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ENVIRONMENTAL CHARACTERIZATION AND BIOLOGICAL USE OF LAGOONS IN THE EASTERN BEAUFORT SEA

Edited by Joe C. Truett LGL Ecological Research Associates, Inc. 1410 Cavitt Street Bryan, Texas 77801

Final Report Outer Environmental Assessment Program Research Unit 632

September 1983 PREFACE

In recent years, petroleum related interests have expanded eastward from the Prudhoe region of Arctic Alaska and have been anxious to undertake seismic and exploratory drilling programs in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge and adjacent nearshore waters. Partly in response to the accelerated interests, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA], Office of Assessment, Juneau, Alaska, sponsored a workshop in autumn 1981 to discuss the extent of knowledge concerning biological and physical processes in the lagoons and adjacent nearshore waters along the east of the Alaskan Beaufort Sea. During the workshop a series of hypotheses and conceptual models were generated by the participating scientists. These hypotheses and models were compared and contrasted with those previously described from locations farther west (e.g. Simpson Lagoon-Prudhoe Bay area). A report of this workshop was prepared by Truett (1982). In early spring 1982, NOAA issued a request for proposals to conduct a program of scientific research in the eastern Alaskan Beaufort Sea that included (1) a review of relevant information from this area and (2) appropriate comparisons with results of other research conducted at other lagoon and nearshore locations along the coast of the Alaskan Beaufort Sea in recent years. Thus, the proposed extensive study area included the bays, lagoons, and nearshore waters of the Alaskan Beaufort Sea from Pt. Barrow to Demarcation Bay. The intensive study area included the bays, lagoons and nearshore waters of the eastern Alaskan Beaufort coast from Barter to Demarcation Bay. In early summer 1982, LGL Ecological Research Associates, Inc. (LGL), in conjunction with Science Applications, Inc. (SAI), Tetra Tech, Inc., and the institutes of Marine Science and Water Resources, University of Alaska, was awarded a contract to conduct the proposed research. The program involved interdisciplinary research in the following disciplines: , meteorology, chemistry (nutrients, primary production and trophic energetic) and (invertebrates, fisheries, and marine mammals and birds).

131 The overall objectives of the program were to characterize the physical environment and the extent of biological use of lagoons and nearshore waters in the eastern Beaufort Sea of Alaska. Ancillary biological. data were to be collected in Simpson Lagoon and complementary meteorological data were to be collected as far west as Pt. Lay, along the Chukchi Sea coast and as far east as Herschel Island, Y.T. and Inuvik, NWT, Canada. These ancillary data were thought to be critical to allow valid comparisons of results over broad geographic areas from past years, given that the range of year-to-year variation in most processes in the ArcticLis typically large. Two field programs were conducted. The first was from late July through mid-August 1982; the second was from mid- to late September 1982. The base of field operations was the U.S. and Wildlife Service (USFWS) Field Station (abandoned DEW Station) at Nuvagapak Pt. (Beaufort Lagoon). Field research in this area was focused on three nearby lagoons--Pokok Bay, Angun Lagoon and Beaufort (Nuvagapak) Lagoon--and the block of adjacent nearshore marine water extending 20 n mi offshore, from Barter island to Demarcation Bay (Fig. 1). Detailed illustrations of sampling sites are presented as appropriate In the various Chapters of this report. Details of biological and physical properties of the area of study appear in the following disciplinary summaries of research findings.

Marine Mammals and Birds Few marine birds or mammals were recorded during aerial surveys of nearshore marine waters in August, except that a significant number of bearded and ringed seals were recorded throughout the study area on 4 August. On all survey dates in August, ice was present in virtually the whole study area from Barter Island to the Alaska-Canada border. Few marine birds and mammals were recorded during the second sampling period (15-23 September) until 22 September, when 120” bowhead whales were observed on- and off-transect in the eastern half of the study area. Most of these whales (91, 71$) were on-transect. Based on conservative density extrapolations, at least 281.5 bowheads were estimated to be present in the eastern half of the study area on 22 September.

132 “t, BE HJFORT

‘oinl Iarrow

0/4 '1/ Ui I 01)111 "\ 4', oi '9' 001163Th(1190 jqio9 4, -j a yi9mydtd ni Jeo iaiiifl 8 ysO ot

