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Sehlin MacNeil, K. (2015) Shafted: a case of cultural and structural violence in the power relations between a Sami community and a mining company in northern Sweden. Ethnologia Scandinavica, 45: 73-88
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Permanent link to this version: http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:umu:diva-108100 Shafted A Case of Cultural and Structural Violence in the Power Relations be- tween a Sami Community and a Mining Company in Northern Sweden By Kristina Sehlin MacNeil
This article is based on a single case mokk Iron Mines AB and mining protes- study exploring the various expressions tors, some of whom were Sami people. of structural and cultural violence in the Three days later, on August 31, an opinion power relations between a sameby1 and a piece was published in the Swedish na- mining company in Sweden. It is an eth- tional tabloid, Aftonbladet. The headline nological study, focusing on the voices of read: We have different interests but we and experiences held by the research par- can cooperate. The subheading stated: ticipants, and should be read as a thor- Mines can grow without threatening rein- ough analysis of these experiences. Be- deer herding or tourism (Aftonbladet de- cause of space limitations this particular batt, August 31, 2013. Author’s own study does not include further analysis or translation). There were five signatories to explanations of the political and histori- the article, the first two were the chairs of cal contexts or discourses in which this two samebys, Gabna sameby and Laevas case can be located. However, this paper sameby, both of which are heavily affect- is one part of a research project where ed by mining on their lands. Laevas same- these contexts and discourses will be ex- by has the world’s largest underground plored more thoroughly. Using Johan iron ore mine on their land. The mine, Galtung’s theories of structural and cul- which is owned and operated by LKAB, a tural violence and focusing on the narra- Swedish state-owned mining company, tives given by two members of Laevas has been in existence for over a hundred sameby board, I will explore their experi- years. The town of Kiruna, where many of ences of the events, in relation to the cre- the members of Laevas sameby live dur- ation and publishing of the opinion piece. ing parts of the year, was more or less built The main research question for this study around and on top of the mine. LKAB em- is thus: How is cultural and structural ploys more than 4 000 people directly but violence manifested in the power rela- also creates jobs for over 54 000 people in tions between Laevas sameby and the Arctic Circle, and accounts for ten per LKAB, as experienced by two members cent of Sweden’s industrial investments of Laevas sameby board? (LKAB 2014). On August 27, 2013, the Sami Parlia- The power relations between a same- ment2 in Sweden agreed on a joint, very by and a state-owned mining company, powerful statement. The statement de- the size of LKAB, seem obvious. In an clared that the ongoing mining exploita- era of a fast growing mining boom and tions in Swedish Sápmi3 were obvious hu- increasing exploration and exploitation man rights offences and that the Sami Par- in Swedish Sápmi, a sameby like Laevas liament could accept no more exploitation will need to fight for its survival. It can of Sápmi (Sametinget 2014). The state- oppose new mines opening, but it does ment was read to a public gathering in not have the right to decide whether a Gállok (Kallak), near Jokkmokk, on Au- mine will go ahead or not (Lawrence gust 28, 2013. Gállok had been and con- 2009; Össbo 2014). The sameby mem- tinued to be the site for a major confronta- bers will also still need to deal with the tion between the mining company Jokk- mines already operating on their coun-
Ethnologia Scandinavica, Vol. 45, 2015 74 Kristina Sehlin MacNeil, Shafted. A Case of Cultural and Structural Violence
try. Reindeer have a particular diet and tion, something that they should do ac- migratory patterns. Mines, and the infra- cording to the agreement. The sameby structure supporting them, commonly members saw quite a few problems with cut off these migratory routes as well as the opinion piece and made some changes affecting the grazing areas that the rein- to it. The draft then went back to LKAB deer need to forage on (Horstkotte 2013; and underwent more editing. In late Au- Brännlund & Axelsson 2011). A con- gust the board member of Laevas sameby, stant struggle for the survival of their responsible for the communication about culture also brings stress to the members the opinion piece, left for work in remote of the sameby. A deep understanding of Norway. The only way that he could be the mining industry, the legal processes contacted was via satellite telephone after around mining, as well as the power re- work hours. During this time the sameby lations involved, are necessary in order members, through their consultant, were to challenge the mining companies contacted by LKAB and were told that the (Marsh 2013:178; O’Faircheallaigh opinion piece had to be published straight 1999:64). According to the research par- away. In order to undertake a final edit, ticipants of this study, gaining this infor- the sameby member working in Norway mation and staying informed is time con- had the article read to him over the phone. suming and further impacts on members He then had to give his approval over the of the sameby, as their time is needed for phone. reindeer herding. Thus it is not unusual for samebys to enter into agreements Methodological Approach with mining companies operating on Throughout my work in this field I am their lands. This