Christenson, T. (1982) 1975 and thus before animal welfare was Graduate Programs in Animal Behavior co .::t co \0 C'IJ 0 co 0'1 .::t a major issue in North America. Approxi- 1981-1982 . Department of Zoology

t- .::t 0'1 co C'IJ co (Y') l.{) mately ten of the 23 primary behavior and General Biology Section, The Ohio l.{) workers (Table 2) were studying behavior State University, Columbus, Ohio. 47 \0 l.{) 0 0 .::t 0 before the Brambell report of 1965 was pp. .,; published in Britain. Nevertheless, recent Curtis, S.E. and McGlone, J.J. (1982) Status l.{) t- C'IJ 0 0 .::t 0 .::t c Q) E growth and intentions to expand animal of farm animal behavioral research in s.. ::J Q) 0 behavior research and teaching activi- .O.::t 0 0 0 \0 0 co u North America. J Anim Sci 54:450-455. El ::I c ties were also identified in this survey of Friend, T.H. (1981) Persons active in applied t: (Y') .::t l.{) l.{) t- .::t t- ~ Canadian and American universities. animal ethology. North American Ap- t: C'IJ l.{) ~ 0 'U ...... Q) plied Ethology Newsletter. Texas A & .,J('IJ C'IJ co C'IJ (Y') t- 0'1 C'IJ 'U Ill C'IJ l.{) Q) References M University, College Station, Texas. Q) 0 .0 u ::I 1: Vol. 1. a~ (Y') co C'IJ 0 0 t- f- Alexander, G. (1982) Applied Animal Ethol- C'IJ "' 1: c ogy: survey of first twenty-five issues. 'U "'c 0 App/ Anim Ethol 8:391-399. .,J _; -~ (Y') \0 (Y') t- 0 0 Q) t: 0 C'IJ Q) Q) . . ::J 0 cv1 .::t t'.i cv1 cx:i 0 (Y') ~ 0' s.. co t- t- \() l.{) l.{) l.{) \0 ..c Q) "'c u 0 1/l'O 0... Q) Q) Q) -~ "' s.. t: Q) ...... s.. ::J .E ro ::l 0' (Y') l.{) t:.,J . l.{) t- t- t- co C'IJ Q) ~ t: Q) (Y') 0 0 Ot>:: :£ -5 Oil ...... 'U 2 .,J c .,; "'u Q) t: • Ill .,J I 't("' ~ c > \() QJ.O \0 0 co C'IJ 0'1 C'IJ Q) c 5~:£ l.{) C'IJ (Y') \() .... Q) vi E V'l wE~t:~ ..c: t: Q) l'Q c +-~ta=a.o cO.O 0 Q) ~~~~-~ Cl) ::;:: .0...... -Iro ~~JJ§ ...... •n >. >...... El Q) u QJ Q) :::: 0 c5S •n s.. s.. ~ ~ ~ ~ l'Q :>. Cl) c5l ro ro t: s.. :>. c5S ...... t: t: <:. s.. s.. s.. .-I .§ Q) E E .-I s.. Q) Q) Q) ro OI)'U"U'U.o .,J ...... •n ::l •n .,J .,J .s= .,J > 0 E-< u.=.::.::z ta..CU""'W

282 /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 283 W.R. Stricklin Comment W.R. Stricklin Comment

282 /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 283 H. Cohen Comment

able potential because they could lead to for personal injury, and dead animals the questioning of conventional prac certainly would have no use for money. Some Preliminary Thoughts on tices such as hunting, factory farming, (The concept of estates for animals is a and animal experimentation. Animal cruel can of worms that will not be opened on Permitting Animals to Sue in ty statutes are rarely invoked against this occasion.) One possible way to han these practices because the state's attor dle monetary damages might be to have Contract and Tort ney must be willing to prosecute, and them paid to the state; awards would because criminal laws are narrowly con then still have a deterrent, though not a strued. But any victim of a tort can set compensatory purpose. I would favor, Henry Cohen the wheels of justice in motion. Suppose however, the use of damages to fund an someone, without justification, shoots imal rights groups working for the bene your pet. If animals could sue in tort you fit of the injured animal's species or Henry Cohen is Legislative Attorney for Congressional Research Service, Library of Congress. The views ex could bring an action on behalf of your class (e.g., zoo animals), or to fund envi pressed herein do not necessarily represent those of the Congressional Research Service or the Library of Con gress. pet for his pain and suffering. Now sup ronmental groups working for the bene pose a hunter, without justification (apart fit of the injured animal's habitat. from "sport") shoots a wild animal, and Permitting animals to sue in contract Animal protection statutes are of Actions in tort, however, present an animal rights activist sues on the and tort would not only remedy specific course extremely valuable, and they more significant possibilities, and the animal's behalf for its pain and suffer injustices and provide a source of funding might be made even more so if they were situations that might give rise to tort ac ing. If the court attempted to rule in for animal rights groups; it might also formulated to give private rights of ac tions for animals seem much more anal favor of your pet but not in favor of the contribute toward a change of consci tion to their beneficiaries- the animals ogous to those that give rise to tort ac wild animal, it would be faced with hav ousness, consisting in part of a recogni themselves. But what I would like to ex tions for humans. They may, in fact, be ing to distinguish the two cases, and tion that animals' interests deserve equal plore here is the idea of extending com identical. Suppose a man is crossing the might realize that, from the points of consideration with humans'. As Christo mon law rights of action to animals. Ad street and is hit by a negligent motorist view of the two animals, the cases are in pher Stone wrote in Should Trees Have mittedly, permitting animals to sue in and suffers a broken leg. He can sue in distinguishable. And, since the animals Standing?- Toward Legal Rights for Nat contract and tort now seems fanciful, but tort for compensation for his medical would be the plaintiffs, it would be their ural Objects, 45 Southern California Law my hope is that this article will provide bills, his pain and suffering, and any loss points of view that mattered. Review 450, 453 (1972), "[t]hroughout an initial step toward bringing it about. of income that results from the injury. A final issue that must be raised is legal history, each successive extension The right to sue in contract would Now suppose the same man had been the type of remedies that should be of rights to some new entity has been ... a seem not especially useful, since ani walking his dog and had suffered the awarded in common law actions by ani bit unthinkable." I hope that this article mals generally lack the mental capacity same accident, and, in addition, his dog mals. Injunctions would be appropriate will at least make the extension of com to contract. However, the concept of had suffered a broken leg. Under present in some cases, and the species of the mon law rights to animals less unthink quasi contract might be invoked on be law, the man could recover veterinary ex plaintiff would raise no conceptual prob able. half of animals who were injured as a penses and any loss of income that re lems. In cases in which monetary dam result of justified reliance on another's sulted from the dog's injury (assuming ages were appropriate, however, a problem acts. An example might be a pet animal the dog did television commercials or would arise from the fact that animals or a zoo animal that was abandoned the like). But there could be no recovery have little use for money. A pet animal's after having lost its ability to survive on for the dog's pain and suffering, even damages could be put in trust and spent CORRECTION- In Vol. 4, No. 3 of the its own, or that was abandoned in a though the dog's pain and suffering for the animal's benefit, but, unless trust journal, p. 250, the reference to Dr. Peter locale where survival on its own was im might have been equal to or greater than expenditures were for items that the Singer's criticisms of Australian codes on possible. The monkeys who were taught the man's. Yet, as Peter Singer showed in owner would not supply anyway, the dam animal welfare practices was incorrectly to use sign language and who were recent Animal Liberation, there is no relevant ages in effect would accrue to the owners. cited as being published in the Winter ly threatened with becoming the subjects difference between humans and animals However, spending the recovery on lux 1982 edition of Ag: his critique appeared of laboratory experiments also might that would justify considering the pain uries would not solve the problem be in the Winter '82 edition of the Austra have had a cause of action under this of one more important than the pain of cause most animals have little need of lian publication Outcry. theory. Could not having taught these the other. Incidentally, measuring a material luxuries, and most such items monkeys to use language be viewed as dog's pain and suffering would seem on (diamond studded collars, for example) having created an obligation to keep ly slightly more difficult than measuring are really for the owner's benefit. them in an environment in which they a man's. Furthermore, animals should be able could use this skill? Tort actions might also have valu- to recover for wrongful death as well as

284 /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4[4) 1983 /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4[4) 1983 285 H. Cohen Comment

284 /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4[4) 1983 /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4[4) 1983 285 W. Fox Comment M. W. Fox Comment M.

kingdom which will improve our steward have to be inhibited for its own good ship of planet earth and the lives of all and for the good of society. However, it Humane Ethics creatures under our dominion. The would be a violation of such an animal's following synopsis of animal rights rights (amounting to cruel and unneces and Animal Rights philosophy, it relates to the treatment sary privation) to keep it continually re and exploitation of domesticated and strained in a small cage or on a short chain; wild animals, shows where ethical guide To argue that animals have rights is lines and ecological considerations are based on more than philosophical pre M.W. Fox needed beyond the I im ited framework sumption or moral reasoning. It is based of animal suffering per se. upon the ecological evidence that they The humane ethic of treating animals do "adapt." But they are being harmed, Economic and other social justifica are, as we, an integral part of the bio with compassion has been the principle since such treatments can increase their tions of animal exploitation, particularly spheric ecological community and also tenet of the animal welfare movement susceptibility to stress and disease. In the raising of animals for human con upon the physiological and psychological for many decades. It is based upon the the parlance of animal rights philosophy, sumption and their use in biomedical re affinities that many animal species have Judeo-Christian doctrine of benevo their rights are being violated, regardless search, should stand the test of moral, as with us. That we are dominant over them lence to all God's creatures and upon of whether or not suffering occurs or can well as utilitarian justification, with ref and in control or superior to them are the moral virtue of kindness, inhumanity be scientifically proven. erence to the ethics of humane animal not valid reasons for denying animals being regarded as a social evil and a sign Animal suffering, therefore, is only exploitation and their intrinsic worth or equal and fair consideration. The honest of bad character. one aspect of animal exploitation and "rights" which may be articulated as reasons for denying them such consider This ethic, however valid, is limited abuse. Recognizing this, and the fact follows: ation, and not according them rights are because it would seem to accept any that the elimination of animal suffering Animals have an intrinsic nature primarily economic, and also that their form of animal exploitation if it is done is an extremely limited horizon, the hu and interests (needs, wants, etc.) of their exploitation gives us pleasure, and that humanely. Would an explosive harpoon mane movement has greatly expanded own, intentionality or purposiveness, their interests at times conflict with or instant-kill trap make the slaughter of its vision and goals by incorporating and have intrinsic worth independent of ours, as over-competition for resources. whales and fur-bearing mammals morally animal rights philosophy and ecological the extrinsic values we may project or An understanding of the intrinsic nature acceptable? Within the narrow tenet of principles into its educational, legislative, impose upon them. These interests may of animals leads to an appreciation of being kind and not cruel toward ani and political activities. be construed as their rights or entitlement; their intrinsic worth and thus ultimately mals, the answer would be yes. A deeper understanding of what an Their physical, emotional and so to according them rights; While the primary goal of the ani imals do, and say, and why, will not only cial needs constitute their intrinsic The rights of animals should be mal welfare movement is to eliminate enhance our enjoyment of them as com nature, or "animalness" (which has an given equal consideration with the rights suffering in those animal species that panions or as natural creations for ob evolutionary and genetic basis), which of a human being, but it is important to are exploited by humans, this goal, al servation and appreciate contemplation; entitle them to just treatment and moral recognize that this does not necessarily though exemplary, is narrow sighted. Not it will also improve the care they receive concern; imply equal treatment nor that the in withstanding the practical difficulties of under humane stewardship and under the In recognizing that animals have in terests of the animal are accorded the proving animal suffering, especially psy dominion of animal researchers, farmers, trinsic worth and interests independent same weight or value as essential human chological, suffering could conceivably and others whose I ivel i hoods depend of their extrinsic worth to us, we are interests; be eliminated, as in confined farm ani upon the exploitation of animals for the ethically enjoined to treat them compas This provides the ethical basis for mals, through the use of tranquilizers, or benefit of society. Furthermore, this "an sionately. Thus, when they are under our determining when the killing or harming even brain surgery. A goose being made imal connection" of understanding is care or stewardship, we are morally and of an animal (by causing it to suffer or to to eat compulsively, following selective the basis for informed empathy, as dis ought legally, to be bound to respect their be deprived of certain basic needs) is partial destruction or stimulation of its tinct from a purely Cartesian, uti I itarian rights; morally justifiable; brain to cause hypertrophy of its liver anthropomorphic, or esthetic attitude, Respecting the rights of animals In making such ethical determina for the liver pate trade, may not suffer. which leads us inevitably toward what means avoiding unnecessary or unjusti tions, we as moral agents must consider But it is being harmed. Likewise, to se Albert Schweitzer called "a reverence fiable death, physical or psychological the amimal's intrinsic nature and its rights, lective breed a farm animal, like a broiler for all life." Once this animal connec suffering, or deprivation or frustration of and reason informs us that animals are chicken, that eats to excess and its rate tion of understanding and reverence is their basic physical, emotional and social legitimate objects of moral concern; of growth jeopardizes its health, or to established, the societal recognition of needs; Thus, the killing of an animal may raise a zoo or laboratory animal in a the intrinsic worth of animals, and of Such rights are relative and not ab be ethically acceptable only when there highly restricted environment, may not their rights, will mean a fundamental solute (i.e., presumptive). For example, a are no reasonable alternatives, as when cause overt suffering, since the animals change in our attitude toward the animal domestic animal's desire to be free may the animal is: (a) incurably ill and is ex-

286 /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 287 W. Fox Comment M. W. Fox Comment M.

286 /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 287 M.W. Fox Comment M.W. Fox Comment

periencing great suffering; (b) so deformed A major aspect of animal rights phil The lack of regard and concern for beings, animal and human alike. or otherwise incapacitated as to be in osophy which has been seriously over the intrinsic nature, worth and "rights" capable of living without great suffer looked, because of the instant polariza of animals is a metaphor for the lack of References for Further Reading ing; (c) endangering the lives of human tion of this issue into animal versus empathy, care, knowledge, respect and Carpenter, E. (1980) Animals and Ethics, beings, or causing a severe and unnatu human rights, is that animals of the responsibility that humans have for their London, Watkins. ral ecological impact, thus endangering same species, or of the same degree of own kind, be they of the same or oppo Clark, S.R.I. (1977) The Moral Status of the lives of other living creatures; (d) sentience, should be treated with the site sex, or of a different race, socio Animals. Oxford, Clarendon Press. other instances not directly beneficial to same degree of humaneness (since they economic class, political, rei igious or Dawkins, M.S. (1980) Animal Suffering: the animal a~ise when its products (meat, can all suffer similarly). There are no other belief or value system; The Science of Animal Welfare. Lon fur, etc.) are essential for human well moral or ethical grounds for considering It has been argued that since only don, Chapman and Hall. being and their are no alternatives that are otherwise, and there is certainly no humans can act as moral agents, it is on Fox, M.W. (1980) One Earth, One Mind. less costly; (e) when we must minimize en scientific reason why they should be ly they and not animals who can have New York, Coward McCann & Geoghe vironmental costs or suffering of other treated differently. The only reasons rights. However, to possess rights, one gan. animals; (f) or when the knowledge gained why similar animals are treated dif need not be an active moral agent, as in Fox, M.W. (1980) Returning to Eden: An from killing it (as in some biomedical re ferently are primarily economic; the case of infants and comatose pa imal Rights and Human Responsibili search) is essential for human health or In sum, the intrinsic nature of an tients. It is logical that since rights con ty. New York, Viking. for the benefit of other animals. animal is the basis for rights, from which stitute a social recognition of other's in Godlovitch, S.R. & Harris, I. (Eds) (1972) Causing an animal to suffer physical the above ethical codes may be deduced. terests, to deny animals recognition of Animals, Men and Morals: An Enquiry ly or psychologically is ethically accept Nonhuman beings should be as much a their rights is to deny the evidence that into the Mal-treatment of Non-hu able only when there are no alternatives part of our community of moral concern they, like we, have certain interests, mans. New York, Taplinger. and such treatment is essential to human as humans. They are an inseparable part needs, and behavioral requirements. Since Griffin, D.R. (1981) The Questions of An survival and overall health (as distinct of the ecological community of our planet. we are moral agents, capable of ration imal Awareness. New York, Rockefel from purely economic or other material The ethical codes are both spiritual and al, responsible and compassionate ac ler University Press. istic benefit), or promises to alleviate a practical, originating from the highest tion, it is clearly irrational anthropocen Linzey, W. (1976) Animal Rights. London, significant degree of suffering in man or tenets of humane, compassionate and re trism to deny other sentient creatures SCM Press. in other animals (as in medical or veter sponsible conduct. They bespeak a rev their rights, recognition of which makes Midgley, M. (1978) Beast and Man: The inary research); erence for life, cast within the framework us more fully human by broadening and Roots of Human Nature. Ithaca, New Subjecting an animal to deprivation of ecologically sound and unselfish enriching the scope and awareness of York. Cornell University Press. or frustration of certain basic needs is planetary stewardship, upon which our our moral community. Morris, R.K. & Fox, M.W. (Eds) (1978) On only acceptable when such treatment is survival depends and through which the The ultimate tragedy, apart from ir the Fifth Day: Animal Rights and Hu essential to the welfare of the animal quality and diversity of all life on earth reversible environmental destruction man Ethics. Washington, D.C. Acropo itself, or essential to the fundamental may be protected and enhanced for the and extinction of species, is not human lis Press. welfare of human beings or other ani "greater good"; and animal suffering so much as the col Paterson, D.A. & Ryder, R. (Eds) (1979) An mals, and there are no alternatives to us While the "greater good" cannot be lective atrophy of the human spirit that imal Rights. A symposium. London. ing animals to achieve these goals. Fun easily defined for all conditions or cir permits the unethical exploitation and Centaur. damental welfare implies consideration cumstances, the concept is framed within subjugation of animals and humans alike, Regan, T. & Singer, P. (Eds) (1976) Animal directly relevant to human health, safe the Kantian formulation that no man in the name of economic necessity, po Rights and Human Obligations. Engle ty and survival, not inessential comforts, must be the means to the ends of another. litical expedience and other inhumane wood, New Jersey. Prentice Hall. economic benefits, or knowledge for its The Talmudic statement: "Whosoever rationalizations. Social, political and Regan, T. (1982) All That Dwell Therein. own sake; saves a single life is as if he had saved other reforms, although often well in Essays on Animal Rights and Environ The rights of animals vary accord the whole world; whosoever destroys a tended, as exemplified by the philoso mental Ethics. Berkeley, University of ing to the context of their relationship single life is as if he had destroyed the phy, actions and aspirations of animal California Press. with human beings. For example, the whole world" is also relevant to resolv and human rights groups, will make lit Rollin, B. (1981) Animal Rights and Hu right to freedom for a house pet has ing the ethical dilemma where the rights tle progress until it is realized that social man Morality. Buffalo, Prometheus. more restraints or qualifications than and sanctity of the individual must be transformation is possible only when Singer, P. (1975) Animal Liberation. New the right to freedom of a wild animal. sacrificed for the "greater", as distinct each individual has become spiritually York, Random House: Another example concerns the right to from some lesser (e.g., ideological or enlightened to act responsibly and has Stone, C. D. (197 4) Should Trees Have life of a parasite that is jeopardizing the economic) good, for the benefit of all, regained the ability to empathize, to Standing Towards Legal Rights for Nat life of its host compared to the lives of rather than for the benefit of a select, have compassionate understanding and ural Objects. Los Altos, California. members of an endangered species; more powerful few; respect for the intrinsic worth of other William Kautmann, Inc.

288 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4[4) 1983 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4[4) 1983 289 M.W. Fox Comment M.W. Fox Comment

288 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4[4) 1983 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4[4) 1983 289 D.P. Britt Comment D.P. Britt Comment

directed chiefly at experiments in which bated in Parliament promise more com animals are clearly exposed to pain or prehensive and tighter control of animal The Potential Role of Local Ethical distress. In general, the more obvious usage but better laws and more policing and severe the suffering, the greater is can only improve the situation marginal Committees in the Moderation of public disquiet, tempered to some extent ly. For real progress what is required is a by the aims of the experimenter. shift in attitude so that ethical consider Experiments on Animals in Britain The number of scientists in Britain ations come to weigh equally with other who hold the extreme view that they factors in experimental design and imple should enjoy carte blanche in the use of mentation. Dr. S. Vine (1977) formerly animals is probably small. Moreover, there D.P. Britt Chief Animal Inspector in the HomeOf is a growing awareness that good science fice, has stated that the one area in depends on avoidance of unnecessarily which the inspectorate and the Secre D.P. Britt is with the Department of Veterinary Parasitology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke stressful experiments and on maintaining tary of State cannot make decisions is in Place, Liverpool L3 5QA. the highest standards of animal care. ethical matters. In one sense, indeed, ex Scientists working with laboratory animals in Britain are made aware forcibly that The rival extreme view is held by a isting legislation acts against good ethi a serious ethical dilemma surrounds the use of animals in experiments. Certain voci small but voluble minority. cal concern, since having received the ferous sections of the community press the issue on the attention of the general public For holders of either of these ex stamp of approval in the form of a license and media sources tend to propagate views expressed by the most extreme parties, treme views the ethical dilemma does and appropriate certificates the experi while neglecting coverage of mature, rational opinion. It is, perhaps no bad thing for not really exist. Animal experimentation menter may feel that as long as he does the scientific community to be frequently reminded to take a responsible attitude to is either totally wrong, or always justi not contravene the law he is absolved the use of animals but recent overt, even illegal, activity on the part of extremist animal fiable. Although untroubled by pangs of from further consideration of the ethics of protectionist groups has encouraged a regrettable polarisation of viewpoints with conscience both groups are frustrated in his actions. And in the last analysis what an some scientific institutions seeking to withdraw still further from public scrutiny and the realisation of their ideals. Patently individual experimenter does or does accountability. experiments with animals are proceeding not do is very largely his own decision. (more than 4 million animals are used It is at this point that some people annually in Britain alone) and again in feel that a carefully formulated ethical Britain as is widely known, scientists do What Is the Basis of "the Ethical FIGURE 1 code should intervene to aid decision not have complete freedom; they are sub Dilemma?" making. This code would supersede in ject to Government legislation and have dividual views and, ideally, would re On the one hand is the view that Animal Experiments- Polarisation of Opinions to work within laws administered by the flect the attitudes of the public at large scientists should have complete freedom Home Office. -attitudes which may, of course, change in what they do with animals; on the The legislation imposes certain re- with time. other that all experiments involving ani straints. The points of ethical concern which mals should be abolished. The first view Experimenters must: must be taken into account in any pro treats laboratory animals like any other jected work with animals can be sum (i) be licensed (implies competency); tool used by the scientists in pursuit of marized in 4 questions: (i i) be certificated for use of par- new knowledge or insights. The other as ticular procedures/species (implies com (i) Is infliction of pain and/or stress cribes rights and privileges to even the petency); justified?; lowliest of experimental animals at least (iii) work only on approved, pre (ii) If yes, how much can be inflicted? equivalent to those equivalent to those scribed premises; (Can it be measured?); enjoyed by (or meant to be enjoyed by) (iv) keep records and submit annual (iii) What is the basis for justifica humans. In between is room for many returns to the Home Office; and tion?; and shades of opinion and the majority of (v) be subject to inspection by H.O. (iv) Who decides? the British public who think at all about inspectors. such matters would hold views somewhere Measurement of pain or stress (in ques within this centre field (Fig. 1 ). Is the legislation adequate? Those tion (ii)) is not strictly an ethical matter Because "experiments" cover feed opposed to animal experiments believe but it is a serious practical problem ing trials and simple observational studies not. A growing number of concerned scien which must be addressed if ethical ad where, arguably, little or no suffering oc tists also recognize the inadequacies in vice is to be effective. curs, the concern of the public at large is practice. Proposals shortly to be de-

290 /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 tNT I STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 291 D.P. Britt Comment D.P. Britt Comment

