MAW-001 Animal Welfare Science and Ethics

Volume 1

Block /Unit Title Page No.

BLOCK 1 INTRODUCTION TO ANIMAL WELFARE 5 AND BEHAVIOUR

Unit 1 Animal Welfare - An Overview 7

Unit 2 Scientific Understanding of Animal Welfare 20

Unit 3 Animal Behaviour 34

Unit 4 Human-Animal Interaction 53

Unit 5 Animal Welfare Evolution - History and Variation 75

BLOCK 2 CONCEPTS OF ANIMAL WELFARE 95

Unit 6 Concepts of Animal Welfare - An Overview 97

Unit 7 Overview of the Five Freedoms 117

BLOCK 3 FIVE FREEDOMS 141

Unit 8 Freedom from Hunger, Thirst and Malnutrition 143

Unit 9 Freedom from Thermal and Physical Discomfort 163

Unit 10 Freedom from Pain, Injury and Disease 175

Unit 11 Freedom to Express Normal Behaviour 187

Unit 12 Freedom from Fear and Distress 197 PROGRAMME DESIGN COMMITTEE

Dr. Arun Verma Dr. Manilal Valliyate Prof. B. K. Pattanaik Assistant Director General (Retd.) CEO, People for the Ethical SOEDS, IGNOU, New Delhi ICAR, New Delhi Treatment of Animals (India) Prof. Nehal A. Farooquee New Delhi Dr. K.V.H. Sastry SOEDS, IGNOU, New Delhi Principal Scientist Mr. N.G. Jayasimha Dr. Pradeep Kumar ICAR-NIANP, Bangalore Director (India) SOEDS, IGNOU, New Delhi Humane Society International Dr. V.K. Arora Hyderabad Dr. Nisha Varghese Joint Commissioner (AH) SOEDS, IGNOU, New Delhi Ministry of Fisheries, Ms. Khushboo Gupta Animal Husbandry and Dairying Project Manager Dr. Grace Don Nemching New Delhi World Animal Protection SOEDS, IGNOU, New Delhi New Delhi Col. (Dr) Narbir Singh Prof. P.V.K. Sasidhar The Remount and Veterinary Corps Dr. P. Vijaykumar SOEDS, IGNOU, New Delhi New Delhi Associate Professor (Programme Coordinator) SOA, IGNOU, New Delhi Dr. S.B. Prasanna Associate Professor (LPM) Dr. Mita Sinha Mahapatra College of Veterinary Science Associate Professor, SOA Bangalore IGNOU, New Delhi

COURSE PREPARATION TEAM

Unit Writing Dr. Kenny Rutherford Prof. Cathy Dwyer SRUC, Edinburgh, UK (Units 10,11,12) JMICAWE, University of Edinburgh Format Editing UK (Units 1,2,6,7) Prof. P.V.K. Sasidhar Dr. Simon Turner SOEDS, IGNOU, New Delhi SRUC, Edinburgh Content and Language Editing UK (Unit 3) Prof. Cathy Dwyer Dr. Melanie Connor Director, The Jeanne Marchig SRUC, Edinburgh, UK (Unit 4) International Centre for Animal Welfare Education, Dr. Michael Appleby University of Edinburgh, UK JMICAWE, University of Edinburgh, UK (Unit 5) Prof. P.V.K. Sasidhar SOEDS, IGNOU, New Delhi Prof. Marie Haskell SRUC, Edinburgh, UK (Units 8,9)

Programme & Course Coordinator: Prof. P.V.K.Sasidhar PRINT PRODUCTION Mr. Rajiv Girdhar Mr. Hemant Parida AR, (Pub.), MPDD, IGNOU, New Delhi SO, (Pub.), MPDD, IGNOU, New Delhi

August, 2020 © Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2020 ISBN: All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeography or any other means, without permission in writing from the Indira Gandhi National Open University. Further information on the Indira Gandhi National Open University courses may be obtained from the University’s Office at Maidan Garhi, New Delhi-110 068 or visit our website: http://www.ignou.ac.in Printed and published on behalf of the Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi, by Registrar, MPDD, IGNOU. Laser Typeset by: Tessa Media & Computers, C-206, A.F.E.-II, Okhla, New Delhi Printed at : MAW-001 ANIMAL WELFARE SCIENCE AND ETHICS

Dear Learner,

Welcome to ‘MAW-001’, the first course under ‘PG Diploma in Animal Welfare’ programme. The theme of the Self Learning Material (SLM) under this course is ‘Animal Welfare Science and Ethics’.

Animal welfare education is a multidisciplinary subject which is evolving rapidly, with welfare science and ethics as one of the core components. Animal welfare is supported by animal welfare science, the practice of research that endeavours to provide evidence to support our understanding of animal welfare. Animal welfare can be an emotionally charged subject, and sometimes we may react based on feelings or intuitions alone – we may not like to see something and our immediate response might be to condemn it. However, ethics is about reasoning and is important in our treatment of animals as it allows us to make rational decisions about appropriate ways to treat animals. Animal welfare science and ethics together considers what is right and wrong about the ways that we use and interact with animals. However, to avoid some of the misconceptions, we need to take an evidence-based approach to animal welfare, where we ask scientific questions about: What animals want or need, and how much it causes them to suffer if these things are not available? Why should we be concerned about animal welfare and what is the scientific basis for that? What are the global variations in animal welfare approaches? What are different views of animal welfare, animal rights and animal cruelty? What are the optimal, minimum and absolute animal welfare standards? How can we apply animal behaviour knowledge to improve animal welfare and human-animal relationships? What are the comprehensive frameworks of animal welfare - five freedoms, five domains and welfare quality criteria and principles? Why welfare assessment or audit and what are the methods to improve animal welfare? What is the interrelation between animal ethics, sentience and welfare and how to apply ethical reasoning to animal welfare? What is the role of veterinarians in animal welfare? In short, the essence of this course ‘MAW-001 Animal Welfare Science and Ethics’ is to provide answers to the above questions and make you understand these concepts.

For your convenience and easy handling, the 22 units of SLM are presented in two volumes with three blocks each. Each volume deals largely with the concepts in the block to which that volume relates. However, both the volumes are connected in such a way that after completing all 22 units, you will gain a better knowledge, understanding, practical and professional skills in animal welfare science and ethics.

Block 1, Introduction to Animal Welfare and Behaviour with five units deals with the outline of animal welfare, scientific understanding of animal welfare, animal behaviour, human-animal interaction and animal welfare evolution-history and variation.

Block 2, Concepts of Animal Welfare with two units gives an overview on the concepts of animal welfare and five freedoms.

Block 3, Five Freedoms with five units discusses comprehensively the five freedoms viz., hunger, thirst and malnutrition; thermal and physical discomfort; pain, injury and disease; express normal behaviour, and; fear and distress.

Block 4, Animal Welfare - Assessment and Audit with three units deals with animal welfare assessment, animal welfare assessment methods and animal welfare auditing.

Block 5, Improving Animal Welfare with three units exemplifies improving animal welfare through social conditions, human contact and genetic selection.

Block 6, Ethics and Animal Welfare with four units illustrates animal ethics and sentience, animal welfare ethical theories and role of veterinarians in animal welfare. MAW - 001 Animal Welfare Science and Ethics

Block 1 INTRODUCTION TO ANIMAL WELFARE AND BEHAVIOUR

UNIT 1 Animal Welfare - An Overview 7 UNIT 2 Scientific Understanding of Animal Welfare 20 UNIT 3 Animal Behaviour 34 UNIT 4 Human – Animal Interaction 53 UNIT 5 Animal Welfare Evolution - History and Variation 75 Introduction to Animal Welfare and Behaviour BLOCK 1 INTRODUCTION TO ANIMAL WELFARE AND BEHAVIOUR

Animal welfare is a property of the animal and reflects in its behaviour. Therefore, the knowledge of normal or abnormal behaviours and their causes helps in understanding animal welfare scientifically. The purpose of this block is to make you understand the basic concept of animal welfare, scientific understanding of animal welfare, animal behaviour, human-animal interaction and animal welfare evolution-history and variation. UNIT 1, Animal Welfare - An Overview delineates the concept of animal welfare, animal rights and animal cruelty, why should we be concerned about animal welfare?, and ethical / moral concerns about the lives of animals. UNIT 2, Scientific Understanding of Animal Welfare focuses on scientific basis of animal welfare (biological functioning, naturalness and feelings and emotions), evidence based approaches to animal welfare and animal welfare standards (optimal, minimum and absolute standards). UNIT 3, Animal Behaviour describes the meaning of animal behaviour, interrelationship between normal behaviour, natural behaviour and animal welfare, understanding abnormal behaviours and their causes, mismatch between the animal and its environment, behavioural needs, types of abnormal behaviours, welfare consequences of abnormal behaviour and use of behavioural knowledge in the management of animals. UNIT 4, Human – Animal Interaction deals with the concept of anthrozoology, classification of animal kingdom, domestication of animals, positive and negative interactions and different purposes of human - animal interactions. UNIT 5, Animal Welfare Evolution - History and Variation outlines antiquity and domestication, historical changes and global variations in animal welfare.

6 Animal Welfare - UNIT 1 ANIMAL WELFARE - AN OVERVIEW An Overview

Structure 1.1 Learning Outcomes 1.2 Introduction 1.3 What is Animal Welfare? 1.4 Why Should We Be Concerned About Animal Welfare? 1.4.1 Ethical / Moral Concerns about the Lives of Animals 1.4.2 Human Health and Animal Products Quality Concerns 1.4.3 Environmental and Biodiversity Concerns 1.4.4 Trading and Marketing of Animal Products Concerns 1.4.5 Individual Concerns for Animal Welfare 1.4.6 Organisational Concern for Animal Welfare 1.5 Different Views of Animal Welfare 1.5.1 Animal Welfare 1.5.2 Animal Rights 1.5.3 Animal Cruelty 1.6 Let Us Sum Up 1.7 Keywords 1.8 Bibliography and Further Reading 1.9 Self Assessment Exercises 1.10 Answers/Hints to Check Your Progress 1.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES

a) Knowledge and Understanding : When you have studied this unit, you will be able to: Understand the concept of animal welfare and sentience. Be aware of how different viewpoints exist and how animal welfare differs from other terms relating to the use of animals. b) Practical and Professional Skills : When you have studied this unit, you will be able to: Discuss the differences between animal welfare, animal rights and animal cruelty. Summarise different views of animal welfare concepts.

1.2 INTRODUCTION

Dear Learner, You may be aware that welfare is the name given to denote the level of health, happiness and prosperity of a person or group of people, otherwise described as their ‘well-being’. In human terms often this is meant to describe particular good fortune or happiness. The term as it applies to animals, or ‘animal welfare’, is 7 Introduction to Animal somewhat similar and is given to the concepts that animals should be treated and Welfare and Behaviour managed in a particular way that provides for their health and happiness or well- being.

Animal welfare can be applied to all animal species, sometimes preceded by ‘farm’ or ‘companion’ or other words to denote to which group of animals the term is specifically referring. In general, however, we are concerned about the welfare of animals that are managed in some way by humans, and where we have particular responsibilities for their care. In the past, greatest concern about animal welfare has been related to livestock production in agriculture, and thus ‘farm animal welfare’ has received the most attention. Over time, welfare issues pertaining to working, performing, companion, zoo and lab animals have also received attention. Keeping all this in view, this programme has covered welfare issues and standards of all managed animals comprehensively (Box 1.1):

Box 1.1: PG Diploma in Animal Welfare – PGDAW In PGDAW programme, you will learn about animal welfare science, ethics and standards which can be applied to all managed animals like: 1) Dairy animals / Large Ruminants – Cattle and Buffaloes 2) Small Ruminants – Sheep and Goat 3) Pigs 4) Poultry 5) Working animals 6) Performing animals 7) Pet and companion animals 8) Zoo animals and other managed wildlife 9) Lab animals used in biomedical research and teaching

Animal welfare is supported by animal welfare science, the practice of research that endeavours to provide evidence to support our understanding of animal welfare – in particular the perception and viewpoint of the animal on its own well-being. By using animal welfare science we are able to give a voice to the animal to ask them what it is they find important or what they like.

In this unit we will consider the concept of animal welfare, how different viewpoints might exist and how animal welfare differs from other terms relating to the use of animals. The use of animal welfare science to provide answers and evidence for animal welfare will also be considered.

1.3 WHAT IS ANIMAL WELFARE?

The OIE (the animal equivalent of the World Health Organisation) defines animal welfare as: ‘the physical and mental state of animal in relation to the conditions in which it lives and dies’. Animal welfare is a complex and multi-faceted subject, involving scientific, ethical, economic, cultural, social, religious and political dimensions. Here we will consider what animal welfare is, and how we can address welfare issues, particularly focusing on the scientific and ethical dimensions. 8 There are many concepts of animal welfare, which will be discussed later, but in Animal Welfare - general there is agreement that animal welfare, just as with human welfare, is a An Overview property of the animal itself. That is, animal welfare is concerned with how the animal views its own life and experiences, how it copes with the environment in which it finds itself and how its quality of life is affected. This means that animal welfare concerns are usually directed towards animals believed to be sentient, and so are capable of conscious experience of the environment. (Box 1.2).

Box 1.2. Animal Welfare Animal welfare is a property of the animal. It is relevant to living animals and exists on a continuum from very poor to very good rather than being an absolute value.

In law, for example, certain groups of animals are very clearly designated as sentient, and are thus classified separately from other products and tradable goods. This designation then affects the application of legislation to provide protection for these animals. This does not mean, however, that we believe that animals are similar to ourselves in terms of their abilities and emotions, but that animals have an ability to consciously experience the world around them and have an interest in their own quality of life. Their perception of the world may be different from ours, but it is important to them. They may also experience emotions differently to humans, but there is a general belief that these animals are capable of experiencing emotional states such as pleasure, pain, discomfort, contentment etc. We differentiate animals from plants, usually, because of this ability of animals. (Box 1.3).

Box 1.3. Animal Sentience Animal Sentience is the capacity to feel, perceive, or experience subjectively. In the context of animal welfare, sentience implies the ability to experience pleasure and pain. Animals may not understand everything as we humans do, but have the same needs for food and water, shelter, companionship, freedom of movement and avoidance of pain.

There is no clear scientific division about which species may be sentient and therefore for which we should be concerned, i.e. for which species is animal welfare relevant and important. For most people, and this is included in legislation of some countries, animal welfare pertains to vertebrates and particularly to mammals and birds. There is less certainty that fish, reptiles and amphibians are sentient, although increasing scientific evidence supports the potential for these animals to experience emotional states. There is still greater uncertainty around invertebrate species but a great deal of discussion and debate continues, with the case being made for crustacean and insects to show behaviours that could be interpreted as showing evidence of cognitive processes and emotional responses. For example, honeybees have been shown to be capable of highly developed social and cooperative behaviour, and to show apparently pessimistic responses to particular conditions. However, for the purposes of this Unit, we will largely focus on animals as mentioned in Box 1 in thinking about animal welfare, as the areas where most work has been conducted, and where there is least contention about whether we should show concern for their quality of life.

9 Introduction to Animal Animal welfare is also understood to be a continuum, rather than an absolute Welfare and Behaviour value. Therefore the welfare state of an animal can vary from very good to very poor, and all positions in between (very good - good - poor - very poor).

In quality of life terminology this continuum is seen to vary from a good life, through a life worth living to a life not worth living (Figure 1), where the animal may be in such great suffering it might be preferable, to the animal, for it not to be alive. In this framework we might consider the entirety of the animals’ life to date. So short term compromises to welfare, such as experience of pain or disease, might be outweighed by an overall good quality of life throughout much of the animals lifetime. However, where an animal is continually in pain, or suffers daily from excessive confinement or an inability to carry out much or any of the things it may wish to achieve then the quality of life for the animal may be very poor indeed. In general, concerns for animal welfare have focused mostly on the negative end of the spectrum, with animal welfare being considered, for some, as a negative quality. Only very recently is greater consideration and emphasis being placed on the positive welfare end of the scale, and a good quality of life seen as a desirable and achievable end point for animals.

Fig. 1.1: Schematic representation of quality of life vs. animal welfare

Fig.1.1 emphasises the continuous nature of animal welfare, and that this is not an absolute, but that the animal can exist at any point along the scale. Animals can also move up and down the scales at different stages in their life, and as different challenges to good welfare are experienced. Before we proceed, please complete activity 1.

Activity 1: Talk to friends or colleagues about a situation where an animal may have a) a good life, b) a life worth living, c) a life not worth living. Compare their responses to the discussion given in the section and write your observations: ...... 10 Check Your Progress 1 Animal Welfare - An Overview Note: a) Use the spaces given below for your answers. b) Check your answer with those given at the end of the unit. 1) Write the meaning of animal welfare ...... 2) What are the similarities between human welfare and animal welfare? ...... 3) In the context of welfare, what does animal sentience mean? ......

1.4 WHY SHOULD WE BE CONCERNED ABOUT ANIMAL WELFARE?

By reading the previous section, now you have a better understanding of the concepts of animal welfare and animal sentience. Then the question is, why should we be concerned about animal welfare? Broadly speaking animal welfare concerns fall into four main camps: 1) Ethical / moral concerns about the lives of animals. 2) Human health and animal products quality concerns. 3) Environmental and biodiversity concerns. 4) Trading and marketing of animal products concerns. The other way of classifying is individual and organizational concerns for animal welfare. Let us discuss them briefly. 11 Introduction to Animal 1.4.1 Ethical / Moral Concerns about the Lives of Animals Welfare and Behaviour Firstly, animal welfare concerns are due to ethical or moral concerns about the lives of animals. As described above this is often centered on a belief that animals are sentient, and thus that we have a duty to provide care for them and to protect them from harm. 1.4.2 Human Health and Animal Products Quality Concerns

Concern for farm animal welfare may also be because of concerns about human health and product quality from these animals, and are associated with beliefs that improving the lives of animals on farm will have associated benefits for human health. This can be supported particularly for the presence of harmful bacteria, which may be more prevalent in intensive housing environments and can also cause human health issues. The widespread use of antibiotics in intensive animal farming can also be an issue for human health as increased antimicrobial resistance can affect human and animal health. 1.4.3 Environmental and Biodiversity Concerns

Environmental and biodiversity concerns may also include concerns for animal welfare, where animal welfare is seen as part of a package of concerns about how we treat the planet. This may be part of a holistic view of planetary health encompassing all beings on the planet, or a specific view, such as organic farming, which considers both the environment and animal welfare as part of a defined farming practice. 1.4.4 Trading and Marketing of Animal Products Concerns

Finally, animal welfare concerns may be seen as part of trading and marketing concerns, either where there is concern for animal welfare arising due to the impact of these issues, or where animal welfare can be used as a marketing tool to leverage higher prices. 1.4.5 Individual Concerns for Animal Welfare

Although animal welfare is a property of an animal, its subjective state, our individual moral or ethical thinking can influence how we might choose to behave towards animals. Legal frameworks may set minimum standards for animal use but within that ethical behaviour towards animals can be a matter for individuals own moral codes or ethical decision-making. Example: You might have noticed several people offering food and water to birds during winter. This might be the result of a desire to ensure that: Birds have a better chance of surviving through the winter period. To reduce the suffering that these birds might experience through hunger and, Perhaps because we are concerned about loss of habitat and a reduction in the size of a vulnerable population of a particular bird species. These are all coherent moral decisions relating to the welfare of the bird population. However, some neighbours may decide not to feed / water birds because: 12 They are concerned about the spread of disease by bringing birds into close Animal Welfare - proximity to one another An Overview They may worry that this will encourage predation of birds by domestic cats and that they will have a negative effect on bird populations. These are also valid moral concerns with relevance to animal welfare. Individuals therefore make choices based on their own moral and ethical understanding and beliefs.