Figure 1. General region of study in the eastern Beaufort Sea, Alaska, There was no evidence during this study that bowheadst or other marine mammals or birds, were concentrating (to feed) in any particular part of the study area. However, the aggregation of bowheads in the eastern half of the study area on 22 September was one of the largest records during ‘the last half century. Bowheads were recorded in waters as shallow as 10 m and as close as 400 m from in the study area. This 1s much closer to shore and much shallower than has been recorded elsewhere in the Alaskan Beaufort Sea. Oldsquaws were the most abundant birds recorded in lagoon habitats in the Beaufort (Nuvagapak) Lagoon study area. Densities of this species were highest along mid-lagoon and mainland shoreline transects in the study area, which was a different distribution of oldsquaws than had been found in other recent investigations in this area, and in investigations in other lagoons along the central Alaskan Beaufort Sea coast. Red-necked (northern) phalaropes (primarily feeding ju~eniles) with smaller numbers of red phalarcpes and sanderlings were the most abundant birds recorded along barrier Lsland shoreline habitats in August. Only glaucous gulls were recorded in significant densities along mainland shoreline transects in this study; several pairs nested adjacent to this transect. The diets of feeding oldsq’;aws and phelaropes collected in this study were similar to those of birds collected in Simpson Lagoon along the ~entr~ Alaskan Beaufort coast in 1977 ad 1978. Both mysid and amphipod crustaceans were important items in the diets of both oldsquaws and phalaropes. A larger proportion of small cottid fish (sculpins) was present in the diets of oldsquaws and phalaropes in the Beaufort Lagoon area than in other coastal lagoons investigated. Some fish were taken in shoreline habitat samples where phalaropes were feeding when they were collected, but no fish were present in drop net samples taken where feeding oldsquaws were collected. Mysids and amphipods (primarily ~~ and some benthic organisms (polychaete worms) dominated habitat samples where feeding oldsquaws were collected. ~A~. The lagoons of the eastern Alaskan Beaufort Sea are used by anadromous (arctic cisco and arctic char) and marine (arctic flounder and fourhorn sculpin) fish for feeding on epibenthic invertebrates during the open-water season, similar to lagoons in the central Alaskan Beaufort. The absence of least cisco, broad and humpback whitefishes in the eastern Beaufort compared to areas farther west is attributed more to the lack of spawning populations in nearby rivers than to the absence of required habitat in the nearshore waters. Large individuals of arctic cisco, arctic char and fourhorn sculpin occur in similar abundances in all lagoons sampled from Pt. Barrow, Alaska, to the Mackenzie , NWT. Smaller individuals of these species were less uniformly distributed among coastal habitat types.

u~. Laboratory analyses of invertebrates sampled from Angun Lagoon indicated that the same two SPeCieS of mysids (a lWxalia and H. r&QLkLa) most common in the Simpson Lagoon area also predominated in the eastern Beaufort study area. Gammaru~ setosw and soro- SP. were the two dominant amphipods in the eastern Beaufort study area, whereas ~~ was the predominant amphipod in the Simpson Lagoon area. Although total. of epibenthic organisms was relatively lower in Angun Lagoon than had been found in Simpson Lagoon in 1978 (1034 vs. 1553 mg wet weight/m2] food (in the form of these invertebrate organisms) probably was not a limiting factor for vertebrate consumers (fish and birds) during the open-water period along the eastern portion of the Alaskan Beaufort coast.

. rv Produwon and TroDhic lhWQ~tlCa . Annual primary production inthe Beaufort Lagoon area was approximately 25$ of thatin the Simpson Lagoon area {2.0 vs 6 gC/m-2.yr-1). Terrestrial inputsof energy were important to food webs in the Beaufort Lagoon area and were responsible for 50-80% of the carbon in samples of arctic cisco and an arctio flounder. This is in contrast to Simpson Lagoon where terrestrial carbon was unimportant to marine trophic energetic. This difference may be due to the lower U ~ primary production relative to terrestrial carbon inputs or may be due to recent immigration (by the arctic ciseo) from overwintering areas where freshwater and terrestrial food sources dominate. The arctic flounder, as a predator of benthic invertebrates, is probably reflecting the energy sources supporting polychaetes and other infauna of the lagoon sediments. Pelagic primary production supports offshore food webs. The relatively high along the Beaufort Sea coastline may be due to periodic and a recycling o< terrestrially-derived nutrients. Nutrient regeneration and vitrification processes are evident beneath winter ice cover.

Mesoscale MeteoroloQv. Winds recorded at the Barter Island DEW Station can be used to predict winds at Beaufort Lagoon, thus allowing extrapolation of these data to the study area for periods before and after the study period (August). The study period in 198z was meteorologically atypical in that west winds occurred more than usual. This atypical situation prevails in this area during August in about 2 of every 10 years. The persistence of strong west winds during August acted to eliminate a shallow pycnocline in lagoons in the study area. The blockage of airflow by nearby and the effectsof sea breezes in the study area act to complicate accurate” predictions of surface winds from syntoptic weather charts and could lead to errors as great as 1800 in stress application.

al Ocea~aQhy . Flushing efficiencies of pulsing and limited exchange lagoons found in the eastern Beaufort Sea are considerably lower than those of the open lagoons farther west (e.g. Simpson Lagoon) and may rely on extreme local wind events to effect rapid exchange of lagoon and nearshore waters. The major driving mechanism for water exchange and transport on the inner shelf of the eastern Alaskan Beaufort Sea$ including the nearshore and lagoon systems, is derived from atmospheric forcing. The windfield determines both the direction and the intensity of the longshore current, the retention or removal of warm nearshore waters from the coast, the vertical mixing and horizontal exchange of lagoons, and (probably most importantly) the movement of ice and water on and off the nearshore region. In the western Beaufort this implies that year-round mean conditions will be very similar with prevailing winds primarily from the east. But in the eastern Beaufort, winds are bimodal with prevailing winds from the west through the fall and winter and from the east in the spring and summer. Storms tend to produce winds from the northwestin both regions and can result in strong longshore currents, especially in the fall when a large expanse of open water exists along the Beaufort coa9t.