The Swedish Experience of Ethical or laymen- equal numbers of each. Total Committees membership is large (minimum of 15 p~r sons) but each project is examined by a It was consideration of questions like group of only three members, one from those above that led a group of scientists each category. (i) Is the project scientifically sound? at the University of Uppsala in Sweden When presenting a project for ethi (ii) Can the problem be solved without using animals? to conceive the idea of a peer review cal scrutiny, the proposer approaches a (iii) Can the work be modified to involve experiments of lower category than those sug body comprising scientists and others to scientist on the committee with knowl gested? evaluate proposals involving experimen edge of his area of work and the scientist (iv) How will the animals be cared for post-operatively? tal animals before they were implemented, appoints the other two members on a ro (v) What measures will be used to reduce intensity and duration of animal suffering/ from the point of view of possible ethi tational basis. They meet together in the cal objections. proposer's laboratory to discuss the pro since they may some day be reviewing As a result of the pilot scheme launched ject. Certain criteria of evaluation have Ethical Committees 1n British your own research proposal); (b) supposed in Uppsala in 1976, legislation to make to be satisfied but the keynote to success Institutions societal value of performing a given ex such committees mandatory was passed of the scheme seems to be the informal i periment is compounded and confounded In 1980, the Universities Federation by the Swedish Parliament only three ty of the process, with the three-man by other values which in no way justify for Animal Welfare circularised twenty years later. Thoughts along similar lines committee offering advice on modifica animal sacrifice or suffering. These in leading research institutions in Britain to in Britain are much influenced by the tions to the protocol (if they feel this is clude academic status, tenure, scientific sound out attitudes to the idea of local Swedish scheme. desirable) without censure. Table II recognition, additional income and pres ethical committees (LECs) being promoted A significant early step was agree shows the sort of questions which the tige for the university or research institu in future Government legislation on lab ment on a system of categorising experi committee asks. tion; and (c) the value of adding further oratory animal welfare. The five ques ments in terms of the pain or stress to A similar scheme is now in opera knowledge to a particular discipline (no tions asked (reproduced here by permis which animals are likely to be exposed tion in at least one Australian University one wants their speciality or life's en sion of the Director of UFAW) appear in and deciding at what level intervention (Ross, 1981) and a somewhat different ver deavors de-valued or discredited). This is Table 3 below. Answers from the 16 re by the ethical committee should occur. sion of peer review is presently mandatory very different from valuing such knowl spondents were almost uniformly unfav The categories are I is ted below (Table 1 ). in Canadian institutions. However, there edge in terms of benefitting society" ourable to the idea. In particular, not Experiences to date show that more than are serious objections to peer review as (Fox, 1981 ). one answered question (iv) affirmatively. 70% of projects involve experiments in a measure of control, neatly summarised It is hard for individuals and even In spite of this coolness on the part categories I and II which are exempt by M.W. Fox, Director of the Institute groups from a single institution to ignore of the scientific community, a number from ethical scrutiny. This is important for the Study of Animal Problems, Wash the "other values" to which Fox alludes. of influential bodies have accepted the in revealing to the public that a large ington, D.C. "Accountability is suppos Probably the true worth of ethical re potential value of LECs and it remains majority of experiments inflict minimal edly upheld via the peer review system view bodies will only accrue when they possible that future Government legisla suffering and in reducing the commit for research grant awards and approval, reflect a wide spectrum of public opinion tion will favour their adoption. tee's work to manageable levels. but unfortunately this system is inade in their membership, but this is par There appears to have been no de Members of the committees are re quate for many reasons notably (a) pro ticularly contentious and it is doubtful if termined action to establish such bodies search workers from relevant scientific fessional etiquette (one does not criti the scientific community in Britain is in British universities but a group of disciplines, animal/laboratory technicians cize one's peers or superiors, especially ready as yet to agree to such major inter scientists in Liverpool has become estab vention. lished with the aim of heightening the

TABLE 1 Swedish Ethical Committees- Categories of Experiments TABLE 3 EthicaiCommittees- UFAW Questionnaire, 1980

*I Observational or feeding experiments, injections or blood-sampling. *II Acute experiments performed under general anaesthesia without recovery of the animal. 5 Questions: Ill Surgical procedures under general anaesthesia with recovery and temporary post operative pain or indisposition. (i) Do you have a formal scientific planning/research committee? IV All experiments performed on non-anaesthetised animals (except those in Category I) (ii) Do you have any internal committe with similar function to LEC? v All experiments performed on non-anaesthetised animals curarised or equivalent. (iii) Do you think LECs have a role to play in the planning/control of scientific investigations/ (iv) Do you think LECs should improve the welfare of animals kept for scientific purposes/ (*Exempt from ethical scrutiny) (v) Can you see any scientific/administrative, etc. objections to LECs? 292 /NT j STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 /NT] STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 293 D.P. Britt Comment D.P. Britt Comment

TABLE 1 Swedish Ethical Committees- Categories of Experiments TABLE 3 EthicaiCommittees- UFAW Questionnaire, 1980

ethical awareness of all users of animals References within the University. Eventually, it is Ori~inal /Review Articles Fox, M.W. (1981) Experimental Psychology, hoped, no new projects will be intro Animal Rights, Welfare and Ethics. Psy duced without due attention having been chopharm Bu/117(2), 80-93. paid to ethical implications of the pro Ross, M.W. (1981) The ethics of experi posed work. One way in which this aim ments on higher animals. Soc Sci Med may be accomplished is through the es 15F, 51-60. tablishment of a committee along the Vine, S. (1977) "The Welfare of Laborato lines of the Swedish scheme. Environmental Psychology ry Animals" (discussion reported on p. 126) UFAW, Potters Bar, U.K. and Great Ape Reproduction

Terry L. Maple

Dr. Maple is with the School of Psychology, Georgia Institute of Technology and Yerkes Regional Primate Re search Center of Emory University. This paper was presented at the /Xth Congress of the International Primatological Society, Atlanta, GA, August 1982. Sentient Spiders? Some animals including lizards, crabs, spiders, and insects At the 1980 Great Ape Infertility vanat10ns in temperature; cleanli when caught or injured by a predator will shed a tail or limb in Workshop, we concluded that "physical ness of surroundings as well as the order to escape. and social environments must be improved body; clean and carefully prepared if not optimized if great apes are to It has been reported by Thomas Eisner and Scott Camazine of food in proper variety and quantity; reproduce satisfactorily ... " In 1982, the Cornell University in the June Proceedings of the National a sufficient and regular supply of trend toward improvement continues and pure water; congenial species com Academy of Sciences (no. ll) that some spiders can also detatch a there are some promising signs that re panionship and intelligent and sym limb after being stung by a venomous insect such as a phymatid, production has been enhanced as pre pathetic human companionship ... ; honeybee, or wasp. The orb-weaving spider from the genus Ar dicted. The problem of designing and and, finally, adequate resources and giope as well as spiders from three other families are capable of evaluating captive environments which opportunity both in company and shedding a limb as a defense against poisonous venom. When a will facilitate interaction, reproduction, in isolation for work and pia y. spider has been bitten its response of shedding the affected limb oc appropriate parenting, and socialization curs within seconds, before the venom can reach the body. Com is well within the scope of Environmental Fifty years later, it appears t-hat great mon house spiders do not have this ability. Psychology. I intend to illustrate the prom ape management practices have finally Spiders are highly sensitive to the venom components ise of this applied research field in the begun to reflect this sage advice. serotonin, histamine, phospholipase A , and melittin and it is remarks that follow. Similarly, Heini Hediger (1950) long 2 The intellectual roots of this work these components that induce the spider to detatch a limb. It is also ago recognized that captive environments may be traced to three individuals: Robert could be enriched. In his own words: known that these same components cause pain in humans. It is not M. Yerkes, Heini Hediger, and Robert Som Naturalness in the treatment of wild known whether the neurological basis for detecting these venoms mer. Early in his distinguished career, animals does not consist ... of a pe is similar in both spiders and humans. Yerkes acknowledged the importance of dantic imitation of one model sec The autotomous capability of animals is considered to be a the physical environment. In his 1925 tion of nature. It means that a substi reflex, however, because the same components that cause pain in publication Almost Human he wrote: humans cause spiders to separate themselves from a limb could tute must be found suitable for ani If ... we were asked to sum up ... the mals, taking into account the new imply that these animals feel pain or pleasure. One question that essentials of success in keeping and conditions of life in captivity. Natural can be raised as a result of these findings then is whether or not the breeding the higher primates, we ness, in the sense of a biologically spiders detatch their limbs consciously, perhaps as a response to should emphasize the following correct type of space, is not the re pain. points: freedom, or reasonably spa sult of an attempt at imitation, but cious quarters; fresh air and sun of an adequate transposition of nat shine, preferably coupled with marked ural conditions. 294 /NT j STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 /NT j STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 295 D.P. Britt Comment

Terry L. Maple

More recently, the work of Robert in contrast to the softer, more malleable novative Woodland Park Zoo, these prin carried out a pretest-post test study on Sommer has been a rich source of ideas features which are characteristic of the ciples have been successfully employed. environmental change. and insight. His book Tight Spaces (197 4) natural habitat. Recent innovations at Seattle in The former environments for both especially influenced my own thinking. Of equal importance is the influence clude a flexible chain seating bench gorillas and orangutans were inappro Differentiating between "hard" and of the animal's living environment on combined with browse to increase com priate and barren. The new design called "soft" environments, Sommer observed human perceptions and attitudes. The fort. for a larger, moated, complex and natu that the behavior of people could be appearance of the environment and its At Apenheul in Appledoorn, the Neth ralistic environment which was carefully profoundly influenced by such design adverse effects on the occupants' be erlands, the planted environment is both tested by the consultants. features. I have argued elsewhere that havior lends credence to the view that vertically challenging and spacious. The The presentation was enhanced and this dimension of habitat is a variable of animals are brutish and vulgar. Poor ex designer, Wim Mager (unpublished ms.) new behaviors emerged. Effects on ag some significance in captive animal be hibition techniques may stimulate deri described this 5 acre island as an "uncon gression and social interaction were havior. I have been furthermore guided sive abuse and are likely to reinforce at ventional" design which facilitates group clearly demonstrated. We have recently by Sommer's classic declaration that: titudes of human superiority and indif behavior and activity. conducted similar evaluations at the Kan ference. If living creatures cannot be left in Since the "personalities" and loco sas City and Topeka Zoos respectively. In marked contrast, a naturalistic pre their original habitat, the least that motor adaptations of the respective taxa The physical environment can also sentation promises to inculcate positive can be done is to place them in nat vary somewhat, some dimensions of the be successfully manipulated in rehabili attitudes and engender respect and ap ural and responsive surroundings physical environment may be more ap tation projects. At the Bastrop Chim preciation, if not outright reverence for natural so that their character is not plicable to one taxon than another. A panzee Facility in Texas, honey-pots wildlife and the wilderness itself. Regret warped, and responsive so that their vertical composition seems particularly (first suggested by Jane Goodall) are tably, I am aware of no data which con individuality and creativity are firmly appropriate for an arboreal primate periodically deployed to combat bore clusively support this assertion; I am respected. such as the orangutan. A unique design dom. Successful introductions and reso anxious to put it to the empirical test. solution has been constructed at the cialization of previously restricted ani The literature of Environmental A previous trend in design permitted Phoenix Zoo in Arizona. mals take place in social groups amid rela Psychology (hereafter EP) complements plants only on the periphery of environ Other design variables may be briefly tively spacious and complex surroundings. nicely the views of these three men. In ments. Bold new designs call for plants mentioned. The presentation of browse The amount of space is important deed, the extant data can be uniquely within. stimulates manipulation and nest-build but as Hediger asserted, even more cru applied, since in EP the research on hu Hediger (1950) has furthermore argued ing, and may even modify such unsavory cial is the quality, form, and nature of mankind can be applied to animal wel that plants serve multiple functions in behaviors as coprophagy and regurgita the surfaces exposed to animals. The fare issues. This irony is akin to Harlow's nature for food, support, comfort, and tion/reingestion. Appropriate cover pro manipulation of these variables in both (1979) view that: as signalposts, playthings, tools, building vides opportunities for play, escape, and experimental and applied settings is a materials, cover, and camouflage. The ... one should never study problems privacy. Movable and especially hollow problem within the domain of Environ role of plant foods as an occupational in monkeys that cannot be solved objects, such as empty oil drums and mental Psychology. device is illustrated by the work of in man. beer kegs, enhance displays as other Recently, Betsy O'Donoghue (1982) McGrew (1974) who noted that some hard behavioral scientists such as Van Hooff reported that the introduction of an un shelled fruits may require prolonged pro A well-known text in EP written by (1973) and McGinnis and Kraemer (1977) familiar female stimulated sexual behav cessing, thereby engaging the animals in Bell, Fisher and Loomis (1978) defined have shown. ior in a previously lethargic male orang a kind of work. As Thorington (1970) has the field as follows: In a paper soon to be published in utan who had for many years failed to similarly argued: the new journal Zoo Biology, Susan Fisher breed with his cagemate. Enhanced space Environmental psychology is the Since feeding is such a major activi Wilson demonstrates that movable ob has been suggested as a stimulus to breed study of the interrelationship between ty in the lives of primates, feeding jects are associated with greater activi ing in captive gorillas at the Yerkes Pri behavior and the built and natural behavior is a dominant aspect of their ty. The presence of such objects must mate Center (cf. Nadler, 1982) and at the environment. biology- a large part of their natu therefore be regarded as beneficial to San Francisco Zoo (Kitchener, personal ral history ... It may greatly influ the psychological well-being of apes. communication). Intuitively, changing so This definition can be effectively utilized ence ... social behavior ... Although many examples of inno cial and physical environments promote in studies of both human and animal be vative design and behavioral enrichment reproductive behavior. The data to sup havior. The relevance of EP to great ape Hediger also suggested that the can be cited, it must be acknowledged port this contention are slowly accu behavior is relatively easy to demonstrate. contours and features of nature are that experimental studies of design effects mulating. Consider the design feature of com rounded and diverse, not angular and un have been few and far between. Recent Of course, environmental change fort. The man-made environment is typi changing. At the San Francisco Zoo's ly, in collaboration with Elizabeth Watts should not be absolute; opportunities cally hard, barren, and inflexible. This is new "Gorilla World" and at Seattle's in- and her students at Tulane University, I for continuing novelty ought to be a

296 /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 297 T.L. Maple- Environmental Psychology and Great Ape Reproduction Original Article T.L. Maple- Environmental Psychology and Great Ape Reproduction Original Article

feature of every design. Menzel (1971) There is much work to do as we ex havior of nonhuman primates in the World Health Organization (1946) Con eloquently championed this cause when tend the boundaries of Environmental wild. In R.S. Harris, ed. Feeding and stitution. Geneva, Switzerland. he wrote: Psychology into the domain of animal be Nutrition of Nonhuman Primates. New Wilson, S.F. (1982) Environmental influ York, Academic Press, pp. 15-27. ences on the activity of captive apes. Almost any novel, moving, chang havior. The great apes represent a unique test case, and it is with them that the Van Hooff, J. (1973) The Arnhem Zoo chim Zoo Biology, 1, 3, 201-209. ing or intense stimulus is apt to en potential applications may be most use panzee consortium. Int. Zoo Yearbook, Yerkes, R.M. (1925) Almost Human. New hance physiological arousal level fully applied. 13, 195-203. York, Century. and overt responsiveness for a time; but then- assuming the stimulus is innocuous- its effect steadily di References minishes with repeated presentations, as if each stimulus in turn must lose Bell, P.A., Fisher, J.D., and Loomis, R.J. its charge and become assimilated (1978) Environmental Psychology. Phila into the indifferent standard. delphia, W.B. Saunders. Conway, W.B. (1978) A message from Pano. Some infertility in humankind appears Animal Kingdom 81(4):17-25. to derive from the influence of "psycho Goodall, J. (1979) Anti-boredom devices Prostaglandin F2a logical" variables. Our understanding of for primates. In Comfortable Quarters such events is poor. It is not altogether for Laboratory Animals. Animal Welfare Induced Nest Building Behavior unlikely that similar factors may be at Institute, Washington, D.C., p. 16. least partially to blame for the reproduc Harlow, H.F. and Mears, C. (1979) The Hu in the Non-Pregnant Sow, tive problems of our closest living rela man Model: Primate Perspectives. New tives, the great apes. As physical and York, Winston/Wiley. and Some Welfare Considerations social opportunities are enhanced, cap Hediger, H. (1950) Wild Animals in Captiv tive great ape reproduction should be sim ity. London, Butterworths. ilarly affected. Maple, T. and Stine, W.W. (1982) Environ Judith K. Blackshaw In quoting his mythical character, mental variables and great ape husband the chimpanzee "Pano," William Con ry. American journal of Primatology, 1 Dr. Blackshaw is with the Department of Animal Production, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Brisbane, way (1978) recently remarked that "a lab Suppl., 67-76. Australia. oratory might be a nice place to visit, but McGinnis, P.R. and Kraemer, H.C. (1977) I wouldn't want to breed there." This ac The Stanford Outdoor Primate Facility. curately portrays one of our most diffi Technical Report Series #114, Stanford Nest building behavior, induced with intramuscular injections of prostaglandin F2o: cult problems. Although laboratories are University, Palo Alto, CA. (PGF2o:), was studied in non-pregnant sows. Acute effects, which included salivation, inherently more restrictive in character McGrew, W.C. (1974) Tool use by wild scratching, vomiting, defaecation and ataxia, were also recorded. Sows (Large White x than are zoological gardens, it is possi chimpanzees in feeding upon driver Landrace) were housed in two different environments; six sows in bare pens and six ble to soften and render complex the ants. j Human Evolution 3, 501-508. sows in pens provided with bedding material. In all cases except one (bare pen) nest most difficult of environments. Constraints Menzel, E.W., Jr. (1971) Communication building sequences of differing intensities were recorded. Welfare suggestions include of time and money, if not human inertia, about the environment in a group of questioning the justification of using a drug (PGF2o:) in pig husbandry, which has are the typical obstacles to such progress. young chimpanzees. Folia Primatolog unpleasant acute effects, and the suggestion that the provision of bedding material is It is useful at this point to apply the ica 15, 220-232. not necessary for a nest building sequence to occur. definition of health which has been sug Nadler, R.D. (1981) Laboratory research gested by the World Health Organiza on sexual behavior and reproduction tion. As stated in their constitution: of gorillas and orangutans. American "Health is a state of complete physical, journal of Primatology, 1 Suppl., 57-66. Introduction mental and social well-being, and not O'Donoghue, E.R. (1982) A resurgence in merely the absence of disease or in reproductive behavior in a previously Nests are important to the sow shallow pits made by sows and are lined firmity" By the scope of this definition, inactive male orangutan. Zoo Biology, ready to farrow. Feral pigs show a reduc with bedding material (Hanson and Kar healthy apes are those that are active, 1, 2,157-159. tion in movement about one month prior stad, 1959; Kurz and Marchinton, 1972), sociable, busy, and reproductively suc Sommer, R. (1974) Tight Spaces. Engle to farrowing and tend to restrict their ac to provide shelter for the sow and her cessful. Environmental Psychology is a wood Cliffs, N.J., Prentice-Hall. tivities to around the farrowing nest (Kurz new born pigs. The nests of the Australian tool for achieving these ends. Thorington, R.W., Jr. (1970) Feeding be- and Marchinton, 1972). These nests are feral pigs reported by Pu liar (1950) were

298 /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4{4) 1983 /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4{4) 1983 299 T.L. Maple- Environmental Psychology and Great Ape Reproduction Original Article T.L. Maple- Environmental Psychology and Great Ape Reproduction Original Article

298 /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4{4) 1983 /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4{4) 1983 299 ).K. Blackshaw-lnduced Nest-building in Sows Original Article ).K. Blackshaw-lnduced Nest-building in Sows Original Article

large (6-8 ft in diameter) and well camou patterns (such as nest building and retrieval sows, which were not observed after con and displayed ataxia. Vomiting was re flaged, consisting of interlaced branches, of young) in young virgin rats have been trol injections. The acute effects included stricted to 2 pigs in the piggery and 5 in fern fronds and grass. induced by the administration of prolac salivation, chewing movements, scratch the clinic. Domestic pigs will attempt to build tin (Riddle eta/., 1935). ing with a hind leg, rubbing on the wire Nest building behavior was induced a nest with whatever material is available Preliminary work showed that PCF2a pen side, vomiting, defaecation and ataxia. in all 6 sows provided with bedding ma but concrete floors and farrowing crates injections induced nest building behavior Nest building behavior included snout terial, and in 5 sows in the piggery. This prevent much of the nest building behav in non-pregnant sows (Blackshaw and rubbing on the floor, straw or paper behavior began 19-38 minutes after in ior, although many of the motor elements Smith, 1982). Boars also responded to gathering if available, pawing and walk jection. are still present (Signoret, Baldwin, Fraser PCF2a by displaying elements of copu ing in circles. The acute and nest build A complete nest building sequence and Hafez, 1975). latory behavior but with no signs of nest ing behaviors are defined in Table 1. of a sow in a bare environment included: ing behavior (Blackshaw, J. and Black The onset of the acute behaviors a) walking around the pen, shaw, A., 1982). after PC F2a injection was between 1-15 Nest Building Behavior b) vigorously snout rubbing on the The present study was undertaken minutes. Table 2 shows the frequency of floor in a confined area, Several phases of nest building can to study in detail the acute behavioral ef acute behaviors in both groups of sows be distinguished in the wild pig after she fects of PCF2a on the non-pregnant sow and also the time of onset after injection. c) pawing with front legs in that has selected a suitable place (Fradrich, and the resulting nest building behavior. All sows in both groups salivated area, 1974). With her snout she digs a hollow Welfare implications were also consid and made chewing movements; they al d) circling again and snout rubbing, about the same length as her body. She ered for the housing of sows in a bare en so scratched with their back legs, rub e) lying down on one side in that then collects dry grass, leaves and small vironment or in an area supplied with bed bed against the pen wire, defaecated area. sticks to line the nest. This material is ding material. evenly distributed over the hollow by root ing and moving in a circle. Leaves and Materials and Methods grass lying outside the nest are brought The non-pregnant sows (Large White in by pawing with the front legs. These x Landrace) were in two groups. One actions may be repeated several times group of sows (6) were housed in the in so that the completed nest is of several tensive, 55 sow, Specific Pathogen Free layers and may become one meter high. piggery at the Veterinary Science Farm, Behavior Definition As the sow uses the heap it becomes flatter University of Queensland, Australia, in and assumes a round or oval form. bare pens (2.0 m x 1.5 m). The other Acute In domestic pigs, Jones (1966), de group of sows (6) was penned (3.5 m x 1.4 m) Salivation Saliva drips from mouth. scribed efforts to begin preparing a nest at the University's Large Animal Clinic, Chewing movement Pig opens and shuts mouth 2-4 times. May or may not be accompanied by sali during the 24 hours before parturition. and supplied with straw or shredded paper. vation. During the 6 hours before parturition All floor surfaces were concrete. Scratch Pig uses either back leg to reach its side and/or belly area. nest building activity increased and the Each sow was injected intramuscu Rub Pig stands beside wire of pen and rubs side, face or rump area up and down. sows made vigorous pawing movements larly with PCF2a (Lutalyse, Upjohn) using Ataxia Pig becomes very staggery in the back legs. of each foreleg working alternately. This 10 mg/100 kg, on four occasions following appeared to distribute the bedding to a control injection (buffer and solvent) Nest Building the animal's liking. Often the sows would one hour before. Injections were made Snout rubbing The top of the snout is rubbed against the floor as though pushing straw into a move the bedding from one position to during lactation (1-2 days before wean pile. If straw is provided the snout is used to make a pile. It is distinct from another. Periods of nest building alter ing) the post-weaning oestrus, the subse floor feeding where the bottom lip is extended and used to gather food from nated with quiet intervals until 60 to 15 quent luteal phase (11-13 days post oes the floor. minutes before the birth of the first pig, trus) and the second oestrus (21 days). Ob Straw or paper Pig may collect bedding in its mouth and carry it to a desired place. when the sows lay quietly on their sides. servations were recorded for 45 minutes collecting The use of prostaglandin (PC) F2a after both control and test injections. Pawing The front legs are used alternately in a rapid up and down movement along the for induction of farrowing in the sow is Acute effects and nest building activity floor in front of the pig (2 to many times ) 1 0). used in intensive piggery management were recorded in detail. Circling The pig walks in a circle in the nesting area which may be bare or contain a (Diehl and Day, 1974), and it is known straw or paper nest. that PCF2a causes an immediate in Results Nest building The complete activity includes snout rubbing, pawing, straw collecting, cir crease in prolactin levels in the sow Prostaglandin F2a caused behavioral cling. Some pigs may not show all these elements. (Taverne eta/., 1978/79). Maternal behavior changes in both groups of non-pregnant

300 /NT} STUD AN/M PROB 4(4) 1983 /NT} STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 301 ).K. Blackshaw-lnduced Nest-building in Sows Original Article ).K. Blackshaw-lnduced Nest-building in Sows Original Article

300 /NT} STUD AN/M PROB 4(4) 1983 /NT} STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 301 }.K. 8lackshaw-lnduced Nest-building in Sows Original Article }.K. 8lackshaw-lnduced Nest-building in Sows Original Article

PGF2a administration (10 mg/100 kg) Frequency 1-2 days Post luteal phase Second Clinic Piggery Onset after PG F2a before weaning (11-13 days oestrus Behavior environment environment (minutes) Pig weaning oestrus post oestrus) (21 days)

Salivation 24 (6)* 24 (6) 1- 8 Bare Chewing movement 24 (6) 24 (6) 1- 8 Environment

Scratching 24 (6) 24 (6) 3- 9 3 24 (6) Rubbing 24 (6) 3- 5 2 2 3 Vomiting 20 (5) 8 (2) 4- 6 3 No building 24 (6) 2-14 Defaecation 24 (6) 4 2 24 (6) 2- Ataxia 24 (6) 7 5 3 3 3 6 3 *Number of pigs showing behavior