Individual concerns about animal welfare can have influence in a variety of ways directly or indirectly. Directly through our own behaviour in our dealing with animals (as in the example above) Indirectly through our behaviour or lobbying for changes in the way that animals are managed, perhaps through legislative changes. Individuals are consumers of animal products, through eating meat, drinking milk, wearing leather, wool or other animal fibres and through using animals for sport, leisure or work. Individual moral concerns can have an impact on animal welfare through buying behaviour, for example whether we choose to buy and eat meat, and whether we prefer a particular animal farming system over another (eating chicken but not lamb for example). 1.4.6 Organisational Concern for Animal Welfare

There are many organisations which give a particular voice to animal welfare. These include inter-governmental organisations such as the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE), which sets global standards for animal welfare. Other well-known organisations include the Universities Federation for Animal Welfare (UFAW), World Animal Protection, Compassion in World Farming (CiWF) and the International Fund for Animal Welfare (IFAW).

Each country will also have national organisations, such as the Animal Welfare Board of India, the Royal Society for the Protection of Animals (RSPCA) in UK and Humane Society in the USA. These bodies work to promote a more ethical approach to animal management, and have their own particular policies to promote or lobby governments for change.

In addition to private moral views of animal welfare, commercial organisations have a moral responsibility towards animal care and use, either when their business interacts with animals directly, such as in animal agricultural production, or indirectly if animals are related to any aspect of their work. Organisations are, of course, required to work within the laws of the land in which they do business, but they may choose to have a greater moral concern for animals than legislation requires. Corporate social responsibility can include particular requirements for enhanced standards for animal welfare, which may improve the reputation of a particular company or organisation, and provide their customers with reassurance about animal welfare.

(Please refer MAW-003 Animal Welfare Laws, Policies and Organizations for more details on animal welfare organizations).

13 Introduction to Animal Before we proceed, please complete activity 2. Welfare and Behaviour Activity 2: Reflect on your own view of animal welfare. Which area of concern is most important for you? Discuss these concerns with friends or colleagues to see which area of concern is most prevalent and write your observations: ......

Before we proceed, please complete activity 3.

Activity 3: Choose an animal charity or organisation where animal welfare may be relevant (e.g. A company where animal use is part of the business). Is there a policy on animal welfare for this organisation? Does this protect the animals used by this organisation? Discuss with them and write your observations: ......

Check Your Progress 2 Note: a) Use the spaces given below for your answers. b) Check your answer with those given at the end of the unit. 1) Why should we be concerned about animal welfare? ...... 2) How individuals’ moral or ethical thinking can influence their behaviour towards animals? ...... 14 ...... Animal Welfare - 1.5 DIFFERENT VIEWS OF ANIMAL WELFARE An Overview

In our use of animals many different viewpoints exist about how we could and should treat animals. In this section we will discuss some of these differing views, and how animal welfare fits into this thinking under the following heads: 1) Animal welfare 2) Animal rights 3) Animal cruelty 1.5.1 Animal Welfare

As described above, welfare of animals is a concept that relates to the animals experience of its own life. This leads to a moral concern for the lives of animals because of their potential to suffer if their needs and requirements are not met. As we will discuss further this concept often uses a scientific view of what animals may require from their lives and environments, in order to determine whether animals are suffering, and what can be done to mitigate this. This can act as a ‘bridging concept’, as outlined by David Fraser in 1999, which links the animals experience, via the science that gathers evidence to support this, to animal welfare ethical and moral concerns, which determine what is most appropriate way to behave towards or to treat animals. One of the important factors in this concept is the use of scientific evidence to support moral decision making around what are acceptable practices with animals. Welfare of animals is also heavily oriented towards: Care for animals Animal husbandry and Living in community with animals. It accepts that animal autonomy may be compromised by animal use, but this is mitigated by increased standards of care, which may exceed what the animal would be able to obtain in the natural environment. 1.5.2 Animal Rights

Animal rights, animal liberation or justice for animals are largely concepts based in ethical or philosophical thinking that focuses on the individual animal, and demand equality of treatment for animals with humans on the basis that each are sentient. These principles suggest that equal rights or consideration of their interests should be given to all sentient beings. Thus justice and equality of treatment are very important in thinking about animal rights. However, this thinking does not really consider animal care or husbandry to be important or relevant concepts in the treatment of animals. In addition, this thinking can sometimes be very difficult to apply in practice where decision-making may be made at a population, herd or farm level, and where many conflicting issues can converge.

Example: In thinking about wildlife population management, the competing interests of all the following need consideration in reaching an appropriate decision: 15 Introduction to Animal Individual animals Welfare and Behaviour The health and welfare of animal population The environmental ecosystem and The lives of people who live within a particular area 1.5.3 Animal Cruelty

Cruelty can be defined as the deliberate or malicious infliction of mental or physical pain on animals, and indifference to their suffering. Cruelty, or animal abuse, can be by commission or by omission: Commission: Cruelty, or animal abuse, can be by commission, where there is a deliberate act, such as physically beating an animal. Omission: Cruelty can also be an omission that is by failing to act, such as not providing an animal with food or water. Cruelty undoubtedly has an impact on the welfare state of the animal, but the absence of cruelty is not sufficient for animal welfare to be good. Thus although animal abuse and animal welfare are associated, they are not the same thing: animal welfare considers the positive and neutral aspects of an animal’s life, as well as the absence of negative states. Different views of animal use in terms of welfare, rights and cruelty are summarised in Box 1.4 for your understanding.

Box 1.4. Animal Welfare vs. Animal Rights vs. Animal Cruelty Animal welfare focuses on the experience of animals and considers the care and husbandry of animals. Animal rights focus on equality of treatment of all sentient beings, including humans. Animal cruelty, or the avoidance of cruelty, focuses on negative aspects of animal misuse and abuse.

Before we proceed, please complete activity 4.

Activity 4: Briefly describe an example of a situation where the outcome is concern for a) animal welfare, b) animal rights, and c) animal cruelty: ......

16 ...... Check Your Progress 3 Animal Welfare - An Overview Note: a) Use the spaces given below for your answers. b) Check your answer with those given at the end of the unit. 1) Name different viewpoints about how we could and should care for animals? ...... 2) How animal welfare is viewed from the animal rights perspective? ...... 3) Differentiate between animal cruelty by commission and by omission ......

1.6 LET US SUM UP

In this Unit we have introduced the different concepts and views of animal welfare that are currently in use. We have learned that animal welfare is a property of the animal, exists on a continuum from poor to good and is a cause for concern for animals that are believed to be sentient. Animal welfare is protected by legislation in some countries, by the welfare standards of global bodies such as the OIE and by our own personal moral or ethical thinking.

1.7 KEYWORDS Animal Cruelty: The deliberate abuse and mistreatment of animals. Animal Rights: A set of beliefs about equal treatment for all sentient beings. Animal Welfare Science: The practice of science which aims to provide evidence about the quality of animal lives. Animal Welfare Standards: The minimum conditions under which an animal should be kept as determined by legislation, or other bodies. 17 Introduction to Animal Animal Welfare: Animal welfare describes how an animal is coping with the Welfare and Behaviour conditions in which it lives. This includes consideration for its health, environment, nutrition, ability to express important behaviours and the avoidance of fear, pain and distress. Sentience: The capacity to feel or experience the world subjectively.

1.8 BIBLIOGRAPHY AND FURTHER READING

Animal Welfare (2nd Edition), Editors: M.C. Appleby, J.A. Mench, I.A.S. Olsson, B.O.Hughes. CABI. David Fraser (2008). Understanding Animal Welfare – The Science in Its Cultural context. Wiley- Blackwell. https://www.oie.int/en/animal-welfare/animal-welfare-at-a-glance/

1.9 SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISES 1) Briefly discuss what animal welfare is. 2) List four reasons why someone may be concerned about animal welfare. 3) What are the differences between animal welfare, animal rights and animal cruelty? 4) Give three different types of organisations which have a role in influencing animal welfare. 1.10 ANSWERS / HINTS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check Your Progress 1

1) Animal welfare is concerned with how the animal views its own life and experiences, how it copes with the environment in which it finds itself and how its quality of life is affected.

2) Human welfare denotes the level of health, happiness and prosperity of a person or group of people, otherwise described as their ‘well-being’. Animal welfare is somewhat similar and is given to the concepts that animals should be treated and managed in a particular way that provides for their health and happiness or well-being.

3) In the context of animal welfare, sentience implies the ability to experience pleasure and pain. Animals may not understand everything we humans realize, but both do have some of the same needs like food and water, shelter, companionship, freedom of movement and avoidance of pain.

Check Your Progress 2

1) We are concerned about animal welfare because of four main reasons viz., ethical / moral concerns about the lives of animals; human health and animal products quality concerns; environmental and biodiversity concerns, and trading and marketing of animal products concerns. 18 2) Individual moral or ethical thinking can influence how we might choose to Animal Welfare - behave towards animals. Legal frameworks may set minimum standards for An Overview animal use but within that ethical behaviour towards animals can be a matter for individuals own moral codes or ethical decision-making.

Check Your Progress 3

1) Animal welfare, animal rights and animal cruelty are different viewpoints exist about how we could and should treat animals.

2) Animal rights are the concepts largely based in ethical or philosophical thinking that focuses on the individual animal, and demand equality of treatment for animals with humans on the basis that each are sentient. These principles suggest that equal rights or consideration of their interests should be given to all sentient beings.

3) Cruelty, or animal abuse, can be by commission, where there is a deliberate act, such as physically beating an animal. Cruelty can also be an omission that is by failing to act, such as not providing an animal with food or water.

19 Introduction to Animal Welfare and Behaviour UNIT 2 SCIENTIFIC UNDERSTANDING OF ANIMAL WELFARE

Structure 2.1 Learning Outcomes 2.2 Introduction 2.3 Scientific Basis of Animal Welfare 2.3.1 Biological Functioning 2.3.2 Naturalness 2.3.3 Feelings and Emotions 2.4 Evidence Based Approaches to Animal Welfare 2.5 Animal Welfare Standards 2.5.1 Optimal Standards 2.5.2 Minimum Standards 2.5.3 Absolute Standards 2.6 Let Us Sum Up 2.7 Keywords 2.8 Bibliography and Further Reading 2.9 Self Assessment Exercises 2.10 Answers/Hints to Check Your Progress 2.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES a) Knowledge and Understanding: When you have studied this unit, you will be able to: Understand the scientific basis of animal welfare. Recognise the need for scientific evidence in informing animal welfare decision making. b) Practical and Professional Skills: When you have studied this unit, you will be able to: Reach decisions about what is good or bad for animal welfare based on science. Discuss the overlapping nature of different scientific views of animal welfare. Differentiate between optimal, minimum and absolute standards of animal welfare.

2.2 INTRODUCTION

Dear Learner,

In the previous unit, we discussed the concepts of animal welfare and sentience, why should we be concerned about animal welfare and different views of animal welfare. We also discussed that animal welfare is a property of the animal, exists 20 on a continuum from poor to good and is a cause for concern for animals that are Scientific Understanding believed to be sentient. We understood that, at individual level, animal welfare is of Animal Welfare protected by our own personal moral or ethical thinking and at organizational level, animal welfare is protected by legislation in some countries and by the welfare standards of global bodies such as the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE).

An important part of animal welfare that provides the bridging concept discussed in the previous unit is the scientific evidence that supports decisions about how animals should be kept and managed. Animal welfare concerns are therefore concerns about the biological functioning or environmental coping of an animal, concerns about the naturalness of the environment and behaviours of the animal and are concerns about what it feels or experiences. Keeping this in view, you will be introduced to the concepts of scientific understanding of animal welfare, evidence-based approaches to animal welfare and animal welfare standards in this unit.

2.3 SCIENTIFIC BASIS OF ANIMAL WELFARE

From a scientific viewpoint the way that we can think about animal welfare, and the sorts of measures we might then need to make to reach decisions about what is good or bad for animal welfare, fall into three main areas as described below: 1) Biological Functioning 2) Naturalness 3) Feelings and Emotions Let us discuss them in detail. 2.3.1 Biological Functioning

This component of animal welfare considers the ability of the animal to cope with its environment, and the biological responses that the animal may need to make to continue to be able to function, or the biological impact when the animal is unable to cope.

A biological-functioning view of animal welfare looks primarily at the animal’s physiological responses, particularly the functioning of the: Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis Sympathetic-adrenal medullary system (SAM) Immune function Health Growth, and Reproduction The HPA axis is a neuroendocrine system that registers changes in the body brought about by some alteration either psychological (such as seeing something that induces fear) or physical (such as a change in temperature) and triggers a cascade reaction to deal with the change, and restores homeostasis. The SAM is an autonomic system, governed by neural inputs, that brings about changes in 21 Introduction to Animal many bodily systems including heart rate, metabolic rate, respiratory rate, body Welfare and Behaviour temperature etc., in response to the alterations the animal is experiencing, which we call ‘stressors’.

Broadly speaking, the biological functioning component of animal welfare deals with how the animal perceives and deals with the stressors it encounters in its daily life. Animals have evolved to be constantly monitoring the environment (not always consciously, responses to thermal disturbances, for example, may elicit physiological alterations that the animal is unaware of) and reacting to minor deviations from set points using species-specific behavioural and physiological mechanisms. Thus, when the animal is able to predict and control events, and adjust to disturbances using species typical responses, the biological functioning view of welfare suggests that the welfare of the animal is not threatened. Welfare declines when the animal’s responses are no longer sufficient. A consequence of altered biological function, in attempts to deal with the stressor, may be a change in the immune system such that the animal becomes more susceptible to disease, reduced growth or poorer reproductive ability. Under this view of animal welfare it is when these changes occur that the animal moves into a poorer welfare condition. 2.3.2 Naturalness

This welfare component suggests that good welfare depends on the animal being able to live a ‘natural’ life and to be able to express its evolved behaviour patterns. Some behaviours have evolved as an adaptation to deal with an adverse situation (distress calls in isolation, fleeing from a predator and so on). The animal does not ‘need’ to express these behaviours if they are not required – we do not need to expose an animal to a predator, for example, so that it can express these behaviours for the animal to be in good welfare. Thus, performance of the whole behavioural range is not considered necessary for good welfare, only those parts of it that the animal perceives to be important. In using this definition of welfare it can be hard to determine precisely what is natural in the animal’s behaviour and what constitutes a natural environment for a particular species. A parallel concept to the ‘natural-living’ view of animal welfare is the concept of animal integrity. These ideas suggest we should not infringe the animal’s physical wholeness (such as performing procedures like castration or tail-docking), and that we should create conditions where the animal has a life that accords with their species-specific capacities and adaptation patterns: conditions where the animal can be fulfilled and flourish. 2.3.3 Feelings and Emotions

This welfare definition suggests that animal welfare concerns are, in fact, concerns about the subjective experience, the ‘feelings’, of the animal involved. What distinguishes an animal from a plant is its sentience, and its capacity to experience pain, fear, distress, pleasure etc., and thus it should be the experience of those emotional states that plays a central role in the determination of its welfare. This definition is probably closest to the public perception of animal welfare, and the reason that animal welfare first received public attention. Feelings and emotions are considered the evolved and cognitive experience (the wants and desires of animals) of having biological needs. Several writers have suggested an evolutionary basis to feelings as they play an important role in motivating the 22 animal to respond to situations which will increase fitness, either immediately Scientific Understanding (e.g. escaping a predator) or in the long term (e.g. by expressing play or exploratory of Animal Welfare behaviours). The measurement of feelings and subjective states (requirements if we are going to use this definition to assess welfare) are, of course, far from straightforward and deal with the difficult issues of consciousness, cognition, and accessing the subjective experience of others.

Each of these different scientific conceptions about animal welfare (biological, naturalness and feelings) will have an impact on the sort of scientific evidence that might be needed to reach a decision on animal welfare. Generally we would think about these areas being overlapping, and inter-related. For example, if the animal is in an environment where its biological adaptations are not able to cope (an unnatural environment), it will show signs of altered biological function and this will be associated with feelings of pain, or distress (Area D in figure 2.1). This describes the three main ways of thinking about animal welfare and where there are theoretical areas of overlap.

Fig.2.1. Overlapping nature of different scientific views of animal welfare

In this diagram the animal may be in area A when the environment does not allow it to express particular behaviours, which could lead to feelings of frustration, but may not cause altered biological function (e.g. where an animal is unable to dustbathe if suitable substrate is not available). In area B the animal may be experiencing some altered biological function, the presence of a disease for example, which is causing the animal to feel unwell but has occurred in the natural environment of that species. In area C the animal may have contracted a disease, perhaps through exposure to a pathogen not found in the natural environment, which is altering biological responses but has not yet caused the animal to experience sickness or ill health. The particular scientific framework we use when we think about animal welfare will have an impact on the types of evidence we might use, and the weight we might place on different sorts of evidence as we will discuss in the next section.

The scientific basis to reach decisions about what is good or bad for animal welfare in terms of biological functioning, naturalness and feelings and emotions is summarised in Box 2.1 for your understanding.

23 Introduction to Animal Welfare and Behaviour Box 2.1: Scientific Basis of Animal Welfare

Biological Functioning Naturalness Feelings and Emotions This view of animal This view of animal welfare focuses on welfare considers This view of animal physiological functioning, the ability of the welfare considers that especially the stress axes, animal to live a the feelings or immune function, health, natural life and emotions that the growth and reproduction express its natural animal experiences as the main scientific patterns of are the main area of measures of animal behaviour. concern for animal welfare. welfare

Check Your Progress 1 Note: a) Use the spaces given below for your answers. b) Check your answer with those given at the end of the unit. 1) Briefly describe the three areas of animal welfare concern, giving examples. a) Biological functioning: ...... b) Naturalness: ...... c) Feelings: ......

24 2) Explain how good welfare and an animal living a natural life are related to Scientific Understanding one another? of Animal Welfare ...... 3) Explain why consideration of animal feelings and emotions is considered as closest to the public perception of animal welfare? ......