137 ACKNC14LEDGEMENTS

Many people helped with this project in many ways. Those who contributed to specific disciplinary efforts are acknowledged in appropriate chapters of the report. Here we wish to acknowledge a number of individuals whose efforts to the entire program were particularly noteworthy. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, Fairbanks, Alaska was very helpful and cooperative in providing to us the use of their field station at Beaufort Lagoon. Gerald Garner, Bob Bartels and Mike Spindler deserve particular mention. Personnel of NOAA/OCSEAP in Juneau, Alaska, supported the program with interest and enthusiasm. Steve Zimmerman provided help in a number of ways, including his contributions to selected field efforts. George Lapine, Mike Meyer and Mike Albertson coordinated logistics support efforts, without which the project could not have been done. Efforts of individuals of other organizations who worked with LGL on this project were greatly appreciated. Don Schellof the University of Alaska provided important information on trophic dynamics. Steve Jewett of the University of Alaska analyzed invertebrate samples. Tom Kozo and Dan Batrack of Tetra Tech conducted the meteorological field studies. Lon Hachmeister and J. Vinelli of SAI Northwest carried out the oceanographic program. Those LGL people who helped produce the report deserve special credit. Jean Erwin worked diligently at typing and organizing several versions of various parts of the report. Its final appearance is largely to her credit. Bonnie Bower-Dennis and Betsy Sturm provided the graphics and Mardi Gazey helped in various ways. There are a number of others who helped. We apologize for not naming them all. LIST. OF CHAPTERS

Chapter 1. The Coastal Biota and Its Environment--A Review, An Interregional Comparison of Biological Use, A Characterization, and A Comparison of Vulnerabilities . . . . . 151 2. Birds andMarineMammals...... 265 3. Fish...... 325 4. The Invertebrates...... 369 5. Primary Production, Nutrient Dynamics, and Trophic Energetics...... 433 6. Mesoscale Meteorology ...... , ...... 469 7. Physical Oceanography ...... 501

139 CONTENTS

Page

PREFACE ...... ● . . ● ✎ ● ✎ ✎ ✎ . . ● ...... ● . ● m ● 131

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS . . . . . ✎ ● . ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ . . ✎ ...... ✎ . ● . ✎ 138

✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎✎☛ ✎ ✎ ✎ . ● LIST 0?? CHAPTERS. ● . . . ● ...... 139

THE COASTAL AND ITS ENVIRONMENT--A REVIEW, AN COMPARISON OF BIOLOGICAL USE, A CHARACTERIZATION, AND A COMPARISON OF VULNERABILITIES. . ✎ 151

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... ● . . . . . ● * ● . . . ● ● 152

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . . . ● ✎✎☛ . . ● ● . . ● . . ✎ . ✎ . ● . . ✎ 153

INTRODUCTION...... ✎ ✎ . . ✎ ● ● ✎ . ● ● ✎ . . ● 156

Scope of Study ...... ✎ ● . . ● ● ✎ ● . ✎ ✎ ✎ . ● ● 156

Approach ...... ● ✎ . ● ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ● ● ✎ ✎ ● . ● 157

CURRENT STATE OF KNOWLEDGE--A REVIEW. . ● ✎ ✎ . ✎ ● ✎ ● ✎ ✎ ✎ ● ● ✎ . ✎ 158

✎ ● ● The Coastal Region ● . . . e . . ● . ✎ ✎ ✎ . ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ . 158

✎ ✎ ✎ Marine Mammals . . ✎ . . . . . ● ✎ . ✎ ● ✎ ● ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ● ✎ ● . 160

✎ ✎ ✎ Ringed Seal . . ✎ . . . . ● ● ✎ . ✎ ● ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ● ✎ ✎ ✎ ● . 160

Bearded Seal. . ● . . ● . ● ✎ ✎ . ✎ ✎ ✎ ● ● ● ✎ ✎ ● ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ . ✎ 162

Spotted Seal. . ✎ . . ● ● ● 0 ✎ . ✎ ● ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ● ● ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ● ✎ 163

Bowhead Whale . ✎ . . ✎ . ✎ ● ✎ . ✎ ● ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ☛ ✎ ● ✎ 163

Belukha Whale . ✎ . . ● . ✎ . ✎ . ✎ ✎ ✎ ● ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ● ✎ ✎ . ✎ 164

Polar Bear. . . ✎ . . ✎ . ● * ✎ ● ✎ ● ✎ ✎ ● ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ . ● 166

Birds...... ✎ . . ✎ . ✎ . ✎ ✎ ● ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ● ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ● ● 167

Waterfowl . . . ● . . ✎ . ✎ ● ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ● ✎ ● ✎ ✎ ● ● ✎ ✎ . ✎ 167

Shorebirds. . . ✎ . . ✎ . ✎ ● ✎ ✎ ● ✎ ✎ ● ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ . ✎ 173