Bedding Supplied

3 2 These activities were performed for From Table 3 it is seen that 3 of the 1-10 minutes, but not all pigs showed all 5 sows showing nest building activities 2 3 2 3 nest building behaviors after each injec in the bare environment and 5 of the 6 3 3 2 tion. Snout rubbing and pawing occur sows in the environment with bedding, 4 3 2 2 3 red in 70 percent of the observations showed intense behavior during lacta 5 2 3 and imitate the nest building phases tion (post weaning). Two of the 5 nest 6 3 3 3 described by Fradrich (197 4). building sows in the bare environment Pigs in the environment provided showed intense building behavior during Intensity of Nest Building with bedding material showed similar the second oestrus, and 4 of the 6 sows 3- intense (vigorous snout rubbing and pawing) behavior except they collected the ma provided with bedding showed similar be 2- medium (less active snout rubbing and pawing) terial in their mouths or pushed it up to havior. Table 3 also indicates the indi 1 -weak (snout rubbing and pawing performed once) gether with their snouts, to make a nest. vidual differences in nest building be One pig consistently made a very large havior of non-pregnant sows. nest 0.5 m x 1.5 m and 15-20 em high. Another pig although supplied with Discussion There is a growing awareness of ani but built an "imaginary" nest, while per nesting material with which it played, mal welfare as it affects pig production. forming the nest building sequences. made an "imaginary" nest like the pigs This study shows nest building activi Emphasis is placed on the provision of The main requirement which can be sug in the bare environment. ty can be induced by PGF2a injection in an environment which will satisfy the gested for sows just before parturition is Another feature of the nest building non-pregnant sows housed in bare pens behavioral needs of intensively housed that they have enough space to perform behavior was its intensity (Table 3). This or supplied with bedding material. In pigs. Farrowing crates without bedding the various nest building behaviors. is a subjective measurement which was both environments nest building behavior may seem unsuitable for sows but this During lactation, prolactin plays an recorded during observation. Very ac was similar, and followed the pattern of study suggests that sows will carry out important role, and levels of plasma pro tive snout rubbing and pawing was scored behavior seen in wild pigs (Fradrich, nest building sequences even without lactin are elevated at the beginning of as intense (3); less active, as medium (2); 1974) and in domestic pigs preparing a bedding material. It is interesting that an oestrous cycle and towards the end and in cases where the behavior was per nest during the 24 hours before parturi one sow in the pen provided with bed (Hughes and Yarley, 1980). The added pro formed once, this was recorded as weak (1). tion (Jones, 1966). ding material did not use the material lactin release caused by PGF2a adminis-

302 /NT j STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 /NT j STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 303 }.K. 8lackshaw-lnduced Nest-building in Sows Original Article }.K. 8lackshaw-lnduced Nest-building in Sows Original Article

Salivation 24 (6)* 24 (6) 1- 8 Bare Chewing movement 24 (6) 24 (6) 1- 8 Environment

Bedding Supplied

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tration may be responsible for the differ Hanson, R.P. and Karstad, L. (1959) Feral ences in nest building intensity over the swine in the southeastern United States. oestrous cycle. j Wild/ Mgmt 23:64-73. The acute effects of PG F2cr on the Hughes, P.E. and Varley, M.A. (1980) Re Biological Control sow also raises the question of its suita production in the pig. Butterworth & bility as a drug to induce farrowing. It is Co. Ltd., pp. 50-51,138-141. of Aleutian Island Arctic Fox: easy to ignore these effects if the end re Jones, J. E. T. (1966) Observations on par sult is achieved. If the welfare of the ani turition in the sow. Part 1: The pre-par A Preliminary Strategy mal is considered seriously it is impor tum phase. Brit Vet j 122:420-426. tant to look at all aspects of drug therapy. Kurz, J.C. and Marchinton, R.L. (1972) Ra diotelemetry studies of feral hogs in References South Carolina. j Wild/ Mgmt 36:1240 Edward W. West and Robert L. Rudd Blackshaw, J .K. and Blackshaw, A.W. -1248. (1982) The effects of prostaglandin Pullar, E.M. (1950) The wild (feral) pigs of Drs. West and Rudd are with the Department of Zoology, University of California, Davis, California. (PGF2cr) on the behavior of the Australia and their role in the spread domestic non-pregnant sow and boar. of infectious diseases. Aust Vet j 26: Proc Aust Soc Anim Prod 14th Bien 99-110. Intentional introduction of exotic animals can normally be expected to yield un nial Conf Brisbane 14:550-552. Riddel, 0., Bates, R.W. and Lahr, E.L. (1935) anticipated biological consequences. Single-purpose introductions frequently result Blackshaw, J .K. and Smith, I .D. (1982) Maternal behavior induced in virgin in ecological catastrophe. Islands are particularly vulnerable to such assault. Behavioral effects of PGF2cr in the rats by prolactin. Proc Soc Exper Bioi Arctic foxes [A/apex /agopus), released for the purpose of fur farming on the Aleu non-pregnant sow. App/ Anim Etho/ & Med 32:730-734. tian Islands formerly devoid of land predators, have significantly altered nesting avi 8:581-583. Signoret, J.P., Baldwin, B.A., Fraser, D. and fauna/ diversity, abundance and productivity. A program for restoring the historic dis Diehl, J.R. and Day, B.N. (1974) Effect of Hafez, E.S.E. (1975). The behavior of tribution and abundance of critically affected bird species is described. In a long-term prostaglandin F2cr on luteal function swine. In E.S.E. Hafez (Ed.), Behavior study biological control methods are proposed to test the hypothesis that introduced in swine. j Anim Sci 39:392-396. of domestic animals. London: Bailliere sterile red foxes [Vulpes fulva), apparently a competitively superior species, will markedly Fradrich, H. (1974) A comparison of be Tindall. reduce or extirpate resident Arctic foxes. havior in the Suidae. Vol. 1. The behav Taverne, M., Willemse, H.H., Dielman, S.J. ior of ungulates and its relation to and Bevers, M. (1978/79) Plasma pro management. International Symposium lactin, progesterone and oestradiol- Introduction held at the University of Calgary, Alber 17{3 concentrations around partu ri Attitudes toward population con tion reduction (Rudd, 1964). The present ta, Canada, in November 2-5, 1971, tion in the pig. Anim Reprod Sci 1: trol of introduced mammals range from article describes an example of attempts 133-143. 257-263. regarding them equal or superior to na at eradication of a predatory mammal tive forms to irrational hostility toward population in the Aleutian Islands by an introduced species. Most introductions specific biological means. can be viewed as detrimental in some as The target species is the Arctic fox, pect (Roots, 1976). Although population re A/apex lagopus. Displacement by biologi Animals Bights-Animal Souls? ductions (and the extreme form- eradica cal and behavioral means subsumes our Veterinarian L.T. Keenan of Pomona, New York, writing in the tion) may be generally regarded as benefi methods and purposes. The specific method Journal of the American Veterinary :Medical Association (Vol. 183, cial, controversy inevitably accompanies is generally known as the sterile male July 1, 1983, p. 10) states that he is "tired of being an 'animal doc the methodologies by which reductions technique. Detailed ecological informa tor.' I want to become a 'real doctor.' This can only be achieved if are attemped (Hutchins eta/., 1982). Trap tion is vital to biological control of this animals are believed to have souls and the same basic rights as our ping, shooting, exclusion, and poisoning sensitive character. Especially impor fellow human beings. Only then can I justify to clients large money are the traditional methods used in mam tant is the fact that fox populations to malian population control. Novel, often be controlled are only those on small outlays for reconstructions, repairs, or treatment modalities. It species-specific, methods such as bio is I ands (West et a/., 1982). Throughout would help my professional status if an Animal Bill of Rights were logical control have been introduced in all our work is the background attitude to be proposed and eventually made into the law of the land .... The to insect and weed control practices but that humane and scientific considera sooner this is accomplished, the better it will be for me, my fellow have been rarely attempted in mammal tions can be effectively combined, as veterinarians, and our fellow animals." control. One of us has extensively re well described by Kellert (1982). viewed the many aspects of pest popula- The delicate balance of natural

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304 /NT j STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 /NT j STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 305 E. W. West and R.L. Rudd- Aleutian Island Fox Original Article E. W. West and R.L. Rudd- Aleutian Island Fox Original Article

174° 177° lBO' 177' 174' 171° 168' 165' The full impact of fox introductions cula) are still heavily preyed upon by fox was first assessed in 1936. Murie (1959) on St. Lawrence Island. Horned puffins ALEUTIAN ISLANDS NATIONAL WILDLIFE REFUGE ALASKA conducted a two-year faunal survey of (Fratercula corniculata) and tufted puf 22 islands along the chain. His findings fins (Lunda cirrhata) are also taken in r------, : G real S1fkln I : showed significant reductions in bird high numbers. On Big Koniuji Island, Moe species diversity, distribution and pro (1977) determined that 6 adult and 7 1 AVakI Lillie 1 1 Tanag~~a Unimak~ ductivity. These changes, he concluded, juvenile fox killed 763 crested auklets i;ilanaqal .~: 54' were primarily due to fox predation. Large and 95 horned puffins over a three-month :I I :I 54° colonies of ancient murrelets (Synthlibo period. On a recent survey of the Alaska : Kagaloska I: I I L ______j rampus antiquus) and Cassin's auklets (Pty Peninsula, which have, or have had foxes, A flu I choramphys aleuticus) vanished from Sa no nocturnal seabirds were found (Bailey, ~ BERING SEA 52° nak Islands. Storm petrels (Oceanodroma 1978). The most significant, and current e::]Agattui Kanagal sp) were entirely eliminated from Salt ly most pressing, ecological concern is ',c 0 Klska~ Tanaqo/7~~~~;. ~-=:- 0 25 50 100 150 200 0 and llak islands. Cassin's auklets went the near total extinction of the Aleutian "- ~- ~~>\~''-xaqalaska I STATUTE MILES PACIFIC OCEAN .. Adak! 0 50 100 150 200 extinct on Keegaloo and Adugak Islands . Canada goose (Branta canadensis leuco KILOMETERS Whiskered auklets (Aethia pygmaea) were pareia). It has vanished from its former LNEARJ L____ RAT___j L__ANDREANOF__j '------FOX----___j also eliminated from the Near Islands. extensive nesting range in the Aleutians ISLANDS ISLANDS ISLANDS ISLANDS Recent bird surveys of other Alas except for a small population on Buldir kan Islands document a continued and Island (Jones and Byrd, 1979).

FIGURE 1 Aleutian Islands in Alaska more widespread reduction in bird pop ulations by the foxes (Stephenson, 1970; Early Management Programs island ecosystems can be easily upset by ies on ecology and population dynamics Bailey, 1978; Bailey and Faust, 1980, 1981). Former attempts by the United States the introduction of foreign organisms. of interactions between the two species Crested auklets (Aethia cristatel/a) and Fish and Wildlife Service to reduce the Island species, isolated from complex will provide an empirical test of the po parakeet auklets (Cyclorrhynchos psitta- impact of fox predation on the Aleutians mainland ecosystems, evolve to form rela tential for complete competitive exclu tively simple communities. These systems sion of the arctic fox by red foxes. generally lack sufficient natural con trols to respond effectively to competi History tion or predation by introduced species. Foxes were first introduced to the Without strong checks on their growth, Aleutian Islands in 1886 by the Russian non-island species increase rapidly. This American Company for the purpose of population growth invariably occurs at the establishing fur "ranches" (Ashbrook expense of many forms of endemic fauna. and Walker, 1925). Pairs of foxes were On the Aleutian Islands in Alaska transported to many islands and left to (Fig. 1) Arctic foxes (Aiopex lagopus, Fig. 2), breed and multiply. After several years introduced for purposes of fur farming, the surplus was trapped off. Islands were have eliminated many breeding popula frequently selected on the basis of bird tions of marine bird species and threaten abundance, a natural food source. By the total extinction of a race of Canada 1925, foxes had been introduced to 77 is Goose (Branta canadensis leucopareia). lands. By 1936 over 25,600 pelts had In an effort to restore island ecosystems been taken from the Archipelago (Jones to their natural state, research has been and Byrd, 1979). The economic depres conducted in cooperation with the U.S. sion after 1929, destroyed the market for Fish and Wildlife Service to develop an wild furs (Chesemore, 1975). With the arctic fox management program using onset of World War II, fur farming was biological control techniques. Sterile red virtually eliminated in Alaska. The foxes foxes, (Vulpes fulva, Fig. 3), a competi remained and without frequent harvest tively superior species in sympatric main their numbers increased. Many endemic land habitats, will be ultimately intro bird populations were markedly reduced duced on a target island (Kagalaska). Stud- or eliminated. FIGURE 2 Arctic fox (A/apex /agopus)

/NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 307 306 /NT j STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 E. W. West and R.L. Rudd- Aleutian Island Fox Original Article E. W. West and R.L. Rudd- Aleutian Island Fox Original Article

tional to the degree to which resource the red fox as a control agent would be requirements overlap. If the overlap is successful. It would also be compara complete, coexistence is not possible and tively rapid, economical and environmen over time the less fit species will die out tally safe. or be excluded from the range of sympa try. This ecological relationship is com Field Research monly referred to as the competitive ex Validation of the hypothesis that clusion principle (Hardin, 1960). red fox are effectively displacing the arc Research on the dynamics of sym tic will be obtained if, after introduction, patric populations of arctic and red fox there is a marked displacement of arctic suggest that both types of competition fox from prime denning and foraging sites occur. In Russia, Skrobov (1960) and and a sharp decline in arctic fox numbers. Chirkova (1968) noted that red fox re Baseline data on arctic fox density, place arctic fox wherever their ranges home range, dennings and foraging pat overlap. On Hardangervidda, Norway, Oes terns have been gathered on Kagalaska tybe et a/. (1978) found that the red fox Island (Fig. 1) and are presented elsewhere occupied 50% of the dens originally dug (West eta/., 1982). Foxes have been trapped by arctic foxes. Similar exclusions have in large box traps, ear-tagged and fitted been recorded by Marsh (1938) in Mani with collars bearing radio transmitters. toba, Canada. Tracking results show that resident foxes Recent comparative analysis of the den and forage almost exclusively along social dynamics, territoriality and pop the coast. Analysis of scat composition ulation structure of arctic and red fox by shows that fox diet is comprised largely use of radiotelemetry in Great Britain FIGURE 3 Alaskan red fox (Vulpes fulva) of beach amphipods and birds, although and Iceland also showed marked similar fish are taken during salmon runs. Recap ities between the two species (Hersteins ture data provide an index to density. followed the standard control method tions suggest that the red fox naturally son & MacDonald, 1982). These similari In the future sterilized red fox, col of broadcasting lethal baits on selected controls the numbers of arctic fox locally ties suggest that complete direct com lected in the eastern Aleutian Islands, islands (Springer et a/., 1978). This tech by competitive exclusion and predation. petition between the two species under will be introduced to the island. Groups nique freed only one island (Amchitka) Competition occurs when two spe lies present allopatric distribution. of pairs will be released in selected bays of foxes. In 1972, an executive ban on cies vie for the same resource in limited Red fox are also known to prey upon and coves. From an analysis of similari chemical control agents (primarily com supply. Interaction between species re arctic fox. Alaska trappers consider red ties in food and density requirements pound 1080) limited control activities to duces the fitness and the population foxes to be one of the primary predators (West et a/., 1982) it is estimated that trapping, shooting and the use of M-44's size of the weaker species. This process of arctic fox (Chesemore, 1975). Marsh these introductions will minimally require "coyote getters" (gas-propelled cyanide can occur in one or both of two ways (Pi (1938) found that red foxes often attacked an approximate 1 :2 red to arctic fox guns). These techniques were compara anka, 1974). The first, termed inter and killed trapped arctic foxes. Fur farm ratio and noticeably increase the fox tively slow, expensive and extremely dif ference competition, occurs by direct ers noted that if arctic and red fox were population of the island. Available food ficult to support logistically. Clearly, a physical interaction, such as aggressive placed on the same island the arctic fox and den sites will then be subject to in more expedient, more humane, and tar encounters. In this instance an excessive was soon exterminated. Recent behavioral tense interspecific competition. get-specific program is required to amount of time and energy is required observations of interactions between achieve the management objective of re for competition or its avoidance, so that captive arctic and red foxes showed that Discussion moving foxes. the amount remaining for self-mainte red fox pairs dominated the use of en nance and reproduction drops below sur closures and forced arctic foxes to use The success of a biological control Biological Control vival level. The second process, termed less preferred denning and feeding areas program of this nature depends greatly exploitation competition, occurs when (Rudzinski eta/., 1982). upon the intensity of competition im Biological control is a management one species monopolizes a limiting and Available biological evidence strong mediately following introduction of the program that uses natural controls to reg essential resource (e.g., food or denning ly suggests the hypothesis that red foxes red fox. lsl<:.nd habitats provide optimal ulate the population density of a pest sites) thereby making its use unavailable will eliminate arctic fox when introduced conditions for maximizing the factors in species. Zoogeographic patterns and field to its competitor). The extent to which on the same island. It is therefore very several ways. Islands are confined areas; observations of arctic-red fox interac- competition will occur will be propor- likely that a management program using emigration to escape competitive inter-

308 /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 309 E. W. West and R.L. Rudd- Aleutian Island Fox Original Article E. W. West and R.L. Rudd- Aleutian Island Fox Original Article

actions is not possible. In addition, be cert will provide a system of natural con 131. (Translated from Russian by Trans and red fox (Vu/pes vu/pes) on Hardan cause of the relatively small size of the trol that is species-specific and avoids the lation Sec., Nat/ Res Council, Ottawa, gervidda, Norway; den ecology, distri islands, the carrying capacity and equi often haphazard methods of trapping, Canada.) bution and population status. Medd librium density for foxes is rapidly at shooting and poisoning. The management Fox, M.W. (ed.) (1975) The Wild Canids: Nor Viltfprsk 3:1-66. tained. Arctic fox numbers are assumed to system proposed exploits naturally oc Their Systematics, Behavioral Ecology Pianka, E.A. (1974) Evolutionary Ecology. be at saturation density. Fluctuations in curring processes that are precise and and Evolution. Van Nostrand Reinhold Harper and Row, New York. 356 pp. population density are primarily density enduring. They easily and logically ap Co., New York. 508 pp. Roots, C. (1976) Anima/Invaders. Universe dependent. Increasing the density of ply to islands in the Aleutian chain and Hersteinsson, P. and MacDonald, D.W. Books, New York. foxes will immediately maximize com may also be modified for other species (1982) Some comparisons between red Rudd, R.L. (1964) Pesticides and the Living petitive pressure. The highly seasonal of insular introduced mammals (cf., Bar and arctic foxes, Vulpes vulpes and Landscape. Univ. of Wisconsin Press, nature of the Aleutian Island environ nett and Rudd, 1983). A/apex /agopus, as revealed by radio Madison. ment also favors concentration and fo tracking. In: C.L. Cheeseman and R.B. Rudzinski, D.R., Graves, H.B., Sargeant, cusing of competitive impact. Breeding Acknowledgments Mitson (eds.). Telemetric Studies of Ver A.B. and Storm, G.L. (1982) Behavioral birds provide ample food for the foxes tebrates. Symp No. 49, Zoo/ Soc Lon interactions of penned red and arctic Financial support under cooperative during the spring and summer. During don, Academic Press. p. 259-289. foxes. j Wild/ Mgmt 46(4):877-884. agreement with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife the winter, however, most birds migrate. Hutchins, M., Stevens, V. and Atkins, N. Skrobov, V.D. (1960) Interrelations of the Service, Alaskan Region, is gratefully ac The foxes are then forced to subsist on (1982). Introduced species and the is polar bear and fox in the tundras of knowledged. We extend our thanks to beach amphipods and carrion (Murie, 1959; sue of animal welfare. tnt J Stud Anim the Nenatsk National Okrug. Zool. many individuals, particularly in the Aleu this study). These food items have lim Prob 4:318-336. Zhur. 39:469-471. tian Islands, but most especially note ited food value and the foxes are nutri Jones, R.D. and Byrd, G.V. (1979) Interre Springer, P.F., Byrd, B. and Woolington, with warmest thanks the sustained high tionally stressed. lations between seabirds and introduced D.W. (1978) Reestablishing Aleutian interest of Dr. Ronald L. Garrett of An Optimally, red fox introductions animals. In: Conservation of Marine Canada geese. In: S.A. Temple (ed.). chorage and Bethel, Alaska. should be made during midsummer to Birds of Northern North America (Pa Endangered Birds, Univ. of Wisconsin minimize the predatory impact on nest per from the International Symp. at Press, Madison. ing birds, and to allow sufficient time for References Seattle, WA, May 1975). Wild/ Res Rep Stephenson, R.O. (1970) A study of the sum the foxes to acclimate to the island be Ashbrook, F.G. and Walker, E.P. (1925) 11. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Serv.. Wash mer food habits of the arctic fox on fore winter sets in. Introduction of foxes Blue fox farming in Alaska. U.S. Dept ington, D.C. St. Lawrence Island, Alaska. Unpubl. from the eastern Aleutian Islands would Agri Bull No. 1350. Kellert, S.R. (1982) Striving for common M.S. Thesis, Univ. of Alaska, College, minimize the acclimation period. To Bailey, E.P. (1978) Breeding seabird dis ground: Humane and scientific consid Alaska. minimize intraspecific competition be tribution and abundance in the Suma erations in contemporary wildlife man West, E.W., West, K.L. and Rudd, R.L. (1982) tween the red foxes, introductions should gin Islands, Alaska. Murrelet 59:82-91. agement. tnt j Stud Anim Prob 3:137- Biological control of Aleutian Island be made at several localities around the Bailey, E.P. and Faust, N.H. (1980) Summer 140. arctic fox. Summary report, Research island, or at periodic intervals to allow distribution and abundance of marine MacPherson, A.H. (1969) The dynamics contract (14-16-0007-80-5519) be adequate time for dispersal. All intro birds and mammals between Mitrofa of Canadian arctic fox populations. tween University of California, Davis, ductions should be made within one sea nia and Sutwick Islands south of the Canadian Wild/ Serv, Rep Ser, 8:1-52. and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, son to maximize interspecific competition. Alaska Peninsula. Murrelet 61:6-19. Queens Printer, Ottawa. Anchorage, Alaska. 162 p. Red fox displacement of arctic Barnett, B.D. and Rudd, R.L. (1983) Feral Marsh, D.B. (1938) The influx of the red foxes away from prime feeding areas dogs of the Galapagos Islands: Im fox and its color phases into the Barren will cause a multifaceted reduction in pact and control. tnt J Stud Anim Prob Lands. Canadian Field Nat 52:47-59. arctic fox numbers. As arctic fox are 4:44-58. Moe, RA (1977) The summer diets of three forced into already saturated areas, star Chesemore, D.L. (1975) Ecology of the Arc predator species on Big Koniujii Is vation will occur in addition to secondary tic fox (A/apex /agopus) in North land, Alaska. Unpubl. report, Office causes of mortality induced by physiologi America- a review. In: Fox, M.W. of Bioi. Serv.-Coastal Ecosystems, cal stress. Fecundity could be expected (ed.) 1975. The Wild Canids. Their Sys U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv., Anchorage, to drop due to reabsorption of embryos tematics, Behavioral Ecology and Evo Alaska. and poorer kit survival. Under condi lution. Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., Murie, O.H. (1959) Fauna of the Aleutian tions of stress foxes are also known to New York. Islands and Alaska Peninsula. North cannibalize mates, young and I ittermates Chirkova, A.F. (1968) The relationship be American Fauna 61:1-104. (MacPherson, 1969; Chesemore, 1975; tween arctic fox and red fox in the far Ostybe, E., Skar, H.J., Svalastog, D. and Fox, 1975). These factors acting in con- north. Problems of the North 11: 129- Westby, K. (1978) Arctic fox (A/apex)

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meaning, they complete the direct and reader is kindly requested to turn to fur scarcer evidence and confirm that the ther details and references. Only the Attitudes Toward Animals problems arising from the daily relation essential points of immediate interest for ship between man and animal were never the question under examination will be in Greco-Roman Antiquity despised nor played down at any period. stressed below. Quite the reverse, they were paid atten In admonishing his brother on how tion to not only by philosophers and to behave properly, the moralist farmer moralists, but also by a wider public, by poet Hesiod (7th cent. B.C.) considered Liliane Bodson the State authorities, and by tho5e who the principles which rule the world and were concerned in the first place: animal stated that justice has been granted ex Liliane Bodson is with the Department of Classics, University of Liege, Liege, Belgium. owners, breeders, and keepers. Since clusively to mankind by Zeus, while the those accounts have also given the an wild animals- fish, birds, mammals Both wild and domesticated animals had a direct and wide-ranging role in the life cient authors and compilers the oppor deprived as they are of the logos (both of the ancient Greeks and Romans. The bond between humans and animals which first tunity to analyze and comment on the intelligence and language) that makes originated in the economic needs went far beyond strictly practical matters. It did in features they reported on, they became man's superiority, "teared each other to fluence and enrich the Classical culture in its major aspects from literature and arts to significant of the ideas prevailing at the pieces in a mercyless struggle" (Works philosophy and ethics. It also induced people to analyze the main implications of their time when they were set forth. Being ex and Days, 274-280). Hesiod also praised relationship with "subhuman" creatures. The present paper aims to survey the range of perienced by all people without excep the ploughing ox, suggested how the farmer the attitudes they developed about animals. It also examines to what extent they were tion, the relationship between man and should select it, but said nothing even concerned with the problems related to animal welfare and rights, and how they coped animal in the Classical antiquity cannot allusively on its welfare (ibid., 405, 436- with them. be isolated from what influenced it most: 441 ). One might, however, admit that the philosophers' and moralists' views the farmer, considering his own and per When one considers the impor Although the amount of materials and the religious beliefs and rites. All sonal interest, at least would care for his tance of the involvement of animals in lost over the ages should not be underes these factors are closely related. For the "first servant" and grant it the minimal the life of the ancient Greeks and Ro timated, the remaining evidence, either sake of clarity, they will be outlined sep comfort to keep it in good health. mans, one is bound to wonder how the direct or indirect, clearly shows the arately in the next two paragraphs, as an A few decades later, Pythagoras latter treated those subhuman creatures evolution of the mentalities throughout introduction to the survey of man's daily and his followers dealing among other of which they required so much for all the antiquity. They are scattered over relationship with the animal in Greece metaphysical concerns with I ife after their physical and metaphysical needs two millenia or so: from the Creta-myce arid Rome. death developed the theory of metem (Keller, 1909-1913; Toynbee, 1973). Did naean era (2nd mill. B.C.) down to the psychosis. They believed in the human they care for them and to what extent? first centuries of the Roman empire. Ancient Philosophers' and soul's transmigration to the other living Did they have any definite ideas on the Some of them, especially those recording Moralists' Views on Animals creatures, including the animals, and subject of animal welfare and animal the attitudes which were privately adopted therefore they taught their contem rights which was later to become such a towards the animals are concentrated in As soon as the Greek thought poraries not to kill them, whether they sensitive and controversial issue (Magel, the Greek and Roman texts of the first emerged, the question of defining man were wild or domestic. They relied upon 1981; Roll in, 1982)? three centuries A.D., at the time when in his relationship with the world and all a more or less exclusive vegetarian diet The relationship between man and people reconsidered the philosophical living beings arose. Although the debate depending on the range of animal animal is directly affected by the cultu and ethical theories previously elaborated was to remain strongly anthropocentric, species involved in the transmigration ral and intellectual environment of the in ancient anthropology, broadened the the early anthropology felt it necessary process (Haussleiter, 1935). The theory societies and civilizations in which it is debate, and focused on the human-ani to define both the supranatural and the of soul transmigration was later to be rooted. Since it has taken an increasing mal bond more systematically then ever subhuman creatures: gods and animals. taken up by Plato who distinguished a importance in the past few decades (due before. Yet, the data that they brought This did not go without flaws, ambigu double nature in man's soul: for its bet to the current economic, scientific, and up to illustrate the often diverging posi ities, and incoherences as the ideas ter part, divine and shared with the gods moral evolution), we run the risk, as al tions go back to events and episodes evolved. In spite of this, most theories, if (logistikon: the rational element), and, for ways when investigating an ancient tra which took place earlier, sometimes sev not all, did affect the relationship be the other, related to the animals through dition on matters of present interest, of eral centuries before the time when they tween man and animal. Full accounts of the thymoeides (the spirited element) being anachronistic. A few preliminary were definitively written down and pre the ideas developed on that matter have and epithymetikon (the appetitive ele remarks are therefore needed in order to served. This late emergence does not de been given, e.g., by Westermarck (1908), ment). (See Plato, Republic, IV. 439 define the sources to be taken into con tract from their importance. Far from being Boas and Lovejoy (1935), and more E-440 E.) Man could only fulfill himself sideration, their limits and prospects. mere anecdotes, colorful but of restricted recently by Dierauer (1977) to which the by giving his reason command over the ir-