2.4 EVIDENCE BASED APPROACHES TO ANIMAL WELFARE

Animal welfare can be an emotional subject, and an area where many different groups or interested parties may have an opinion. Sometimes these opinions can be motivated by anthropomorphism, where we might think that an animal cannot be happy because we ourselves would not be happy in the situation, or we might think that the animal is doing well because we do not appreciate that the animal may require things that are not present in the environment. To avoid these misconceptions, we need to take an evidence-based approach to animal welfare, where we ask scientific questions about: What animals want or need, and How much it causes them to suffer if these things are not available. Often the starting point for these studies will be to look at the wild progenitors of the domesticated animal, and consider what behaviours they show and how they use the natural environment (this is similar to the naturalness view of animal welfare described above at sub-section 2.3.2). Although this can be a useful starting point, there may be no wild ancestors for a particular species available, or the natural environment can be so reduced that we may not be confident that the animal is able to show its natural evolved behaviour patterns so this approach can only be useful in some situations. More commonly, scientific studies are designed which measure aspects of the animals biological functioning, such as its heart rate or changes in specific hormones. Although it is not currently possible to investigate animal feelings with any certainty by experimentation, it is possible to ask questions which allow us to infer how an animal may feel about a situation (Box 2.2).

25 Introduction to Animal Welfare and Behaviour Box 2.2: Assessing how an Animal May Feel about a Situation Studies have asked animals to choose between different environments, or different opportunities, and asked the animal to ‘pay a price’ (such as pressing a lever or pushing against a weighted door) to access a particular environment or opportunity (such as bedding material). If an animal chooses to spend a lot of time in one environment, and very little in another, and also is prepared to work hard to access that environment, then we can conclude that it is important to the animal. If, however, the animal either avoids something or works hard to stay away from a particular environment or other challenge then we can infer that this is something that the animal does not like. If these studies are paired with experiments which also ask what happens to the animal biologically if it is made to experience different environments (by exposing the animal to the different environments without offering a choice), then we can begin to gather evidence in support of what the animal might prefer.

Example: Let’s consider a specific example of domestic chicken. You may be aware that domestic chickens have been developed from wild jungle fowl. In their natural environment jungle fowl use dust or sand to clean their feathers (dustbathing), and will roost at night in trees – for rest, sleep, escape from predation etc. Jungle fowl are a predated animal, so these behaviours help to keep their feathers in good condition, which means they can fly up into the trees at night to avoid foxes or leopards that would kill a jungle fowl. When chickens are domesticated, they are protected from such predators, generally, so producers of eggs might conclude that access to dust or sand to dustbathe, and a structure on which to perch at night are no longer important. However, experiments have shown that chickens choose to go into a compartment with a perch or an area in which they can dustbathe if offered a choice. In addition, they will push hard against a weighted door to get access and show altered behaviours and biological function (indicating a stress response) if they are not able to use these resources. These data therefore provide evidence that chickens want to be able to dustbathe and perch, even without predators being present, and that their welfare is reduced when they are not able to perform these behaviours. Before we proceed, please complete activity 1.

Activity 1. The following are examples of the requirements of dog, chicken and some zoo animals to express some normal behaviours: For dogs – access to social companions to allow social behaviours (such as grooming, playing, lying in contact) as dogs are pack animals and can become frustrated and lonely if kept alone. For chickens – access to sandy soils where they can peck, scratch and cover their feathers with dust to keep them in good condition; access to an elevated perch so that they can roost at night or keep out of reach of a predator. If birds are not allowed access to these things they can become fearful and distressed. For zoo animals – sufficient space to carry out some behaviour like to make dens or nests or beds that are suitable for the species. Things to do in the environment that will keep them occupied. e.g. devices that will allow them to show hunting or stalking behaviours or to swim or climb 26 etc. Scientific Understanding Visit a neighbour who keeps a pet dog / a nearby poultry farm / zoo / animal of Animal Welfare shelter. Select an animal, what might be its natural environment? Observe the animal - what behaviours is the animal performing? Write your observations......

Check Your Progress 2 Note: a) Use the spaces given below for your answers. b) Check your answer with those given at the end of the unit. 1) Why we need to take an evidence-based approach to animal welfare? ...... 2) For your animal chosen in Activity 1, write a list of behaviours that are important to this animal with reasons ......

2.5 ANIMAL WELFARE STANDARDS

In the previous unit, you studied that animal welfare is the ability of an animal to cope with its environment by maintaining ‘appropriate standards’ of housing, feeding and general care, the prevention and treatment of disease, the prevention of unnecessary fear, discomfort and pain, and the opportunity to express important species-specific behaviours. Let us discuss in this section what we mean by appropriate welfare standards.

Animal welfare standards are the defined criteria, set by a country or an organisation, that provide the lower limits for how animals must be kept and managed. Usually these describe the accepted management practices that relate 27 Introduction to Animal to a group or class of animals, or a particular stage in their life (during transport Welfare and Behaviour for example). International animal welfare standards are provided by the OIE for ten terrestrial animal conditions, and four aquatic animal standards. For terrestrial animals these include the transport of animals by land, sea and air, stray dog population management, use of animals in research and education and animal welfare in broiler chicken and beef production systems (Box 2.3).

Box 2.3: OIE Animal Welfare Standards The first OIE standards on animal welfare were published in the Terrestrial Code in 2004 and in the Aquatic Code in 2008, respectively. They are regularly updated as scientific knowledge evolves, and new standards are developed to cover different aspects of welfare. Like all OIE standards, these texts are science based. Member Countries, experts and relevant international governmental and non-governmental organisations are consulted throughout the development process. This ensures that the standards are in line with the most recent scientific developments. Each year the OIE World Assembly of Delegates adopts the new and revised standards. The first OIE standards on animal welfare addressed animal transport, the slaughter of animals, and killing for disease control purposes. Subsequently, other standards included the use of animals in research and education, stray dog population control and the welfare of working equids. The OIE’s most recent work on animal welfare standards has been in relation to production systems for beef and dairy cattle, broiler chickens and, most recently, pigs with four new chapters adopted since 2012. Unlike the OIE’s animal health and veterinary public health standards, animal welfare standards are not recognised in the WTO SPS Agreement. Nonetheless, as science-based international standards adopted by the OIE World Assembly of Delegates, they are the internationally recognised standards for animal welfare. Source: https://www.oie.int/en/animal-welfare/an-international-network-of- expertise/

Animal welfare standards, particularly for agricultural animals, may also be set by accreditation bodies or retailers, who require a higher standard of animal welfare than the minimum, which is usually set by the OIE standards or by other country practices. Under these conditions there is usually a process of inspection to ensure that producers meet the requirements that allow them to remain within an accreditation scheme. Animal welfare standards can be broadly categorised under the following three categories: 1) Optimal standards 2) Minimum standards 3) Absolute standards Let us discuss them briefly here. 2.5.1 Optimal Standards For most countries there is relatively limited legislation for animal welfare, and 28 most standards are developed as a set of guidelines or codes of practice. This sets out how animals should be treated, rather than how they must be treated. In Scientific Understanding the best cases this guidance is based on animal welfare science evidence, as of Animal Welfare described above, to ensure that following the guidance will lead to improved standards of animal welfare. In general, the guidance provides for the optimal standards of animal care: where all the animals’ needs are met, animals are protected from harm and any ill health is treated promptly. In practice there may be occasions when optimal standards of animal welfare cannot be met, if this conflicts with other needs such as human safety for example. However, achieving optimal standards of animal welfare should be the goal of all those responsible for animals. 2.5.2 Minimum Standards

Minimum animal welfare standards are usually proscribed by legislation, and will entail avoiding cruelty and deliberate harm to animals, and the minimum practices that must be respected to avoid prosecution. Minimum standards will differ in different countries, but the guidance of the OIE will be relevant to all countries. These standards therefore define the level of management and care for animals below which animal husbandry must not fall. For example, these standards would define the minimum size of pens, cages or enclosures in which animals can be kept, or the duration for which an animal can be transported before it must be allowed to leave a vehicle. Unlike optimal standards, which may be open to interpretation by animal keepers, minimal standards are fixed and function as a set of rules. 2.5.3 Absolute Standards

The minimal standards of animal welfare are usually defined on a country or state basis, that is the individual interpretation of the animal welfare evidence and the ethical or moral concerns of a nation are combined to describe the minimal, and sometimes the optimal, standards of animal welfare. Is there an absolute agreed standard of animal welfare that everyone should adhere to? The international standards proposed by the OIE attempt to provide this, to give animal welfare standards that apply to all animals regardless of the country in which they live.

(Please refer ‘MAW-004: Animal Welfare Practices, Economics and Livelihood’ for detailed discussion on animal welfare standards pertaining to different animals).

Before we proceed, please complete activity 2.

Activity 2. Visit a nearby animal welfare organization / veterinary hospital / slaughter house / farm / zoo / animal shelter. Obtain their opinion on optimal, minimum and absolute standards of animal welfare. Write your observations...... 29 Introduction to Animal Check Your Progress 3 Welfare and Behaviour Note: a) Use the spaces given below for your answers. b) Check your answer with those given at the end of the unit. 1) What are animal welfare standards? ...... 2) Name broad categories of animal welfare standards...... 3) Write the major difference between optimal, minimum and absolute standards of animal welfare......

2.6 LET US SUM UP Scientific understanding of animal welfare fall into three main areas: biological functioning; naturalness, and ; feelings and emotions Biological functioning is about measuring the responses of an animal to infer how well the animal is coping with the environment. Naturalness is about the match between the current environments that the animal is in compared to the environment in which the species evolved. Feelings is primarily focused on what animals are experiencing. Animal welfare first received public attention because of concern for animal feelings and emotions Biological, naturalness and feelings areas are overlapping, and inter-related To avoid misconceptions, we need to take an evidence-based approach to animal welfare with scientific questions to address what animals want or need, and how much it causes them to suffer if these things are not available. 30 Animal welfare standards can be broadly categorised under: optimal Scientific Understanding standards; minimum standards, and; absolute standards. of Animal Welfare Optimum animal welfare standards define or provide guidance on the best level of animal care, based on the evidence provided by animal welfare science. Minimum animal welfare standards are an indication of the lowest permitted level of animal welfare – these are the levels below which an animal should not fall. Absolute animal welfare standards are the agreed standard of animal welfare that everyone should adhere to and apply to all animals regardless of the country in which they live (e.g. OIE standards).

2.7 KEYWORDS

Absolute Animal Welfare Standards: They are the absolute agreed standard of animal welfare that everyone should adhere to and apply to all animals regardless of the country in which they live (e.g. OIE standards).

Animal Welfare Standards: The minimum conditions under which an animal should be kept as determined by legislation, or other bodies.

Biological Function: The physiological changes and responses made by all living things as they adjust to the environment.

Feelings: The sensations and experiences of conscious beings

Homeostasis: The set point for biological processes within the body (e.g. temperature, blood pressure) which the animal attempts to maintain by altering biological function if the environment has changed

Hypothalamic Pituitary Adrenal Axis: A hormonal system triggered in the brain (hypothalamus) which brings about the release of glucocorticoid hormones from the adrenal gland to support animal responses to environmental challenge.

Minimum Animal Welfare Standards: They are an indication of the lowest permitted level of animal welfare – these are the levels below which an animal should not fall.

Naturalness: The degree to which animals are living in an environment that is similar to that in which their species evolved, and the capacity that the animal has to perform the normal behaviours of that species.

Optimum Animal Welfare Standards: They define or provide guidance on the best level of animal care, based on the evidence provided by animal welfare science (on housing, feeding, healthcare, opportunity to express natural behaviour etc).

Sympathetic Adrenal Medulla Axis: A neural system triggered in response to challenge which brings about a ‘fight, flight or freeze’ response in the animal.

31 Introduction to Animal Welfare and Behaviour 2.8 BIBLIOGRAPHY AND FURTHER READING

Animal Welfare (2nd Edition), Editors: M.C. Appleby, J.A. Mench, I.A.S. Olsson, B.O.Hughes. CABI.

2.9 SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISES 1) Describe three different measures that may be useful for determining the biological function of an animal. 2) List four positive and four negative feelings that are relevant to animal welfare. 3) Consider a dairy cow kept tethered all day, with food and water but without access to other cows. Describe the welfare of this animal from the perspective of her a) biological function, b) naturalness and c) feelings. 4) Differentiate between minimum and optimal standards of animal welfare

2.10 ANSWERS/HINTS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check Your Progress 1 1) Briefly describe the three areas of animal welfare concern, giving examples. a) Biological functioning: It is about measuring the responses of an animal to infer how well the animal is coping with the environment. Suitable examples of measures could be measuring body temperature, or heart rate, looking at growth rate or milk or egg production and assessing levels of disease or infection.

b) Naturalness: It is about the match between the current environments that the animal is in compared to the environment in which the species evolved. Examples of measures could be whether the animal is able to perform behaviours that are important to the species, or looking at environmental features – does the animal need water to swim in, or trees to climb or holes in the ground to hide in for example.

c) Feelings: It is primarily focused on what animals are experiencing. Examples of this would be whether the animal is experiencing fear, frustration, anxiety, hunger (negative states) or contentment, relaxation, excitement or interest (positive states).

2) Good welfare and animal living a natural life are related to one another because natural life helps animals to express their evolved behaviour patterns. So we should create conditions where the animal has a life that accords with their species-specific capacities and adaptation patterns: conditions where the animal can be fulfilled and flourish.

3) Animal welfare first received public attention because of concern for the feelings and emotions of animals.

32 Check Your Progress 2 Scientific Understanding of Animal Welfare 1) We need to take an evidence-based approach to animal welfare to avoid some misconceptions and address what animals want or need, and how much it causes them to suffer if these things are not available.

2) Behaviours that are important to for dogs includes grooming, playing, lying in contact, access to social companions etc as dogs are pack animals and can become frustrated and lonely if kept alone. Similarly behaviours that are important to for chickens includes access to sandy soils where they can peck, scratch and cover their feathers with dust to keep them in good condition; access to an elevated perch so that they can roost at night or keep out of reach of a predator. If birds are not allowed access to these things they can become fearful and distressed.

Check Your Progress 3

1) Animal welfare standards are the minimum conditions under which an animal should be kept as determined by legislation, or other bodies.

2) Animal welfare standards can be broadly categorised under: optimal standards; minimum standards, and; absolute standards.

3) Optimum standards of animal welfare should define or provide guidance on the best level of animal care, based on the evidence provided by animal welfare science. This should provide guidance on housing or the environment, the dietary requirements of the animal and any other specific criteria about the needs of the animal. These should ensure that the animal is protected from harm and allowed the opportunity to express natural behaviour. Minimum standards are an indication of the lowest permitted level of animal welfare – these are the levels below which an animal should not fall. The international standards proposed by the OIE attempt to provide absolute standards that apply to all animals regardless of the country in which they live. They are the absolute agreed standard of animal welfare that everyone should adhere to.

33 Introduction to Animal Welfare and Behaviour UNIT 3 ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR

Structure 3.1 Learning Outcomes 3.2 Introduction 3.2.1 Meaning of Animal Behaviour 3.3 Normal Behaviour 3.3.1 Normal vs. Natural Behaviour 3.3.2 Normal Behaviour - Natural Behaviour - Animal Welfare 3.4 Understanding Abnormal Behaviours and their Causes 3.4.1 Mismatch between the Animal and its Environment 3.4.2 Behavioural Needs 3.5 Types of Abnormal Behaviour 3.5.1 Redirected Behaviour 3.5.2 Stereotypical Behaviour 3.5.3 Sham Behaviour 3.5.4 Self-directed Harmful Behaviour 3.5.5 Learned Helplessness Behaviour 3.6 Welfare Consequences of Abnormal Behaviour 3.7 Use of Behavioural Knowledge in the Management of Animals 3.7.1 Application of Behavioural Knowledge during Handling and Restraint 3.8 Let Us Sum Up 3.9 Keywords 3.10 Bibliography and Further Reading 3.11 Self Assessment Exercises 3.12 Answers/Hints to Check Your Progress 3.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES

a) Knowledge and Understanding: When you have studied this Unit, you should be able to: Explain the difference between normal and natural behaviour. Understand the causes of abnormal behaviour and give examples of the welfare issues associated with these. b) Practical and Professional Skills: When you have studied this Unit, you should be able to: Discuss different types of abnormal behaviour. Describe welfare consequences of abnormal behaviour. Summarize how we can use knowledge of animal behaviour when handling animals to achieve better welfare and productivity.

34 Animal Behaviour 3.2 INTRODUCTION

Dear Learner, In the previous unit, we discussed the scientific basis of animal welfare with focus on biological functioning, naturalness, feelings and emotions. We also discussed evidence based approaches to animal welfare and introduction to animal welfare standards. The Naturalness view of animal welfare considers the ability of the animal to live a natural life and express its natural patterns of behaviour. Therefore as an animal welfare student, we need to understand the difference between normal and natural behaviour, causes of abnormal behaviour, welfare issues associated with abnormal behaviour and use of behavioural knowledge in the management of animals to achieve better welfare and productivity. 3.2.1 Meaning of Animal Behaviour

Animal behaviour refers to the physical expression of bodily movements that result from an internal drive or motivation. A motivation is caused by a real or perceived need and performance of a behaviour that leads to this need being met will ordinarily reduce the motivation to perform the behaviour, at least temporarily. Behaviour is therefore the intervening step between the identification of a need and the satisfaction of that need. The behaviour performed at any given moment is often the outcome of many different motivations, some of which compete (for example the motivations to feed and to hide from predators). Behavioural expression can become extremely complex and dynamic especially where behaviour controls the interactions between individuals (Please refer Block 4, Unit 13, for a detailed discussion on social behaviour).

Behaviour can also be thought of as the outward and visible expression of internal regulatory processes that are invisible. This outward expression allows a window into the emotional state of animals. The previous Unit described how the subjective feelings of an animal are one of three broad ways in which we can assess the welfare state of animals. Expression of those feelings through behaviour is therefore a method by which animal welfare science can make inferences about the experiences of an animal. For this reason, behaviour is one of the key attributes assessed by more recent welfare assessment protocols, in addition to assessing simply whether adequate resources, such as space, are provided. Behaviour is also core to the interactions between animals. It is the mechanism by which one animal influences another and it is the method by which needs and intent are communicated between members of a species and sometimes between species. Behaviour therefore performs both a direct role in meeting the needs of the animal but also a communicatory role between animals, either for the benefit of the signaling animal, the receiver or both.

It may be assumed that natural selection will have reduced behavioural expression such that all members of a species will show a predictable and unvarying behavioural response to a given stimulus. Indeed there are examples whereby a stimulus triggers a highly predictable response, often in young animals, during mating or to reduce conflict. The large survival advantage attached to these behaviours has resulted in natural selection removing from the population animals that show alternative behavioural expression. Classical behavioural literature focused greatly on these species-typical ‘innate’ behavioural patterns. 35 Introduction to Animal Differences in behavioural expression have important implications for the welfare Welfare and Behaviour of captive animals and for their ease of management. In the sections below the issue of abnormal behaviour is discussed. The variation in expression of these undesirable behaviours makes some individuals better suited to captivity than others. This variation is exploited by the field of animal welfare science to understand the causes of welfare problems and the identification of solutions. Animal-based welfare assessment methods also fundamentally focus on observing variations in behaviour between individuals or compared to a pre-determined norm to develop an impression of an individual’s welfare state.