Gulls, Terns, and Alcids. ✎ . ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ● ✎ ✎ . ● 175

Fish...... ● ● . . ✎ ✃ ● . . ● ● ✎ ✎ ● ✎ ✎ ● ● ● ● 177

Anadromous ..0. ✎ ● ● ✎ ● ● ✎ . . ● ✎ . . ✎ ✎ ● ✎ ✎ . ✎ 177 Marine Fishes...... 180

141 TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued) Page

Vertebrate Food Webs ...... ● ...... ● . . ● ● . ● . . 183

The Nearshore Environment . . ● ...... ● ✎ . * ● ✎ . ● ● . 183

The Offshore Environment. . . ✎ . . . ● . . ● ✎ ✌ . . ✎ ✎ . ✎ ● . 186

Carbon and Nutrient Sources . ✎ ● ✎ . ● , ● ● ✎ ✎ . ● ✎ ✎ 0 ✎ ✎ * 187

✎ ✎ ● Physical Processes . . . . . ● . ● ✎ ✎ . ● ● ● ● ✎ 0 . ✎ ✎ ● . 188

✎ ● Wind...... ’. . . ● . ✎ ✎ ✎ . ● ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ . . ✎ ✎ ● . ✎ 188

✎ ✎ ✎ Water Movements . . . . ● ✎ . ✎ ✎ ✎ ● ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ . . ✎ ✎ ✎ . 190

✎ ✎ Ice Dynamics...... ● ✎ . ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ● ✎ ● ● . ✎ ✎ ✎ . ✎ 194

✎ Summary and Conclusions. ● ✎ ☛ . ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ . . ✎ ✎ ✎ . ✎ ✎ 196

DISTRIBUTION AND REGULATION OF BIOLOGICAL ● ✎ ✎ ● . . ✎ ✎ ✎ . ✎ ✎ ✎ 200

✎ ✎ ✎ The Coastal Vertebrates. . ● ● . . ● . . ● ✎ ✎ ● ● . . ✎ ● ✎ ● 200

✎ ✎ ✎ Bowhead Whale . ● . . e ● ● . . ✎ . . ✎ ✎ ● ✎ ✎ . . ✎ ✎ ● . 200

✎ ✎ Spotted Seal. . ✎ ● . . ✎ ✎ . . ● . . ✎ ● ● ● ● ● . ✎ ● ✎ . ✎ 200

✎ ✎ ✎ Ringed Seal . . ✎ ● . . ● ✎ . . ● . . ✎ ✎ ✎ ● ● . . ✎ ● ● ● 208

✎ ✎ ✎ Common Eider. . ● ● . . ✎ ✎ ● . ● . . ✎ ☛ ✎ ✎ ● . . ✎ ✎ ● . 208

✎ ● ✎ King Eider. . . ● ✎ . ● ● ✎ ● . ✎ ● . ✎ ● ✎ ✎ ● . ● ✎ ✎ ✎ . 209

✎ ✎ ✎ Oldsquaw. . . . ✎ ✎ ● ● ✎ ✎ ● ● ✎ ✎ . ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ● ● ✎ ✎ ✎ . 209

● ✎ ✎ Black Brant . . ● ● ✎ ● ✎ ✎ ● ✎ ● ✎ . ● ● ✎ ✎ ● . ✎ ● ● ✎ . 210

✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ Canada Goose. . ✎ ✎ ✎ ● ● ✎ ● ✎ ● ✎ . ● ● ● ✎ ● ● ✎ ✎ ✎ . 211

✎ ✎ ✎ Phalaropes. . . ✎ ✎ ✎ . ✎ ✎ ✎ ● ✎ ✎ ● ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ . ● ✎ ✎ ✎ ● 211

✎ ✎ ✎ Other S~orebirds. ● ✎ . ● ● ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ● ✎ ✎ ✎ ● ✎ ● ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ● 213

● ✎ ✎ Glaucous Gull and Arctic Tern ✎ ✎ ● ● 4 ✎ ✎ ● ✎ . ● ✎ ● ● . 213

✎ ✎ ● ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ● . ✎ e ✎ Other Bird Species...... ✎ ● . . 214

✎ ✎ ● ✎ ✎ ✎ ● ✎ ● ● . ✎ Arctic Cisco...... ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ . . 215

✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ● ✌ ✎ ● ✎ . ● Arctic Char ...... ✎ ✎ ✎ ● . . 215 Least Cisco and Broad and Whitefishes. ✎ ✎ . ✎ ✎ ✎ ● ● ✎ . ✎ 216 Boreal Smelt...... ✎ ✎ . ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ . ✎ . ✎ 217 Arctic Cod...... ✎ ✎ . ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ . ✎ . ✎ 217 Fourhorn Sculpin and Arctic Flounder. . . . ✎ ✎ ● ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ● ✎ . ✎ 218

Food Webs...... ✎ ✎ . ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ . ✎ ● ✌ 218

Invertebrates...... ● ✎ . ✎ ● ✎ ✎ . ● . ✎ 220

Primary Production and Carbon Sources. . . . . ✎ ✎ ● ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ . ✎ . ✎ 223