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rational forces of his sou I. Aristotle who animal rights beyond the speculative sodes are commanded by the empathy for ural world and the sacred forces included correlated the rational and sensitive parts level and individual applications. There the animals in the sense defined by Fox in it was intensively perceived and re of the soul initiated an important pro is no clue of their discussions being in (1980) and the sentences are passed by vered, even in the later periods when re gram of research in animal psychology. fluential enough even at some local scale referring to the penalty for any attempt ligion became more formalistic. This After him, Theophrastus could argue on to stir up the radical changes that the mis upon man's life and physical integrity. played a part in the process which won the physical and mental similarities be handling of animals, such as in the games The contexts in which the episodes are the animals the moral right of being tween man and animal. He concluded to organized by authorities in the Roman mentioned suggest that the "moral con treated equitably. Yet, the major cult their kinship, since he agreed on the fact empire (see below), would have justified. science" of the public was hurt by the un celebration in honor of every god either that "if they are differences of degree, It is known that in Thessaly the storks motivated slaughter of and other acts of of first or of second rank included the there are no really qualitative distinc and in Argolid the grass snakes were pro cruelty towards animals, considered sacrifice of domestic animals. The slaugh tions with regard to the sense perception" tected by the local laws. The basic rea them as intolerable, and sought to curb ter of the victim was one of the main (Comperz, 1955; Gill, 1969; Dierauer, son for such regulation was man's ad them by requiring exiles, fines, public rep points at issue. Hunting the wild and fe 1977). Such views and similar ones pro vantages: those animals were judged to rimands, etc., for the author of the ges rocious animals was always justified as fessed by the founders of natural history be more effective than any other at keep ture assimilated to a crime. The avail an improvement of the living conditions were connected with the arguments al ing respectively vipers and small rodents able evidence, however, shows that such and as the best training in bravery, cour ready expressed or alluded to earlier in under control. In Athens, an old law men reactions, widely praised by those who age, and stamina for the youngster keen the tradition, e.g. by Empedocles, and des tioned by Plato in his ideal code (Laws, emphasized the animal's right of being on becoming a responsible citizen and a tined to undergo further developments, IX. 873 E) stated that "if any animal of fairly treated, remained occasional. They good soldier. But even then the rule was that the animals are superior in some burden or any other animal murdered any even seem to have been exceptional not to slaughter the newly-born offspring ways to human beings. The ancient theo one- except if they did it when taking enough to be underlined and remem of at least the undangerous species and reticians of the human-animal relation part in a public competition- the rela bered as guidelines by those who recorded to leave them to the goddess Artemis, ship also kept alive the polemics gener tives should prosecute the slayer for them. More often than from the laws protectress of both the hunter and the ated by the Stoics' ideas on the hierar murder, and so many of the land-stew and official regulations the reactions to game (Xenophon, Cynegetica, 5. 14). The chy of all beings and their concept of ards as were appointed by the relatives animal mistreatment came from the so problem was quite different with the do man's superiority correlated with his should decide the case, and the con called popular wisdom as is expressed in mestic species, especially sheep, goats, theoretically absolute dominion over victed beast they should kill and cast old proverbs. "There are Erinyes (i.e., and cattle, the slaughter of which in the animal. Epicurians, Cynics, and later beyond the borders of the country." No deities of vengeance) even for dogs", the spired a full range of rules and devices Skeptics, neo- Platonists, neo- Pythago consideration of the private right or the Creeks used to say meaning thereby that to justify a compulsory but feared ac reans, each of them with their own argu civil responsibility of the animal's owner every living being however great or tion perceived as an attack on the life of ments and purposes (Lorenz, 1974; Dier is to be found here. Such a law, anthro small in the scale of hierarchy would be man's first and faithful servants (Durand, auer, 1977) vigorously contested such pocentred as it is, is based on the ar in the end avenged by the immanent jus 1979). Required by cultural, political, theories and the consequences they in chaic notion of the blood stain to be re tice. In the meantime, this deeply-rooted and social reasons (Vernant, 1981), ani volved for the status of animals since solved in the ritual destruction and ex belief did not prevent the public from mal sacrifice was not carried out without the beasts were said to exist only for pulsion of the culprit, either an animal reacting and even overreacting against a carefully designed ceremonial which man's use and advantage. Underlining or even a simple object, as shown in Laws, animal abuse: the killer of a talking aimed at counterbalancing the potential the animals' irrationality, the Stoics de IX. 873 E-874 A (Cernet, 1917) No an raven famous and much appreciated in danger of shedding blood of innocent nied them any of the abilities indispen cient legislation favoring the mistreated Rome in the 1st cent. A.D. was "dealt victims (Yerkes, 1952; Burkert, 1972). In sable for their being granted recognition animal with comparable measures has with" by the crowd outraged at what that sense, the ancients could praise the of any rights, either natural or legal, and been found so far. Yet some evidence of was considered like an act of barbary Scythians otherwise despised as barbar therefore denied them the protection of court condemnation for abuses of ani (Pliny the Elder, Nat. Hist., X. 110). ians or the minorities such as the Pytha law and justice. One of the most com mals occurs in the tradition. Plutarch gorician sect, the former as "milk drink prehensive accounts of those controver (The Eating of Flesh, I. 7) mentioned the ers", the latter as vegetarians. Such The Impact of Religion sies preserved along with a good syn Athenian citizen condemned after flay diets, although out of reach for the ma thesis of the main factors at issue is ing his ram when it was still alive. Pliny Both wild and domestic animals ful jority, appealed to many because it re given by Plutarch's treatises, especially the Elder (Natural History, VIII. 180) filled countless functions in the Creek minded them somehow of the mythical those entitled The Cleverness of Ani pointed out the case of a Roman citizen and Roman religions, mythologies, and Colden Age when man and animal were mals, Beasts Are Rational, and The Eating "who was indicted for having killed an symbols in which they occurred as omen believed to live together in full harmony of Flesh. Yet, the most open-minded ox. He was convicted by the public court bearers, messengers, and attributes (Hopf, (Guthrie, 1957). Moreover, in Greece and among the ancient philosophers and and sent into exile as though he had 1888; Pollard, 1977; Bodson, 1978). That in Rome, the cult observance could also moralists never brought the question of murdered his farm-labourer." Such epi- privileged relationship with the supranat- be fulfilled on certain occasions with

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bloodless offerings made of flowers, veg they are not able to work any more; (2) for themselves and for their children (Bod died from exhaustion while trying to etables, fruits, etc., along with periodical honored and praised for the courage and son, 1980). Moreover, many people in swim behind the boat on which he was abstinence of meat. Such was the case at bravery that the best of them put in car Greece and in Rome took steps to have being evacuated from Athens before the some festivals celebrated for the Creek rying out their duties; and finally (3) themselves represented with their ani Persian invasion of 490 B.C. (Plutarch, goddess Demeter (lat. Ceres) which spread granted the right to die peacefully and mals- oxen, dogs, goats, birds, etc., Life of Themistocles, 10. 9-10). The Athen all over the ancient world the sacred to have their mortal remains removed on the tombstones to be erected after ians extended the application of the law rule once issued at Eleusis and requiring with dignity. Breeders and farmers were their death (Calletier, 1922; Herrlinger, designed to grant the athletes public the worshipper "to honour his parents, trained to pay close attention to the 1930). It is not unreasonable to conclude honors to some famous animals distin to bring fruit offerings to the gods, not health of the animals they raised and from the abundant evidence supplied by guished for their services. Such were a to injure any living creature." employed, to protect them from bad excavations that those who wished their mule which had worked tirelessly as a weather conditions, to provide them with animals to benefit by their piety and to draft animal in the building of the Par Individual and Collective Attitudes appropriate and sufficient fodder, to continue to share their companionship theon (Aristotle, History of Animals, VI. Towards Animal Welfare & Rights spare them any unnecessary hardship even after death were motivated by a 24), and a watchdog which had stopped (Columella, On Agriculture, VI- IX passim). deep and sincere empathy for them. In a sacrilegious burglar (Plutarch, The As seen above, the idea of the natu At first, such a policy could seem to be that general context, they did not have Cleverness of Animals, 13). Many private ral and moral rights of animals to be fair planned for no better purpose than the to refer to religion, philosophy, or laws citizens were keen to have their favorite ly treated was largely shared and spread profit of the animal's owner. Indeed, the to criticize and protest against those pets portrayed by painters or sculptors out under philosophical and religious in advantage of the owner should not be who mistreated their serving animals: and celebrated by poets while the ani fluences. From its very beginning, the disregarded, but this does not exclude the farmer who harassed his cow just mals were still alive or after their deaths Creek literature included significant evi unselfish reasons linked up with the irre after calving (Bianor, Palatine Anthology, as a last tribute (Calletier, 1922; Herrl dence of pity, compassion, and reverence placeable experience of the daily rela X. 101); the bathhouse keeper who forced inger, 1930). As Carson (1972) pointed out, paid to the animals (Lilja, 197 4). Some have tionship and contacts taking place in the his donkey to work without rest (Plu this was also a means to flaunt one's got worldwide fame: Argos, the dog common undertaking of the farm work tarch, On Love of Wealth, 5); Cato the wealth and social status. But when it faithfully awaiting his master Odysseus (Corteman, 1957). The animals were rec Elder who was heartless to the point of came from ordinary citizens for ordinary during his 20-year long absence (Odys ognized as sensitive creatures serving selling his horse after campaigning with dogs, birds, or cicadas, etc., or from a sey, 17. 290-327); the horses of the Tro man generously and faithfully. They him for months (Plutarch, Life of Cato Roman emperor like Hadrian who wished jan hero Pandaros who preferred to leave were at his mercy, he had the duty of major, 5. 7). Similar reactions occurred to compose the epitaph for his horse them at home lest they should be deprived elementary justice and equity towards against those who unscrupulously abused (Aymard, 1951 ), sincere attachment rath of the proper care in all the uncertain them, if for no other reason because he their pets or tame animals: Alcibiades er than selfish ostentation was probably ties of the battlefield of Troy (Iliad, 5. had been granted more intelligence than cutting his dog's tail to divert the Athen their true motive. 201-203). Those examples fit very well they. The argument of man's logos which ians' attention from his way of handling Yet, for all the sympathy they dis with the large amount of Homeric similes could, as seen above, be brought up to public affairs (Plutarch, Life of Alcibi played towards animals, the ancient focusing the interest on the animals and set up his superiority on the other ani ades, 9), the killer of the talking raven Creeks and Romans could not always re showing the reader that the extension of mals and to assert his right to use and mentioned above, or the local authori frain from cruelty and mistreatment. empathy to animals at the early stage of abuse them was then put forward to jus ties of Hippona secretly killing the dol The Creeks, especially the Athenians, the Creek civilization implied a better tify his duty of humaneness towards them. phin which they considered a great dis did enjoy quail- and cockfights (Bruneau, knowledge of their behavior and psychol Quite often, the attitudes towards ani turber of public peace because it attracted 1965), the latter being justified as a na ogy (Rahn, 1950-1954; 1967). From then mals were inspired by heartfelt reasons thousands of people eager to watch its tional celebration since a couple of fight down to the Roman period, there is a as much as philosophical ones. According frolics from the beach (Pliny the Younger, ing roosters was believed to have in wealth of evidence on how many among to Xenophon (Economics, 5. 20), Socrates Letters, 9. 33). spired the Athenian resistance to the the ancient people experienced and ad used to recommend prayers for farm an While reminding their readers of Persian invaders in the early 5th century mired the ability of the animals to learn, imals: cattle, horses, and sheep. Indeed, those abuses and their consequences in B.C. (Aelian, On Animals, 11.18). There is progress, and react, how much they felt shepherds, cattle raisers, donkey owners, order to prevent them in the future, the however nothing in those shows to com responsible for the animal dependants etc., concerned with their beasts prayed authors also wished to point out the oc pare with what was to become the com and concerned to exert their dominion the gods to bless their herds and to keep casions when the animals had been proper mon entertainment under the Roman em over them by ensuring their welfare. The them in good health. The prayer formu ly treated as a positive way to encourage pire. Besides the pacific exhibitions and main and first reason for doing so was las, the rites performed on such occa humanitarianism towards animals. Xan parades of exotic animals, people in Rome their conviction that the animals had the sions, and the monuments erected once thippos, Pericles' father, was remembered and in the more remote provinces as moral rights to be: (1) well treated during the prayer had been fulfilled are identi among other things because he had or well enjoyed the bloody games of the their lives including their old age when cal with those they used when praying dered a memorial for his dog which had arena in which thousands of wild animals

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were slaughtered at the price of irre cruelty to humanitarianism which once paigned for the animal defense by writ Ia religion grecque ancienne, Acade trievable damage to the African, Asian, prevailed at different degrees in the rela ing, lecturing on the matter, and by teach mie royale de Belgique, Brussels. and European fauna (Loisel, 1912; Jenni tionship between man and animal. Those i•lg the children to respect the animals Bodson, L. (1980) La priere pour les ani son, 1937; Toynbee, 1973). Even though behaviors originated in all kinds of (see Bion quoted by Plutarch, The Clev maux. L'experience de Ia priere dans such games, yet on a lower scale, were motives and intentions involving religion, erness of Animals, 7), since they thought les grandes religions. Actes due colla originally part of funeral rites, by the ethics, and psychological factors which it to be more effective to prevent rather que de Louvain-la-Neuve et Liege (22- turn of the 1st century B.C., they no were sometimes quite elusive when they than to have to curb or even to prosecute 23 Novembre 1978), Centre d'histoire longer had any reference to a cult or re were rooted in the special fascination or the animal abuses. However, near the des religions, Louvain-la-Neuve, pp. ligious purpose. They were sometimes in the aversion the animal species gen end of the Antiquity, Plutarch echoing the 149-164. presented as a usefu I device of the erated in man's mind. relentless debates of his time on animal Bruneau, Ph. (1965) Le motif des coqs at emperors aiming at clearing some parts Investigating the ancient religion nature emphasized the ever present and frontes dans l'imagerie antique. Bul of the Empire from wild and dangerous and philosophy essentially, Lorenz (1974) paradoxical difficulty to reconcile man's letin de Correspondance Hellenique 89: mammals in order to enlarge the areas came to the conclusion that (p. 240) interest and claims with the animal rights 90-121. available for human settlements. Yet, "tauchte nun im vierten jahrhundert, fUr to welfare and humanitarian protection Burkert, W. (1972) Homo necas. lnterpre they were primarily a political and social uns greifbar bei Xenokrates and Theoph or, in other words, to reach the challeng tationen altgriechischer Opferriten phenomenon in which the goals of sport rast, der Cedanke auf, dass die Totung ing ideal of a harmonious relationship und Mythen, W. De Cruyter, Berlin hunting, once defined by Xenophon (see von zahmen und mit dem Menschen le between man and animal. While noticing New York. above) were perverted (Auguet, 1970). benden Tieren ein Unrecht darstelle." En the cases of empathy he observed towards Carson, C. (1972) Men, Beasts, and Gods. Contrasting with the literary evidence larged to the day-after-day experiences the domestic animals and pets and un A History of Cruelty and Kindness to and the rich diversity of sensitive depic of the relationship with animals, the evi derlining the consequences for their Animals, Charles Scribner's Sons, New tions of animals either common or rare, dence confirms a real empathy towards welfare, he had to mention the abuses York. the sadistic barbarity of those mass slaugh animals long before the 4th century B.C. and mistreatments inflicted especially Dierauer, U. (1977) Tier und Mensch im tering reveals one of the outstanding Personal and individual feelings of right on the wild animals in the Roman empire Denken der Antike. Studien zur Tier paradoxes of the Roman people. While or wrong in dealing with the animals by on a scale broader than ever before. psychologie, Anthropo/ogie und Ethik, being so much alive to the interest and standards of humaneness were first de The paradox still exists, and the B.R. GrUner, Amsterdam. beauty of the animal kingdom, they took signed to rule the relationship between challenge as well. Durand, J.L. (1979) Betes grecques, in La pleasure in gazing at the sufferings and human beings, and then extended to sub cuisine du sacrifice en pays grec, M. agonizing death of its most impressive human creatures. These standards were Detienne- J.P. Vernant, ed., Callimard, species. Cicero's, Seneca's, PI utarch' s active from the beginning of human-ani Paris, pp. 133-166. voices were among the very few which mal relationships, even though they References Fox, M.W. (1980) Empathy or Anthropo were raised in protest against those were not always fully asserted. They morphism? lnt j Stud Anim Prob 1(6): The quotations of ancient texts are hideous practices. They condemned them brought about a sharper and more gen 346. taken from "The Loeb Classical Library -unsuccessfully. As for the onlookers, erous attention to animal welfare. On Calletier, E. (1922) Etude sur Ia poesie fu (Creek and Roman Text and English Trans the first and last public protest recorded that general and empirical background, neraire romaine d'apres /es inscriptions, lation)" William Heinemann Ltd- Har in the ancient tradition occurred in 55 the impulse given by Aristotle and the Hachette, Paris. vard University Press, London- Cam B.C. during the great show given by Pom Peripatetician school to the study of the Cernet, L. (1917) Platon. Lois. Livre IX. Tra bridge, Mass. pey which turned into the killing of animal developed a new approach, at both duction et commentaire, E. Leroux, Par about twenty elephants (Scullard, 1974). scientific and psychological levels, of the Auguet, R. (1970) Cruaute et civilisation. is, pp. 163-168. animal nature, of its differences and sim Les jeux romains, Flammarion, Paris. Gill, J E. (1969) Theriophily in Antiquity: ilarities with the human nature, and of Aymard, J. (1951) Essai sur les chasses A Supplementary Account. j Hist Ideas Conclusion the place of the animal in the hierarchy romaines, des origines a Ia fin du siecle 30:401-412. Unlike Judaism with the Bible (Rim of living beings. Then, many philoso des A ntonins (Cynegetica), E. de Soc Comperz, Th. (1912) Creek Thinkers: A His bach, 1982), the Classical antiquity never phers and moralists stressed and pleaded card, Paris. tory of Ancient Philosophy, reissued disposed of a single and sacred book used for the idea that man could make no Boas, C. and Lovejoy, A.O. (1935) A Doc 1955, john Murray, London, IV, p. 495. as a standard of reference. The evidence better use of his logos towards the ani umentary History of Primitivism and Corteman, C. (1957) Sollicitude et amour to be taken into consideration is there mals than by granting them the natural Related Ideas. I. Primitivism and Related pour les animaux dans I'Egypte greco fore less homogeneous but it includes a and moral right to be fairly treated and by Ideas in Antiquity, The johns Hopkins romaine. Chronique d'Egypte 32:101- somehow larger range of data both con adapting his behavior to that principle. Press, Baltimore. 120. crete and theoretical. First of all, they They argued sometimes fiercely against Bodson, L. (1978) Hiera Zoa. Contribution Guthrie, W.K.C. (1957) In the Beginning, show all the possible attitudes from those who contested that right. They cam- a /'etude de Ia place de /'animal dans Methuen, London, pp. 69-79.

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Hauss leiter, J. (1935) Der Vegetarismus in Rahn, H. (1950-1954) Tier und Mensch in der Antike, Topelmann, Berlin, pp. der homerischen Auffassung der Wirk- 22-53. 1ichkeit. Paideuma 5:277-297, 431-480. The Care of Pets Herrlinger, G. (1930) Totenk/age um Tiere Rahn, H. (1967) Das Tier in der homeris in der antiken Dichtung, W. Kohl ham chen Dichtung. Studium generate 20: Within Child Abusing Families mer, Stuttgart. 90-105. Hopf, L. (1888) Thierorakel und Orakelthiere Rimbach, J.A. (1982) The J udeo-Christian in alter und neuer Zeit, W. Kohlhammer. Tradition and the Human/Animal Bond. Jennison, G. (1937) Animals for Show and tnt J Stud Anim Prob 3(3):198-207. Elizabeth DeViney, Jeffery Dickert, Pleasure in Ancient Rome, Manchester Rollin, B. E. (1981) Animal Rights and Hu and Randall Lockwood University Press, Manchester. man Morality, Prometheus Books, Kellert, 0. (1909-1913) Die antike Tierwelt, Buffalo, New York. 1-11, J. Cramer, Leipzig. Scullard, H.H. (1974) The Elephant in the Drs. DeViney and Dickert are with the Family Enrichment Program, Morristown Memorial Hospital, Morristown, Lilja, S. (1974)Theriophily in Homer. Arc Greek and Roman World, Thames and New jersey. Dr. Lockwood is with the Department of Psychology, State University of New York, Stony Brook, tos 8:71-78. Hudson, London, pp. 250-251. NY 11794. {Send requests for reprints to Dr. Lockwood.] Loisel, G. (1912) Histoire des menageries Toynbee, J.M.C. (1973) Animals in Roman de I'Antiquite a nos jours, 0. Doin and Life and Art, Thames and Hudson, Lon The treatment of animals was surveyed in 53 families in which child abuse had oc H. Laurens, Paris, I, pp. 9-139. don, pp. 21-23. curred. Patterns of pet ownership, attitudes towards pets and quality of veterinary care Lorenz, G. (1974) Ehrfurcht vor dem Leben Vernant, J.P. (1981) Theorie generale du did not differ greatly from comparable data from the general public. However, abuse der Tiere bei fruhen Griechen und Ro sacrifice et mise a mort dans Ia thysia of pets by a family member had taken place in 60 percent of the families. The families mern und bei den Naturvolkern? Kri grecque, in Le Sacrifice dans I'Antiqui in which animal abuse was indicated tended to have younger pets, lower levels of vet tische und vergleichende Studien zur te, J. Rudhardt and 0. Reverdin, ed., erinary care and more conflicts over care than non-abusive families in the study. There a/ten Geschichte und Universa/ges Fondation Hardt, Vandoeuvres-Geneve, were several parallels between the treatment of pets and the treatment of animals with chichte 18:211-241. pp. 1-39. in child-abusing families, suggesting that animal abuse may be a potential indicator of Magel, Ch.R. (1981) A Bibliography on An Westermarck, E. (1908) The Origin and De other family problems. These findings also suggest that it may be helpful to review the imal Rights and Related Matters, Univer velopment of the Moral Ideas, Mac role of pets in these families as part of the therapeutic process. sity Press of America, Washington, D.C. millan, London, II, pp. 490-514. Pollard, J. (1977) Birds in Greek Life and Yerkes, R.D. (1952) Sacrifice in Greek and The belief that one's treatment of animals was that it encouraged humane Myth, Thames and Hudson, London, Roman Religions and Early judaism, animals is closely associated with the feelings towards mankind. In his essay on pp. 116-129. Scribner, New York. treatment of fellow humans has a long "Duties to Animals and Spirits" he wrote: history. Several philosophers have sug " ... Our duties towards animals are gested this connection, even without ac merely indirect duties towards hu cepting the concept of intrinsic rights of manity. Animal nature has analo animals. In the thirteenth century Saint gies to human nature, and by doing Thomas Aquinas, in Summa Contra Gen our duties to animals in respect of tiles, followed his defense of exploitation manifestations of human nature, we of animals with the observation that: indirectly do our duties to humani " ... if any passages of Holy Writ ty." (Regan and Singer, 1976, p. 122). seem to forbid us to be cruel to dumb In "Metaphysical Principles of the animals, for instance to kill a bird Doctrine of Virtue" he came to a similar with its young, this is ... to remove conclusion regarding cruelty to animals: man's thoughts from being cruel to other men, and lest through being " ... cruelty to animals is contrary to cruel to other animals one becomes man's duty to himself, because it cruel to human beings ... " (Regan deadens in him the feeling of sym and Singer, 1976, p. 59). pathy for their sufferings, and thus a natural tendency that is very Immanuel Kant echoed these same useful to morality in relation to sentiments 500 years later, suggesting other human beings is weakened." that the only justification for kindness to (Regan and Singer, 1976, p. 125).