3.3 NORMAL BEHAVIOUR

3.3.1 Normal vs. Natural Behaviour

Due to the behavioural variation described above it should be apparent that the concept of normal behaviour is somewhat misleading. What we regard as ‘normal’ behaviours more accurately viewed as ‘average’ behaviour, or the range in behavioural responses shown by the majority of a population.

The term ‘normal’ behaviour is also often used as a synonym of ‘natural’ behaviour meaning that the behaviour of an individual or population in the wild is normal and all deviations from this caused by captivity are, by extension, abnormal. This linking of natural behaviour with ‘normality’ is the basis for why some consider that the ability to behave naturally is a prerequisite for good welfare.

From a practical perspective, using the terms ‘natural behaviour’ and ‘normal behaviour’ inter-changeably is unhelpful because all other forms of behaviour not seen in the wild must be labeled ‘abnormal’. As discussed below however, the term ‘abnormal behaviour’ is usually reserved to describe only those behaviours that are problematic for humans, the animals themselves or their group members, even if they are performed in the wild but at a level that does not cause the same problems.

Example 1: Fighting behaviour between unfamiliar pigs is completely natural in its form of expression and, under the right circumstances, can be observed in wild pigs, but it is the heightened frequency and duration of the behaviour that is abnormal under captivity rather than the behaviour itself.

Example 2: Reduction in predator avoidance behaviour shown in many domesticated species. Whilst this deviates from natural expression, it is not regarded as ‘abnormal’ behaviour since it does not lead to practical or welfare problems in an environment where predation is rare. 3.3.2 Normal Behaviour - Natural Behaviour - Animal Welfare

As described above, behaviour is driven by motivations, which are themselves triggered by an external stimulus (e.g. presence of a predator) or an internal stimulus (e.g. low blood sugar levels that create a sensation of hunger and a motivation to feed). The behavioural range shown by wild animals results from the multitude of internal and external stimuli present as a result of the wild environment. Captivity changes the mix of stimuli that animals must cope with and therefore the behaviours that they show. The absence of predators and presence of freely available food typically reduces anti-predator and foraging 36 behaviour. It is therefore too simplistic to assume that the presence of a complete Animal Behaviour wild behavioural range necessarily equates to good welfare whilst deviations from this are evidence of poor welfare. This does not mean that an ability to perform natural behaviour is not important for good welfare, but only that it is important to probe in more detail what the presence or absence of a particular stimulus means for the animal’s experience (e.g. its level of boredom). It is also important to understand what it means for the animal if the ability to show a full and appropriate behavioural response to a stimulus is prevented by the captive environment (e.g. its level of frustration).

3.4 UNDERSTANDING ABNORMAL BEHAVIOURS AND THEIR CAUSES

3.4.1 Mismatch between the Animal and its Environment

Abnormal behaviour is typically regarded as behaviour that deviates in some way from its natural form (or does not occur in the wild) and is problematic in some way. It results from a mismatch between the stimuli present in the captive environment and the animal’s ability to cope with the stimuli through mechanisms that it has acquired through evolution or lifetime development. Two examples may illustrate how this mismatch may come about for a variety of reasons: Example 1: The first is the problem of savaging whereby a mother pig (sow) attacks her own piglets shortly after their birth. This behaviour has never been observed in the wild. It is likely to result from many causes, one of which may be preventing captive sows from performing the behaviours that would normally lead up to birth in the wild such as nest building. Example 2: A second example is feather pecking in which laying hens pull at and remove the feathers of flock members. This behaviour occurs in barren environments where normal foraging behaviour is constrained by a lack of suitable stimuli to peck at. Under these conditions, the stimuli that allows the fullest expression of foraging behaviour is the plumage of other birds that then becomes the target of pecks. To understand the importance of nest building behaviour and the occurrence of feather pecking, it is helpful to invoke a concept called ‘behavioural needs’. 3.4.2 Behavioural Needs

Behavioural needs may be defined as behaviors that are motivated largely by internal stimuli and, if an animal is prevented from performing them for prolonged periods, the individual’s welfare may be compromised (Ted Friend, 1989). A general view of behaviour needs and how to quantify relative need to perform a particular behavior is summarized in Box 3.1. Box 3.1: Recognizing Behavioural Needs and their Quantification Behaviours that are motivated largely by internal stimuli are described as behavioural needs. Animal welfare may be compromised if an animal is prevented from performing the behaviour for prolonged periods. The relative need to perform a particular behavior has been estimated using the following techniques, in order from the least to the most specific and the strength of motivation: 37 Introduction to Animal Welfare and Behaviour 1) Observation of a species under “natural” conditions 2) Observation of overt behavior under structured or restricted conditions 3) Requiring an animal to “work” for the opportunity to perform specific behaviors 4) Controlled behavioral deprivation followed by open-field testing 5) Quantification of physiological responses indicative of stress. Careful experimentation is necessary to determine where on the scale of “need” a particular behavior resides. Source: Ted Friend (1989)

Behavioural needs arise when performance of a behaviour is necessary to reduce the motivation to perform the behaviour itself, irrespective of whether there is any benefit or function in continuing to express the behaviour.

Example 1: Feather pecking is believed to be primarily a result of a motivation to forage in an environment that is not sufficiently complex to allow normal foraging behaviour to occur. The foraging behaviour is redirected towards group members and this occurs irrespective of the fact that the birds are provided with freely available nutritious food and foraging behaviour is not required.

Example 2: Similarly, pigs appear to be highly motivated to build a nest before giving birth even though a nest is not required in a captive environment that provides warmth and protection from predators.

In these example, the captive environment may have removed the functions of the behaviours to promote fitness (foraging and nest building are not needed for survival) but not the motivation that leads to the performance of the behaviour. Therefore, to understand whether an animal has a ‘need’ to perform a behaviour, we must assess how hard it will work to perform the behaviour itself rather than consider only the fitness consequences attached to the behaviour in the wild. We can for example, quantify how much work a pig would be willing to perform in order to access material with which to construct a nest. Before we proceed, please complete activity 1.

Activity 1 (Focus Group Discussion): Conduct a Focus Group Discussion with your friends and colleagues on the following: Can we consider ‘normal’ behavior as the range in behavioural responses shown by the majority of a population i.e ‘average’ behaviour’? Is the behaviour of an individual or population in the wild is normal and all deviations from this caused by captivity are, by extension, abnormal? Is the ability to behave naturally is a prerequisite for good welfare? Compare the outcome of Focus Group Discussion with the discussion above and write your observations...... 38 Check Your Progress 1 Animal Behaviour Note: a) Use the spaces given below for your answers. b) Check your answer with those given at the end of the unit. 1) Write the meaning of behaviour? ...... 2) Why is behaviour one of the key attributes in welfare assessment protocols? ...... 3) Write in general terms, what do we mean by normal behaviour? ...... 4) What are behavioural needs? ...... 5) How are behavioural needs linked to animal welfare? ......

39 Introduction to Animal 6) Why does a behavioural need matter? Welfare and Behaviour ......

3.5 TYPES OF ABNORMAL BEHAVIOUR

In the above sections, we discussed in general terms that behaviour of an individual or population in the wild is normal and all deviations from this caused by captivity are, by extension, abnormal, particularly when these result in problems for humans, the animal, or other animals in the social group. Abnormal behavior often results (Garner, 2005): When an animal is housed in an environment where it is exposed to chronic aversive stimuli Where it cannot perform behaviors normally essential to reproduction or survival in the wild Where it cannot perform behaviors that would correct the homeostatic imbalance it is experiencing. Abnormal behavior serves as an: Indicator of poor welfare (i.e., negative internal experiences, impaired function, and/or denied natural behavior) Indicator of stress and even failing homeostasis (Duncan and Fraser 1997). The criterion for identifying abnormal behaviour is summarised in Box 3.2.

Box 3.2: Criterion for Identifying Abnormal Behaviour Abnormal behaviors in animals are identified on the basis of the following criteria, none of which is necessary or sufficient: Is the behavior seen only in captivity (e.g., stereotypies)? If seen in the wild as well as captivity, is the behavior performed in inappropriate circumstances (e.g., infanticide in mice), or performed excessively (e.g., screeching in parrots)? Does the behavior involve self-injury (e.g., self-biting in primates), affect social interactions (e.g., barbering in mice), or have deleterious consequences on growth or reproduction (e.g., stereotypies in mink)? Is the behavior peculiar to a subset of individuals (e.g., barbering in mice)? Does the behavior induce signs of distress in the animal or its companions? Source: Garner (2005) 40 Abnormal behaviour forms can be classified as the following types (Table 3.1): Animal Behaviour 1) Redirected behaviour 2) Stereotypical behaviour 3) Sham behaviour 4) Self-directed harmful behaviour 5) Learned helplessness Table 3.1: Forms of Abnormal Behaviour and Examples

Type of Description Examples abnormal behaviour 1) Redirected Behaviour that is Feather pecking and behaviour redirected towards a cannibalism (hens); fin group member rather chewing (farmed fish); tail than a more appropriate and ear biting (pigs); belly target nosing (pigs) and cross sucking (calves). 2) Stereotypical Apparently functionless Pacing in zoo and performing behaviour and repetitive behaviour animals; biting of fittings in seen in many species in stabled horses; biting of bars unstimulating in sows in gestation crates. environments

3) Sham Behaviour performed Dust bathing movements in behaviour despite the absence of poultry in cages that are substrates to allow its devoid of substrate; nest proper execution building movements in sows in environments lacking litter; courtship responses and displays directed at inanimate objects.

4) Self-directed Self-mutilation in Excessive grooming, licking harmful response to severe and biting at limbs in dogs, behaviour stress laboratory rodents and other species; feather plucking in parrots. 5) Learned Failure to show a Pigs that are the victims of helplessness behavioural reaction to severe tail biting; hens that are on-going physical injury the victims of severe feather as a result of a prolonged pecking. inability to control the environment

The abnormal behaviour forms are described in a little more detail below for your comprehension.

41 Introduction to Animal 3.5.1 Redirected Behaviour Welfare and Behaviour As outlined for feather pecking above, provision of an environment that does not allow fulfillment of highly motivated behaviour can lead to the redirection of the behaviour towards group members that offer the closest approximation to the environmental resource that is lacking. Pigs, for example, spend up to 75% of their active time rooting for buried food in the wild. When housed in a stimulus- poor indoor environment without bedding, rooting behaviour is severely constrained. Under these conditions, the objects in the environment that allow for greatest manipulation are the tail and ears of other pigs. Tail biting has a high incidence in indoor commercial housing systems that use slatted (i.e. drained) rather than bedded floors. It is one of the more common and severe challenges to pig welfare (Fig. 3.1). Its expression is highly variable between pigs and influenced by many proximate factors such as temperature, illness and nutrition. The occurrence of tail biting is unpredictable but it can spread through observational learning in the manner of an epidemic and be very difficult to stop. Redirected behaviour can also be triggered by the sudden weaning of animals at a young age. Even when nutritional requirements are met, suckling behaviour can be redirected towards other group members and be expressed as belly nosing in young pigs and cross-sucking in calves.

Fig. 3.1: Tail biting in Pigs

3.5.2 Stereotypical Behaviour

The performance of repetitive, invariant and apparently functionless behaviour is most often seen in zoo and performing animals housed in unstimulating and physically constraining environments. The stereotypical pattern adopted is typically unique to the individual and there is individual variation in the susceptibility to perform stereotypical behaviour. Examples of this behaviour 42 can include repetitive pacing, swaying, head tossing and route-tracing (where Animal Behaviour the animal may follow the same path or route around an enclosure many times a day). Blocks of stereotypical behaviour can last for many minutes without interruption and occupy a significant part of the day. Performance of this behaviour can become ingrained in an individual over a period of months or years and be difficult to stop even upon movement to a more stimulating environment. 3.5.3 Sham Behaviour

The lack of a resource usually manipulated during the normal performance of behaviour does not always prevent the behaviour being executed if it is highly motivated. In the wild, sows gather vegetation and build elaborate nests in which to give birth. Housing of sows in crated systems prevents physical movement and offers no form of resource with which to build a nest. Despite this, pawing movements with the feet and movements of the head identical to those seen in the wild are performed in the complete absence of substrates to manipulate. Similarly, hens housed in wire-bottom cages devoid of substrate will perform sham dust bathing in which movements are performed that would normally cover the feathers in dust. 3.5.4 Self-directed Harmful Behaviour

Self-directed harmful behaviour is self-mutilation in response to severe stress. Excessive grooming and biting at limbs in dogs, laboratory rodents and other species are examples for this abnormal behaviour. Housed birds, such as parrots, may pluck out their feathers and often these behaviour can continue neven when the animal has caused significant tissue damage to itself. 3.5.5 Learned Helplessness Behaviour

This form of abnormal behaviour occurs when there is a failure to show a behavioural reaction to on-going physical injury as a result of a prolonged inability to control the environment. This was first shown experimentally where animals given repeated electric shocks eventually ceased to respond and did not move away when they received shocks. Other examples includes: Pigs that are the victims of severe tail biting; hens that are the victims of severe feather pecking. Check Your Progress 2 Note: a) Use the spaces given below for your answers. b) Check your answer with those given at the end of the unit. 1) What are the causes of abnormal behaviour? ...... 43 Introduction to Animal 2) Write two indicators of abnormal behaviour Welfare and Behaviour ...... 3) Write any three criteria for identifying abnormal behaviour ...... 4) Name the five abnormal behaviour forms ...... 5) Write two examples each for the following abnormal behaviours: a) Redirected Behaviour: ...... b) Stereotypical Behaviour : ...... c) Sham Behaviour: ...... d) Self-directed Harmful Behaviour: ...... 44 e) Learned Helplessness: Animal Behaviour ......

3.6 WELFARE CONSEQUENCES OF ABNORMAL BEHAVIOUR

The performance of abnormal behaviour indicates a mismatch between what the animal expects and what it can achieve. What this means for the animal and its quality of life is an active topic of research in the field of animal welfare science. Physiological and neurological changes indicate that performance of abnormal behaviour is often accompanied by a physical effort to cope with a sub-standard environment. However, as outlined in Unit 1, animal wants and feelings are central to one of the interpretations of the concept of animal welfare. With this in mind, it is essential to understand the emotional consequences for the animal of an environment that leads to abnormal behaviour.

Although we can never truly know what an animal feels as this is a personal, individual and subjective experience, we can make inferences about what an animal wants by giving the animal choices. In its simplest form this involves offering the animals a choice between environments differing in quality and observing which it spends most time in. To gain insight into how much an animal wants its preferred choice, it may also be asked to work to obtain access to higher quality environments to quantify the value placed on these environments. Often this willingness to work is compared against how hard the animal will work for other resources such as social contact or food. We can also assess the impact of housing in a poor environment on mood using the quality of behavioural expression and the tendency to make choices in an optimistic or pessimistic frame of mind, in which pessimism is encouraged by a poor environment. Measures that provide insight into welfare assessment and auditing of animal welfare are described in more detail in Block 3.

Some forms of redirected abnormal behaviour have greater welfare detriment for the animals that it is targeted towards, rather than the actor itself. Thus the occurrence of abnormal behaviours such as tail biting and feather pecking may suggest that the actor is struggling to cope with its environment, but these behaviours also have significant physical and probably emotional effects on the victims.

Tail biting for example can lead to pain, infection and amputation of the tail. In advanced stages victims can demonstrate learned helplessness.

Similarly, feather pecking can lead to pain, denudation of large areas of the body, difficulty with regulating heat loss and learned helplessness. A related behaviour in which pecking is targeted towards the vent can lead to removal of internal organs though the cloaca and cannibalism.

Much effort is directed at seeking ways to enrich pig and poultry housing environments with the substrates needed to allow appropriate exploratory and pecking behaviour in a cost-effective manner. Currently however, the majority 45 Introduction to Animal of pigs housed in stimulus-poor environments are tail-docked (removal of a Welfare and Behaviour portion of the tail) which reduces damage from tail biting and the majority of laying hens are beak-trimmed (removal of the beak tip) to reduce the tendency to feather peck. This is likely to simply reduce the damaging effects of these behaviours but to do nothing to satisfy the motivations that led to their performance in the first place. Damaging behaviours such as these can have major impacts but usually on a minority of animals. Performance of husbandry practices such as tail docking and beak trimming are usually performed on all animals in a population without anaesthesia or analgesia. This raises a difficult ethical decision about whether prevention of serious harm to a minority justifies a less severe harm to all. Ethical issues of this kind are discussed in more detail in Block 5.

3.7 USE OF BEHAVIOURAL KNOWLEDGE IN THE MANAGEMENT OF ANIMALS

It should be clear that reference to behavioural expression and knowledge of how behaviour has evolved can help to identify the source of problems in captivity. Examples exist whereby knowledge of the behavioural needs of animals has led to changes in legislation that aim to ensure that highly motivated behaviours can be appropriately expressed. Example: The EU legislation requires that hens be able to dust bathe even in cages (sometimes called ‘enriched cages’ or ‘furnished cages’) and that pigs be given adequate material to show very basic nest building behaviour before parturition and that they are provided with enough substrate to manipulate to meet their need to root and explore. Specific examples of the use of behavioural knowledge during animal handling are discussed below: 3.7.1 Application of Behavioural Knowledge during Handling and Restraint

Humans are regarded as a predator or threat by many of the species we manage. Handling of most species therefore invokes an amount of anxiety or fear, the level of which differs between species and individuals. Minimization of fear during handling can: Reduce the risk of injury to humans and animals Increase the efficiency of handling, and Improve the productivity and reproductive performance of livestock. Fundamental to achieving these benefits is knowledge of which aspects of human behaviour or the physical environment cause stress and how this is manifest in behavioural reactions indicative of fear. Handling of cattle provides a useful example as cattle are fearful of new events or places (‘novelty’) and dislike social isolation. Fear among cattle is expressed by: Vocalisations Defecation Freezing (becoming physically immobile but with the body rigid and tense) 46 Kicking at a threat and Animal Behaviour Running and jumping in an attempt to escape. These behaviours are most evident when a human enters within the ‘flight zone’ of the animal which is a region of protected space that, when entered, will cause the animal to withdraw. An inability to withdraw leads to panic and vigorous escape behaviour with associated risk of injury. Entering the flight zone should be a strategy used only when the animal has the opportunity to withdraw and correct use of the flight zone is what separates good handlers from poor ones. In addition to human behaviour, it is also critical that the physical handling systems themselves are designed using knowledge of how animals have evolved behaviourally to respond to threats.