Physical Features and Processes...... ● ✎ . ✎ ● ✎ ✎ . ● . ✎ 227

Summary and Conclusions...... ● ✎ ● ✎ ✎ ● ☛ . ✎ . ✎ 232

142 TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued) Page

CHARACTERIZATION AND COMPARISON OF VULNERABILITIES. . . . . e . . e . ● 235

Coastal Characterization ...... ● . ● . . . ● . . ● . . . . . ✎ 236

Bathymetry...... ✎ . ✎ . ● . ● . . ● . . . . ● e 236

Emergent ...... ✎ . ✎ . ● . ✎ . . ✎ . . . . ✎ . 237

Configuration ...... ✎ . ✎ . ✎ . ✎ ● . ✎ . ● . . ✎ . 239

Wind and Water Circulation Patterns. ✎ . ✎ . ● . ✎ ● ● ✎ . ✎ . . ✎ . 240

Water Inputs from and Oceans. ✎ . ● ● ✎ ✎ ✎ ● . ✎ . . ✎ . 241

Ice Dynamics...... ✎ . ● ● ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ e ● . . ✎ . 242

Proximity to Sources of Animal Populations. ☛ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ . ✎ . ● ✎ . 243

Abundance of Components. . . . ● * ✎ ✎ ✎ ● ✎ . ✎ . . ● . 243

Summary and Conclusions . . . . . ● . ● ● * ● ● ● ● ✎ ● ✎ . . o . 243

Comparison of Vulnerabilities. . . . ✎ . ✎ ✎ ● ● ✎ ✎ ● ✎ . ● ● . . ● 246

Open ...... ✎ . ✎ ● ● ● ✎ ✎ ● ✎ . ● ● ● . . 246

Open Lagoons...... ● ✎ . ✎ . ✎ ✎ ● ✎ ✎ ✎ ● ● . ✎ ✎ ● . ● 247

Closed Lagoons...... 0 ● ✎ . ✎ ● ● ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ● . ● ☛ ● ● . 248

River Delta Fronts...... ✎ ✎ . ✎ ✎ ● ✎ ● ✎ ✎ ✎ . ● ● ● . . 249

Areas Different Because of Outside Influence. ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ . ✎ ✎ ● . . 250

Summary and Conclusions. , ...... ● ✎ ✎ ✎ . ● ✎ ● . . 252

LITERATURE . . ● ...... * . ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ . ✎ ✎ . ● . 253

CHAPTER 2.

BIRDS AND MARINE MAMMALs. ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ● ✎ ✎ ● ● . 265

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT S. . . ● . . ..0. .*..* ● . . ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ . ✎ ✎ . . . 266

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ...... ✎ ✎ ● ✎ . ✎ ✎ ● ● . 267

INTRODUCTION...... ● ..*...... ● ✎ ✎ ● . ✎ ✎ . ● . 268

STUDY AREA ...... *. . . . ✎ ✎ ☛ ✎ . ● ✎ . . . 269

METHODS...... ***. . ...0 ..0 ● ✎ ✎ ✎ ● ✎ ✎ . ● . 269

Aerial Surveys of Nearshore Marine Waters. . . . ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ● ✎ ● . . . 269

Aerial Surveys of Lagoons and Adjacent Nearshore Marine Waters ● . ● 274 Shoreline Surveys...... 275 Feeding Studies...... 277

143 TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued) Page

● ● ● ● ● 277 RESULTS . . . . . *.**. ● ☛✎✎✎ ......

Aerial Surveys of Nearshore Marine Waters. ✎ ✎ . . . ● ● . ✎ . . ● ● 278

Surveys During August ...... * ● ✎ . ● . ✎ ✎ * ● . . ● ● 278

Surveys During September. . . . ● ✎ . . ● ✎ ● ✎ . ● ✎ . ✎ . . ● ● 282

Aerial Surveys of Lagoons and Adjacent Nearshore Waters. . e e . ✎ ✎ 289

● ● e ✎ ✎ Shoreline Surveys...... ● ...... * . . 289

✎ ✎ ✎ ● ● . ● ✎ Feeding Studies...... ● .* ...... 292

✎ ● ☛ ✎ ✎ ✎ ● ● e ● Oldsquaws . . . ● . . ● ✎ ...... 292

✎ ✎ ● ✎ ✎ ✎ ● ● ● ✎ ✎ . ● . ✎ Phalaropes. . . ● ...... 297

✎ ✎ ✎ ✎✌ ✎ ● ● ● ✎ ✎ ● ● . . ● ✎ DISCUSSION...... ✎ ...... 297

Aerial Surveys of Nearshore Marine Waters. . ● ✎ ✎ ● . ✎ ✎ . ● . . ✎ 297

Seals...... * . . * ● ✎ ✎ ✎ . ✎ ✎ ● . . . ● 297 Bowhead Whales...... 6 ● ✎ ✎ . ✎ ✎ . ● ● . ✎ 300