320 /NT} STUD ANJM PROB 4{4] 1983 /NT} STUD ANIM PROB 4{4) 1983 321 L. Bodson- Greco-Roman Attitudes Original Article

320 /NT} STUD ANJM PROB 4{4] 1983 /NT} STUD ANIM PROB 4{4) 1983 321 DeViney, Dickert and Lockwood- Pets in Child Abusing Families Original Article DeViney, Dickert and Lockwood- Pets in Child Abusing Families Original Article

Writers sympathetic to the notion for reasons of animal abuse or neglect, parent or guardian to provide ade pets and the actual treatment observed. of animal rights have also proposed an 82 percent were known to local social quate food, clothing, shelter, edu association between kindness and cruel service agencies and were described by cation, medical or surgical care;" Description of the Sample ty to animal and man. Schopenhauer, in these agencies as having "children at risk" "against whom a sex act has been critique of Kant, proposed that: The average age of adult respondents or signs of neglect and physical violence. committed by a person responsible to the interview was 33.25 years. Three "Boundless compassion for all liv Beck (1981, p. 232) specifically sug- for his or her care or by someone respondents were between 12 and 14. ing beings is the firmest and surest gests that: else permitted to commit such an The families in this sample had an aver guarantee of pure moral conduct, act by the person responsible for "animal abuse has long been over age of 2.7 children under the age of 18, and needs no casuistry. Whoever is the child's care; or" looked as an indicator, monitor, with a mean age of 8.2 years. inspired by it will assuredly injure and even precursor to the antisocial "who has been willfully abandoned The pattern of pet ownership in this no one, will wrong no one, and will behaviors people inflict on each by his or her parent or guardian." sample was similar to that described in a encroach on no one's rights ... The other, including child abuse and variety of surveys of pet-owners (Table moral incentive advanced by me as neglect, spouse beating, rape, and The sample was chosen from a pool 1). The number of dogs owned by dog the genuine is further confirmed by homicide." of 200 such families on the basis of pet the fact that the animals are also ownership and availability for the study. owners was somewhat higher than in other taken under its protection." (Regan The present study was undertaken A comprehensive interview schedule con studies (Table 2), but was within the typi and Singer, 1976, pp. 125-126). in an attempt to determine the extent to taining 55 questions was developed in cal range. which pets are included in the patterns consultation with several humane soci The majority of interviewees re The simplest statement of this be- of abuse and neglect seen in abusive fam eties and experts on animal care. Ques ported a positive attitude toward their lief is Albert Schweitzer's comment that ilies. We see this as a first step in clarify tions dealt with demographic variables, pets. Sixty-seven percent reported that "the ethics of reverence for life ing the role that pets play within the pet care and attitudes toward pets, as they had pets for companionship while makes no distinction between higher home of these families and in identify well as general information on pets owned 17 percent said that the main purpose and lower, more precious and less ing possible ways of using information by the family over the last 10 years. A was protection. Eighty-one percent in precious lives" (1965, p. 47). about the human/animal bond in the un staff member of the Family Enrichment· dicated that they would feel sad or hurt derstanding and treatment of family vio Program interviewed one adult or teen if they lost or had to give up their pets. There have been few attempts to lence. ager in each household. The interviews Three people specifically stated that systematically study the relationship be took place in the family's homes. In they would feel like they had lost a child tween the treatment of animals and hu Method each case they were conducted by a if anything happened to their pets and mans by specific individuals. Mead (1964) staff member currently working with the two mentioned that they would kill any found evidence that, in a variety of cul The sample consisted of fifty-three family who had observed interactions one who would try to harm their animals. tures, torturing or killing of animals by a families involved with the New Jersey with pets at first hand. This approach al The remaining percent said they would child may precede more violent acts by Division of Youth and Family Services 19 lowed us to detect discrepancies between be unconcerned or even happy if any that individual as an adult. Several studies for reasons of child abuse as defined by how the families stated they treated their thing happened to their pets. have focused on the frequent association New Jersey Statute 9:6-1 of the Protec between criminal violence in adulthood tive Custody Law. Under this law, an and persistent enuresis, fire-setting and abused or neglected child is defined as animal abuse during childhood (MacDon any child under 18 years of age: ald, 1963; Hellman and Blackman, 1966; Griffiths "whose parent or guardian inflicts Wax and Haddox, 1974: Felthous and Ber Franti eta/. Kellert & Brenner nard, 1979). or allows to be inflicted upon the This Survey (1980) (1980) (1977) child physical injury through other Felthous (1980) suggested that phys than accidental means which results, ical abuse of a child may result in the DOG 69 77 69 73 or potentially could result, in a sub child abusing animals and exhibiting % CAT 53 53 27* 42 stantial risk of death, a serious or other aggressive behavior against peo OWNING prolonged disfigurement, or impair BOTH 28 33 NR 15 ple which may persist into adulthood. ment or loss of function of any bodily EITHER 94 97 96 NR Fucini (1978) indicated that violence organ;" OTHER 6 3 4 NR against pets may be an indicator of other forms of family violence. Hutton "whose physical, mental or emo NR = not reported (1981) reported that of 23 families in a tional condition has been impaired *Kellert (1980) reported on only one pet/household (thus totals = 100%), so cat owners who also own dogs British community known to the RSPCA because of the failure of his or her are not reported.

323 322 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 /NT) STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 DeViney, Dickert and Lockwood- Pets in Child Abusing Families Original Article DeViney, Dickert and Lockwood- Pets in Child Abusing Families Original Article

# Dogs/Dog-owning # Cats/Cat-owning Dog-Owners Cat-Owners Study Household Household This Survey 60% 66% This Survey 1.84 1.89 Franti et a/. (1980) 74-91% 40-63% Franti eta/. (1980) 1.2-1.5* 1.4-2.1* Dorn (1970) 61-91% 65-78% Griffiths & Brenner (1977) 1.24 1.95 Lockwood (1979) 1.96 2.11 Schneider & Vaida (1975) 1.2 1.4 cent of the cat owners reported that viewees affirmed that they or a member Franti & Kraus (1974) 1.5 1.5 their animals had been vaccinated, de of their household had injured their pets spite the fact that only two-thirds had re at some time. In an additional 38 percent *Range across different communities surveyed portedly been to veterinarians. This differ of the families the case worker observed ence may be explained by the fact that animal abuse or neglect first hand which Most people spoke favorably of their Most people reported that they fed several owners reportedly made use of was either underreported or not reported pet's personality and behavior, using such their animals commercial food one or free vaccination programs in some areas. in the interview. descriptions as "happy", "loving", "friend two times a day and 90 percent indicated The reported incidence of spayed Thirty-four percent of the inter ly" and "playful". Only 9 percent used that water was continuously available or female dogs in our sample (27 percent) is viewees gave indications that some of adjectives such as "nasty" or "nervous". was given at least daily. There were a slightly lower than the 32-36 percent the pets they had previously owned had One client, who admitted to brutally few unusual responses such as "he does rates reported in three separate demo been either abused or neglected. This beating his cat regularly, described the not take water often- once a month" graphic studies (Griffiths and Brenner, was inferred from reports of the manner animal as "very affectionate and cute and "I give him water whenever he pants." 1977; Heussner et a/., 1978; Franti et a/., in which pets had died, were lost, or dis and very playful". Table 3 gives the proportion of pet 1980). The proportion of neutered cats posed of. For example: In 36 percent of the families the chil owned by people in our sample (16 per owners who reportedly made use of vet "Cat was shot by husband." dren were described as having a "good", erinarians in our sample and in stratified cent) was half the 33-34 percent value "loving" or "playful" relationship with samples in a variety of U.S. communi reported in those surveys. "Husband dropped off dog in the pets in the family. In 26 percent of the ties. The use of veterinary services among woods." families the children were reported to hit, Incidence of Animal Abuse dog owners fell below the lowest rate re "Dog was let loose on the highway." kick, pester or annoy a pet. Six percent ported for the general population. Use We defined animal abuse accord of the interviewees indicated that the Kicking or punching small animals of such services among cat owners did ing to criteria stated by Leavitt (1978). children ignored or neglected the pets. was the mildest treatment to be considered not differ noticeably from that reported Meeting one of these was sufficient for abuse in this survey. Other abusive ac elsewhere. Use of veterinary services is classifying a family as exhibiting animal Care of Pets tions included hitting the pet with a hard closely associated with occupation and abuse. The criteria were: family income (Dorn, 1970; Franti eta/., object (excluding sticks or newspaper), Responses to questions on feeding, 1. Observable or reported pain or 1980). Within the population from which throwing hard objects at the pet or other exercise and basic care did not differ suffering due to inflicted pain beyond our sample was drawn, 21 percent are acts that clearly endangered the animal's noticeably from acceptable standards, forms of discipline commonly accepted non-working, 37 percent are laborers and life. but the socially acceptable replies were in our society. 14 percent service workers. Thus lower In all, 60 percent of the families (N generally obvious. These questions yielded 2. Causing the death of an animal use of veterinary services may be ex = 32) were identified as having had at contradictions between the client's re in an inhumane manner. plained by the tendency toward lower so least one family member who had met plies and the case workers' observations in 3. Abandoning an animal in an en cio-economic status in our study group at least one of the criteria for abuse to a 17 percent of the sample. For example: vironment which is not natural to it or in and among families with child abuse in family pet. Thirty-six percent met the which it is incapable of surviving. "Mrs. G. said she gave the two dogs general. first criterion (pain and suffering), 6 per 4. Failing to provide care as indicated water three to four times daily. How Fifty percent of the dog owners in cent met the second (inhumane death), 13 by pO"or sanitary conditions, lack of proper ever, the animals never had food or our sample reported that their animals percent met the third (abandoning) and nutrition, lack of shelter or inhumane water available to them (during the had been vaccinated. This is not incon 25 percent met the fourth (neglect). confinement. interviewer's visits) even on the hot sistent with the report that 60 percent Twenty percent of the families met two test summer days." had seen a veterinarian. However, 81 per- Twenty-five percent of the inter- or more of the criteria. In the majority of

324 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 325 DeViney, Dickert and Lockwood- Pets in Child Abusing Families Original Article DeViney, Dickert and Lockwood- Pets in Child Abusing Families Original Article

cases falling into categories 1 and 2, one non-abusive group. The number of fami or both parents were the major source of lies that reported having pets that were abuse to the animals. In only 14 percent lost, hit by a car, or ran away was not of these cases were the children the sole significantly different for the abusive abusers of animals. Of 31 cases in which and non-abusive groups. DOGS ( 1 yr. old 1-2 yrs. old ) 2 yrs. old the identity of the abused animal was We hypothesized that conflict over clear, 18 (58 percent) involved dogs, 10 the care of a pet might be related to the with abusive 31% 24% 45% (32 percent) involved cats, 1 (13 percent) incidence of animal abuse. There was evi owners (29) involved both dogs and cats and 2 (6 per dence of disagreement over the feeding non-abusive 15% 23% 62% cent) involved birds. of pets. Forty-four percent of the abusive owners (13) The interviewers commented favor group and only percent of the non 16 general pop.' 18% 24% 58% ably on the treatment and care of pets in abusive group reported that the person (335] only 5 of the 53 families (9 percent). Spe who was supposed to feed the animal cific comments included: and the person who actually fed the pet were different (x 2 = 4.19, df = 1, p ( CATS "Takes obvious pride in her horse, ) 2 yrs. old .05). Viewed another way, 82 percent of ( 1 yr. old 1-2 yrs. old she is a responsible owner." those cases in which there was conflict with abusive 24% 47% 29% "Pets are compassionately cared for." over the feeding of the pet involved owners (17) families in which animal abuse was re "(The cat) is a very loved pet of this non-abusive 8% 38% 54% ported. household. He gets more than ade owners (13) Among dog and cat owners in the quate care and is the source of general pop.' 17% 43% 40% abusive group, 45 percent reported that great amusement to the family." they had never taken the animal to a vet 1. from Franti eta/. (1980) Comparison of Pet-Abusers With erinarian, compared to 29 percent in the non-abusive group. This difference was Non-Abusers ported by the fact that 69 percent of the in 58% (N = 28) the children were in a in the expected direction but was not families with animal abuse reported that neglectful home situation. In 4% of the Interview responses and field re statistically significant (x 2 = 1.14, df = a family pet had injured a person, com cases (N = 2) there was risk of abuse ports for the 32 families in which animal 1, p ( .2). In the non-abusive group, 88 pared to only 6 percent of the families in due to psychiatric illness. In our sample abuse had been reported were compared percent reported that their dog or cat the non-abusive group (x 2 = 4.4, df = 1, of pet-owning child-abusers, 88% of with those of the remaining 21 families had received vaccinations compared to p < .05). the families in which physical abuse took in which no animal abuse had been indi only 61 percent in the abusive group. As The abusive group differed from the place also had animals that were abused. cated. There were no significant differ indicated earlier, these figures may rep non-abusive group with respect to the In those cases where physical abuse of ences between these groups with respect resent exaggerations in a socially accep forms of discipline they employed with children was not present, animal abuse to pet ownership and reasons given for table direction but the difference is sig the pet (which was not used as a criterion was seen in only 34% (x 2 = 12.07, df = owning pets. There were no differences nificant (x 2 3.86, df 1, p .05). The = = < to differentiate the two groups). Physical 1, p ( .001 ). Neither sexual abuse of chil in the use of positive adjectives in descrip two groups did not differ with respect to means (spanking with stick, hands or news dren nor neglect differentiated the ani tions of the pets' personality. the proportion of dogs or cats that were paper) were reportedly used by 88 per mal abuse from animal non-abuse groups. The abusive and non-abusive groups spayed (all p ) .5). cent of the non-abusive owners (x 2 = showed differences with respect to their Some incidents of animal abuse may 5.33, df = 1' p < .05). Conclusions and Implications for pets (Table 4). In general the abusive be due to an inability to control the ani Further Research group had more younger pets and fewer mal. Twenty-two percent of the abusive Comparisons of Form of Pet and pets over 2 years of age than their non group perceived their pets as not being The families in this survey had all Child Abuse abusive counterparts or the general pop well-behaved, compared to 6 percent in shown some impairment of their capaci ulation. However, due to the small sam the non-abusive group. Although this dif All of the families were involved ty to provide care for children. A large ple size these differences were not sta ference was not significant (x 2 = 2.3, df. with the Division of Youth and Family proportion also showed a breakdown in tistically significant. A high proportion = 1, p ) .1 ), it suggests that pets that are Services for reason of child abuse. It was their capacity to care for pets. This find of young animals in a population usually abused tend to be or become behavior possible to determine the form of abuse ings lends empirical support to the belief indicates high mortality and rapid turn problems. It is possible that the abusive in 48 of the 53 cases. In 40% (N = 19) that a battered pet may be a sign that over. This suggests that the abusive group group had pets that were more aggressive the children were physically abused. In other types of violence are occurring in did not have their pets for as long as the or more difficult to control. This is sup- 10% (N = 5) there was sexual abuse and the family (Fucini, 1978). It also lends

326 JNT j STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 /NT j STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 327 DeViney, Dickert and Lockwood- Pets in Child Abusing Families Original Article DeViney, Dickert and Lockwood- Pets in Child Abusing Families Original Article

considerable weight to the warning of which they were closely attached but References Lockwood, R. (1979) Reader survey of Pet fered by Van Leeuwen (1981, p. 182): which had been killed by a parent or News Magazine. Pet News Nov/Dec. guardian. Beck, A.M. (1981) Guidelines for planning "It would be sad ... if in analogy to MacDonald, J.M. (1963) The threat to kill. Child abuse may also originate, in pets in urban areas. In Bruce Fogle child abuse there persisted a reluc Am J Psychiatry 120:125-130. part, from a lack of familiarity with the (ed.) Interrelations between People and tance to recognize the existence of Mead, M. (1964) Cultural factors in the needs of children or unrealistic expecta Pets. Springfield, Ill.: C.C. Thomas. pp. animal abuse among the so-called cause and prevention of pathological tions about their abilities. This was clear 231-240. accidental injuries brought to the vet homicide. Bulletin of the Menninger ly a factor in several of the instances of Cohen, S.J. and Sussman, A. (1975) The in erinarian's attention. Greater aware Clinic 28:11-22. animal abuse and neglect. Additional prob cidence of child abuse in the U.S. Child ness of animal abuse may lead vet Minuchin, S. (1974) Families and Family lems with both children and animals may Welfare 54:432-443. erinarians to initiate mental health Therapy. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Uni come from unfamiliarity with effective Dorn, C. R. (1970) Veterinary medical ser intervention for the abusing family versity Press. ways of using reinforcement to achieve vices: Utilization by dog and cat owners. in addition to treating the animal." Regan, T. and Singer, P. (eds.) (1976) Ani desired changes in behavior. Finally, ]AVMA 156:321-327. mal Rights and Human Obligations. The relationship between animal family conflicts over responsibility for Felthous, A.R. (1980) Aggression against New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. abuse and child abuse is not a simple basic care of both children and animals cats, dogs and people. Child Psych. Schneider, R. and Vaida, M.L. (1975) Sur one. As with child abuse, most cases of may generate additional tensions that and Human Development 10:169-177. vey of canine and feline populations: mistreatment involved either long-term lead to abusive behaviors. Felthous, A.R. and Bernard, H. (1979) En Alameda and Contra Costa Counties, Cal neglect or relatively few instances of For reasons of confidentiality, we uresis, firesetting and cruelty to ani ifornia, 1970. ]A VMA 166:481-486. clearly detectable harm (Cohen and Suss were unable to assess the relationship mals: The significance of two-thirds Robin, M., ten Bensel, R., Quigley, J.. and man, 1975). Repeated injury was not between particular patterns of child of this triad. j 24:240-246. Forensic Sci Anderson, R. (1981) A study of the rela usually indicated. Abusers of animals and abuse and animal abuse in the families Franti, C. E. and Kraus, J. F. (1975) Aspects tionship of childhood pet animals and children alike often report deep affec in this survey. We are currently conduct of pet ownership in Yolo County, Cali the psycho-social development of ado tion for their victims, but we also found ing an intensive analysis of the involve fornia. ]AVMA 164:166-171. lescents. Paper presented at I nterna that 50 percent of the animal abusers ment of pets in the family dynamics in a Franti, C.E., Kraus, J.F., Borhani, N.O., John tional Conference on the Human/Com with more than one pet tended to split small number of families in which child son, S.L. and Tucker, S.D. (1980) Pet panion Animal Bond, Philadelphia, PA. them into "good" and "bad" pets, a theme abuse has occurred. ownership in rural northern California Schweitzer, A. (1965) The Teaching of Rev that is common in cases of child abuse Even in families with child abuse, (EI Dorado County). ]AVMA 176:143- erence for Life. N.Y.: Holt. (Wasserman, 1967). Only 13 percent of many members express great love and 149. Van Leeuwen, J. (1981) A child psychiatrist's the non-abusive group made such a dis concern for animals. With clearer under Fucini, S. (1978) The abuser: first a dog then perspective on children and their com tinction. standing of the role of pets within these a child? American Humane 5:14-15. panion animals. In Bruce Fogle (ed.) There are several parallels between families it should be possible to integrate Griffiths, A.O. and Brenner, A. (1977) Sur Interrelations between People and the possible origins of violence to ani the family's feelings and actions toward vey of cat and dog ownership in Cham Pets. Springfield, Ill.: C.C. Thomas. pp. mals and to children. Some family vio their pets into the therapeutic process as paign County, Illinois, 1976. ]AVMA 175-194. lence may be seen in terms of "scape a tool for understanding both the healthy 170:1333-1340. Wasserman, S. (1967) The abused parent goating" of an innocent and powerless and unhealthy processes that are taking Helman, D.S. and Blackman, N. (1966) En of the abused child. Children 15(5): victim by a recipient of violence. This place. Ultimately the objective of those uresis, firesetting and cruelty to ani 175-179. could explain the involvement of children who work to prevent child abuse is the mals: A triad perspective of adult crime. Wax, D.E. and Haddox, V.G. (1974) Enu in animal abuse in 37 percent of the house same as that of those who seek to pre Am j Psychiatry 122:1431-1435. resis, fire-setting and animal cruelty: holds in which pet abuse was reported. vent mistreatment of animals- to foster Hutton, J.S. (1981) Animal abuse as a diag A useful danger signal in predicting vul Another common theme in disturbed fam an ethic which appreciates the sensitivity nostic approach in social work: A pilot nerability of adolescent males to as ilies is "triangling" in which aggression is of all life. study. Paper presented at International saultive behavior. Child Psychiatry and directed against one family member in Acknowledgments Conference on the Human/ Companion Human Development 14:151-156. directly through actions against a third Animal Bond, Philadelphia, PA. (Minuchin, 1974). Since many family mem This study was supported by a grant Kellert, S.R. (1980) American attitudes to bers have close bonds to pets, these ani from the Geraldine R. Dodge Founda ward and knowledge of animals: An mals can become the targets of abuse in tion. We wish to thank the staff of the update. lnt j Stud Anim Prob 1:87- tended to hurt a person. This pattern has Division of Youth and Family Services 119. been reported by Robin eta/. (1981) who and the Family Enrichment Program at Leavitt, E.S. (1978) Animals and Their Legal found that a high proportion of delin Morristown Memorial Hospital for their Rights. Washington, D.C.: Animal Wel quent adolescents had owned pets to assistance in conducting the interviews. fare Institute.

328 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4{4) 1983 329 DeViney, Dickert and Lockwood- Pets in Child Abusing Families Original Article DeViney, Dickert and Lockwood- Pets in Child Abusing Families Original Article

328 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4{4) 1983 329 D. W. Folsch, eta/.- Aviary Housing for Commercial Laying Flocks Original Article

Cut A- ·-A Ethologic and Economic Examination of Aviary Housing for Commercial Laying Flocks D.W. Folsch, Chr. Dolf, H. Ehrbar, T. Bleuler and H. Teijgeler

Folsch, Dolf, Ehrbar, and Bleuler are with the Institute of Animal Production, The Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, ETH-Zentrum, Zurich, Switzerland. Teijgeler is in Klingentalmuhle AG, Kaiseraugst, Switzerland.