Naturally predated species continue to show high levels of vigilance when domesticated and will withdraw from startling stimuli such as sudden noises or unexpected movements. Handling systems must be quiet and free of objects that are blown by the wind. Livestock will attempt to return towards their point of entry into a handling system and a system should therefore be orientated to exploit rather than work against this tendency. The point in the system in which they will experience the greatest isolation and proximity of humans (e.g. the point at which health treatments occur) should allow a clear view of the exit of the system and the route back to their ‘home’ environment. Wild-living herbivores will often circle a threat rather than retreat in a straight line from it. Modern handling systems for cattle and sheep exploit this behaviour by using curved rather than straight passageways to encourage calm forward movement. Herbivores show much greater behavioural evidence of fear when handled in isolation from other animals and it is often quicker, easier and safer to move two animals that have a calming influence on each other than one. These behavioural principles are increasingly adopted on progressive farms and abattoirs.

Before we proceed, please complete activity 2 and 3.

Activity 2 (Review of Literature): The flight zone is the distance within which a person can approach an animal before it moves away. Herd animals usually turn and face a potential threat when it is outside of their flight zone, but when it enters the flight zone, the animal turns and moves away. By review of literature, identify the flight zone of the following animals: a) Cattle : ...... b) Buffalo : ...... c) Horse : ...... d) Pig : ...... e) Chicken : ......

Activity 3 (Website Search) : http://www.grandin.com/ Please visit the above website by Temple Grandin, a leading author on animal handling. It describes in more detail the stimuli that are fearful to animals and how we can use this knowledge to handle them more sensitively and efficiently. It provides many practical examples of handling systems. Write your observations and knowledge you gained. 47 Introduction to Animal ...... Welfare and Behaviour ......

Check Your Progress 3 Note: a) Use the spaces given below for your answers. b) Check your answer with those given at the end of the unit. 1) What are the welfare consequences of abnormal behaviour? ...... 2) What are the advantages of minimising fear during handling of animals? ...... 3) What are the symptoms of fear among animals? ...... 4) What characteristic separates a good animal handler from a poor one? ...... 48 Animal Behaviour 3.8 LET US SUM UP Behaviour is the means by which animals interact with their environment, including each other. It is the means by which they meet their survival needs and is one of the mechanisms by which they communicate. Clues to the animal’s physical and mental state are also coded within the choice of behaviour and the character of its expression. As such, behavioural expression is fundamental to the management of animals and is central to any animal-based welfare assessment systems. Captive animals retain many of the behavioural characteristics of their wild counterparts but deviations in the types and quantities of behaviour are caused by the ready availability of food and control of predators and the frequently unstimulating environment. Abnormal behaviour is that which deviates from behaviour in the wild and causes problems to humans, the animal or its group members. Many forms of abnormal behaviour exist but all are caused by a mismatch in what the animal needs from what the environment provides or an inability to control the environment. Knowledge of what causes fear in animals together with the behavioural response they have evolved to show to a threat can be used to avoid stress during handling and to make handling easier and safer. Skillful application of behavioural knowledge characterizes good animal handlers. 3.9 KEYWORDS

Abnormal Behaviour: Behaviour that either are not shown in the wild at all or at a different level to that in captivity and cause problems for humans, the animal or other group members. Animal Behaviour: Refers to the physical expression of bodily movements that result from an internal drive or motivation. Behavioural Needs: Behaviours that are motivated largely by internal stimuli. Flight Zone: Flight zone of the animal is a region of protected space that, when entered, will cause the animal to withdraw. Learned Helplessness Behaviour: Failure to show a behavioural reaction to on-going physical injury as a result of a prolonged inability to control the environment. Natural Behaviour: This encompasses those behaviours shown by the species under wild conditions and at the same frequency, duration or intensity. It does not include those behaviours that are shown only in captivity but not seen in the wild or those shown at a level that differs from the wild. Redirected Behaviour: Targeting of behaviour towards a group member due to the absence of a more appropriate target. Sham Behaviour: Behaviours performed despite the absence of appropriate substrates. Stereotypical Behaviour: Repetitive, apparently functionless sequences of behaviour. 49 Introduction to Animal Welfare and Behaviour 3.10 BIBLIOGRAPHY AND FURTHER READING

Broom, D.M. and Fraser, A.F. (5th Edition, 2015) Domestic Animal Behaviour and Welfare. Published by CABI International (This book has for many years been the main text book for students of applied animal behaviour. It describes in more detail many of the behavioural principles covered in this unit).

Duncan, I.J.H. and Fraser, D. (1997). Understanding Animal Welfare. In: MC Appleby BO Hughes eds. Animal Welfare. Wallingford UK: CAB International. p xiii , 316.

Garner, Joseph P (2005). Stereotypies and Other Abnormal Repetitive Behaviors: Potential Impact on Validity, Reliability, and Replicability of Scientific Outcomes. ILAR Journal, 46 (2): 106–117.

Livestock Handling and Transport. Edited by T. Grandin. Published by CAB International (This book gives a very accessible explanation of how a scientific understanding of animal behaviour can be applied to improve the practical handling of livestock).

M.C. Appleby, J.A. Mench, I.A.S. Olsson, B.O.Hughes. Animal Welfare (2018, 3rd Edition), Editors: CABI.

Ted Friend (1989). Recognizing Behavioral Needs. Applied Animal Behaviour Science. 22 (2): 151-158.

3.11 SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISES

1) Presence of a complete wild behavioural range necessarily equates to good welfare whilst deviations from this are evidence of poor welfare. Comment. 2) Describe the difference between natural behaviour and normal behaviour. 3) What is meant by ‘abnormal behaviours’ and why are these behaviours shown? 4) Give three examples of different forms of abnormal behaviour and specific examples of each. 5) Name some of the strategies used to reduce the damage caused by redirected abnormal behaviour. 3.12 ANSWERS / HINTS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check Your Progress 1

1) Animal behaviour refers to the physical expression of bodily movements that result from an internal drive or motivation.

2) The subjective feelings of an animal are one of three broad ways in which we can assess the welfare state of animals. Expression of those feelings through behaviour is therefore a method by which animal welfare science can make inferences about the experiences of an animal. For this reason, 50 behaviour is one of the key attributes assessed by more recent welfare Animal Behaviour assessment protocols.

3) The term ‘normal’ behaviour is also often used as a synonym of ‘natural’ behaviour meaning that the behaviour of an individual or population in the wild is normal and all deviations from this caused by captivity are, by extension, abnormal.

4) Behavioural needs may be defined as behaviours that are motivated largely by internal stimuli.

5) If an animal is prevented from performing behavioural needs for prolonged periods, the individual’s welfare may be compromised.

6) Behavioural needs arise when performance of a behaviour is necessary to reduce the motivation to perform the behaviour itself, irrespective of whether there is any benefit or function in continuing to express the behaviour.

Check Your Progress 2

1) The causes of abnormal behaviour are : housing of animals in an environment where it is exposed to chronic aversive stimuli; when animal cannot perform behaviours normally essential to reproduction or survival in the wild, and ; when animal cannot perform behaviours that would correct the homeostatic imbalance it is experiencing.

2) Abnormal behaviour is an indicator of poor welfare and stress and an inability to maintain homeostasis.

3) Abnormal behaviors in animals are identified on the basis of the criteria such as: Is the behaviour seen only in captivity; If seen in the wild as well as captivity, is the behavior performed in inappropriate circumstances; does the behaviour involve self-injury, affect social interactions or have deleterious consequences on growth or reproduction etc.

4) The five abnormal behaviour forms are: Redirected behaviour; Stereotypical behaviour; Sham behaviour; Self-directed harmful behaviour, and; Learned helplessness.

5) (a) Redirected behaviour: Feather pecking and cannibalism in hens; tail and ear biting in pigs. (b) Stereotypical behaviour : Pacing in zoo and performing animals; biting of fittings in stabled horses. (c) Sham behaviour: Dust bathing movements in poultry in cages; nest building movements in sows in environments lacking litter.(d) Self-directed harmful behaviour: Excessive grooming and biting at limbs in dogs.(e) Learned helplessness: Pigs that are the victims of severe tail biting; hens that are the victims of severe feather pecking.

Check Your Progress 3

1) Some forms of redirected abnormal behaviour have greater welfare detriment for the animals that it is targeted towards, rather than the actor itself. Thus the occurrence of behavioural vices such as tail biting and feather pecking may suggest that the actor is struggling to cope with its environment, but 51 Introduction to Animal these behaviours also have significant physical and emotional effects on Welfare and Behaviour the victims. Tail biting for example can lead to pain, infection and amputation of the tail. In advanced stages victims can demonstrate learned helplessness.

2) The advantages of minimising fear during handling of animals includes: Reduce the risk of injury to humans and animals; Increase the efficiency of handling, and; Improve the productivity and reproductive performance of livestock.

3) The symptoms of fear among animals are: Vocalisations; Defecation; Freezing; Kicking at a threat, and; Running and jumping in an attempt to escape.

4) Correct use of the flight zone is what separates good handlers from poor ones.

52 UNIT 4 HUMAN-ANIMAL INTERACTION Animal Behaviour

Structure 4.1 Learning Outcomes 4.2 Introduction 4.3 Anthrozoology 4.4 Animals and Humans 4.4.1 Definition of Animals 4.4.2 Definition of Humans 4.5 Classification of Animal Kingdom 4.6 Domestication of Animals 4.6.1 Meaning of Domestication 4.6.2 Chronological Development of Animal Domestication 4.7 Human-Animal-Interactions 4.7.1 Positive Human - Animal Interactions 4.7.2 Negative Human - Animal Interactions 4.8 Different Purposes of Human - Animal Interaction 4.8.1 Farm Animals 4.8.2 Wild Life and Zoo Animals 4.8.3 Leisure Animals 4.8.4 Research Animals 4.9 Let Us Sum Up 4.10 Keywords 4.11 Bibliography and Further Reading 4.12 Self Assessment Exercises 4.13 Answers / Hints to Check Your Progress 4.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES a) Knowledge and Understanding: When you have studied this unit, you will be able to: Understand the concept of human-animal interactions i.e. Anthrozoology. Assess the key aspects of history of human-animal interaction. b) Practical and Professional Skills: When you have studied this unit, you will be able to: Discuss the factors influencing human-animal relationships. Analyse the positive and negative human-animal relationships in a variety of contexts. Differentiate cultural variation in human perceptions, beliefs and attitudes regarding animals. Synthesise different purposes of human - animal interactions.

53 Introduction to Animal Welfare and Behaviour 4.2 INTRODUCTION

Dear Learner,

You are aware that animals fulfil a variety of roles within human societies. So you can find animals in domestic environments as pets or livestock, to serve as a food or to provide fibre for making clothes. Humans also use animals for entertainment, sports and education. Animals are found in different types of research especially in the medical professions. The relationships between humans and animals are manifold and of varying degrees. The roles of the animals differ but also the roles of the humans and there will be no one theory explaining human-animal relationships. In this unit, you will learn about the theoretical and practical aspects of human - animal interaction by examining the animals’ aspect of the interaction to the wider subject area by adopting a multidisciplinary approach.

4.3 ANTHROZOOLOGY

The study of human animal interaction is often referred to as ‘Anthrozoology’. It is a composite word consisting of the prefix anthro – which is derived from the Greek prefix Anthropo - and means human or human related and the word zoology, which refers to the scientific study of animals investigating their structure, function, ecology and evolution.

Anthrozoology refers to the study of Human-Animal interactions or Human- Animal relations. Anthrozoology aims to understand the relationships between people and animals. This may be on an individual or collective level. Anthrozoology specifically evaluates the way in which animals make human beings feel, and how animals may affect emotions, both in a positive and negative sense. The interdisciplinary nature of Anthrozoology is summarised in Box 4.1.

Box 4.1: Interdisciplinary Nature of Anthrozoology Anthrozoology has been described as being an interdisciplinary research field. This means that it crosses traditional boundaries between various disciplines. You could also describe Anthrozoology as a trans-disciplinary field, which again accounts for the cross of traditional boundaries but also includes the input of stakeholders in defining objectives and strategies. A variation of Anthrozoology definitions can be found in the literature; it may be defined as interdisciplinary, trans-disciplinary, multidisciplinary, cross-disciplinary research. These are partly synonyms and partly not, but they all have in common that Anthrozoology reaches out into a variety of traditional research areas such as anthropology, sociology, psychology, veterinary sciences, medicine, psychiatry to name a few.

After reading the discussion on Anthrozoology, the following questions may come to your mind: What are humans? What are animals? What are Human-Animal-relationships or interactions? 54 These questions highlight that the answers are not straightforward and, depending Human-Animal on whom you would ask, answers may be differing. The following sections will Interaction provide a variety of perspectives on humans and animals for your comprehension. After reading them, you may even have your own concept of what a human or an animal is and how they might interact.

4.4 ANIMALS AND HUMANS

4.4.1 Definition of Animals

Animals can be defined in multiple ways and from different perspectives. Two important definitions are provided below for your understanding. Animals are ‘any of a kingdom (Animalia) of living things including many- celled organisms and often many of the single-celled ones (e.g. protozoans) that typically differ from plants in having cells without cellulose walls, in lacking chlorophyll and the capacity for photosynthesis, in requiring more complex foods, in being organised to a greater degree of complexity, and in having the capacity for spontaneous movement and rapid motor response to stimulation’ - Merriam-Webster Dictionary Animals are living organisms which feed on organic matter, typically having specialised sense organs and nervous systems and able to respond rapidly to stimuli - The Oxford Dictionary. The Oxford Dictionary also sub-defines the term animal: 1. Any such living organism other than a human being. 2. A mammal, as opposed to a bird, reptile, fish, or insect. Animals are generally distinguished from plants by: Being unable to synthesize organic molecules from inorganic ones, so that they have to feed on plants or on other animals. Typically able to move about, though this ability is sometimes restricted to a particular stage in the life cycle. The definitions highlight that animals and plants are separate entities and it is from a biological perspective very easy to distinguish between them. However, in some definitions it is not clear as to whether humans are included in the definition of animals or not. The Oxford dictionary provides sub-definitions, which then states that animals are living things other than humans, which suggest an exclusion of humans. 4.4.2 Definition of Humans

What differentiates humans from other animals? A human is defined as a member of the species Homo sapiens. It has also been defined as relating to or concerning people. From a purely zoological point of view you can argue that all humans are animals since the species Homo sapiens belongs to the kingdom Animalia. However, historically a distinction between animals and humans has been made. In the 17th century the philosopher Rene Descartes started a tradition of views mainly dominated by religious ideologies which form the base of most western societies and to date influence the ways of differentiating between animals and humans. These views include that humans have souls and animals do not, that 55 Introduction to Animal humans make rational choices and animals act instinctively – humans have the Welfare and Behaviour mental capacity for complex cognitive processing.

Distinctions have been made mainly by philosophers, for example Immanuel Kant in the 18th century. A Kantian approach to defining humans would be that attributes humans uniquely claim should be omitted in animals – this explains that the generic concept of ‘animal’ has a negative attribution due to the sum of deficiencies. It has been argued for a long time that the following are unique characteristics for humans: 1) Conscious thoughts and feelings 2) Awareness of one’s own mortality / death 3) Ability to reason 4) Complex social behaviour 5) Ability to team work 6) Ability to manipulate the environment 7) Grammatical language 8) Ability to create culture and cultural products and 9) Ability to transmit learned behaviour from one individual to another. However, most if not all of these traits have been demonstrated in different animal species as well and are, thus, not unique characteristics of humans.

Before we proceed, please complete activity 1.

Activity 1 (Reflective Thinking): Talk to your friends or colleagues about the meaning and differences between human and animal. Compare their responses to the discussion given in the section. What are the similarities and what are the differences? How could you explain these differences and what might these differences mean in a wider societal context? ......

Check Your Progress 1 Note: a) Use the spaces given below for your answers. b) Check your answer with those given at the end of the unit. 1) Write the roles that animals fulfil within human societies...... 56 2) What is Anthrozoology? Human-Animal Interaction ...... 3) Write the meaning of animals and humans ...... 4) In what way animals are generally distinguished from plants? ......

4.5 CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMAL KINGDOM

Animal classification has been a traditional field in zoology and a hierarchical classification is mostly used to describe the animal kingdom. The scientific classification found in most biology textbooks is presented in Box 4.2.

Box 4.2: Scientific Classification of Animals Domain

Kingdom

Phylum

Class

Order

Family

Genus

Species

Source: Encyclopedia Britannica 57 Introduction to Animal The classification of human being using this hierarchical classification scheme Welfare and Behaviour is presented in Box 4.3 for your understanding. Box 4.3. Scientific Classification of Humans

Domain - Eukaryote

Kingdom - Animalia

Phylum - Chordata

Class - Mammalia

Order - Primates

Family - Hominidae

Genus- Homo

Species – Homo sapiens

Source: Encyclopedia Britannica

It is possible to classify all animals in this way however, differences may lie in which family or orders some animals are classified in. Due to new genetic testing and some traditionally classified animals may be reclassified. Some authors also use sub-phyla and sub-classes in their classification of animals.

Moving on from a traditional zoological classification animals can be grouped/ or classified in different ways or on some criterion depending on peoples’ perception of animals. Young children mainly use morphological characteristics to classify animals, for example the number of legs, the presence of hair, fins or wings. Additionally environmental aspects are taken into account, for example where the animals live, e.g. in the forest, in water on trees etc. In general these properties maintain into adulthood to characterise animals, however, older children and adults have also been shown to use their perceptions of utility of an animal and their affective reactions (do I like this animal or not) to classify animals. This results in a different categorisation of animals than the traditional zoological classification scheme. We may also categorise animals into farm animals, wild animals, pet animals and birds, each of these groups had a variety of sub-groups. Depending on the environment within which people have to evaluate or classify animals different domains will be used. These domains will be influenced by peoples’ professional backgrounds e.g. farmers will classify animals differently than zoologists or veterinarians, it is also influenced by peoples’ culture for example the Indian farmers are known for being a farm animal loving community and attitudes towards farm animals are mainly positive. People from urban areas differentiate between pets and farm animals and do not necessarily show equivalent positive attitudes towards farm animals. Other cultures might have a more utilitarian view of animals for example as helpers for their everyday work (e.g. horses and donkeys to help with transportation work). These animals are highly valued by their owners but may lack animal welfare standards due to a 58 wide range of environmental and human factors. Please recollect from Unit 1 that for PG Diploma in Animal Welfare, we Human-Animal categorised animals under the broad area ‘Managed Animals’ to study animal Interaction welfare science, ethics and standards for: 1) Dairy animals / Large Ruminants – Cattle and Buffaloes 2) Small Ruminants – Sheep and Goat 3) Pigs 4) Poultry 5) Working animals – Horses 6) Performing animals - Elephants 7) Pet and companion animals 8) Zoo animals other managed wildlife 9) Lab animals used in biomedical research and teaching Before we proceed, please complete activity 2.

Activity 2 (Group Discussion): ‘All humans are animals’ – Discuss this statement with your friends / colleagues / fellow learners on the following perspectives: What makes an animal an animal and a human a human? How do animals and humans differentiate? Compare their responses to the discussion given in the section and write the outcome......

Check Your Progress 2 Note: a) Use the spaces given below for your answers. b) Check your answer with those given at the end of the unit. 1) How are human beings classified scientifically? ...... 59 Introduction to Animal 2) Write the criterion on which animals can be grouped depending on peoples’ Welfare and Behaviour perception of animals......