Birds...... * . . ● ✎ 0 ● ✎ ✎ . ● ✎ . ✎ 303

Aerial Surveys of Lagoons and Adjacent Waters. ✎ ✎ ● ✎ ✎ ✎ . . ✎ . ● 303

● ✎ . ✎ ✎ ✎ . ● ✎ . ✎ Shoreline Surveys. ● ● . . ● ...... ** 307

✎ ● ● ✎ ● ● . . ✎ . ✎ Phalaropes. . . ✎ ✎ ● ● ✎ ..0.0 . . . . 307

✎ ● ● ✎ ✎ ● . ● ✎ . ✎ Other Species ● ✎ ✎ ✎ ● ✎ ● *..* . . . . 308

✎ ✎ . ✎ ✎ ● ● . ☛ ● ✎ Feeding Studies. ✎ ● ✎ ✎ ● ✎ . ...* . . . . 310

✎ ✎ . ● ✎ ✎ . . ● * ✎ Oldsquaws . . ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ● ✎✎✎☛ . . . . 310

✎ ✎ ● ✎ ✎ ● . . ✎ . ✎ Phalaropes. . ● ✎ ✎ ✎ ● ✎ ✎ ..0. .*.. 313

✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ . . ✎ ✎ RELEVANCE TO PROBLEMS OF PETROLEUM DEVELOPMENT. . . . 314

LITERATURE CITED. . . .*..* ...... **. ✎ ✎ . ✎ ✎ ✎ . . ✎ 0 ✎ 317

APPENDIX 2-I...... e...* . . . . ● ✎ . ● ✎ ✎ . . ✎ ● ✎ 321 APPENDIX 2-II ...... *.. ✎ ✎ . ✎ ✎ ● . . ✎ . ✎ 322 APPENDIX 2-III...... ✎ ✎ ● ✎ ✎ ✎ . . ● . ✎ 323 APPENDIX 2-IV ...... 0 0... ✎ ● ● ● e e . . ● . ● 324 TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)

...... 325

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...... ● ...... 326

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . . . . . ✎ ● ...... ● . . . . . ● . ● . . 327

INTRODUCTION...... ● . . . ✎ ✎ . . ● . . . ✎ ● ● . . ● ✎ . ✎ . . 327

STUDY AREA ...... ✎ . . . ✎ ✎ ● . ✎ . . . ✎ ✎ ✎ . . ✎ ✎ . ● . . 329

METHODS...... ● ✎ . ● . ✎ ✎ ✎ . ● . . . ✎ ● ● ● . ● ✎ ● ● . . 329

Water Quality. . . . ✎ ✎ . ✎ . ● ● ✎ ● ✎ . . . ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ● ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ● ● 329

FykeNet ...... ✎ ● . ✎ . ✎ ✎ ● ✎ ✎ . .* ✎ ✎ ✎ ● ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ● 329

Gill Net...... ✎ ✎ . ✎ . ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ● . . ✎ ✎ ✎ ● ✎ ✎ ● ✎ ● ✎ ✎ 331

✎ Feeding Ecology. . . ✎ ✎ ● ● . ✎ ✎ ✎ ● ✎ ✎ .* ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ● ✎ 332

Beach Seine. . . . . ✎ ✎ ● ✎ . ✎ ✎ ● ✎ ✎ ✎ . . ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ● ✎ ✎ ✎ ● ✎ ✎ 332

✎ RESULTS AND DISCUSSION. ✎ ● ✎ ✎ . ✎ ✎ ✎ ● ✎ ✎ ● ✎ ✎ ● ✎ ✎ ✃ ● ● ✎ ● ✎ 332

Water Quality. . . . ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ . ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ● ✎ ✎ ✎ 332

Fish Populations . . ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ . ✎ ● ● ● ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ☛ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ● 334

Distribution and Abundance ✎ . ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ● ● ✎ ✎ ✎ ● ✎ 334

Arctic Cisco. . . .** ✎ . ● ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ● ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ 338

✎ ✎ Arctic Char ...... ● ● ✎ ✎ ✎ ● ✎ ✎ .0 ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ● ✎ ✎ ● 339

Fourhorn Sculpin. . . . ✎ ● ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ● ✎ . . ✎ ● ✎ ✎ ● ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ 339

Length Frequency . . ● ✎ ✎ ✎ ● ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ .* ✎ ✎ ● ✎ ● ✎ ● ● ✎ ✎ ✎ 339

Arctic Cisco...... ✎ ✎ ✎ ● ● ✎ ✎ ✎ . . ✎ ✎ ✎ ● ● ● ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ 340

Arctic Char ...... ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ . . ✎ ● ✎ ✎ ● ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ 342

Fourhorn Sculpin. .*. ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ● ✎ ✎ ● .* ✎ ● ✎ ✎ ✎ ● ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ 342

Arctic Flounder . . . . ● ● ● ✎ ✎ ✎ ● ✎ . . ● ✎ ● ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ● ✎ ● ● 347

Feeding Ecology...... ✎ ✎ ● ✎ ✎ ● ✎ ● . . ● ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ● ✎ ✎ ✎ ● ✎ 347

Arctic Cisco...... ✎ ✎ ● ✎ ● ✎ ✎ ✎ . . ✎ ● ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ● ● ✎ 351