Introduction Ground plan

In 1972, studies about different hous Comfort behavior: plumage care, ing systems for poultry were carried out. stretching, dust bathing. 0 0 0 The housing systems are: free range, deep Resting behavior: standing, sleeping. 1.{) 1.{) 1.{) store room N ('Y) litter, sloped wire and cages. These stud Sexual behavior: egg laying, nest ies have increased our knowledge about building behavior. "" 1!-!-:-~r+-+-+,.0!"(:'':0 !'l'!:~'i<=:;;:=:;:;;=;;;;=;;;=;;;:=;;;=;<='?F~;;:=:i"f?F;;~ behavior, health, diseases and egg pro Each one of these functional cycles duction (Brunner and Folsch, 1~77; Folsch, -E) requires its own area in the hen house. et a/., 1977; Huber and Folsch, 1978; The hen house has to be arranged in or Folsch and Stahel, 1979; Folsch, 1980; Ill Ill der to accommodate the needs of the c ~ c Folsch and Vestergaard, 1981 ). ClJ ·Cl.J ClJ animals. ..c ..c ..c The result of our work shows that The management of the hen house 0 0 0 appropriate housing is necessary for in 0 0 0 should be easy and efficient. A clearly 0 1.{) 0 tensively kept hens and that the housing ;...._ ;...._ N arranged house is an agreeable place to has to correspond to the vital needs and ...... _ work. 0 0 0 the nature of the animals. ~?;::~:;~ The technical components in aviary • - - - This is important for two reasons: a) Ao 0 0 housing are: feedtroughs, waternipples, A the innate needs of the birds must be 0 0 0 dropping pits, perches, nests, and deep 1.{) c:5 satisfied; b) for the proper development s2 N I itter areas. of the animal and successful egg pro duction. In the Cantonal Agricultural School of Zurich (Strickhof), we built a small ex ~-i~ The housing facilities should allow perimental aviary hen coop for fifty an the following functional cycles without t;~n'(f2~j[~lt restrictions: imals in 1978/79. In 1979 it was also possible to 9.80-10.00 Social organization: the structuring change an old hen house with deep litter of a group or unit of animals. into an aviary system. This system be Locomotion: walking, running, flut longs to the experimental farm "Weinin tering, flying. gen" of an animal food factory (Kiingen Feeding behavior: search for food and talmuhle AG). Like the rest of this enter water, food and water pecking, ground prise, the ~viary is run according to eco scratching, scraping. nomic principles. FIGURE 1 Plan of Swiss Aviary System (see also Fig. 3)

330 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4{4) 1983 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4{4) 1983 331 D. W. Folsch, eta/.- Aviary Housing for Commercial Laying Flocks Original Article

Cut A- ·-A Ethologic and Economic Examination of Aviary Housing for Commercial Laying Flocks D.W. Folsch, Chr. Dolf, H. Ehrbar, T. Bleuler and H. Teijgeler

Introduction Ground plan

330 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4{4) 1983 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4{4) 1983 331 D. W. Folsch, eta/.- Aviary Housing for Commercial Laying Flocks Original Article D. W. Folsch, eta/.- Aviary Housing for Commercial Laying Flocks Original Article

pit, it was possible to observe the same Results position twice or three times per house 1) The observation of the marked (multi-moment technique of observation). animals showed that they made use of It was necessary to observe the the whole room according to their nests more closely during the egg laying needs. All the marked animals moved period, as well as the floor area during around during the observation period dust bathing time, and the food places (eight-hour period). The entire length of during feeding time. the house, the perches on the different Moreover, control was exercised levels, and the nests were frequented. over all the places where the eggs were The hens spread out equally over the laid. The eggs were collected by hand whole hen house. So far, the arrangement and the number of eggs in the nests, the seems to be correct according to tile floor, and on the dropping pit were hens' needs. Few negative social interac counted. tions occurred. Cannibalism and hysteria Further information was obtained did not occur. regarding the physiological conditions of the animals: were any changes of the 2) The method shows whether or feet, cloaca, and plumage evident upon not the design of the hen house is useful examination? and corresponding to the behavioral needs Analysis of this information yielded of the animals. Such design includes: the results concerning the behavior of a flock deep litter area, the kind and number of in a certain hen house. According to this nests, arrangement of the different perches, study, each aviary hen house was unique structure of the dropping pit, the work FIGURE 2 Plan of Swiss Aviary System for Breeders/Parent Stock in its complexity. Since most aviary hen ing frequency of the conveyor belts, and houses will be conversions, a great vari the illumination of the hen house. ety in the interior design is expected in After a laying period of 14 months, Since December, 1979, this house Method aviary housing. the animals seemed to be in good health. has been occupied by a thousand hens. The external appearance was judged to To analyze the first question, fifty In spring 1980, the first observa (Hisex white, ten hens per m 2 or three be good and the number of sick or dead animals were marked with red and white tions of the small experimental flock, as hens per m 3 .) By the end of 1981, another animals was low (Table 1). number tags. The sections of the hen well as the commercial laying flock, were aviary house was completed on the same Egg production and food consump house were designated with big letters. made. Our method has been useful so farm and stocked with 2,000 animals to tion of commercially run aviary flocks The observers then noted which tagged far. serve as breeders. animals were in which field, what posi According to our concept (Folsch, tion they occupied, and what activities 1982), the ethological question is: Can a TABLE 1 Production During 14 Months (Summary) they were engaged in. To address the sec proper aviary system be achieved by di ond question, the observations were viding the room into different horizontal done within a limited part of the house Deep litter Cages Aviary levels and by installing mobile elements which represented a cross section. The (Zollikofen, 1980) (Weiningen, 1980) such as feeders and conveyor belts in observers, following a fixed timetable, the nests? Duration of production since the 20th 425.0 425.0 425.0 watched the marked positions (feeders, week, in days perches, etc.) in the cross section and Specific Questions and Procedure Egg production per average hen according 74.4 76.3 76.7 counted the number of animals and re of the Experiment to feeding days, in % corded their activities. One observer 15.9 8.5 8.8 1) Does a single animal move around watched the floor and the nest area. A Mortality, in % in the whole hen house or only in one second observer stood on the dropping Egg production per "starting hen," in % 68.5 73.1 73.9 pit. part of it? Food consumption per egg, in grams 166.9 150.1 154.9 2) What are the animals doing dur The observations were recorded on 124.2 114.5 118.8 ing the daytime phase using natural and forms which were prepared beforehand. Food consumption per animal and day, in grams artificial light, what is their position, Dependent upon the number of positions and, how many are active? in the nest area, floor area, or dropping /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4{4) 1983 333 332 /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4{4) 1983 D. W. Folsch, eta/.- Aviary Housing for Commercial Laying Flocks Original Article D. W. Folsch, eta/.- Aviary Housing for Commercial Laying Flocks Original Article

pit, it was possible to observe the same Results position twice or three times per house 1) The observation of the marked (multi-moment technique of observation). animals showed that they made use of It was necessary to observe the the whole room according to their nests more closely during the egg laying needs. All the marked animals moved period, as well as the floor area during around during the observation period dust bathing time, and the food places (eight-hour period). The entire length of during feeding time. the house, the perches on the different Moreover, control was exercised levels, and the nests were frequented. over all the places where the eggs were The hens spread out equally over the laid. The eggs were collected by hand whole hen house. So far, the arrangement and the number of eggs in the nests, the seems to be correct according to tile floor, and on the dropping pit were hens' needs. Few negative social interac counted. tions occurred. Cannibalism and hysteria Further information was obtained did not occur. regarding the physiological conditions of the animals: were any changes of the 2) The method shows whether or feet, cloaca, and plumage evident upon not the design of the hen house is useful examination? and corresponding to the behavioral needs Analysis of this information yielded of the animals. Such design includes: the results concerning the behavior of a flock deep litter area, the kind and number of in a certain hen house. According to this nests, arrangement of the different perches, study, each aviary hen house was unique structure of the dropping pit, the work FIGURE 2 Plan of Swiss Aviary System for Breeders/Parent Stock in its complexity. Since most aviary hen ing frequency of the conveyor belts, and houses will be conversions, a great vari the illumination of the hen house. ety in the interior design is expected in After a laying period of 14 months, Since December, 1979, this house Method aviary housing. the animals seemed to be in good health. has been occupied by a thousand hens. The external appearance was judged to To analyze the first question, fifty In spring 1980, the first observa (Hisex white, ten hens per m 2 or three be good and the number of sick or dead animals were marked with red and white tions of the small experimental flock, as hens per m 3 .) By the end of 1981, another animals was low (Table 1). number tags. The sections of the hen well as the commercial laying flock, were aviary house was completed on the same Egg production and food consump house were designated with big letters. made. Our method has been useful so farm and stocked with 2,000 animals to tion of commercially run aviary flocks The observers then noted which tagged far. serve as breeders. animals were in which field, what posi According to our concept (Folsch, tion they occupied, and what activities 1982), the ethological question is: Can a TABLE 1 Production During 14 Months (Summary) they were engaged in. To address the sec proper aviary system be achieved by di ond question, the observations were viding the room into different horizontal done within a limited part of the house Deep litter Cages Aviary levels and by installing mobile elements which represented a cross section. The (Zollikofen, 1980) (Weiningen, 1980) such as feeders and conveyor belts in observers, following a fixed timetable, the nests? Duration of production since the 20th 425.0 425.0 425.0 watched the marked positions (feeders, week, in days perches, etc.) in the cross section and Specific Questions and Procedure Egg production per average hen according 74.4 76.3 76.7 counted the number of animals and re of the Experiment to feeding days, in % corded their activities. One observer 15.9 8.5 8.8 1) Does a single animal move around watched the floor and the nest area. A Mortality, in % in the whole hen house or only in one second observer stood on the dropping Egg production per "starting hen," in % 68.5 73.1 73.9 pit. part of it? Food consumption per egg, in grams 166.9 150.1 154.9 2) What are the animals doing dur The observations were recorded on 124.2 114.5 118.8 ing the daytime phase using natural and forms which were prepared beforehand. Food consumption per animal and day, in grams artificial light, what is their position, Dependent upon the number of positions and, how many are active? in the nest area, floor area, or dropping /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4{4) 1983 333 332 /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4{4) 1983 D. W. Fo/sch, eta/.- Aviary Housing for Commercial Laying Flocks Original Article D. W. Folsch, eta/.- Aviary Housing for Commercial Laying Flocks Original Article

can compete with the results of deep lit Work situation on how much work the caretaker is will *Folsch, D.W., Niederer, Chr., Burckhardt, ter systems and cages. Those results are • Animals kept in aviary housing ing to do himself. Ch. and Zimmermann, R.: Untersu published by the Swiss Central Poultry are easy to survey. The input of work per animal and chungen von Legehennenhybriden un Breeding School at Zollikofen, Berne. • The keeper can walk through it egg depends on the extent of mechani terschiedlicher Aufzucht in verschie After the first cycle of 14 months, a and catch sick animals without difficul zation. This input is lower than in the denen Haltungssystemen wahrend second cycle with Hisex white was ties. conventional deep litter system, but einer Legeperiode von 14 Monaten: started. The experiment was terminated • It is possible to mechanize daily higher than in conventional houses with Wirtschaftlich relevante Aspekte. (An after 6 months duration as the results duties like feeding, watering, and egg cages. investigation of laying hens raised in closely resembled those from the pre collection. Droppings can also be re The food consumption of the hens different ways and kept in various ceding trial. A third cycle with Hisex moved of mechanically. per egg is slightly higher than in cages. systems during a laying period of 14 brown was started on December 16,1981. months.) Tierhaltung/Animal Manage Economic situation Summary ment, Vol. 1, Birkhauser Pub I. Basel/ Certain conditions were improved According to our experience and to Boston/Stuttgart, 1977. upon in an effort to upgrade the hen newer estimates (1982), one has to Intensively kept hens must have ap Folsch, D.W. and Stahel, P.: Auslaufhal house. reckon about thirty dollars of construc propriate housing facilities. This conclu tung fur Huhner. Eine Anteitung fur For example, after the first cycle, tion costs per bird for a newly built sion is the result of studies which were Haltung und Stallbau. Verlag Wirz AC, windows were installed to allow for aviary house. This price can be reduced by done utilizing different housing systems Aarau/Switzerland, 1979. more daylight. Small curtains were placed 15 to 20% if the caretaker or farmer does and different numbers of animals per Folsch, D.W.: Essential behavioral needs. in front of the nests in order to provide part of the construction himself. All unit of area. In: Moos, R. (ed.): The laying hen and the hens with a dark, quiet area for lay these statements are valid for Switzer In 1979, the construction of aviary its environment. Martinus Nijhoff ing. This addition was also found to help land only. The construction of a hen houses was started. The characteristic Publ., The Hague/Boston/London, 1980. reduce the number of dirty or broken house with cages costs the same amount, components of the aviary housing sys *Folsch, D.W. and Vestergaard, K.: Das eggs. whereas 20% of the implemental funds tem are: deep litter area for scraping, Verhalten von Huhnern. The behavior A heat exchanger should be installed can be used to finance the buildings. nests, perches on different levels with of fowl. Tierhaltung/Animal Manage to improve the climate in the hen house. The installation of an aviary will be access to the feeders and waterers, the ment, Vol. 12, Birkhauser Publ. Basel/ The investigators also wanted to come even cheaper, if a building is al influence of daylight and the outdoor Boston/Stuttgart, 1981. judge the economic situation, the man ready in existence. Furthermore, the climate. Folsch, D.W.: Das Konzept des Volieren ageability of an aviary housing system: price can be lowered by 50% depending The method of observation, report systems fur Huhner- Beispiel einer ing and interpretation was developed. Losung im Praxisbetrieb. In: Folsch All the hens utilized the depth and und Nabholz (ed.): Ethologische Aus length of the hen house, the perches, the sagen zur artgerechten Nutztierhal nests, and the deep I itter areas. The state tung. Tierhaltung/Animal Management, of health and production were consid Vol. 13, Birkhauser Publ. Basel/Bos ered to be good. ton/Stuttgart, 1982. *Huber, A. and Folsch, D.W.: Akustische Acknowledgment Ethogramme von Huhnern. Die Aus We thank Britta Allgower for wirkung verschiedener Haltungssys dropping pit translating the text. teme. (Acoustic ethograms of hens in different housing systems.) Tierhal References tung/Animal Management, Vol. 5, Birk *Brunner, E. and Folsch, D.W.: Die Wirt hauser Pu bl. Basel/ Boston/Stuttgart, schaftlichkeit der bauerlichen Aus 1978. laufhaltung von Huhnern. Eine Unter u chain feeder *- with English summaries. suchung bei 100 Huhnerhaltungen in ~ waternipples der Nordostschweiz. (The economy of ~automatic tunnel- nests free-range poultry. An investigation ::::.~:·>:area with deep litter I passage for control of 100 poultry farms in Northeast Switzerland.) Tierhaltung/Animal Management, Vol. 2, Birkhauser Publ. FIGURE 3 Swiss Aviary System with Layers Basel/Boston/Stuttgart, 1977.

334 /NT j STUD ANIM PROB 4{4) 1983 /NT j STUD ANIM PROB 4{4) 1983 335 D. W. Fo/sch, eta/.- Aviary Housing for Commercial Laying Flocks Original Article D. W. Folsch, eta/.- Aviary Housing for Commercial Laying Flocks Original Article

334 /NT j STUD ANIM PROB 4{4) 1983 /NT j STUD ANIM PROB 4{4) 1983 335 L.O. Barocio- Use of T-61 as an Euthanasic Agent Review Article

Germany by Fikmeier in 1962 (5) and for the manufacturers to be the most practi Review of Literature on Use of killing large animals by Kuepper in 1964 cable method (3). Intramuscular or sub (10). Fikmeier concluded after killing 350 cutaneous injections are contraindicated. T -61 as an Euthanasic Agent dogs and 300 cats that the material was T -61 is exclusively intended for the very suitable for euthanasia. Its use in humane euthanasia of dogs, cats, mink, private practice has spread in some coun horses, laboratory animals (such as rats, Laura Dalia Barocio tries. In Italy, under the trade name mice, guinea pigs and rabbits), and birds "Tanax," this material is being widely used such as pigeons and parakeets (3). to kill unwanted animals in municipal Two-thirds (2/3) of the total dose Veterinarian Barocio is a research fellow of the Institute for the Study of Animal Problems, Washington, DC. Her present address is The Animal Medical Center, 510 East 62nd Street, New York, NY 10021. animal pounds (21). In the United States, should be administered without inter its clinical use in small animals was first ruption at the moderate rate of 1 ml reported by Quin in 1963 (16). each 5 seconds. The remaining one-third Introduction (1/3) may be administered rapidly. The Euthanasia means, according to its instantaneously and death within minutes; The Agent correct injection technique is essential Greek root, an "easy death" (17) and is, 3. It should not cause undue anxi to effect euthanasia without excitation T -61 is an injectable non barbiturate by definition the act of inducing death ety, alarm, fear, panic, behavior, strug or pain because, when given too rapidly, solution that consists of a mixture of without pain (19). To a Doctor of Veteri gling, vocalization, muscle spasms or transient anxiety and struggling may oc three agents (3). Each milliliter contains: nary Medicine, trained in the healing art, clinical signs of automatic activation cur before unconsciousness (3). the idea of euthanizing is not pleasant. (e.g., convulsions) before unconsciousness; 1. 200 mg of N-[2-(m-methoxy The manufacturers (3) recommend However, millions of unwanted dogs and 4. It should always cause death when phenyl) 2-ethyl-butyl-(1 )]-gamma-hy that one should never overdose an ani cats are brought to the public and pri properly used; droxybutyramide, having a strong narcotic mal with T -61, as this may lead to over vate animal shelters annually, and the 5. It should be safe for the properly effect on the central nervous system, excitement and/or convulsions. most humane disposition of these animals trained person to use; where it also paralyzes the brain center is to give them a "good death." 6. It should be easy for the properly controlling respiration; Effect on the Body This entails an enormous ethical re trained person to use; 2. 50 mg of 4.4-methylene-bis (cy Euthanasia results from central ner sponsibility and the moral injunction 7. It should not be a drug subject clohexyl-trimethyl-ammonium iodide), vous system depression, hypoxia and cir that the method of killing be humane to abuse in human beings; which exerts a paralytic action on culatory collapse. The AVMA Panel on (causing the least possible distress, B. It should be aesthetically unob striated muscle and rapidly induces cir Euthanasia (19) describes the drug as act physically and psychologically). There jectionable. (This criterion depends on culatory collapse (curariform-like action)*; ing via a direct depression of the cerebral fore, there is an obligation, as a final who the observers are); 3. 5 mg of tetracaine hydrochloride, cortex, subcortical structures, vital centers ethical responsibility and demonstration 9. It should be practical to use for which is a local anesthetic added to and heart muscle. The ultimate cause of of respect for the life that is to be ter the particular type of animal to be killed; reduce painful tissue reactions at the death is hypoxia and respiration ceases minated, to utilize the best available 10. It should not create a problem site of injection; with 0.6 ml of dimethyl due to depression of vital centers and method of euthanasia: to induce a gentle of sanitation or environmental contami formam ide in distilled water. muscle paralysis. and painless death without causing fear, nation; The manufacturers (3) recommend A comparative study of T -61 and stress, anxiety or suffering (21 ). 11. It should not cause tissue changes that, in dogs the injection should prefer pentobarbital* indicated that either agent The tools of evaluating the degree which will alter postmortem examina ably be given intravenously. Intrapulmo induced euthanasia smoothly and with of distress in animals being killed in tion or chemical tests; and nary or intracardiac injections may be out undesirable reactions when properly clude electroencephalography (EEG), elec 12. It should be economical. given where the intravenous injection is administered (12, 13). The dogs given trocardiography (ECG), and measurement impractical, as in very small dogs and The objective of this paper is to pentobarbital received a total dose of of blood pressure and respiration. Sound cats, or in a comatose animal with de review the literature on the use ofT -61 * 57.1 mg/kg of body weight continuously clinical and behavioral observations pressed vascular function. With the in as an euthanasic agent and to determine at a rate of 1.2 ml/second. The dogs should also not be abandoned in the trapulmonary route, care should be to what extent it meets the above crite given T -61 received two-thirds of the eva I uation process (21 ). taken not to displace the lung tissue and ria. total dose (0.3 ml/kg of body weight) at a There are many methods which may inject into the pleural cavity. In cats the rate of 0.2 m I/ second with the last one be employed to reach the same end re intrapulmonary route is considered by Early Use of T-61 third given at 1.2 ml/second. su Its, but the ideal method should satis *The curare-like drug is included to control seizures which may be With both pentobarbital and T -61, The use of T-61 solution for killing fy several criteria (20): triggered by the narcotic compound According to one company's the electroencephalogram changed from small animals was first reported in West veterinary representative, it insures that "if the antmal were to re 1. It should be painless; gam consciousness, it would die anyway from respiratory arrest," i.e. suffocation (21) *Sodium Pentobarbtta!. USP 129.6 mg/ml. 2. It should cause unconsciousness *Hoechst-Roussel Pharmaceuticals, Inc. Somerville, NJ. USA. /NT j STUD ANIM PROB 4[4) 1983 337 336 /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4[4) 1983 L.O. Barocio- Use of T-61 as an Euthanasic Agent Review Article

Germany by Fikmeier in 1962 (5) and for the manufacturers to be the most practi Review of Literature on Use of killing large animals by Kuepper in 1964 cable method (3). Intramuscular or sub (10). Fikmeier concluded after killing 350 cutaneous injections are contraindicated. T -61 as an Euthanasic Agent dogs and 300 cats that the material was T -61 is exclusively intended for the very suitable for euthanasia. Its use in humane euthanasia of dogs, cats, mink, private practice has spread in some coun horses, laboratory animals (such as rats, Laura Dalia Barocio tries. In Italy, under the trade name mice, guinea pigs and rabbits), and birds "Tanax," this material is being widely used such as pigeons and parakeets (3). to kill unwanted animals in municipal Two-thirds (2/3) of the total dose Veterinarian Barocio is a research fellow of the Institute for the Study of Animal Problems, Washington, DC. Her present address is The Animal Medical Center, 510 East 62nd Street, New York, NY 10021. animal pounds (21). In the United States, should be administered without inter its clinical use in small animals was first ruption at the moderate rate of 1 ml reported by Quin in 1963 (16). each 5 seconds. The remaining one-third Introduction (1/3) may be administered rapidly. The Euthanasia means, according to its instantaneously and death within minutes; The Agent correct injection technique is essential Greek root, an "easy death" (17) and is, 3. It should not cause undue anxi to effect euthanasia without excitation T -61 is an injectable non barbiturate by definition the act of inducing death ety, alarm, fear, panic, behavior, strug or pain because, when given too rapidly, solution that consists of a mixture of without pain (19). To a Doctor of Veteri gling, vocalization, muscle spasms or transient anxiety and struggling may oc three agents (3). Each milliliter contains: nary Medicine, trained in the healing art, clinical signs of automatic activation cur before unconsciousness (3). the idea of euthanizing is not pleasant. (e.g., convulsions) before unconsciousness; 1. 200 mg of N-[2-(m-methoxy The manufacturers (3) recommend However, millions of unwanted dogs and 4. It should always cause death when phenyl) 2-ethyl-butyl-(1 )]-gamma-hy that one should never overdose an ani cats are brought to the public and pri properly used; droxybutyramide, having a strong narcotic mal with T -61, as this may lead to over vate animal shelters annually, and the 5. It should be safe for the properly effect on the central nervous system, excitement and/or convulsions. most humane disposition of these animals trained person to use; where it also paralyzes the brain center is to give them a "good death." 6. It should be easy for the properly controlling respiration; Effect on the Body This entails an enormous ethical re trained person to use; 2. 50 mg of 4.4-methylene-bis (cy Euthanasia results from central ner sponsibility and the moral injunction 7. It should not be a drug subject clohexyl-trimethyl-ammonium iodide), vous system depression, hypoxia and cir that the method of killing be humane to abuse in human beings; which exerts a paralytic action on culatory collapse. The AVMA Panel on (causing the least possible distress, B. It should be aesthetically unob striated muscle and rapidly induces cir Euthanasia (19) describes the drug as act physically and psychologically). There jectionable. (This criterion depends on culatory collapse (curariform-like action)*; ing via a direct depression of the cerebral fore, there is an obligation, as a final who the observers are); 3. 5 mg of tetracaine hydrochloride, cortex, subcortical structures, vital centers ethical responsibility and demonstration 9. It should be practical to use for which is a local anesthetic added to and heart muscle. The ultimate cause of of respect for the life that is to be ter the particular type of animal to be killed; reduce painful tissue reactions at the death is hypoxia and respiration ceases minated, to utilize the best available 10. It should not create a problem site of injection; with 0.6 ml of dimethyl due to depression of vital centers and method of euthanasia: to induce a gentle of sanitation or environmental contami formam ide in distilled water. muscle paralysis. and painless death without causing fear, nation; The manufacturers (3) recommend A comparative study of T -61 and stress, anxiety or suffering (21 ). 11. It should not cause tissue changes that, in dogs the injection should prefer pentobarbital* indicated that either agent The tools of evaluating the degree which will alter postmortem examina ably be given intravenously. Intrapulmo induced euthanasia smoothly and with of distress in animals being killed in tion or chemical tests; and nary or intracardiac injections may be out undesirable reactions when properly clude electroencephalography (EEG), elec 12. It should be economical. given where the intravenous injection is administered (12, 13). The dogs given trocardiography (ECG), and measurement impractical, as in very small dogs and The objective of this paper is to pentobarbital received a total dose of of blood pressure and respiration. Sound cats, or in a comatose animal with de review the literature on the use ofT -61 * 57.1 mg/kg of body weight continuously clinical and behavioral observations pressed vascular function. With the in as an euthanasic agent and to determine at a rate of 1.2 ml/second. The dogs should also not be abandoned in the trapulmonary route, care should be to what extent it meets the above crite given T -61 received two-thirds of the eva I uation process (21 ). taken not to displace the lung tissue and ria. total dose (0.3 ml/kg of body weight) at a There are many methods which may inject into the pleural cavity. In cats the rate of 0.2 m I/ second with the last one be employed to reach the same end re intrapulmonary route is considered by Early Use of T-61 third given at 1.2 ml/second. su Its, but the ideal method should satis *The curare-like drug is included to control seizures which may be With both pentobarbital and T -61, The use of T-61 solution for killing fy several criteria (20): triggered by the narcotic compound According to one company's the electroencephalogram changed from small animals was first reported in West veterinary representative, it insures that "if the antmal were to re 1. It should be painless; gam consciousness, it would die anyway from respiratory arrest," i.e. suffocation (21) *Sodium Pentobarbtta!. USP 129.6 mg/ml. 2. It should cause unconsciousness *Hoechst-Roussel Pharmaceuticals, Inc. Somerville, NJ. USA. /NT j STUD ANIM PROB 4[4) 1983 337 336 /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4[4) 1983 L.D. Barocio- Use ofT-61 as an Euthanasic Agent Review Article L.D. Barocio- Use of T-61 as an Euthanasic Agent Review Article