4.6 DOMESTICATION OF ANIMALS

4.6.1 Meaning of Domestication

Domestication as defined by Webster is ‘the adaptation of an animal or plant to life in an intimate association with and to the advantage of man or another species, by modifying growth and traits through provision of food, protection from enemies, and selective (artificial selection) breeding during generations of living in association and often to the extent that the domesticated forms lose the ability to survive in nature.’

Another definition provided by R. Bennett, ‘a domesticated plant or animal is one that people have consciously taken into the cultural context of their living space for any purpose whatsoever.’

Both definitions have in common that the domesticated animal is an animal taken from a wild species and artificially modified to meet human purposes. Domesticated animals are usually highly valued and there are clear purposes for which they are kept – these purposes may have changed over time and in some cases are not very clear to us anymore. The breeding of domesticated animals is under complete human control and its survival, whether voluntarily or not depends upon humans. Furthermore, through the selection processes humans changed the domesticated animal’s behaviour, psychology and morphology. Domesticated animals can show morphological characteristics which would not occur in the wild and vice versa.

When talking about domestication of animals it is useful to introduce you to some common terminology (Box 4.4).

Box 4.4: Common Terminology of Animals Wild Animals: When talking about wild animals, we mean animals, which have not been genetically altered by artificial selection processes for the use of by humans. Natural selection processes occur in wild animals.

Tamed Wild Animals: They are wild animals that have adapted behaviourally through the intervention of man to be traceable and useful to humans.

Exotic Animals / Non-Native Animals: They are wild animals belonging to a species whose historic native range lies totally outside the country or continent you are based in.

60 Human-Animal Domestic Animals: They are the animals that have been genetically modified Interaction from the original wild species through selective breeding strategies for the sole use by humans.

Feral Animals: They are domestic animals that now live in the wild without any human assistance. If these feral animals breed we will call it a feral population.

In the context of domestication, we will not talk about classes and sub-classes but about breeds, variety and strain (Box 4.5).

Box 4.5: Breeds, Variety and Strain Breed: A breed is a population of domestic animals within a species. The individuals of a breed may vary within their defined phenotypic and genotypic boundaries. When individuals are mated within a breed the offspring remain with the original limits. Breeds generally have an organisation or association of breeders, who in general breed their animals / birds according to a stated conceptual standard.

Variety: Within breeds you can encounter a variety. Variety is used in some species to designate groups of animals within a breed that have shared morphological traits, e.g. coat types, comb types or patterns (often used in chickens or turkeys).

Strain: A strain is a sub-population of a breed or a variety that has unique ancestral similarities or a restricted phenotypic range as compared to the original breed variety. If a population of domestic animals has been locally selected, used and generally bred with itself we will talk about landrace. 4.6.2 Chronological Development of Animal Domestication

It has been claimed that without the domestication of wild animals by humans, the human race would probably not have survived. Humans began domesticating animals more than 10,000 years ago beginning with dogs. The first food animals to be domesticated were goats, sheep, cattle, followed by pigs. It has been argued that pigs may have been domesticated to dispose of table scraps and waste products. In contrast cattle and horses were mainly domesticated for transportation and draft work purposes. It may be that early people found animals living in large herds or flocks and that eat a wide variety of foods easier to domesticate than others (Table 4.1).

The domestication of animals involves more than just taming a wild animal. It required a strict selection process. Domestication allowed humans to contain animals with the right temperament. Furthermore, it allowed humans to maintain a constant food supply independent of the growing season. Some cultures domesticated animals for companionship, labourous work and religious purposes. In return the animals received protection, housing and a constant food supply. Selective breeding occurred as humans got rid of animals with undesirable traits and by not allowing them to reproduce.

61 Introduction to Animal Table 4.1: Overview of the most common domesticated animal species Welfare and Behaviour Species When (years) Originated Originated Purpose of b.p. (before in from present) Domestication Dog 12000-14000 Europe Africa Wolf, Jackal Hunting, Pet, b.p. and Asia Companion animal Sheep 9000-10700 Mountains of European Food, Milk, b.p. Southeast Mouflon, Clothing Europe, Asiatic Central and Urial Southwest Asia Goat 8500-9000 Western Wild Goat Food, Milk, b.p. Asia Clothing Cattle 5000-6500 Near the Auroch Food, Milk, Buffalo b.p. boundary of Water Draft, Europe and Buffalo Religious Asia, reasons Southwest Asia Pig 8000-9000 Middle European Food and b.p. East (Meso- Wild Boar Sport (potamia) Horse 4000-5000 Eastern Wild Meat, Milk, b.p. Europe, Horse Transport Western and Warfare Africa Chicken 5000-5500 India, Jungle Cockfights, b.p. Sumatra and Fowl Show, Food, Java, China Religion

Domestication, and in particular specialised breeding of animals, have created a great variety of breeds with exceptional traits. These traits can be of great importance, for example medical detection dogs. These dogs have been bred with a very sensitive olfactory ability. These dogs can smell changes in blood sugar or detect changes in scents from individuals suffering from a specific disease.

Domestication has not always positive effects for the animals. Some animals have benefitted more than other animals, whereas some have not, which of course depends on the perspective and context for which the animal was bred. In recent years the selective breeding for aesthetics, especially in dogs, has become an animal welfare issue due to deformed respiratory parts which has reduced the ability of certain breeds of dogs to breath and thermoregulate normally. A great variety of working dogs are now used as companion dogs or pet dogs and suffer due to the lack of physical and mental activity. These dogs show high levels of stress and high levels of destructive behaviours. Another new trend are Teacup 62 pigs, these pigs are pets and are well cared for by their human owners. However, Human-Animal most of these pigs live in social isolation and are not able to show any of their Interaction natural behaviours such as rooting or nest building activities.

Before we proceed, please complete activity 3.

Activity 3: Discuss with your friends / colleagues / fellow learners on the following: Are there any specific species and breeds in their culture? How socially acceptable is domestication in their culture? What benefits did the domestication process bring to their culture? Compare their responses to the discussion given in the section and write your remarks......

Check Your Progress 3 Note: a) Use the spaces given below for your answers. b) Check your answer with those given at the end of the unit. 1) Write the meaning of domestication...... 2) Write the difference between: a) Wild animal and Tamed wild animal: ...... b) Domestic animal and Feral animal: ...... 63 Introduction to Animal c) Variety and Strain: Welfare and Behaviour ...... 3) Write the positive and negative consequences of domestication for animals......

4.7 HUMAN-ANIMAL-INTERACTIONS

There are great cultural variations in human perceptions, beliefs and attitudes towards animals. There are different ways of thinking about culture and animal welfare: National culture Professional culture Local culture National Culture: This refers to culture of a Nation e.g. in India some animals are worshiped as Gods. Also some animals are worshiped as associates of Gods in many forms. Cows are often fed outside temples and worshipped regularly on special occasions.

Professional Culture: This refers to one’s profession for example the veterinary culture or the equestrian culture (Box 4.6).

Box 4.6: Veterinarian’s Oath As a member of the veterinary medical profession, I solemnly swear that I will use my scientific knowledge and skills for the benefit of society. I will strive to promote animal health and welfare, relieve animal suffering, protect the health of the public and environment, and advance comparative medical knowledge.

Local Culture: This refers people belonging to a certain culture develop a specific way of thinking about animals. There are sub-cultures around human animal interactions – e.g. farming subculture – farmers might think differently about human-animal interaction than the general public or academics such as veterinarians. This will result in differences in what is seen as the norm and will shape attitudes and consequently behaviours towards animals (Box 4.7).

64 Human-Animal Box 4.7: Local Culture vs. Animal Cruelty or Abuse Interaction The meaning of animal cruelty varies among cultures and sub-cultures. For example, the definition of animal cruelty from an animal activist may be very different from that of a hunter, farmer, pet owner or veterinarian. As an example: farmers might not perceive traditional agricultural practices such as de-beaking, tail docking, castration and confinement as forms of animal cruelty whereas the public might and animal activists most certainly do.

The meaning of animal abuse may also vary depending on the type of animals involved or how intelligent people perceive that animal to be. For example, people in the UK would probably think that the slaughter of dogs, horses or whales for meat is cruel, while the killing of cows, pigs and chickens is acceptable to those same individuals. Similarly, to some, the killing of animals for fur or cosmetics testing may constitute unacceptable animal cruelty while the killing of animals for food is acceptable. The more culturally beloved the animal is and the more unusual the harm is, the more likely people are to be outraged and label the harm to that animal as animal cruelty.

Human animal interactions are of two types broadly: 1) Positive Human - Animal Interactions 2) Negative Human - Animal Interactions Interactions with animals regardless of whether they are positive or negative are dependent on peoples’ cultural background, their belonging to a sub-culture but also on their upbringing.

Let us discuss them briefly. 4.7.1 Positive Human - Animal Interactions

Positive interactions with animals are often a result of social learning from parents especially mothers. Children may witness the caring role of other female members of the household to animals under their care and will imitate this behaviour. In many cultures, children will gain the role of animal caretakers at a very young age and have the main responsibility for the animal and its welfare. Within farming culture, interactions with animals will often be transferred from animal handlers to their successors. In both cases the individuals will learn traditional handling techniques.

Positive interactions between humans and animals should be mutually beneficial for both. An example for such interactions is medical detection dogs as described before. These dogs often belong to a working dog breed and need to be presented with a task they can fulfil in order to maintain good psychological welfare. Furthermore, the result of the dogs work is beneficial to the human and therefore both the dog and the human benefit from this relationship. Other examples of positive interactions are guide dogs and a great variety of companion animals. There can also be positive interactions between farm animals and their handlers. Positive interactions with animals are often taken for granted and do not get adequate attention. However, it is important to highlight such interactions to enforce positive behaviour and increase animal welfare.

65 Introduction to Animal 4.7.2 Negative Human - Animal Interactions Welfare and Behaviour Empirically, trends in the study of animal cruelty have linked animal maltreatment to significant anti-social tendencies, particularly interpersonal violence. It has been argued that cruelty towards animals may be one of the first symptoms of conduct disorder appearing in children. Several family risk factors have been associated with childhood animal cruelty and adult violence. These risk factors include physical abuse within the family, sexual abuse, paternal alcoholism and absence, and general exposure to domestic violence. Not only experiencing family violence but also witnessing violence is considered to be a risk factor for disruptive children to be cruel to animals.

A variety of self-reported reasons for animal cruelty have been documented (Box 4.8). Box 4.8: Self-reported Reasons for Animal Cruelty / Abuse Out of boredom or to violate adult civil behaviours Just for fun Belief that animals deserve being treated cruelly Anger Dislike or fear of the animal To control the animal To have sex with an animal For revenge To shock or impress people or because of imitations of others.

Let us discuss different types of animal abusers described in the literature. a) Exploratory or Curious Animal Abusers: They are mostly children at pre-school or primary school age who perpetrate animal cruelty out of curiosity on very few occasions. These behaviours in young children may reflect a lack of knowledge and understanding about the appropriate care for animals. b) Pathological Animal Abusers: They are often older children and pathological animal abuse is understood to be a symptom of psychological disturbances often associated with experience of physical abuse, sexual abuse or exposure to domestic violence. c) Delinquent Animal Abusers: They are mostly adolescents who may or may not have used alcohol or drugs or participated in other anti-social behaviours when abusing animals. d) Animal Hoarding: It is another negative human-animal interaction, which is accumulation of a large number of animals and failing to provide minimal standards of nutrition, sanitation and veterinary care. Examples of animal hoarding cases are: Transportation of large numbers of animals in an in-humane way. Keeping of birds and other animals in a very poor and un-conducive 66 environment. e) Organised Abuse: Examples of this sort of abuse might be the setting of Human-Animal two or more dogs, cocks or any other animal in a fight circle and allowing Interaction them to brutally attack each other for the sole purpose of entertainment. They have been singled out for special attention in the anticruelty laws of many countries. f) Ritualistic Abuse: This can cover pretty much everything from religious ways of killing animal to traditional ways of dealing with animals. g) Animal Sexual Abuse (Bestiality): Bestiality is defined as an affinity, an attraction or sexual attraction by a human to non-human animals, which is against the law.

Before we proceed, please complete activity 4. Activity 4: Discuss with your friends / colleagues / fellow learners on how would they define animal cruelty in their culture and what constitutes animal cruelty in their culture? Compare their responses to the discussion given in the section and write your remarks......

Check Your Progress 4 Note: a) Use the spaces given below for your answers. b) Check your answer with those given at the end of the unit. 1) How do National, Professional and Local cultures play a role in animal welfare? ...... 2) Name the two types of human - animal interactions...... 67 Introduction to Animal 3) How does social learning from parents lead to positive interactions with Welfare and Behaviour animals? ...... 4) Name different types of animal abusers...... 5) Write the reasons for animal cruelty......

4.8 DIFFERENT PURPOSES OF HUMAN- ANIMAL INTERACTION

4.8.1 Farm Animals

Through domestication processes we find a great variety of animals with the sole purpose to serve humans as a source of food or fibre (such as raising sheep for wool). The life of farm animals involves breeding, raising, transport and slaughter. At each stage these animals encounter a great variety of welfare issues. The demand of meat as a food source is rising constantly and therefore small family farms have been replaced by industrialised facilities to maximise profits. These animals are often treated as production units rather than sentient beings. The result is ‘cheap’ meat, eggs and dairy products at the cost of animal welfare. 4.8.2 Wild Life and Zoo Animals Wildlife is threatened by humans through harassment, poaching, hunting and trapping, habitat degradation, habitat destruction, culling and killing in various intended and unintended ways. Wildlife protection usually is a governmental issue and needs to be addressed by policy makers and the governments alike. Zoo animals are under special protection, captured and placed in artificial 68 environments. Humans need to take care that the needs of each individual animal is met. There are a great variety of zoo animal welfare education programmes Human-Animal established to protect the animals. Conservation and education should be the Interaction main purposes of zoos, although entertainment is often the main focus. Therefore, if zoos are to be sites of conservation and education, animal welfare plays an important role in zoos. 4.8.3 Leisure Animals

Leisure animals are part of people’s everyday life in the following ways: Pet or companion animals: Pet animals can often have a good standard of animal welfare, and may be highly valued by their owners for social companionship. However, this relationship requires that owners have a good understanding of animal behaviour and welfare needs, and are able to meet these in their homes. Advertising Campaigns: Animals have been used for advertising campaigns, which is perfectly legal but may compromise the welfare of the animals used. e.g. Roaming animals like elephants may be confined to small places, training methods may cause physical and psychological issues. Sport Animals: Animals have also been bred for racing e.g. horse or dog (greyhound) racing. These races take a lot of preparation and training which may have implications for the animals’ welfare, such as the sorts of methods used for training and the increased risk of injury in animal athletes. The fate of animals that are not successful in racing, or when an animals racing career is over, is also of concern. Circus Animals: Circus animals often are obtained illegally from the wild, and are trained with fear inducing methods, the animals are abused and badly treated, have life threatening injuries and there may be few if any welfare standards to protect their welfare. Animals used in tourism: Animals, often wildlife, are used in tourism in many ways, such as providing rides (e.g. elephants), to provide photographic or entertainment opportunities (e.g. primates in ways similar to circus animals), and trophy hunting. These all cause harms to the animals in various ways such as capture and training as described for circus animals, and pain, fear and distress in animals that are hunted. Animals may also play a role in tourism in more positive ways through encouraging eco-tourism to observe and learn about wild animals in their natural habitat with limited or no direct interaction. Designer Animals: Pets like teacup pigs or designer dogs are bred to be exceptionally small or with outstanding morphological characteristics e.g. very flat noses. There are a variety of medical issues related to these pets due to inbreeding of these animals or the selection for flat noses and cause difficulty breathing and heat exhaustion. 4.8.4 Research Animals

There are four main reasons why animals are used in research: Animals are used to advance scientific understanding: Animals are the study 69 Introduction to Animal objects to understand how the healthy body works to maintain and restore Welfare and Behaviour these functions when needed. Animals are also used as models for studying diseases: Animals and humans share a great variety of illnesses and diseases and consequently animals can be means to study these illnesses. For example dogs suffer from cancer, diabetes and bleeding disorders and therefore often serve as animal models to study these diseases. Animals may also be manipulated or changed by genetic processes to make human diseases occur more frequently or in species where they are not normally seen. Animals are used for the development of new potential forms of treatment: Data from animal studies are essential before new therapeutic techniques and surgical procedures can be tested with humans. Animals in research are also used to protect the safety of people, animals and the environment: Medicines are firstly tested in vitro using tissues and isolated organs but legally and ethically it must be tested in a suitable animal model before clinical trials in humans can take place. There are a great variety of laws in place to ensure high animal welfare standards for research animals.

Before we proceed, please complete activity 5.

Activity 5: Visit a nearby research institution with lab animal facility. Discuss with the authorities on main reasons why animals are used in research. Compare their responses to the discussion given in the section and write your observations......

Check Your Progress 5 Note: a) Use the spaces given below for your answers. b) Check your answer with those given at the end of the unit. 1) Production of cheap meat, eggs and dairy products is leading to compromised animal welfare. Comment......

70 2) Write the role of leisure animals in people’s everyday life. Human-Animal Interaction ......

4.9 LET US SUM UP This unit started by defining human-animal-relationships from different scientific perspectives. The meaning and varieties of these interactions were explored as well as the definitions of what animals and what humans are. There is no consensus between the different scientific professions or cultures and depending on where you will find yourself you will use different approaches to define animal and humans. Regardless of definitions there are multiple ways in which humans and animals interact. We explored the origin of human animal interactions and we also discussed the current problems and benefits of human animal interactions. The unit finished with the exploration of different purposes and the specific welfare concerns. In the next unit, you will be introduced to the concept of ‘Animal Welfare - History and Variation’ with focus on how animal welfare evolved over a period of time across the globe.

4.10 KEYWORDS

Animal Hoarding: The accumulation of a large number of animals and failing to provide minimal standards of nutrition, sanitation and veterinary care. Animal: Living organism that feeds on organic matter, typically having specialised sense organs and a nervous system, able to respond rapidly to stimuli Anthrozoology: It refers to the study of Human-Animal interactions or Human- Animal relations. Bestiality: It is sexual attraction by a human to non-human animals. Breed: A breed is a sub-species population of domestic animals with definable and identifiable external characteristics. Culture: The customs, arts, social institutions, and achievements of a particular nation, people, or other social group Domestic Animals: Animals that have been genetically modified from the original wild species through selective breeding strategies for the sole use by humans. Domestication: Process of taming animals and keeping them as pets/on a farm. 71 Introduction to Animal Exotic Animals / Non-Native Animals: Wild animals belonging to a species Welfare and Behaviour whose historic native range lies totally outside the country or continent you are based in. Feral Animals: Domestic animals that now live in the wild without any human assistance. Human: Relating to the characteristics of people or human beings. Leisure Animals: Leisure animals are part of people’s everyday life, such as pets, animals used in advertising, sport, tourism,, and circus animals etc. Strain: Sub-population of a breed or a variety that has unique ancestral similarities or a restricted phenotypic range as compared to the original breed variety. Tamed Wild Animals: Wild animals that have adapted behaviourally through the intervention of man to be traceable and useful to humans. Variety: Groups of animals within a breed that have shared morphological traits Wild Animals: Animals which have not been genetically altered by artificial selection processes for the use of by humans.