Arctic Char ...... ● ✎ ✎ ✎ ● ✎ ✎ ✎ . . ✎ ✎ ✌ ✎ ● ✎ 0 ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ 353 FourhornSculpin...... 353

145 TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued) Page

GENERAL DISCUSSION...... ● . . . . *.. . . ● * . . ● . . . . 353

Broad and Humpback Whitefishes and Least Cisco * . ✎ . . ● ✎ . . . . 354

Arctic Char and Arctic Cisco ...... ✎ * . ✎ ✎ . . . . 356

Marine Species ...... ● . . ✎ . ● ● ✎ . . ● . 356

RELEVANCE TO PROBLEMS OF PETROLEUM DEVELOPMENT. ✎ ● . ● . ✎ ✎ ✎ . ● ✎ 0 357

✎ LITERATURE CITED...... 0. ● ..** ● ✎ . ✎ . ● ✎ ✎ ● ✎ . 359

✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ APPENDIX 3-I. . . .* ● . . .0.0. . ...* ✎ ✎ . ✎ . . 361

✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ APPENDIX 3-II . . . . ✎ . . . ..0.0 . ..* ✎ ● . ● . ✎ ● . 367

CHAPTER 4.

THE INVERTEBRATES. ✎ ✎ ● ✎ . ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ● ✎ . 369

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . . . ● . . . . . ● . . ✎ ✎ ✎ ● 0 ✎ ✎ ✎ ● ✎ ✎ . 371

✎ ● ✎ INTRODUCTION...... ● . . ✎ . . . . . o .0 ✎ ✎ ● ✎ ● ● ● ● . 371

● ✎ ✎ ✎ ● ✎ ● . ,. ✎ ✎ ● ✎ . ● ● . 372 STUDY AREA. . . ● ......

● ● ✎ ✎ . ● ✎ ✎ ● ✎ ✎ e METHODS ...... ● . ● . . ● . ● ...... 372

✎ ✎ ✎ ● ✎ ✎ ✎ ● ✎ ✎ . RESULTS ...... ✎ . ✎ . ● ✎ ● ✎ ...... e 375

✎ ● ● ✎ ✎ ● Species Accounts ✎ . ✎ . ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ...... ✎ ● ✎ ✎ . ☛ 378

✎ ✎ ☛ . ✎ ● ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ . Mysids and Amphipods. ✎ ✎ ☛ ✎ ● ✎ . e . . . 378

✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ● ✎ ✎ ● ✎ . Mysis litoralis. . ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ...... 378

● ● ● ✎ . ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ . Mysis relicts. . . ✎ ☛ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ . . . . 378

✎ ✎ ✎ ● ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ . Corophium sp.. . . ✎ ✎ 0 ✎ ✎ ✎ ● . . . . 382

✎ ✎ ✎ ● ✎ ● ✎ ✎ ● ✎ . Gammarus setosus . ✎ ✎ . ✎ ✎ ✎ . . . . e 382

✎ ✎ ✎ . ✎ ✎ ● ✎ ✎ . Tunicates ...... ✎ ✎ . ✎ ✎ ✎ . . . 0 . o 382

● ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ☛ . Cumaceans ...... ✎ ✎ 0 ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ...... 391

146 TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued) rage

Polychaetes ...... * . . . . * . . 0 ...... 391

Prionospiio cirrifera...... ● ...... 391

Pholoe minuta...... ✎ ...... 0 . . . 391

Chone duneri ...... ✎ . . ● ...... 395

Nereimyra aphroditoides...... ● . . ✎ ...... 395

w fi’licornis” ...... ● . . ✎ . . . . . ● . . 395

SCUSSION...... * ...... ✎ . . ● . . . . . ✎ . . 399

Mysids and Amphipods ...... ✎ . . ✎ . . . . ● ✎ . . 399

Infauna...... ● . . . . . ✎ . . ✎ . . . . ● ● . . 401

LITERATURE CITED...... ✎ . . . . . ✎ . . ✎ . . . . . ✎ . . 402

APPENDIX 4-I...... * . . . ✎ . . . * . ✎ . . ✎ . . 0 . . ☛ . . 403

APPENDIX 4-II ...... * ● ✎ . ,. . . . ✎ . e ✎ . . . . . ✎ . . 413

APPENDIX 4-III...... ✎ ✎ . . . . . ✎ . . ● . . . . . ✎ . . 425

CHAPTER 5. PRIMARY PRODUCTION, NUTRIENT DYNAMICS, AND TROPHIC ENERGETIC . . e ...... e 433

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT S. . . . . 0 ...... e . e ...... 434

suMMARY. . . ● . . . ● ● ...... ● . . ● ● . ● ...... 435

INTRODUCTION. . . . * ✌ a . . . . ● ● . . . ✎ . . ✎ ✎ . ✎ ...... 436

STUDY AREA. ● ✎☛ ● . ✎ . . . . . ✎ ✎ . . . ✎ . . ✎ ✎ . ✎ . . . . ● . . 437

METHODS . . ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ . ✎ . . . . . ✎ ✎ . . . ✎ . ● ✎ ✎ . e ● . . . ✎ . . 439