a normal awake pattern to one of low is very effective and painless ("about unconsciousness occurs in 2 to 4 sec how distressing this may be to animals frequency and increased amplitude for 100%"). However, McMurry (15) objects onds and brain death in 10 to 20 seconds, (8, 15). approximately 5 seconds followed quickly to the use of T -61 as an agent for eutha whereas heart and motor functions cease In contrast, the use of intravenous by electrical silence. The pentobarbi nizing animals because of apparent se in 20 to 30 seconds." However, no spe sodium pentobarbital has been shown to tal-treated dogs required 12 seconds vere pain upon injection. He states that cialized apparatus to measure time of cause unconsciousness within the first longer for the occurrence of electrical tetracaine does not eliminate pain. unconsciousness, brain death and heart seconds of injection, without any signs silence. With both agents, alterations in When given intravenously as per instruc and motor functions was used. of distress or pain, or convulsions and electrocardiogram developed immediately tions, there was obvious pain in 25 to The Executive Director of the Ani howling (19). and arterial pressure dropped to zero. 35% of the dogs euthanized (approxi mal Shelter in Alexandria, Virginia (4), There are also doubts about using However, three pentobarbital-treated mately 500) using T -61. He found that objects to the use ofT -61 for euthanasia T -61 by intracardiac or intrapulmonary dogs resumed an effective cardiac out many of the dogs whine and/or howl. He under any circumstances because of the routes, as recommended by the manu put and respiration. Analysis of the res also declares that if any of the material pain factor which, as reported by McMurry facturers (3), because of possible adverse piratory response from the start of injec is injected perivascular, which can occur (15), affected one-quarter of the dogs reactions. For example, in the intra tion until initial arrest indicated no sig when encountering a highly excited ani that he euthanized with T -61 (according pulmonary route fluids in the lungs may nificant difference between the two mal, especially when injected by inexper to the procedure recommended by the cause significant distress and coughing agents. Results of this study indicated ienced personnel, the evidence of pain is manufacturers). .. prior to unconsciousness, and the intra that painless death is produced by pen very obvious. cardiac route is painful since the peri tobarbital or T -61 (12, 13, 19). Fox (7, 8), has likewise declared that 3. It should not cause undue anxiety, cardium can be very sensitive to the Dehner, cited by Quin (16), has even with the addition of the local anes alarm, fear, panic, behavior, struggling, needle (7). stated: "For dogs, intravenous applica thetic ingredient, pain reactions can be vocalization, muscle spasms or clinical With respect to the intraperitoneal tion of T -61 is the method of choice. marked in some animals and may cause signs of activation {e.g. convulsions) be route, the manufacturers recommend its The lethal effect frequently occurs even considerable excitation and distress. fore unconsciousness. use in mink but this is contraindicated. during the injection, otherwise, directly Stonehouse (22) says that studies Uptake by this route is extremely slow 2. It should cause unconsciousness in after this procedure. The animal col have shown that T -61 given intravenous and seizures may occur. In one study stantaneously and death within minutes. lapses, muscular tonus dies away, and ly, does not produce any initial curariform (16), three cats were given T -61 by intra An appropriate technique for eval breathing stops. In the predominant or muscle relaxant action before central peritoneal injection. They suffered spasms, uating unconsciousness is electroence number of cases, the animals die with no nervous system depression occurs. Nev excitement, a reflex bowel movement phalography (E EG). Up to 197 4, there ap reaction of any kind, without resistant ertheless, there are doubts. and dyspnea for 3 to 13 minutes before peared to be no reported work giving movements, outcrying, or shortness of Baker (1) reports that T -61 was with complete collapse. E EG data from test cases of T -61 eutha breath. In rare instances where resistant drawn in England because animals eu Fogle (6) has noted in a letter that nasia. However, Rowsell investigated the movements occur, they persist only a thanized with this product exhibited dis some veterinarians have stopped the use use of T -61 for euthanasia in a rat and few seconds. Ordinarily cardiac activity tress, pain and convu Is ions prior to death. of T -61 because they felt it was not as determined that the EEG became iso continues for a few seconds after breath Baker noted that the "induction stage, humane as barbiturate intravenously. electric (flat) within 4 seconds (21 ). ing has stopped but rarely for as much as anesthetic stage and respiratory paraly He declared that its main attraction was In 1978, Lumb (12) conducted EEG a minute." sis do not occur in that order and ani that it eliminated the "last gasp" that measurements in 21 dogs which indicated mals tend to get respiratory paralysis occurs with some dogs when they are that T -61 rapidly (within 5 seconds) in Comparison of T-61 With prior to complete anesthesia." euthanized with a barbiturate. This is duced an isoelectric state indicating un Pentobarbital According to Criteria McMurry (15) also objects to the hardly a suitable justification for an eu consciousness. These two studies, on for the Ideal Method use of T -61 as an euthanizing agent be thanasic agent. one rat and 21 dogs, do not constitute suf cause respiration does not always cease In the study by Lumb (12), compar As stated earlier, the ideal method ficient proof that T -61 is effective in pro immediately and the heart continues to ing T -61 and sodium pentobarbital for for euthanizing animals should satisfy ducing instantaneous unconsciousness beat for several minutes following the euthanasia, he notes that: "In most the following criteria: in dogs, cats, horses, mink, laboratory recommended lethal dose. respects the effects of the two agents animals and birds (as the manufacturers 1. It should be painless. There are also doubts about wheth were similar; however, 3 of 12 dogs claim). The manufacturers have added te er the paralyzing effects of the cur given pentobarbital resumed respiration tracaine hydrochloride, a local anesthetic, There is much conflicting anecdotal are-like compound in T -61 occur before and cardiac function. None of the 9 dogs to T-61 solution to reduce painful tissue evidence on the efficacy ofT -61. Wills unconsciousness sets in. Like many curari given T -61 evidenced signs of recovery." reactions at the site of injection. Wills (23) reported that intravenous injections form drugs, it may cause transient mus He then argues that (13): "On a com (23) has found that injecting T -61 in of T -61 into the rear-leg of small cats cular tremors (depolarization) prior to parative basis T -61 is superior to double travenously in the rear-leg of small cats is ... "very effective because complete unconsciousness (21 ), but it is not known strength pentobarbital, in that the latter

338 /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 339 L.D. Barocio- Use ofT-61 as an Euthanasic Agent Review Article L.D. Barocio- Use of T-61 as an Euthanasic Agent Review Article

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may not produce lasting cardiac and res edge." But intravenous injections are dium pentobarbital can also produce dis which will alter postmortem examination piratory arrest." not easy, even for properly trained per tressing body spasms (the so-called "last or chemical tests. However, Reilly (18) states that Lumb sons. In addition, cats are hard to handle, gasp"). When T -61 is given at larger than used a dose of pentobarbital sodium which will make it more difficult to find recommended doses, pulmonary edema 9. It should be practical to use for the which was close to the minimum lethal and other tissue lesions may be produced a vein in the rear-leg. An advantage of particular type of animal to be killed. dosage, which is no reason, to imply as sodium pentobartibal overT -61 for cats (19). A certain proportion of the animals Lumb did, that T -61 is superior to sodium is that it can be given intraperitoneally; that are turned into shelters are in very 12. It should be economical. pentobarbital. Furthermore, the pentobar T -61 cannot. Also, cerebral excitation poor condition. They may be injured, In comparison with sodium pento bital solution was far weaker (130 mg/ml). may occur if this drug is not injected ac moribund or diseased. Under these cir bartital, T -61 is a relatively expensive Reilly argues that this is the reason why cording to the manufacturer's instruc cumstances T -61 cannot be used be agent according to the information in some of the dogs resumed cardiac func tions (3) ("give the first two-thirds at a cause the absorption and uptake of the Table I. tion and respiration. smooth rate of 1 m I per 5 seconds and compound may be delayed. Death is then the rest rapidly"). Therefore, this 4. It should always cause death when protracted with distressing convulsions Conclusion compound will not be easy to adminis properly used. and premature respiratory paralysis be The available evidence indicates ter and even experienced personnel can There are numerous agents that can fore narcotic unconsciousness can oc that there are many questions about be expected to make mistakes, especial cause death, but in the case ofT -61, "it cur (7, 21 ). Therefore, T -61 is not an ap T -61 as a satisfactory euthanasic agent. ly with nervous, struggling animals. is a lethal drug that causes death but not propriate agent for euthanasia of these The only controlled study of animal E EG's As stated before, no euthanizing necessarily euthanasia" (15). cases. after T -61 administration indicated that drug should ever be given intrathoraci this compound could produce rapid un cally because of its inhumaneness, but 10. It should not create a problem of 5. It should be safe for the properly consciousness. However, the drug was in such cases where it is required to give sanitation or environmental contamination. trained person to use. administered via an indwelling catheter, T -61 via the intracardiac route, it is T -61 and sodium pentobartital do The drug is marketed as a vial hardly the type of condition to be found necessary that the administrator must be not have these kinds of problems; how which reduces any possibility of human in a shelter euthanizing 10 to 20 thousand experienced and 100% confident of en ever, these two agents should not be in ingestion. However, if T -61 is inadver animals a year. Furthermore, the investi tering the heart every time (21 ). jected into food animals designated for tently taken orally by humans it will be gator compared the T -61 results with Injection of sodium pentobarbital human or animal consumption. absorbed very slowly and the onset ef the results of a weak and marginally is easier than T -61 because it can be ad fect will be delayed. Therefore, there 11. It should not cause tissue changes lethal dose of sodium pentobarbital. should be enough time after inadvertent ministered by several routes and the in swallowing to remove the drug from the jection rate is not a critical factor. TABLE 1 Comparative Cost$ ofT-61 and Sodit~m Pentobarbital stomach, thereby preventing serious poi 7. It should not be a drug subject to soning (9). abuse in human beings. Unit Price Approx. Price If small amounts of T -61 inadver T -61 is not classified as a restricted Product Class* (1 bottle) Unit Price** (per 250 ml) tently get into a wound or under the skin drug by the Bureau of Veterinary Medi of a person injecting it to a struggling cine of the Food and Drug Administra T -61 Not schedule 50 ml $13.60 $68.00 animal, there is no danger of toxicity (9). tion of the U.S. (11 ). However, its use is $55.00 $55.00 However, Fogle (6) reported that in Eng 250 ml only permitted under veterinary supervi a Fatal-Plus C-11 250 ml $14.00 $14.00 land, in the early 70's, there was a flurry sion. By constrast, sodium pentobarbital of correspondence to the Veterinary Rec is a schedule II drug and its use is close Euthanasia-6 b C-11 100 ml $ 7.40 $18.50 250 ml $14.40 $14.40 ord concerning possible dangers to the ly regulated (11). operator in the use of the drug because Beuthanasia-Dc C-111 100 ml $22.50 $56.25 of its curare-like effect. However, the 8. It should be aesthetically unobjec indications are that it is as safe, or safer, tionable. {This criterion depends on who a. Vortech Pharmaceuticals Limited, Dearborn, MI. Each milliliter contains: 390 mg of sodium pentobarbi than many other euthanasic agents. the observers are.) tal (powder reconstituted with ordinary water) When circumstances require the b. Veterinary Laboratories, Inc., Lenexa, KS. Each milliliter contains: 390 mg of sodium pentobarbital in an aqueous alcohol-propylene glycol base. 6. It should be easy for the properly pet's owner to be present during the pro c. Burns-Biotec Laboratories, Inc., Omaha, NE. Each milliliter contains: 390 mg of sodium pentobarbital, trained person to use. cedure, one must assure a smooth, rapid 50 mg of phenytoin sodium, 10% of ethyl alcohol, 18% of propylene glycol, 0.003688 mg of rhodamine B Wills (23) declared in a letter that and obviously painless, euthanasia. Ac (coloring) and 2% of benzil alcohol (preservative). injecting T -61 intravenously in the rear cording to reports, T -61 administration *Classification of a restricted drug by the Bureau of Veterinary Medicine of the Food and Drug Administra leg of small cats "is easy to learn, requir can be accompanied by agitation, anxi tion of the U.S. (11) **These prices were obtained from the manufacturers. ing only small degree of medical know!- ety and spasmodic body movements. So-

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The study was, thus, hardly a fair test. 10. Kuepper, G.: T -61 used in large ani Legislation & Regulation Anecdotal evidence indicates that, mals. Die Blauen Hefte Tieraerztl, 8: in practice, T -61 euthanasia can be as 32-33, 1964. sociated with many problems. In addi 11. Larkins, M.: Telephone communication. tion, it has to be injected intravenously Food and Drug Administration of the Legislative Recognition of Animal practices could get a close look from a in a carefully controlled manner to United States, 21 October, 1982. Rights Congressional Commission. achieve optimal results. It is totally 12. Lumb, W.V., Doshi, K. and Scott, R.J.: On May 26, 1983, Rep. Howard intro unrealistic to expect that routine eu A Comparative Study of T -61 and There have been several inquiries duced his improved version of the Mottl thanasia in a busy shelter will be able to Pentobartital for Euthanasia of Dogs. about legislation in California which bill from last Congress. The new bill was keep to such a precise protocol which JAm Vet Med Assoc, 172:149-152, recognizes that animals have rights. The immediately referred to two House com has only a small margin for error. 1978. state of California's resolution on this mittees- a major strategic improve At present, T -61 cannot be recom 13. Lumb, W.V., Doshi, K. and Scott, R.J .: matter is here reprinted in its entirety. ment over the fate of the Mottl bill, mended for routine practice when the Canine Euthanasia- A Comparison Senate Concurrent Resolution No. 8 which was referred to only one, the hos more reliable, and apparently cheaper, ofT-61 and Pentobarbital. The Blue tile House Agriculture Committee. The alternative of sodium pentobarbital can Book Vet Prof, 29:379-382, 1979. Resolution Chapter 99 Howard bill has again been referred to be used. At best, T -61 should be used 14. Mac Neal, J.: Telephone communi Senate Concurrent Resolution No. 8- the Agricultural Committee, except this only as an emergency backup when the cation. Vortech Pharmaceuticals Lim Relative to animal rights. time the bill has also been given joint re supplies of barbiturates have run out, ited, Dearborn, MI. 29 October, 1982. [Filed with Secretary of State ferral to the Health Subcommittee on and its use restricted to healthy animals 15. McMurry, T.S., D.V.M.- Letter. Texas, September 18, 1979.] the House Energy and Commerce Com that can easily be injected intravenously 13 November, 1976. LEGISLATIVE COUNSEL'S DIGEST mittee. Joint referral means that either by an experienced person (7). 16. Quin, A.H.: Observations on a New SCR 8, Roberti. Animal rights. Committee could initiate hearings with Euthanasia Agent for Small Animals. This measure states that the Legisla out having to wait for the other's timetable. Veterinary Medicine, 58:494-495, 1963. ture should take effective measures to References For the first time in the history of 17. Random House Dictionary of the Eng protect and defend the rights of animals the U.S. Congress, there could be a Com 1. Baker, D.J ., B Vet Med M RCVS- Let lish Language. The Unabridged Edi by enacting humane and environmental mission to look at intensive methods of ter. England, 7 August, 1980. tion. Ramdom House, NY, 1979. ly sound legislation . livestock and poultry husbandry. 2. Carding, T.: Euthanasia of Dogs and 18. P.eilly, L. L.- Letter. Euthanasia of Whereas, The State of California Although Rep. Howard admits to be Cats: An Analysis of Experience and Dogs. J Am Vet Med Assoc, 172:984, has in the past led the country in passing ing more interested in "the consumer Current Knowledge with Recommen 1978. legislation which recognizes the princi end than the farmer end," H.R. 3170 dations for Research. Animal Regula 19. Report of the American Veterinary ple of animal rights; and would establish a commission to study tion Studies, 1:5-21, 1977. Medical Association Panel on Eutha Whereas, From childhood man should "intensive farm animal husbandry." How 3. Commercial Pamphlet: T -61. nasia. pp. 68-69, July, 1978. be taught to observe, understand, and ard claims the suffering of the animals is 4. Cooke, E.- Letter. Executive Direc 20. Schwink, K. and Egger, F.L.: Methods respect animal life which is linked tore shocking and that the effects of eating tor of Alexandria Animal Shelter. of Euthanasia. Iowa State University spect for mankind; and food produced through intensive confine 5. Fikmeier, H.: Experiences with a new of Veterinary, 42(2):78-81, 1980. Whereas, To advance our civilization mentis alarming. According to the most preparation for painless destruction 21. Special Report. Euthanasia of Dogs we must become aware of the rights of recent research, human beings are ex of small animals (T -61). Die Blauen and Cats: An Analysis of Experience all animals; now, therefore, be it posed to health risks from antibiotics, as Hefte Tieraerztl, 5:22-23, 1962. and Current Knowledge with Recom Resolved by the Senate of the State well as growth hormones such as DES 6. Fogle, B.- Letter. England, 26 June, mendations for Research. The Insti of California, the Assembly thereof con and appetite stimulants such as arsenic, 1980. tute for the Study of Animal Prob curring, That the Legislature of the State which are given to farm animals to boost 7. Fox, M.W.: Euthanasia with T -61. A lems. pp. 18-19, August, 1978. of California should take effective mea profits and productivity. Warning. The Institute for the Study 22. Stonehouse, R.W.: The Euthanasia sures to protect and defend the rights of The Howard Commission would set of Animal Problems. The Humane So of Dogs and Cats: A Statement by animals by enacting humane and environ in motion a well-balanced, hard look at ciety of the United States. the Humane Practices Committee of mentally sound legislation. modern intensive farming practices which 8. Fox, M.W.: Euthanasia with T -61. An the Canadian Veterinary Medical As is long overdue. Along with the consumer Update. The Institute for the Study sociation. Canadian Veterinary jour health issue, environmental issues would of Animal Problems. The Humane So nal, 19(6):164-168, 1978. be examined, as well as the economic im ciety of the United States. 23. Wills, O.K.- Letter. Executive Direc H.R. 3170: A Bill for Farm Animals pacts of intensive vs. alternative husbandry 9. Freedom of Information Summary. 3 tor of Nashua Humane Society. New Thanks to a bill introduced by Rep. practices for the farmer, producer, and August, 1976. Hampshire, 15 February, 1979. james Howard (0-NJ), intensive farming consumer. 342 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 /NT 1 STUD AN/M PROB 4(4) 1983 343 Howard's bill, H.R. 3170 "The Farm sufficient freedom of sideways move des Droits de I' Animal,' expressed satis mark, all circus performances with ani Animal Practices Act," has already at ment to be able to groom themselves with faction with the Law which is, however, mals are forbidden. In England, the Per tracted 20 cosponsors: Peter Rodino out difficulty and sufficient room to lie still awaiting implementing Regulations forming Animals (Regulation) Act of (NJ), Walter E. Fauntroy (DC), Michael D. down and freely stretch their limbs and which are to be prepared by a Commis 1925 deals mainly with the licensing of Barnes (MD), Barney Frank (MA), Richard to rise." Consideration should be given sion set up on 28 March 1983 by the Min trainers who are not required to specify L. Ottinger (NY), Thomas M. Foglietta (PA), to the adoption of appropriate loose ister of Agriculture. In this Commission, how or with what apparatus their animals Ted Weiss (NY), Ronald V. Dellums (CA), housing systems and is therefore recom Mr. Frising represents the interests of are trained. It further safeguards cir James Weaver (OR), Dennis Hertel (MI), mended. animal welfare. cuses from spot checks by local authori Robert Roe (NJ), Norman Y. Mineta (CA), Apparently, the government is tak "The humane movement of Luxem ties and police. This would automatical Louis Stokes (OH), Frank Annunzio (IL), ing a strong position that these and 119 bourg took some exception to Chapter 7 ly include animal welfare organizations. George W. Crockett (MI), Tom Lantos (CA), other recommendations contained in the of the Law entitled 'Animal Experiments' (Information from the Captive Animal William J. Hughes (NJ), Bob Edgar (PA), two new codes are not to be seen simply but a statement issued by the Chamber Protection Society, 17 Raphael Road, Mike Lowry (WA), and Bernard Dwyer (NJ). as advisory. Mrs. Peggy Fenner, Parlia of Deputees was considered reassuring. Hove, East Sussex, BN3 5QP). Yet the mentary Secretary for Agriculture, in The statement reads as follows: 'The lim number of local authorities in England making these recommendations public ited enumeration of the purposes which which ban circuses from their land has British Government Issues: Revised in London stated that they had behind would justify animal experiments is equiv risen to 52, including 11 London Boroughs. Welfare Codes for Pigs and Cattle them the authority of government and alent to a principal prohibition of animal In France, the International League for Parliament observing that "whilst a fail experiments often designated by the im Animal Rights (ILAR, 21 rue Jacob, 75006 On May 3, 1983, the Ministry of ure to comply with them is not itself il proper term vivisection.' Mr. Frising himself Paris) maintains that Decrets 77-1296/7 Agriculture published two new codes of legal, such a failure can be taken into ac and his organization hold the view that of 25 November 1977 for the establish welfare for pigs and cattle. These included count by the courts if a livestock keeper is there are three kinds of animal experi ments under discussion are not complied recommendations that alternative sys charged with causing unnecessary pain ments: (1) those that even today cannot with. None of the local authorities (Pre tems to the use of stalls for keeping gilts or unnecessary distress to farm livestock. be replaced and are absolutely neces fectures) have taken steps against these and sows should be adopted and that cat Moreover, the Farm Animal Welfare Coun sary to protect the life of man and also enterprises for non-observance of the tle should at all times have sufficient cil (FAWC) is now considering whether that of animals. Only few of these exper rules established which in some cases room to lie down. These codes which the time is ripe for any of the provisions iments are left; (2) Experiments that can would have led to closure." were revised by the Farm Animal Wel of these codes to be translated into bind be replaced by alternative methods al fare Council, some 12 years after their ing regulations." ready today and therefore can be abso last issue, includes advice on welfare Codes of practice on the care of lutely avoided; and (3) tests that serve aspects related to farm buildings and 11 RSPCA Wins Test Case" farm animals and horses during their primarily lucrative and commercial pur housing, ventilation, temperature, and transport on roll-on-roll-off ferries and poses, e.g., in the cosmetics industry. These lighting, fire and other emergency pre The RSPCA in England has won its codes of practice for the transport by air tests should be prohibited without excep cautions, feed and water requirements, case against a Surrey egg producer of cattle, sheep, pigs, goats, and horses, tion." Copies of the Law in French can be and general husbandry practices for cat which may have wide repercussions within have been published also by the Minis obtained by writing to the WSPA Office, tle and pigs, with additional recommen the poultry industry. The defendant was try of Agriculture Fisheries and Food, Dreikonigstrasse 37, CH-8002, Zurich, dations for raising pigs outdoors and in prosecuted under the Welfare of Live and copies of these can be obtained Switzerland. doors. stock (intensive units) Regulations, 1978, from the Ministry of Agriculture Fisher The question of keeping pigs in stalls for failing to ensure that 20,000 birds in ies and Food, Government Building, Hook is raised in this latter section in the his intensive unit were adequately in Rise South, Tolworth Surbiton, Surry, codes. It is stated that the keeping of Laws to Protect Circus and Performing spected during a 24-hour period. The KT6 7NF, England. sows and gilts in stalls with or without Animals RSPCA produced evidence showing that tethers raises serious welfare problems no more than nine minutes were spent (see also report by Barnett, eta/., under WSPA also provides some relevant by the stockkeeper in his units of which News and Analysis), and that alternative An Animal Protection Law for information pertaining to the protection part of this time was spent attending to systems, such as straw yards, yard-and Luxembourg of animals in Germany and Switzerland the automatic feeding equipment. The cubicles or kennels, "in which animals' be where the use of methods whereby the RSPCA used two offices equipped with havioral and exercise needs can be more The World Society for the Protec animals are afflicted with pain, suffer telephoto lenses and binoculars to ob fully met," are strongly recommended. tion of Animals (May 19, 1983, No.4) re ing, or injury for training purposes, is tain the evidence. Expert veterinary opin In Section 35 of the codes for cat ports that on March 15, 1983, "the Grand prohibited. They go on to note: "In ion given during the trial stressed that if the intention of the animal welfare regu tle, a similar recommendation that will Duchy of Luxembourg issued a Law with Sweden, where until recently exemp require a change in certain farming prac the stated 'objective of the protection of tions to the ban on performing animals lation governing adequate inspection for the well-being of the livestock was tices, if it is to be adopted, is suggested: the life and well-being of animals.' Mr. used to include sea lions and elephants, these two animals have now been added to be fulfilled, then it was clear from the namely, that all cattle, whether in pens L. Frising, WSPA Advisory Director and to the I ist of forbidden animals. In Den- evidence obtained by the RSPCA inspec- or tethered, should at all times "have President of the 'Ligue Luxembourgeoise / NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 345 344 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 Howard's bill, H.R. 3170 "The Farm sufficient freedom of sideways move des Droits de I' Animal,' expressed satis mark, all circus performances with ani Animal Practices Act," has already at ment to be able to groom themselves with faction with the Law which is, however, mals are forbidden. In England, the Per tracted 20 cosponsors: Peter Rodino out difficulty and sufficient room to lie still awaiting implementing Regulations forming Animals (Regulation) Act of (NJ), Walter E. Fauntroy (DC), Michael D. down and freely stretch their limbs and which are to be prepared by a Commis 1925 deals mainly with the licensing of Barnes (MD), Barney Frank (MA), Richard to rise." Consideration should be given sion set up on 28 March 1983 by the Min trainers who are not required to specify L. Ottinger (NY), Thomas M. Foglietta (PA), to the adoption of appropriate loose ister of Agriculture. In this Commission, how or with what apparatus their animals Ted Weiss (NY), Ronald V. Dellums (CA), housing systems and is therefore recom Mr. Frising represents the interests of are trained. It further safeguards cir James Weaver (OR), Dennis Hertel (MI), mended. animal welfare. cuses from spot checks by local authori Robert Roe (NJ), Norman Y. Mineta (CA), Apparently, the government is tak "The humane movement of Luxem ties and police. This would automatical Louis Stokes (OH), Frank Annunzio (IL), ing a strong position that these and 119 bourg took some exception to Chapter 7 ly include animal welfare organizations. George W. Crockett (MI), Tom Lantos (CA), other recommendations contained in the of the Law entitled 'Animal Experiments' (Information from the Captive Animal William J. Hughes (NJ), Bob Edgar (PA), two new codes are not to be seen simply but a statement issued by the Chamber Protection Society, 17 Raphael Road, Mike Lowry (WA), and Bernard Dwyer (NJ). as advisory. Mrs. Peggy Fenner, Parlia of Deputees was considered reassuring. Hove, East Sussex, BN3 5QP). Yet the mentary Secretary for Agriculture, in The statement reads as follows: 'The lim number of local authorities in England making these recommendations public ited enumeration of the purposes which which ban circuses from their land has British Government Issues: Revised in London stated that they had behind would justify animal experiments is equiv risen to 52, including 11 London Boroughs. Welfare Codes for Pigs and Cattle them the authority of government and alent to a principal prohibition of animal In France, the International League for Parliament observing that "whilst a fail experiments often designated by the im Animal Rights (ILAR, 21 rue Jacob, 75006 On May 3, 1983, the Ministry of ure to comply with them is not itself il proper term vivisection.' Mr. Frising himself Paris) maintains that Decrets 77-1296/7 Agriculture published two new codes of legal, such a failure can be taken into ac and his organization hold the view that of 25 November 1977 for the establish welfare for pigs and cattle. These included count by the courts if a livestock keeper is there are three kinds of animal experi ments under discussion are not complied recommendations that alternative sys charged with causing unnecessary pain ments: (1) those that even today cannot with. None of the local authorities (Pre tems to the use of stalls for keeping gilts or unnecessary distress to farm livestock. be replaced and are absolutely neces fectures) have taken steps against these and sows should be adopted and that cat Moreover, the Farm Animal Welfare Coun sary to protect the life of man and also enterprises for non-observance of the tle should at all times have sufficient cil (FAWC) is now considering whether that of animals. Only few of these exper rules established which in some cases room to lie down. These codes which the time is ripe for any of the provisions iments are left; (2) Experiments that can would have led to closure." were revised by the Farm Animal Wel of these codes to be translated into bind be replaced by alternative methods al fare Council, some 12 years after their ing regulations." ready today and therefore can be abso last issue, includes advice on welfare Codes of practice on the care of lutely avoided; and (3) tests that serve aspects related to farm buildings and 11 RSPCA Wins Test Case" farm animals and horses during their primarily lucrative and commercial pur housing, ventilation, temperature, and transport on roll-on-roll-off ferries and poses, e.g., in the cosmetics industry. These lighting, fire and other emergency pre The RSPCA in England has won its codes of practice for the transport by air tests should be prohibited without excep cautions, feed and water requirements, case against a Surrey egg producer of cattle, sheep, pigs, goats, and horses, tion." Copies of the Law in French can be and general husbandry practices for cat which may have wide repercussions within have been published also by the Minis obtained by writing to the WSPA Office, tle and pigs, with additional recommen the poultry industry. The defendant was try of Agriculture Fisheries and Food, Dreikonigstrasse 37, CH-8002, Zurich, dations for raising pigs outdoors and in prosecuted under the Welfare of Live and copies of these can be obtained Switzerland. doors. stock (intensive units) Regulations, 1978, from the Ministry of Agriculture Fisher The question of keeping pigs in stalls for failing to ensure that 20,000 birds in ies and Food, Government Building, Hook is raised in this latter section in the his intensive unit were adequately in Rise South, Tolworth Surbiton, Surry, codes. It is stated that the keeping of Laws to Protect Circus and Performing spected during a 24-hour period. The KT6 7NF, England. sows and gilts in stalls with or without Animals RSPCA produced evidence showing that tethers raises serious welfare problems no more than nine minutes were spent (see also report by Barnett, eta/., under WSPA also provides some relevant by the stockkeeper in his units of which News and Analysis), and that alternative An Animal Protection Law for information pertaining to the protection part of this time was spent attending to systems, such as straw yards, yard-and Luxembourg of animals in Germany and Switzerland the automatic feeding equipment. The cubicles or kennels, "in which animals' be where the use of methods whereby the RSPCA used two offices equipped with havioral and exercise needs can be more The World Society for the Protec animals are afflicted with pain, suffer telephoto lenses and binoculars to ob fully met," are strongly recommended. tion of Animals (May 19, 1983, No.4) re ing, or injury for training purposes, is tain the evidence. Expert veterinary opin In Section 35 of the codes for cat ports that on March 15, 1983, "the Grand prohibited. They go on to note: "In ion given during the trial stressed that if the intention of the animal welfare regu tle, a similar recommendation that will Duchy of Luxembourg issued a Law with Sweden, where until recently exemp require a change in certain farming prac the stated 'objective of the protection of tions to the ban on performing animals lation governing adequate inspection for the well-being of the livestock was tices, if it is to be adopted, is suggested: the life and well-being of animals.' Mr. used to include sea lions and elephants, these two animals have now been added to be fulfilled, then it was clear from the namely, that all cattle, whether in pens L. Frising, WSPA Advisory Director and to the I ist of forbidden animals. In Den- evidence obtained by the RSPCA inspec- or tethered, should at all times "have President of the 'Ligue Luxembourgeoise / NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 345 344 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 tors that the birds were not being in cursory walk-through of the units was time, decrease fear and agonistic behav contacts with animals. It identified three spected on an individual basis. The de sufficient to comply with the regulation. ior, decrease pain of dominant hen on stages of development in children's rela fendant argued that it was impossible to This was rejected by the court. subordinate, decrease mortality, increase tionships to animals. Six to nine years of carry out such an inspection and that a eggs laid and decrease cortisol levels. age involved changes in affective, emo W.B. Gross characterized the chick tional relationships; ten to thirteen showed en's response to stressors in its environ an increase in awareness and cognitive ment as an allocation of resources based understanding; thirteen to sixteen was on genetic potential and life long en marked by the development of an ethical vironmental experiences. Stress indica concern and abstract conceptual under tors include ratio of heterophils to lym standing of animals.- Scott Sanderson phocytes (H/L), vocalizations, and feed Current efficiency. A high level of social stress resulted in increased H/L ratios and feed Events consumption; increased resistance to mites, and bacterial infection; decreased resistance to Mareks tumors and viral in fection; decreased weight gain and feed efficiency. Highest feed conversion and Book News the natural history, evolution, and be MEETING REPORT efficiency levels were obtained with 4-8 havior of individual species. He stressed birds/cage. An important component of the need to: 1) design livestock systems the bird's response is human exposure. to fit the animal; 2) use knowledge of Socialized birds (hand-held, spoken to) Conference on the Human-Animal behavior and indicators of distress to BOOK REVIEWS showed increased feed efficiency, growth Bond: CENSHARE identify areas of concern; 3) precond i rate, uniformity of responses to all tests, t ion stock to housing and husbandry; 4) resistance to stressors, antibody response SCIENTIFIC PERSPECTIVES ON ANIMAL A two-day conference on the Hu select strains/breeds to match farm con to antigen and increased resistance to a WELFARE, edited by W. jean Dodds and man-Animal bond convened in Minneapo ditions; and 5) prevent disease and ac wide variety of infectious agents. F. Barbara Orlans (1982). Academic Press, lis june 13-14, 1983, sponsored by the cidents. The companion animals and people New York $14.50. Center to Study Human-Animal Relation Stan Curtis reviewed current research sessions were organized according to: This is a collection of papers by var ships and Environments (CENSHARE), the in swine behavior and commented that Perspectives on animal awareness and ious persons involved in laboratory ani College of Veterinary Medicine and the swine ethology is not being applied as interspecies communication; Develop mal care and research, which was pre School of Public Health, University of fast as he anticipated because of a gap ing curriculums of Human/Animal rela sented at the First Conference on Scien Minnesota. The conference was coordi between behavioral scientists and farmers. tionships for children K-12; Research tific Perspectives in Animal Welfare spon nated with help from the Latham Founda To bridge that gap, overtures must be reports on interactions of people and sored by The Scientists Center for Animal tion of California and the Delta Society made to farm management specialists in companion animals; Horseback riding Welfare. The book is divided into five in conjunction with a similar program order to package new systems attrac for the handicapped; Research reports sections with an introductory overview being held at the University of California, tively. This may involve minor changes on pet-facilitated therapy -long-term on the history of the use of animals in june 17-18, 1983. in existing systems as well as major new care; Research reports on behavior and medical research by Dr. Franklin M. The conference format emphasized ones. Reproductive management was one temperament; Workshop- how to im Loew and a paper by Dr. Thomas E. Ma current scientific research in two areas: area mentioned where major changes prove behavior of pets and the quality of lone, Acting Director, National Institutes companion animals and people; and man are needed; the use of boars discriminat companionship. The premier showing of of Health, entitled "Towards Refine agement, behavior, and well-being of ing anestrus and estrus sows haven't Intimate Companions, an Adelphi Pro ment, Replacement, and Reduction in farm animals. Posters and educational been incorporated into mating schemes ductions film, was featured. The film re the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals." exhibits were displayed as well as film and designs. creates Dr. Aaron H. Katcher's blood The book is divided into five sections, and video tape productions. Over sixty Increasing the welfare of laying pressure experiments in which he com dealing respectively with: investigator reports were presented representing the hens involves changes in the physical en pared people interacting with people, responsibilities in animal experimenta truly multidisciplinary approach needed vironment (pen design), social environ and people interacting with their pets. tion; institutional responsibilities in ani to study the human-animal bond. ment (group size, debeaking) and genetic mal experimentation; funding agency re Ronald Kilgour criticized the antag selection for hysterical resistant stock, S. R. Kellert presented the resu Its of sponsibilities; and journal editor respon onism between animal welfare groups according to j.V. Craig. Beak trimming a study of over 250 children in the 2nd, sibilities in relation to the care and use and farmers because that degree of po with a hot blade is presumed to be tem 5th, 8th, and 11th grades. A battery of of animals, the findings from which are larization puts animals at risk. He sug porarily painful, but when done properly tests were used to examine children's submitted for publication in technical gested that to adequately examine the it can actually enhance the well-being knowledge and attitudes toward animals, journals. welfare of animals, one must first know of laying hens. It may increase nesting species, preferences, and behavioral