4.11 BIBLIOGRAPHY AND FURTHER READING

Samantha Hurn (2012). Humans and Other Animals: Cross-Cultural Perspectives on Human-Animals Interactions (Anthropology, Culture and Society), Pluto Press, London.

Szucs, E., Geers, R., Jezierski,T., Sossidou, E.N and Broom,D.M. (2012). Animal Welfare in Different Human Cultures, Traditions and Religious Faiths. Asian- Aust. J. Anim. Sci. 25 (11): 1499-1506.

4.12 SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISES 1) How would you define the term ‘animal’? 2) Are humans animals? What differentiates humans from ‘non-human animals’? 3) What characteristics would you expect ‘animals’ to display? 4) What term is more appropriate to refer to animals? Animals? Non-human animals? Other-than-human animals? Discuss. 5) Think about an animal species which you would regard as an appropriate ‘pet’ or companion animal. What is it about the characteristics of that particular species which place it in that category? Now think of other species which you might regard differently (e.g. as enemies, tools, food, or anything else). What factors have helped shape these attitudes? 6) In which ways do humans compromise the welfare of animals?

72 Human-Animal 4.13 ANSWERS/HINTS TO CHECK YOUR Interaction PROGRESS

Check Your Progress 1

1) Roles that animals fulfil within human societies includes: pets or livestock, to serve as a food or making clothes, for entertainment, sports and education, research.

2) The study of human animal interaction is referred to as Anthrozoology.

3) Animal is a living organism that feeds on organic matter, typically having specialised sense organs and a nervous system, able to respond rapidly to stimuli. Human is relating to the characteristics of people or human beings.

4) Animals are generally distinguished from plants by: being unable to synthesize organic molecules from inorganic ones, so that they have to feed on plants or on other animals, and; typically able to move about, though this ability is sometimes restricted to a particular stage in the life cycle.

Check Your Progress 2

1) Human beings are classified scientifically as: Kingdom (Animalia); Phylum (Chordata); Class (Mammalia); Order (Primates); Family (Hominidae); Genus (Homo); Species (H. sapiens).

2) Grouping of animals with respect to peoples’ perception includes: based on morphological characteristics (number of legs, presence of hair); environmental aspects (in forest, in water on trees); utility of animals (farm animals; pet animals; birds); as helpers (horses and donkeys) etc.

Check Your Progress 3

1) Domestication is the process of taming animals and keeping them as pets or on a farm.

2) (a) Wild Animals are the animals which have not been genetically altered by artificial selection processes for the use of by humans. Tamed wild animals are wild animals that have adapted behaviourally through the intervention of man to be traceable and useful to humans. (b) Domestic animals are the animals that have been genetically modified from the original wild species through selective breeding strategies for the sole use by humans. Feral animals are the domestic animals that now live in the wild without any human assistance. (c) Variety is group of animals within a breed that have shared morphological traits. Strain is sub-population of a breed or a variety that has unique ancestral similarities or a restricted phenotypic range as compared to the original breed variety.

3) The positive consequences of domestication for animals includes: protection, housing and a constant food supply. The negative consequences includes a compromise in animal welfare as a result of industrial animal production, lack of physical and mental activity, social isolation and not able to show any of their natural behaviours. 73 Introduction to Animal Check Your Progress 4 Welfare and Behaviour 1) National culture refers to culture of a nation with respect to animal welfare like respect given to animals, worshipping animals. Professional culture refers to one’s profession for example the veterinary culture or the equestrian culture. Promoting animal health, welfare, and relieve animal suffering are part of veterinarian’s oath. People belonging to a certain culture develop a specific way of thinking about animal welfare.

2) The two types of human - animal interactions are: positive human - animal interactions and negative human - animal interactions.

3) Positive interactions with animals are often a result of social learning from parents especially mothers. Children may witness the caring role of other female members of the household to animals under their care and will imitate this behaviour. In a lot of cultures children will gain the role of animal caretakers at a very young age and have the main responsibility for the animal and its welfare.

4) Different types of animal abusers are: exploratory or curious animal abusers; pathological animal abusers; delinquent animal abusers; animal hoarding; organised abuse; ritualistic abuse, and ; animal sexual abuse.

5) Reasons for animal cruelty includes: out of boredom or to violate adult civil behaviours; fun; belief that animals deserve being treated cruelly; anger; dislike or fear of the animal; control the animal; sex with an animal; revenge, and to impress people.

Check Your Progress 5

1) The demand of meat as a food source is rising constantly and therefore small family farms have been replaced by industrialised facilities to maximise profits. These animals are often treated as production units rather than sentient beings. The result is ‘cheap’ meat, eggs and dairy products at the cost of animal welfare.

2) Role of leisure animals in people’s life includes: as pets or social companions, advertising campaigns, racing or sport, circus, tourism and designer pet animals.

74 Human-Animal UNIT 5 ANIMAL WELFARE EVOLUTION - Interaction HISTORY AND VARIATION

Structure 5.1 Learning Outcomes 5.2 Introduction 5.3 Antiquity and Domestication 5.3.1 Domestication 5.3.2 Early Statements 5.4 Historical Change 5.4.1 Breeding 5.4.2 Laboratory Animals 5.4.3 Farm Animals 5.5 Global Variations in Animal Welfare 5.5.1 Variation between Continents 5.5.2 Variation between Countries 5.5.3 Variation within a Culture 5.5.4 Economic Variation 5.5.5 Political Variation 5.6 Let Us Sum Up 5.7 Keywords 5.8 Bibliography and Further Reading 5.9 Self Assessment Exercises 5.10 Answers / Hints to Check Your Progress 5.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES a) Knowledge and Understanding: When you have studied this unit, you will be able to: Understand how consideration of animal welfare has developed over centuries and recent decades. Explain domestication in the context of behaviour and animal welfare evolution. b) Practical and Professional Skills: When you have studied this unit, you will be able to: Discuss global variations in animal welfare between continents and countries. Synthesise similarities and differences between attitudes to animal welfare based on cultural, economic and political reasons. 5.2 INTRODUCTION

Dear learner, In the previous unit, you studied the concept and history of human- animal interaction, cultural variation regarding animals, factors influencing positive or negative human-animal relationships in a variety of contexts, and 75 Introduction to Animal different purposes of human - animal interactions. In this unit, let us study the Welfare and Behaviour history and variation of animal welfare between continents.

What do we mean by ‘the history of animal welfare’? Animal welfare has, of course, existed as long as animals have existed. Or rather, as long as sentient animals have existed, because there is a strong argument that it only makes sense to talk about the welfare of sentient animals (animals that can feel pain and other forms of suffering, or positive feelings), not about simpler animals such as insects and worms (see Unit 1 for more details on animal sentience). Ever since sentient animals evolved, those animals have had good or poor welfare at different times in their lives. And the types of animal involved are mostly those with which humans generally interact: mammals, birds and fish. The discussion about history of animal welfare is mostly about: Human actions affecting animal welfare, and ideas about those actions Consideration of animal welfare or concern for animal welfare. Therefore, the first theme of this Unit is to make you understand the history of these changes. Concern for animal welfare is not new. It has been shown by people for thousands of years, although not by all people, and certainly not in all circumstances. Indeed, there have been many circumstances in which people have lacked concern for animal welfare, and others in which people have shown much more negative attitudes to animals, leading to neglect and abuse. But concern for animal welfare has become more and more common and detailed over about the last hundred years, and as a result neglect and abuse are becoming less acceptable and less common.

The second theme of this Unit is that this increasing consideration of animal welfare is uneven. There is variation between people within countries, and between different countries in: How they treat animals What they think about animal welfare, and What they believe should be done to protect or improve animal welfare. We shall discuss some of the factors contributing to this diversity of attitudes and actions in second theme of this Unit.

And we shall end this Unit by considering future developments in our fast- changing world, for example whether concern for animal welfare is likely to continue growing, including in communities and countries where it is currently less prevalent.

5.3 ANTIQUITY AND DOMESTICATION

5.3.1 Domestication

You are aware that in pre-historic times, all animals were wild rather than living with people, and the main ways in which people interacted with them was in killing prey animals for food while avoiding being killed by predators. Probably people did not think much about the welfare of those animals. However, they certainly thought and talked about the animals. Many hunter-gatherer societies that still exist today, in remote parts of the world, have ceremonies to thank the 76 wild animals that provide them with food. They also usually react with compassion Animal Welfare Evolution - History and to vulnerable animals, for example to young piglets left helpless when their mother Variation has been killed. So humans have had innate tendencies to care for animal welfare in at least some situations, for thousands of years. Furthermore, importantly, people living among wild animals needed to understand their behaviour. Understanding the behaviour of a wolf that might eat you or a deer you might eat has been important for millennia. This understanding was critical in a major step in domestication. In the previous Unit, you studied the concept of domestication in the context of human-animal interaction. Domestication in the context of behaviour, animal welfare evolution and reasons for neglect of animal welfare is summarized in Box 5.1 for your comprehension. Box 5.1: Domestication It is remarkable that the vast numbers of domestic animals worldwide come from very few species: around 20 mammals and 10 birds (and a few others such as the carp, the honey bee and the silk moth). This is because those species had characteristics that made domestication possible, especially behaviour, because: They lived in groups Once tame, they accepted humans as dominant members of those groups. They were adaptable to varied environments, and Because these characteristics were necessary, the species were mostly related. Fifteen of the domestic mammals are in the group called ungulates i.e with hooves – the horse, cow, sheep, pig, camel and so on. Exceptions are the dog and cat, rabbit, rat and mouse. All but one of the domestic birds is in two groups: the pheasants (including the chicken, turkey and quail) and the waterfowl (duck and goose).The odd one out is the pigeon. The dog was the first animal to be domesticated, about 12,000 years ago. Understanding the behaviour of these animals was essential: People needed to know how dogs would hunt Where cattle would graze When pigs would mate, and How all of them would respond to people. People looked after animals both when they were young and later. No doubt the predominant factor in the relationship was human benefit, but there must always have been concern for animal welfare and limits to mistreatment. Then as now, the shepherd who cared for his sheep found them easier to handle, and kept more of them alive, than another who did not. So a key principle in our interactions with domestic animals – relevant for farm animals, working animals, pet animals as well as laboratory animals – is mutual benefit. Ever since the start of domestication thousands of years ago, humans have benefitted from animals (gaining food, money, work and so on), and have taken many actions that benefit animal welfare: feeding the animals, protecting them and so on.

77 Introduction to Animal Welfare and Behaviour However, even though it is often true that improving animal welfare also benefits people, it is obvious that not all treatment of domestic animals is good for their welfare, and that many animals do not have good welfare. Indeed, many people neglect or abuse animals, and the welfare of many domestic animals is very poor. There are various reasons for this: Firstly, people often do not have enough information about the benefits of good animal welfare. Secondly, although the interests of humans and animals overlap, they do not overlap completely. e.g. giving a cow enough to eat is good for both her welfare and her milk production. However, sometimes it may cost more for the feed than is gained by increased milk sales. In addition, the farmer’s financial decisions are about the animals as a group, not as individuals. For example, increasing the number of chicken / turkeys reared in a shed may increase the farm’s profit, even if the crowding is bad for the welfare of individual birds. So while care for animal welfare often benefits people, people do not always recognize or plan for such opportunities, sometimes because they cannot afford to do so. Thirdly, some people don’t care for animal welfare as much as others, and neglect or abuse animals inappropriately.

In the section below, let us discuss statements criticising and restraining behaviour, and supporting care for animal welfare, some of them very ancient. 5.3.2 Early Statements

Most religions have traditions or laws requiring humane treatment of animals. The book of Deuteronomy in the Old Testament, thought to have been written in the 7thCentury BC says in chapter 4 ‘Do not muzzle the ox while it is treading out the grain.’ Islam provides considerable support for the importance of animal welfare during handling and husbandry: there is a rich tradition of the Prophet Mohammad’s (pbuh) statements of concern for animals, such as ‘The worst of shepherds is the ungentle, who causes the beasts to crush or bruise one another.’ Indeed, many methods of religious slaughter have their origin in avoidance of previous, inhumane practices. For example, one of the factors in the objection to stunning prior to slaughter for Halal food is the principle that animals killed for such food should be uninjured.

Such concern for animal welfare has often been given considerable emphasis, for example by Mahatma Gandhi: ‘The greatness of a nation and its moral progress can be judged by the way its animals are treated.’

And statements like these are not only religious. Lucius Columella of Rome wrote a treatise on agriculture 2000 years ago in the 1st CenturyAD and said that ‘The delivery of a pregnant ewe should be watched over with as much care as midwives exercise; for this animal produces its offspring just in the same way as a woman, and its labour is painful even more often since it is devoid of all reasoning.’

Before we proceed, please complete activity 1 and 2.

78 Animal Welfare Activity 1 (Discussion): Talk to as many as friends or colleagues as possible Evolution - History and about traditions or laws requiring humane treatment of animals in their Variation religions. What are the similarities and what are the differences? How could you explain these differences in the context of modern day animal welfare science? ......

Activity 2 (Review of Literature): ‘The greatness of a nation and its moral progress can be judged by the way its animals are treated.’ - Mahatma Gandhi. Review the literature and write 3-4 meaningful quotes on animal welfare by great personalities, like the one above. 1) ...... 2) ...... 3) ...... 4) ......

...... 79 Introduction to Animal Check Your Progress 1 Welfare and Behaviour Note: a) Use the spaces given below for your answers. b) Check your answer with those given at the end of the unit. 1) What is the key principle in our interactions with domestic animals ...... 2) Why do some people neglect or abuse animals? ...... 3) While care for animal welfare often benefits, why people do not always recognize or plan for such opportunities? ...... 4) Write three behavioural characteristics of animals that made domestication possible......

5.4 HISTORICAL CHANGE Since domestication thousands of years ago, some husbandry and care has not changed, but some has. Let us discuss them briefly here. 5.4.1 Breeding One of the biggest changes for many types of animals has been genetic selection, 80 with humans choosing which animals mate with which. People do this largely to favour traits – such as size and milk production – that are seen as desirable or Animal Welfare Evolution - History and advantageous – and some modern animals look very different from their wild Variation ancestors. However, sometimes these traits are actually bad for welfare. For example, bulldogs and similar breeds of dog were bred to have a face that is much flatter than the muzzles of their ancestors (dogs were domesticated from wolves) or other breeds. This was because some people think a flat face is attractive in a pet dog. But as a result, bulldogs have breathing and other health problems. In many countries, breeding pets for physical characteristics that cause health problems is now discouraged.

Genetic selection has also changed some aspects of behaviour, including aggression: some domestic animals have been bred to be less aggressive than their ancestors. However, many other aspects of behaviour have remained unchanged, and it is important to understand this for animal welfare. For example, domestic chickens are descended from Red Jungle Fowl (which still live today in the forests of India and other Asian countries). They can survive in cages, but they still have the same ‘behavioural repertoire’ as Jungle Fowl. Given the opportunity, they run and fly, peck and scratch for feed, dustbathe and build nests. It is therefore bad for their welfare to keep them in barren cages that deny them the opportunity to show such behaviour. 5.4.2 Laboratory Animals

Apart from breeding, some of the strongest changes in how animals are treated have been seen in laboratory and farm animals. The ways in which lab animals are treated vary depending on the purposes of the experiments, such as medical research or toxicity tests. This variety has increased over the years as science has moved on, recently including complex technology and genetic engineering. Many such treatments are bad for animal welfare. However, many countries now have laws requiring that the ‘Three Rs’ should be applied to minimise harm to animals – for example, that anaesthetic should be used to prevent pain – and demanding careful justification for any unavoidable harm (Box 5.2).

Box 5.2: Three Rs’ in Teaching and Research Reduction: Any strategy that will reduce number of animals being used in teaching-research. Refinement: Modify experimental procedure to minimise pain and increase quality. Replacement: Methods which avoid or replace the use of animals in teaching – research with other options like 3D models. (Refer MAW- 004, Block 5 on ‘Alternatives to Animal Usage’ for more details)

Another important change is in how lab animals are treated while they are not in experiments, which is usually most of the time. It has become common to standardise housing by keeping mice, rats and other animals individually in barren cages. This is bad for their welfare, and it is now recognised that it is bad for science, because using stressed animals is inappropriate for many physiological studies. So some countries are now beginning to keep their animals in groups in enriched housing, which is better both for welfare and for the reliability of the experiments. 81 Introduction to Animal 5.4.3 Farm Animals Welfare and Behaviour Many farm animals are still kept in the same ways that have been used for millennia, but many are not. One of the most striking changes is in the numbers of livestock, which have grown hugely over the centuries. It is difficult to comprehend these numbers: worldwide, more than 65 thousand million poultry (mostly chickens and ducks) and 3.5 thousand million farm mammals (pigs, cattle, buffaloes, sheep and goats) are now reared every year.

Once most people were involved in farming, and in some less industrialised countries more than half of the population is still associated with agricultural employment. You read above that a key principle in our interactions with domestic animals is mutual benefit, the idea that if you ‘Look after your animals, they will look after you’ (although we also said that this principle is often not achieved, and many farm animals don’t benefit as they should). In these conditions, change has been variable, between and within countries. Some people are still farming ‘unimproved’ breeds of livestock, feeding by browsing or scavenging, sometimes productively, sometimes less so. Others use breeds ‘improved’ by genetic selection, keep them in pens or houses and buy balanced feeds using scientific knowledge of animals’ nutritional requirements. Again, such changes may cost money, but may increase both the welfare of the animals and their productivity.

However, a major change took place in Europe and North America in the 1950s and 1960s. Much of livestock agriculture became much more intensive, with larger numbers of animals kept in less space, using machinery and technology, in what is sometimes called ‘industrial animal production’ or ‘factory farming.’ Examples are hens kept in cages for egg production, and pigs kept in crates so small they cannot turn round. Similar systems have since been adopted in most countries, some for a minority of their farms, some for a majority. They caused – and often still cause – major welfare problems for very large numbers of animals.

