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Evolution of the Sefidrud Delta (South West Caspian Sea) During the Last Millennium

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Evolution of the Sefidrud Delta (South West Caspian Sea) During the Last Millennium Evolution of the Sefidrud Delta (South West Caspian Sea) during the last millennium A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy By Safiyeh Haghani Environmental Science Brunel University London July 2015 Declaration This thesis is the result of the author’s own work. Data or information from other authors contained herein, are acknowledge at the appropriate point in the text. Abstract The Sefidrud has developed a large delta in the south west of the Caspian Sea. Its delta is characterized by rapid sedimentation rate (20 mm/yr) in the delta plain and low sedimentation rate (1.67 mm/yr) in a very steep delta front. Sefidrud Delta evolution depends upon sediment supply by river and longshore current under rapid Caspian Sea Level (CSL) fluctuation and tectonic setting at the point of entry to the basin. The tectonic setting caused a very steep slope in the delta front. Sediment supply is variable and affected by river avulsion and dam construction. The CSL has undergone significant changes during the last millennium. Therefore, the Sefidrud Delta evolution during the last millennium is explained based on CSL fluctuations. This fluctuation has major impacts not only on coastal lagoons, but also more inland in wetlands when the CSL rose up to at least -21.44 m (i.e. >6 m above the present water level) during the early Little Ice Age. Although previous studies in the southern coast of the Caspian Sea have detected a high- stand during the Little Ice Age period, this study presents the first evidence that this high- stand reached so far inland and at such a high altitude. This study also examines the interdependence of different factors in the evolution of coastal lagoons as a part of delta evolution. Dam flushing operations and rapid sea–level rise (~3 m between 1977 and 1995) have accelerated the infilling of the coastal lagoon system. This rapid infilling (31 mm/yr) makes the whole system more prone to sediment encroachment in the short term. Because the lagoons are short-lived and have dynamic evolution, the impact of the Anthropocene is also visible in the delta evolution. Contents 1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Background ....................................................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Aim and objectives of the research ................................................................................................... 3 1.2.1 Aim of the research .................................................................................................................. 3 1.2.2 Objective of the research .......................................................................................................... 3 1.3 Thesis structure ................................................................................................................................. 3 2 Literature review ....................................................................................................................................... 5 2.1 The Caspian Sea basin ...................................................................................................................... 5 2.1.1 Caspian catchment area and river system ................................................................................ 5 2.1.2 Caspian Sea Level (CSL) fluctuation ....................................................................................... 7 2.1.3 Deltas around the CS ............................................................................................................... 9 2.1.4 Economic significance of deltaic deposits ............................................................................. 11 2.2 Sefidrud Delta ................................................................................................................................. 13 2.2.1 Source of the sediments ......................................................................................................... 14 2.2.2 Geology of the region ............................................................................................................ 15 2.2.3 Coastal lagoons and wetlands ................................................................................................ 18 2.2.4 Climate and vegetation of the region ..................................................................................... 19 2.3 In conclusion for chapter two ......................................................................................................... 19 3 Materials and methods ............................................................................................................................. 21 3.1 Remote sensing ............................................................................................................................... 21 3.2 GPR profiling ................................................................................................................................. 21 3.3 Coring ............................................................................................................................................. 23 3.3.1 Gravity corer .......................................................................................................................... 25 3.3.2 Percussion corer ..................................................................................................................... 25 3.3.3 Livingstone corer ................................................................................................................... 26 3.4 Sedimentology ................................................................................................................................ 27 3.4.1 Magnetic susceptibility .......................................................................................................... 28 3.4.2 Core photography ................................................................................................................... 29 3.4.3 Visual description .................................................................................................................. 30 3.4.4 Loss on ignition (LOI) ........................................................................................................... 30 3.4.5 Grain size analysis ................................................................................................................. 31 3.5 Chronology ..................................................................................................................................... 33 3.5.1 Radiocarbon dating ................................................................................................................ 34 3.5.2 Radionuclide dating ............................................................................................................... 35 3.5.3 Spheroidal carbonaceous fly–ash particles (SCPs) ................................................................ 36 3.6 Macro-remains analysis .................................................................................................................. 36 3.7 Palynology ...................................................................................................................................... 37 4 Results ..................................................................................................................................................... 39 4.1 Remotely sensed data ..................................................................................................................... 39 4.2 GPR profiles and sedimentary facies .............................................................................................. 40 4.2.1 Location A ............................................................................................................................. 41 4.2.2 Location B .............................................................................................................................. 43 4.2.3 Location C .............................................................................................................................. 45 4.2.4 Location D ............................................................................................................................. 49 4.3 Inland water bodies ......................................................................................................................... 52 4.3.1 Langarud ................................................................................................................................ 52 4.3.2 Astaneh (AAL13V) ................................................................................................................ 61 4.4 Coastal lagoons ............................................................................................................................... 70 4.4.1 Zibakenar Lagoon .................................................................................................................. 70 4.4.2 Kiashahr Lagoon .................................................................................................................... 83 4.4.3 Amirkola Lagoon ................................................................................................................... 87 4.4.4 AL11V3 sequence .................................................................................................................
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