346 /NT J STUD AN/M PROB 4(4) 1983 /NT) STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 347 tors that the birds were not being in cursory walk-through of the units was time, decrease fear and agonistic behav contacts with animals. It identified three spected on an individual basis. The de sufficient to comply with the regulation. ior, decrease pain of dominant hen on stages of development in children's rela fendant argued that it was impossible to This was rejected by the court. subordinate, decrease mortality, increase tionships to animals. Six to nine years of carry out such an inspection and that a eggs laid and decrease cortisol levels. age involved changes in affective, emo W.B. Gross characterized the chick tional relationships; ten to thirteen showed en's response to stressors in its environ an increase in awareness and cognitive ment as an allocation of resources based understanding; thirteen to sixteen was on genetic potential and life long en marked by the development of an ethical vironmental experiences. Stress indica concern and abstract conceptual under tors include ratio of heterophils to lym standing of animals.- Scott Sanderson phocytes (H/L), vocalizations, and feed Current efficiency. A high level of social stress resulted in increased H/L ratios and feed Events consumption; increased resistance to mites, and bacterial infection; decreased resistance to Mareks tumors and viral in fection; decreased weight gain and feed efficiency. Highest feed conversion and Book News the natural history, evolution, and be MEETING REPORT efficiency levels were obtained with 4-8 havior of individual species. He stressed birds/cage. An important component of the need to: 1) design livestock systems the bird's response is human exposure. to fit the animal; 2) use knowledge of Socialized birds (hand-held, spoken to) Conference on the Human-Animal behavior and indicators of distress to BOOK REVIEWS showed increased feed efficiency, growth Bond: CENSHARE identify areas of concern; 3) precond i rate, uniformity of responses to all tests, t ion stock to housing and husbandry; 4) resistance to stressors, antibody response SCIENTIFIC PERSPECTIVES ON ANIMAL A two-day conference on the Hu select strains/breeds to match farm con to antigen and increased resistance to a WELFARE, edited by W. jean Dodds and man-Animal bond convened in Minneapo ditions; and 5) prevent disease and ac wide variety of infectious agents. F. Barbara Orlans (1982). Academic Press, lis june 13-14, 1983, sponsored by the cidents. The companion animals and people New York $14.50. Center to Study Human-Animal Relation Stan Curtis reviewed current research sessions were organized according to: This is a collection of papers by var ships and Environments (CENSHARE), the in swine behavior and commented that Perspectives on animal awareness and ious persons involved in laboratory ani College of Veterinary Medicine and the swine ethology is not being applied as interspecies communication; Develop mal care and research, which was pre School of Public Health, University of fast as he anticipated because of a gap ing curriculums of Human/Animal rela sented at the First Conference on Scien Minnesota. The conference was coordi between behavioral scientists and farmers. tionships for children K-12; Research tific Perspectives in Animal Welfare spon nated with help from the Latham Founda To bridge that gap, overtures must be reports on interactions of people and sored by The Scientists Center for Animal tion of California and the Delta Society made to farm management specialists in companion animals; Horseback riding Welfare. The book is divided into five in conjunction with a similar program order to package new systems attrac for the handicapped; Research reports sections with an introductory overview being held at the University of California, tively. This may involve minor changes on pet-facilitated therapy -long-term on the history of the use of animals in june 17-18, 1983. in existing systems as well as major new care; Research reports on behavior and medical research by Dr. Franklin M. The conference format emphasized ones. Reproductive management was one temperament; Workshop- how to im Loew and a paper by Dr. Thomas E. Ma current scientific research in two areas: area mentioned where major changes prove behavior of pets and the quality of lone, Acting Director, National Institutes companion animals and people; and man are needed; the use of boars discriminat companionship. The premier showing of of Health, entitled "Towards Refine agement, behavior, and well-being of ing anestrus and estrus sows haven't Intimate Companions, an Adelphi Pro ment, Replacement, and Reduction in farm animals. Posters and educational been incorporated into mating schemes ductions film, was featured. The film re the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals." exhibits were displayed as well as film and designs. creates Dr. Aaron H. Katcher's blood The book is divided into five sections, and video tape productions. Over sixty Increasing the welfare of laying pressure experiments in which he com dealing respectively with: investigator reports were presented representing the hens involves changes in the physical en pared people interacting with people, responsibilities in animal experimenta truly multidisciplinary approach needed vironment (pen design), social environ and people interacting with their pets. tion; institutional responsibilities in ani to study the human-animal bond. ment (group size, debeaking) and genetic mal experimentation; funding agency re Ronald Kilgour criticized the antag selection for hysterical resistant stock, S. R. Kellert presented the resu Its of sponsibilities; and journal editor respon onism between animal welfare groups according to j.V. Craig. Beak trimming a study of over 250 children in the 2nd, sibilities in relation to the care and use and farmers because that degree of po with a hot blade is presumed to be tem 5th, 8th, and 11th grades. A battery of of animals, the findings from which are larization puts animals at risk. He sug porarily painful, but when done properly tests were used to examine children's submitted for publication in technical gested that to adequately examine the it can actually enhance the well-being knowledge and attitudes toward animals, journals. welfare of animals, one must first know of laying hens. It may increase nesting species, preferences, and behavioral

346 /NT J STUD AN/M PROB 4(4) 1983 /NT) STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 347 Each of the above sections concludes search, ra1smg farm animals for food, the depths of reason, as he has, entails tween the rights of individuals and the with a summary of conclusions and rec and the exploitation of wildlife and the much suffering through empathizing with good of the whole may be resolved, I be ommendations drawn up by a small task natural environment, his position will those creatures whose lives are cruelly lieve, by integrating Regan's respect for force of participants. The fifth and final seem ideologically unreasonable to many. and trivially exploited by "civilized" the life of the individual with a deep un section deals with pub I ic pol icy and rec However, Regan's work should be wide man, for profit and pleasure. derstanding of the dynamic relationships ommendations. This symposium proceed ly read by all who are involved in one His essay entitled "The Nature and of all individuals within the ecological ings is a welcome contribution to the form of animal exploitation or another Possibility of an Environmental Ethic" whole which, through reciprocal mainte field of laboratory animal science and to since his views are gaining wide accep echoes, in its preservationist conclusion, nance, (possibly the highest form of utili such related areas as public concern tance by the more militant animal-libera the same vegetarian-antivivisectionist tarian enlightened self-interest) insures over the care and use of laboratory ani tion faction of the humane movement. anti-utilitarian position argued for in ear balance and harmony (philosophically, an mals and the responsibilities of those in He is rightly critical of the Carte lier essays. Likewise in his last chapter egalitarian ecology). volved in their care and exploitation for sian view that animals are "unfeeling which explores the native American In I also think that if Regan were to biomedical and other purposes. machines" and in many of the essays dians' relationship with nature (and who discuss the importance of empathy and fairly attacks his nemesis, the Benthemite engaged in widespread commercial trap the reasons why animals are treated in M.W. Fox utilitarianism of Australian Peter Singer, ping soon after contact with the white humanely and unethically, his work might another leading philosopher in the ani man, in apparent violation of their alleged be even more influential. Furthermore, mal liberation movement. His attacks on spiritual attitude toward nature) he asks the philosophical, rational approach to Singer's utilitarianism seem to reflect his if the Indians "viewed nature primarily this entire issue, if it is not to beach itself ALL THAT DWELL THEREIN. ANIMAL own ideological resistance to make the as having value in its own right ... (or) upon some barren and impractical ideol RIGHTS & ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS, necessary integration of his animal rights primarily as a system of resources .... " In ogy (which appeals to moral anarchy), Tom Regan, University of California Press, ideology with the pragmatic necessity of questioning which view is primary, Regan must address reality: the tragedy of real Berkeley, California. (1982) $18.95. having to exploit life in order to sustain creates a polarity which again reflects ity that we must kill life (but not over This series of essays written between human life. He is right, I believe, in point his own inability or resistance to accept kill) in order to sustain our own. But the 1975 and 1981 deals with the rights-based ing out Singer's weaknesses in being un ing the paradoxical dialectical quality of increasing anxiety of the times, along theory for more humane treatment of able or resistant to incorporating animal existence. But perhaps he is right in doubt with self-righteous moral indignation animals, and later essays also explore rights into his strictly utilitarian philoso ing that man can have an ethical, spiri and outrage at man's inhumanity, can para the question of environmental ethics phy, which is anthropocentric and thus tual relationship with animals and na lyze the ability to reason, empathize and from the rights perspective. flawed with potential "speciesism." It is ture and a utilitarian one, such that we love. Regan helps us begin to reason, to With reference to vegetarianism he ironic that these two philosophers, whose can respect and exploit at the same time objectively and dispassionately look at states, "The question of the obi igatori ideas have much to offer the animal wel when the exploitation is on a wholesale, ourselves, and for this reason, his book ness of vegetarianism ... can arise only if fare movement, have yet not seen the commercially industrialized scale for prof should be read by all who are involved and when the animals we eat are the wisdom of their paradoxically comple it, rather than on an ecologically sound with animals in whatever mode- research, kind of beings who have interests." His mentary views, a reconciliation of which and more humane scale for subsistence. teaching, biology, psychology, medicine, critique of the limitations of such con would allow for much greater strength By integrating a more ecological farm animal science, and wildlife biology cepts as kindness and cruelty, which are and clarity. Such a necessary unity, of utilitarianism with animal rights, both and management, as well as conservation widely used by animal welfarists, is ex utility and respect for the life of the in views would be strengthened. The former and animal welfare. tremely perceptive, and reveals how judg dividual (both human and non-human) lacks reference to the animal's te/os or mental and human-centered these con is the penultimate step toward a more intrinsic qualities (other than sentience, M.W. Fox cepts are. There might be less judgmen unified theory which casts the paradoxi in Singer's philosophy) and the latter, as tation and more constructive dialogue cal, yet complementary, dualities of Ben presented by Regan, lacks the empiricism between animal protectors and their per tham-Singer utilitiarian exploitation and ecological perspective that utilitari ceived adversaries (especially animal re (i.e., objectivity) and Schweitzer-Regan anism can give. The negative ecological searchers) if the former were more reverence for life, animal rights and in (and long-term economic) consequences aware of the shortcomings of their own trinsic value (i.e., subjectivity) into an of "factory" farming of I ivestock and attitudes and perceptions. ecological/cosmological framework. This poultry, for example, provide a rational While the author states that "fun ecological view, although mentioned re and realistic utilitarian basis to question damentally ... my intentions are prac peatedly by Regan, is not, unfortunately, the ethics of such industrialized exploita tical, not theoretical," the major im incorporated into his animal rights argu tion which violates animals' rights. Utili petus of his book is to expand the scope ment because, no doubt, it contains that tarianism, combined with respect for the of concern for the treatment of animals element of utilitarian exploitation be intrinsic worth (or rights) of animals, could in society by appealing to reason and tween animal and plant communities to more effectively lead to the social reforms moral sensibility. But since his position which he has become allergic. This is Regan hopes for, through enlightened self is stolidly against using animals in re- quite understandable, since to penetrate interest. This dialectical tension be-

348 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 349 Each of the above sections concludes search, ra1smg farm animals for food, the depths of reason, as he has, entails tween the rights of individuals and the with a summary of conclusions and rec and the exploitation of wildlife and the much suffering through empathizing with good of the whole may be resolved, I be ommendations drawn up by a small task natural environment, his position will those creatures whose lives are cruelly lieve, by integrating Regan's respect for force of participants. The fifth and final seem ideologically unreasonable to many. and trivially exploited by "civilized" the life of the individual with a deep un section deals with pub I ic pol icy and rec However, Regan's work should be wide man, for profit and pleasure. derstanding of the dynamic relationships ommendations. This symposium proceed ly read by all who are involved in one His essay entitled "The Nature and of all individuals within the ecological ings is a welcome contribution to the form of animal exploitation or another Possibility of an Environmental Ethic" whole which, through reciprocal mainte field of laboratory animal science and to since his views are gaining wide accep echoes, in its preservationist conclusion, nance, (possibly the highest form of utili such related areas as public concern tance by the more militant animal-libera the same vegetarian-antivivisectionist tarian enlightened self-interest) insures over the care and use of laboratory ani tion faction of the humane movement. anti-utilitarian position argued for in ear balance and harmony (philosophically, an mals and the responsibilities of those in He is rightly critical of the Carte lier essays. Likewise in his last chapter egalitarian ecology). volved in their care and exploitation for sian view that animals are "unfeeling which explores the native American In I also think that if Regan were to biomedical and other purposes. machines" and in many of the essays dians' relationship with nature (and who discuss the importance of empathy and fairly attacks his nemesis, the Benthemite engaged in widespread commercial trap the reasons why animals are treated in M.W. Fox utilitarianism of Australian Peter Singer, ping soon after contact with the white humanely and unethically, his work might another leading philosopher in the ani man, in apparent violation of their alleged be even more influential. Furthermore, mal liberation movement. His attacks on spiritual attitude toward nature) he asks the philosophical, rational approach to Singer's utilitarianism seem to reflect his if the Indians "viewed nature primarily this entire issue, if it is not to beach itself ALL THAT DWELL THEREIN. ANIMAL own ideological resistance to make the as having value in its own right ... (or) upon some barren and impractical ideol RIGHTS & ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS, necessary integration of his animal rights primarily as a system of resources .... " In ogy (which appeals to moral anarchy), Tom Regan, University of California Press, ideology with the pragmatic necessity of questioning which view is primary, Regan must address reality: the tragedy of real Berkeley, California. (1982) $18.95. having to exploit life in order to sustain creates a polarity which again reflects ity that we must kill life (but not over This series of essays written between human life. He is right, I believe, in point his own inability or resistance to accept kill) in order to sustain our own. But the 1975 and 1981 deals with the rights-based ing out Singer's weaknesses in being un ing the paradoxical dialectical quality of increasing anxiety of the times, along theory for more humane treatment of able or resistant to incorporating animal existence. But perhaps he is right in doubt with self-righteous moral indignation animals, and later essays also explore rights into his strictly utilitarian philoso ing that man can have an ethical, spiri and outrage at man's inhumanity, can para the question of environmental ethics phy, which is anthropocentric and thus tual relationship with animals and na lyze the ability to reason, empathize and from the rights perspective. flawed with potential "speciesism." It is ture and a utilitarian one, such that we love. Regan helps us begin to reason, to With reference to vegetarianism he ironic that these two philosophers, whose can respect and exploit at the same time objectively and dispassionately look at states, "The question of the obi igatori ideas have much to offer the animal wel when the exploitation is on a wholesale, ourselves, and for this reason, his book ness of vegetarianism ... can arise only if fare movement, have yet not seen the commercially industrialized scale for prof should be read by all who are involved and when the animals we eat are the wisdom of their paradoxically comple it, rather than on an ecologically sound with animals in whatever mode- research, kind of beings who have interests." His mentary views, a reconciliation of which and more humane scale for subsistence. teaching, biology, psychology, medicine, critique of the limitations of such con would allow for much greater strength By integrating a more ecological farm animal science, and wildlife biology cepts as kindness and cruelty, which are and clarity. Such a necessary unity, of utilitarianism with animal rights, both and management, as well as conservation widely used by animal welfarists, is ex utility and respect for the life of the in views would be strengthened. The former and animal welfare. tremely perceptive, and reveals how judg dividual (both human and non-human) lacks reference to the animal's te/os or mental and human-centered these con is the penultimate step toward a more intrinsic qualities (other than sentience, M.W. Fox cepts are. There might be less judgmen unified theory which casts the paradoxi in Singer's philosophy) and the latter, as tation and more constructive dialogue cal, yet complementary, dualities of Ben presented by Regan, lacks the empiricism between animal protectors and their per tham-Singer utilitiarian exploitation and ecological perspective that utilitari ceived adversaries (especially animal re (i.e., objectivity) and Schweitzer-Regan anism can give. The negative ecological searchers) if the former were more reverence for life, animal rights and in (and long-term economic) consequences aware of the shortcomings of their own trinsic value (i.e., subjectivity) into an of "factory" farming of I ivestock and attitudes and perceptions. ecological/cosmological framework. This poultry, for example, provide a rational While the author states that "fun ecological view, although mentioned re and realistic utilitarian basis to question damentally ... my intentions are prac peatedly by Regan, is not, unfortunately, the ethics of such industrialized exploita tical, not theoretical," the major im incorporated into his animal rights argu tion which violates animals' rights. Utili petus of his book is to expand the scope ment because, no doubt, it contains that tarianism, combined with respect for the of concern for the treatment of animals element of utilitarian exploitation be intrinsic worth (or rights) of animals, could in society by appealing to reason and tween animal and plant communities to more effectively lead to the social reforms moral sensibility. But since his position which he has become allergic. This is Regan hopes for, through enlightened self is stolidly against using animals in re- quite understandable, since to penetrate interest. This dialectical tension be-

348 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 /NT 1 STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 349