These systems also motivated two books that stimulated widespread public concern for animal welfare: Ruth Harrison’s book Animal Machines, published in the UK in 1964 Peter Singer’s Animal Liberation, published in the USA in 1975. As a result, governments began to give attention to animal welfare. For example, the UK Government set up the committee that produced the Brambell Report in 1965. This was very influential, introducing the idea that farm animals should have freedom: To stand up To lie down To turn around To groom themselves and To stretch their limbs Brambell Report was followed by establishment of an independent Farm Animal Welfare Council (FAWC), which proposed the Five Freedoms ( Box 5.3):

82 Animal Welfare Box 5.3: Five Freedoms Proposed by Farm Animal Welfare Council Evolution - History and Variation Freedom from hunger and thirst Freedom from discomfort Freedom from pain, injury or disease Freedom to express normal behavior Freedom from fear and distress (Please refer Units 7-12 for more discussion on ‘Five Freedoms’)

Legislation and other rules followed, nationally and internationally, that now restrict many intensive practices that are bad for welfare. To put it the other way round, in many countries there are now legislation and other mechanisms to safeguard and improve farm animal welfare, both in intensive and other systems, and there are also mechanisms that operate on an international basis (notably the welfare standards of the World Animal Health Organisation (OIE). However, the way in which such mechanisms operate and hence the welfare of animals (both on farms and elsewhere) vary considerably between and within countries, as we shall see in the following sections.

Before we proceed, please complete activity 3. Activity 3 (Visit): Visit to a nearby veterinary college or animal science research institute. Discuss with the faculty / researchers on how ‘Three Rs – Reduction, Refinement and Replacement are being applied in their institutions to minimise harm to animals in teaching - research. Write your observations......

Check Your Progress 2 Note: a) Use the spaces given below for your answers. b) Check your answer with those given at the end of the unit. 1) How is genetic selection for some traits bad for animal welfare? ...... 83 Introduction to Animal 2) Describe how keeping experimental animals in groups in enriched housing Welfare and Behaviour is better both for welfare and for the reliability of the experiments ...... 3) What is industrial animal production? ...... 4) Write the significance of Brambell Report ...... 5) Name the Five Freedoms proposed by Farm Animal Welfare Council of UK......

5.5 GLOBAL VARIATIONS IN ANIMAL WELFARE

5.5.1 Variation between Continents

The concern for animal welfare described in previous sections existed and exists all over the world, but increased concern and action developed earliest and fastest in Europe: 1822: The UK Parliament passed a law forbidding the ill-treatment of horses and cattle. 1835: The Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (RSPCA) was created. 84 1911: The Protection of Animals Act established cruelty to domestic animals Animal Welfare Evolution - History and and infliction of unnecessary suffering as criminal offences. Variation This had a major effect on public attitudes, both by directly deterring abuse and also by changing people’s perception of what was acceptable treatment of animals. Other European countries also passed legislation, and then in 1976 the Council of Europe (which represents nearly every country in Europe) produced the ‘Convention for the Protection of Animals kept for Farming Purposes’. Both scientific work on welfare and legislation continued to increase and today Europe has more laws protecting and promoting welfare than any other part of the world.

Concern for animal welfare is also relatively strong in North America (particularly Canada) and Australasia, presumably because emigration from Europe led to cultural similarities. But this is not to say that there are few problems for animal welfare in these continents. Concern increased partly because of the development of industrial animal production mentioned in the previous section, often very negative for welfare. In the USA there is welfare legislation both nationally and in individual States, but most laws do not cover farm animals, and livestock are generally kept more intensively there than in most other countries. For example, millions of cattle are reared for beef in ‘feed lots,’ at high stocking density in simple pens with no facilities except feed and water troughs, and no protection against hot or cold weather.

In South Asia, India has some of the finest laws and Constitutional provisions to safeguard animals. As per the Indian Constitution (Article 51A), it is the fundamental duty of every citizen to have compassion for all living creatures. The Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (PCA) Act is an Act of the Parliament of India enacted in 1960 to prevent the infliction of unnecessary pain or suffering on animals and to amend the laws relating to the prevention of cruelty to animals. However, many people may be unaware of the laws compassionate lawmakers have passed to safeguard animals (Please refer ‘MAW-003: Animal Welfare Laws, Policies and Organizations’ for detailed discussion on Indian animal welfare laws).

Action on animal welfare, such as scientific research and legislation, in Asia, Africa and South America has so far generally been less. This is partly for cultural and religious reasons, as discussed in the next section, and partly for economic reasons. There are many developing countries and emerging economies in these continents, and countries that have difficulty feeding their people understandably put more emphasis on food availability than on animal welfare. However, as we have said, many measures to improve animal welfare also benefit their owners. In addition, these countries are increasingly adopting intensive systems of agriculture similar to those in developed countries, and at least part of their populations have both rising incomes and access to international communication. Correspondingly, interest in animal welfare is rising. 5.5.2 Variation between Countries

Of course there is also variation in animal welfare and in attitudes and actions about it between different countries within continents. This will be discussed briefly with focus on Europe and Asia. a) Europe: Interest in animal welfare varies between European countries. Concern has historically been stronger in the north of Europe, particularly 85 Introduction to Animal the UK, the Netherlands, Germany and Scandinavia, and weaker in the south. Welfare and Behaviour Reasons are complex. Several factors correlate with this variation, including temperature (hotter in the south, which affects how animals are kept) and religion (Catholicism is commoner in the south, Protestantism in the north, with many effects on attitudes). The most persuasive explanation, though, is that concern has largely developed in urban people whose involvement with animals differed from that in rural areas – people who kept pets more often than farm animals. The UK and the Netherlands, for example, have become more industrialised than countries in the south of Europe, with 2% or less of the population involved in agriculture. b) Asia : Asia includes many countries, very diverse, and not surprisingly there is also variation in attention to animal welfare, and also, importantly, to the ethics of killing animals. In Japan, for example, many families have their own rice paddies, but few rear animals such as ducks that they themselves would have to kill. Quite a lot of variation is associated with the religions predominant in different countries. This obviously affects which animals are kept: for example, pigs are commonly kept in some Asian countries, rare in others. In India, cattle are kept for milk but are rarely killed, either for meat or for euthanasia. So in India there are Gaushalas, establishments that look after unproductive, sick or old cattle. Welfare in Gaushalas is sometimes good, sometimes poor. India, furthermore, keeps relatively few other livestock for meat: vegetarianism is more common than in most countries. (Refer MAW–004, Block 1 ‘Dairy Animal Welfare Standards’ for more details on Gaushalas) When animals are killed, the methods used also vary between countries, with effects on welfare, and this is also affected by culture and religion. As a major example, we have already noted that for food to be accepted as Halal, animals are generally not stunned before slaughter, and this is obviously more common in some countries than others. As we have also noted, most religions have requirements for humane treatment of animals during their lifetimes as well as at the end of their lives, and the detail of these – and how they are applied – obviously also vary between countries. One other important factor that affects attention to animal welfare is how much a country acts internationally. In particular, a country that exports livestock or animal products must pay attention to the requirements of the recipient country for animal health, food safety – both of which have implications for animal welfare – and in some cases welfare itself. For example, Thailand exports a lot of chicken meat to Europe, and its producers must meet the requirements of the European importers for the welfare of their birds during rearing and slaughter. Another country with strong international involvement is Japan. Japan has been more active in the World Animal Health Organisation (OIE) than many other Asian countries. It has therefore drawn up its own guidelines for farm animal welfare for compliance with the OIE’s welfare standards. 5.5.3 Variation within a Culture Even within a country and among people who in most respects can be regarded 86 as having a common culture, there is great diversity in attitudes to animals. This includes the fact that many people rarely think about animals at all, or, when Animal Welfare Evolution - History and they do, regard them as someone else’s responsibility. This may either take the Variation form of expecting someone else (for example, farmers, retailers or government) to ensure that animals are appropriately cared for, or more broadly that someone else should take the decisions on what level of care is appropriate. To take food animals as an example, a 2008 survey in the USA found three categories of consumers. The largest (46% of the population) believe farm animals should be able to exercise outdoors and exhibit normal behaviours. The smallest (14%) would sacrifice animal welfare in exchange for lower prices. The remaining 40% are willing to pay higher prices to ensure welfare, but believe welfare can be ensured simply by providing ample food and health care.

There are at least three other reasons for variation in attitudes to animals within a culture: 1) Firstly, there are different ethical approaches, and these have different implications for the treatment of animals. Most people adopt a mixed approach, but the weight they place on the different elements affects their attitudes. e.g. Those who think animal rights and human duties to animals are most important ethically are least likely to approve of killing animals for human purposes. 2) Secondly, people do not all have the same concept of animal welfare. 3) Thirdly, there is variation between stakeholders.

These reasons for variation in attitudes to animals – differences in ethical approaches, concepts of welfare and stakeholder involvement – may all interact and are not randomly associated. For example, farmers and veterinarians put more emphasis on physical aspects of welfare than on mental or natural aspects, whereas other citizens concerned for animals commonly emphasise the importance of animal feelings and natural living conditions. 5.5.4 Economic Variation

Economic issues are sensitive. As we said above, countries with many undernourished people understandably give more attention to food security than to animal welfare. However, this is not always so, as many of the world’s poorest people depend on animals for income, social status and security as well as food and clothing. The survival, performance and welfare of their animals are important to them, and many measures to improve animal welfare also benefit their owners. There are many situations, perhaps even more so in developing than in developed countries, where better understanding, treatment and care of animals can benefit their owners as well as the animals. Sometimes that requires help with information and perhaps financial outlay. For example, problems of animal disease and poor health are widespread. If owners can be helped with advice on veterinary care or husbandry, and perhaps also with expenditure on medicines and housing, both they and their livestock will gain.

Businesses at all stages of the food chain and in many countries – producers, processors and retailers – are now recognising the importance of livestock care, both because of the direct advantages just outlined and because of interest and concern among their consumers. This has led to procedures for assessing and 87 Introduction to Animal auditing animal welfare (Refer Block 3 ‘Animal Welfare - Assessment and Audit’ Welfare and Behaviour for more details).

Economic opportunity also arises through trade. Many companies and countries are keen to export animal products, and this can be a mechanism for application of standards. The example of Thailand exporting chicken to Europe was given in the above section, and similarly slaughterhouses in Brazil that export beef to Europe are more active in protecting the welfare of their cattle than others, to meet European regulations.

In addition, in most or all countries of the world, some of the population is becoming more affluent, and becoming interested in issues other than food security, including animal welfare and environmental protection. This is of course not to say that priority should be given to the preferences of affluent people over those who are poor or malnourished. On the contrary, to repeat the point, attention to animal welfare is helping to address problems of food supply and food quality and safety for all sectors of the population worldwide, and can do so more in future. 5.5.5 Political Variation

All the aspects of variation considered so far, including cultural and economic, reflect and are affected by political processes. These set the context for science, for economics and for use of animals, not just through legislation but in areas such as education, and this also varies widely between countries and parts of the world. In addition, there is variation in the degree to which governance is controlled by politicians or by other stakeholders: politics does not just involve the actions of professional politicians but all developments in policy and public affairs.

This is illustrated by the initiatives on animal welfare of the World Animal Health Organisation (OIE), which is not a governmental organisation but is very influential. In 2005 the first global standards on livestock transport and slaughter were agreed unanimously by the member countries (both developed and developing countries). The OIE has since produced standards for rearing of broiler chickens and cattle, and treatment of street dogs, working equids and laboratory animals, and is working on standards for other farm animals. All these standards have had input from various stakeholders, including animal producers, animal welfare scientists and veterinarians, and clearly require much more such input for implementation. Their implementation (which is starting in a number of countries) will lead to improved animal management and welfare in the majority of OIE member countries.

It remains true that political systems within countries have huge influence on animal use and treatment, and therefore on animal welfare. And there are considerable differences in political systems between countries, some of them receptive to arguments in favour of animal welfare but others more resistant. It is clear, though, that concern for animal welfare and actions to promote it are increasing in most countries.

Before we proceed, please complete activity 4.

88 Animal Welfare Activity 4 (Internet Search): ‘Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (PCA) Act Evolution - History and -1960 (India)’. Variation Search the Internet and write the name of Animal Protection Law in 10 countries, like the one above.

1)

2)

3)

4)

5)

6)

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9)

10)

Check Your Progress 3 Note: a) Use the spaces given below for your answers. b) Check your answer with those given at the end of the unit. 1) Does how much a country acts internationally affects attention to animal welfare? ...... 2) Write three reasons for variation in attitudes to animals within a culture......

89 Introduction to Animal 3) In what way are economic and trade of animal products sensitive to animal Welfare and Behaviour welfare? ...... 4) How can political systems within countries have a huge influence on animal welfare? ......

5.6 LET US SUM UP There is variation between people within countries, and between different countries in: how they treat animals; what they think about animal welfare, and what they believe should be done to protect or improve animal welfare. Culture, economic and political reasons play a significant role in animal welfare. Keeping this in view, we discussed some of the factors contributing to diversity of attitudes and actions. Ever since sentient animals evolved, those animals have had good or poor welfare at different times in their lives. The history of animal welfare is mostly about: human actions affecting animal welfare, and ideas about those actions, and consideration of animal welfare or concern for animal welfare. Domestication in the context of behaviour, animal welfare evolution and reasons for neglect of animal welfare were discussed. Religious traditions or laws require humane treatment of animals. Genetic selection for some traits is bad for animal welfare and industrial animal production compromises animal welfare. Experimental animals kept in groups in enriched housing are better both for welfare and for the reliability of the experiments and many countries now have laws requiring that the ‘Three Rs’ should be applied to minimise harm to animals. Brambell Report and Farm Animal Welfare Council have played a significant role in introducing animal welfare of farm animals described by the Five Freedoms. 90 While some aspects of variation between and within countries are positive, Animal Welfare Evolution - History and others are less so, but global approaches including communication are Variation enabling advantages – such as the opportunities to help both people and animals – to be shared. Intergovernmental organisations such as the OIE are playing a major part in this, and in addition in most parts of the world there is increasing involvement of stakeholders (including scientists and civil society) in national and international decision making. There is strong reason to believe that increased attention to animal ethics and animal welfare worldwide, and communication and collaboration within and between cultures, is leading not to a ‘levelling down’ effect, as was feared by some people, but to ‘levelling up.’ This benefits people, animals and the environment, and is therefore central to the sustainability of our future.

In the next Block, you will be introduced to different concepts of animal welfare in detail.

5.7 KEYWORDS

Brambell Report: UK Government’s committee report, which was very influential in introducing the concepts of animal welfare for farm animals known as the Five Freedoms.

Breeding: Genetic selection, with humans choosing which animals mate with which largely to favour traits – such as size and milk production – that are seen as desirable or advantageous.

Domestication: Process of taming animals and keeping them as pets or on a farm.

Farm Animals: Animals that have been genetically modified from the original wild species through selective breeding strategies for the sole use by humans in agriculture as well as for food purposes (pigs, cattle, buffaloes, sheep, goat etc).

Five Freedoms: Freedom from hunger and thirst; discomfort; pain, injury or disease; to express normal behaviour, and from fear and distress.

Laboratory Animals: Animals used in laboratory research for testing and experimentation.

Reduction: Any strategy that will reduce number of animals being used in teaching-research.

Refinement: Modify experimental procedure to minimise pain and increase quality.

Replacement: Methods which avoid or replace the use of animals in teaching – research with other options like 3D models.

91 Introduction to Animal Welfare and Behaviour 5.8 BIBLIOGRAPHY AND FURTHER READING

Harrison, R. (1964). Animal Machines: The New Factory Farming Industry. Vincent Stuart, London. HMSO (Her Majesty’s Stationery Office), 1965. Report of the Technical Committee to Enquire into the Welfare of Animals kept under Intensive Livestock Husbandry Systems. Command Paper 2836. HMSO, London, UK. Prickett, R., Norwood, F.B. and Lusk, J.L. (2008). Consumer Preferences for Farm Animal Welfare: Results from a Telephone Survey of U.S. Households. Department of Agricultural Economics Seminar Series, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK Singer, P. (1975) . Animal Liberation. New York Review of Books, New York.

5.9 SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISES 1) How has consideration of animal welfare developed over centuries and recent decades? 2) Explain the concept of domestication in the context of behaviour and animal welfare evolution. 3) Discuss some early religious statements on animal welfare. 4) Explain the global variations in animal welfare between continents and countries. 5) How can cultural, economic and political reasons influence animal welfare? 5.10 ANSWERS / HINTS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check Your Progress 1 1) The key principle in our interactions with domestic animals is mutual benefit. 2) Some people neglect or abuse animals because: people often do not have enough information about the benefits of good animal welfare, and secondly, although the interests of humans and animals overlap, they do not overlap completely. 3) The farmer’s financial decisions are about the animals as a group, not as individuals. For example, increasing the number of chicken reared in a shed may increase the farm’s profit, even if the crowding is bad for the welfare of individual birds. So while care for animal welfare often benefits people, people do not always recognize because they cannot afford to do so, some times. 4) The behavioural characteristics of animals that made domestication possible includes: They lived in groups; Once tame, they accepted humans as dominant members of those groups. Check Your Progress 2 1) Genetic selection for some traits at times is actually bad for welfare. For 92 example, bulldogs were bred to have a face that is much flatter than the muzzles of their ancestors. This was because some people think a flat face Animal Welfare Evolution - History and is attractive in a pet dog. But as a result, bulldogs have breathing and other Variation health problems. That is why in many countries, breeding pets for physical characteristics that cause health problems is now discouraged. 2) It is very common practice that mice, rats and other experimental animals are kept individually in barren cages. This is bad for their welfare, and it is now recognised that it is bad for science, because using stressed animals is inappropriate for many physiological studies. Hence experimental animals kept in groups in enriched housing are better both for welfare and for the reliability of the experiments. 3) Intensive livestock farming with larger numbers of animals kept in less space, using machinery and technology is sometimes called ‘industrial animal production’ or ‘factory farming.’ Examples are hens kept in cages for egg production, and pigs kept in crates so small they cannot turn round. 4) Brambell Report (1965) of UK was very influential in introducing the idea that farm animals should have freedom to: stand up; lie down; turn around; groom themselves and; stretch their limbs. 5) The Five Freedoms proposed by Farm Animal Welfare Council of UK are: Freedom from hunger and thirst; Freedom from discomfort; Freedom from pain, injury or disease; Freedom to express normal behaviour, and; Freedom from fear and distress. Check Your Progress 3 1) Yes. A country that exports livestock or animal products must pay attention to the requirements of the recipient country for animal health, food safety – both of which have implications for animal welfare – and in some cases welfare itself. For example, Thailand exports a lot of chicken meat to Europe, and its producers must meet the requirements of the European importers for the welfare of their birds during rearing and slaughter. 2) Firstly, there are different ethical approaches, and these have different implications for the treatment of animals. Secondly, people do not all have the same concept of animal welfare. Thirdly, there is variation between stakeholders. 3) Economic opportunity also arises through animal trade. Many companies and countries are keen to export animal products, and this can be a mechanism for application of welfare standards. e.g. Thailand exporting chicken to Europe, and similarly slaughterhouses in Brazil that export beef to Europe are more active in protecting the welfare of their chicken and cattle than others, to meet European regulations. 4) The cultural and economic variations in animal welfare are affected by political processes. Political systems set the context for use of animals, not just through legislation but in areas such as education, developments in policy and public affairs. There are also considerable differences in political systems between countries, some of them receptive to arguments in favour of animal welfare but others more resistant. It is clear, though, that concern for animal welfare and actions to promote it are increasing in most countries.

93