RESULTS . . ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ . ✎ , . . . . ✎ ✎ . . . ✎ . ✎ ✎ ✎ . . ● ● . . ✎ . . 440

Physical Characteristics of Eastern Beaufort Sea ✎ ● . ✎ . . 440

Hydrographic Structure of Lagoon Waters...... ✎ ✎ . ✎ e . 441

Circulation and Water Exchange ...... ✎ ✎ . ✎ . . 442

Nutrient Chemistry and Primary Production. . . . .*.. ✎ ✎ . ✎ . . 449

Carbon Isotope Determinations...... ✎ . ● 451

147 TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued) Page

DISCUSSION...... 457

Lagoon Waters and Trophic Structure...... ● ...... 457

Large-Scale Structure and Primary Productivity . . . ✎ ...... 458

RELEVANCE TO PROBLEMS OF PETROLEUM DEVELOPMENT. . . . ● ✎ ...... 464

LITERATURE CITED...... 0 ● ...0. . . ● ✎ ● . . ● . . . 466

CHAPTER 6.

MESOSCALE METEOROLOGY . . ● ● ✎ . . ✎ ● . . 469

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...... ● . ● . ...* .* . . ✎ ✎ ✎ . . ✎ ✎ ● . 470

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . . . ✎ ● ✎ ...... ● . . ● ✎ ✎ . . ✎ ✎ ✎ . 471

INTRODUCTION...... ✎ ✎ ● ✎☛✎✎☛✎ ✎ ● . ✎ ● ✎ . . ✎ ● ✎ . 471

STUDY AREA ...... ● ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ● . ✎ ✎ ✎ . . ● ✎ ● . 472

METHODS...... ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ● ✎ ✎ ✎ . . ✎ ● ✎ . 472

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION. . . . ✎ ● ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎☛ ✎ ● ✎ ✎ ● . ● ✎ ✎ ✎ . 472

Cross Correlation Analyses ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎☛ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ● ✎ ✎ ● ✎ . 472

Bivariate Distribution and Statistical Data. . ● ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ . 476

Pressure Data and Geostrophic Wind Data. . . . ● ✎ 0 ✎ ✎ ● ✎ ✎ ✎ ● . 480

Surface Wind, , and Light Intensity Data ✎ . ✎ ✎ ● ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ● 481

LITERATURE CITED...... ✎ . ✎ ✎ ● ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ 483

APPENDIX6-I...... * ...... ● ● ● . . ● ✎ . ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ 485

APPENDIX6-11. . ● . . . . ● . ● . . . .* ● . ● . ✎ . ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ● ✎ 489

APPENDIX6-111. . ● . ● . ● ● ● . ● ● ● ● . ● . ● ● ✎ . ✎ ● ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ ✎ 498 TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued) Page CHAPTER 7. PHYSICAL OCEANOGRAPHY ...... e . . . . 501

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...... 502

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . . . e ...... 503

INTRODUCTION...... 504

General Nature and Scope of Study ...... ● ...... 504

Specific Objectives...... ✎ ...... 505

Relevance to Problems of Petroleum Development . . . ✎ ...... 505

CURRENT STATE OF KNOWLEDGE...... ✎ ...... 507

Beaufort Shelf Characteristics ...... ✎ ...... 507

Outer Shelf ...... * ...... ✎ ...... 509

Inner Shelf ...... 0 ● . . . . ✎ ...... 510

Nearshore and Lagoons ...... ✎ . . . . ✎ ...... ● 512

STUDY AREA. . . e ...... ✎ . . * . ✎ . ● . . . . ✎ 512

METHODS AND RATIONALE FOR DATA COLLECTION . 0 ✎ . . . . 0 . ✎ . . . . ✎ 513

Phase I: 21 July-8 August 1982 ...... ✎ ...... ✎ . . . . ✎ 513

Phase II: 7-15 September 1982...... ✎ . . ● . . ● ✎ . . . . ✎ 514

RESULTS...... ✎ . . ✎ * . ✎ ✎ ● . . . ✎ 515

Current Measurement Program...... ✎ . . ● . . ✎ ✎ ● . . 0 ✎ 515

Drifter Study ...... ✎ . . ✎ . . ✎ ✎ ✎ . . . ✎ 515

Current Meter Moorings...... ✎ . . ✎ . . ✎ ✎ ✎ . . . ✎ 521

Hydrographic Data...... s . . ✎ . . ✎ ✎ ✎ . . . ✎ 536

DISCUSSION...... e ...... ✎ ● . ✎ ✎ ✎ . . . ✎ 553

Cross-shelf and Longshore Exchange . . . . 0 . . ✎ ✎ . ✎ ✎ ✎ . . . ✎ 553

149 TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued) Page Lagoon/ Characterization ...... 556 Open Lagoons...... 556 Pulsing Lagoons...... 563 Limited Exchange Lagoons...... 571

CONCLUSIONS...... ● ...... 574

NEED FORFURTHERSTUDY. . . . ● ...... 576 LITERATURE CITED...... 578