ensures that the sameby constantly conscious of the power struc- will receive some compensation for time tures that exist within the researcher/re- lost due to the numerous consultations search participant relationship. As so suc- and meetings they must attend and par- cinctly put by Linda Tuhiwai Smith: “The ticipate in, in addition to compensation word itself, ‘research’, is probably one of for loss of land in some cases. the dirtiest words in the Indigenous In 2012 and 2013 Laevas sameby world’s vocabulary” (Smith 1999:1). This worked on creating an agreement with is true also of a Sami context, where mem- LKAB. The agreement was finalised in ories of race biology and skull measuring June, 2013. There had never been any pre- live on. In my case there is the added di- vious agreements and the sameby had mension of being a non-Indigenous re- never received any such compensation searcher doing research on issues that re- from the state-owned mining company be- late to Indigenous peoples. Can these fore. In August the parties held a planning seemingly great obstacles be overcome in meeting and at the end of this meeting the order to conduct a successful research pro- sameby members were handed a draft ject for both research participants and re- opinion piece by the LKAB staff. They searcher? This research project’s main were told that this was part of communi- methodological framework is founded on cating to the public about the collabora- Indigenous methodologies as described Kristina Sehlin MacNeil, Shafted. A Case of Cultural and Structural Violence 75
by theorists such as Linda Tuhiwai Smith an emancipatory or empowering form of (1999, 2012), Margaret Kovach (2010), inquiry and can be used to bring out voices Jelena Porsanger (2004), Bagele Chilisa otherwise silenced or ignored (Kohler (2011) and Renee Pualani Louis (2007). Riessman 2008; Lemley & Mitchell These methodologies share some funda- 2012). Lemley & Mitchell suggest that mental qualities as they work to ensure the narrative researcher analyses and pre- that Indigenous peoples are active partici- sents findings by “restorying” narratives pants in and have control over Indigenous through frameworks that communicate related research processes. In this study I the research participants’ meaning as ac- have worked closely together with the re- curately as possible and assert that “using search participants who have been in- direct quotes is one way that we complete volved throughout, knowing that nothing this act” (2012:219). In combination with would be made public or published with- the narrative approach, the Indigenous out their consent. We have discussed methodological framework used for this hopes and fears, both from research par- research rests on four corner stones, ”rela- ticipant and researcher perspectives. tional accountability; respectful (re)pres- Through our discussions we have come to entation; reciprocal appropriation; and know each other, not as researcher and re- rights and regulation” (Louis 2007:133) search participants but as individuals and and engages the three R’s of Respect, we have built respect for, as well as under- Reciprocity and Relationships (Reid and standings of, each other’s situations and Taylor 2011). Through the use of an In- positions. digenous methodology framework I re- Using someone else’s words to describe main methodologically as well as ethical- a situation is a delicate matter. In an effort ly committed to honouring Indigenous to stay as true as possible to the meaning voices4 (Denzin 2014; Smith 1999; Ivanitz of the research participants’ words, this 1998). study makes use of direct quotes. The nar- This study is based on a set of semi- ratives were given in Swedish and the structured interviews conducted with two Swedish quotes have also been included members of Laevas sameby between June, as requested by the research participants, 2013 and March, 2014. The research par- who stressed the importance of their own ticipants have chosen to be referred to as words being present in the article. This is “sameby member” throughout the article, in accordance with the ethical and Indi- rather than using their names or any other genous methodology framework that un- form of identification, this too is in line derpins this research, as well as the yarn- with the study’s ethical and Indigenous ing (narrative) method (Bessarab and methodology framework. The interview Ng’andu 2010) and Galtung’s models method can best be described as yarning (Galtung 1990b) used to conduct the an- (Bessarab and Ng’andu 2010), an emerg- alysis. Narrative inquiry enables a focus ing Indigenous form of data collection. on power relations and positions of privi- Bessarab and Ng’andu describe yarning in lege as it centres the research participants’ semi-structured interviews as “an infor- experiences, thus it is often referred to as mal and relaxed discussion through which 76 Kristina Sehlin MacNeil, Shafted. A Case of Cultural and Structural Violence
both the researcher and participant jour- It should be mentioned that even though ney together visiting places and topics of this article’s purpose is to explore the interest relevant to the research study” manifestation of structural and cultural (Bessarab and Ng’andu 2010:38). Yarn- violence through the research partici- ing is thus more of a conversation where pants’ experiences, I did seek the mining both researcher and participant actively company’s comments on how they per- participate in the process, as opposed to ceived the process around the creation and other interview methods where the partici- publishing of the opinion piece. After pant is the main speaker and the research- making a number of unsuccessful phone er the main listener. Using yarning in re- calls to LKAB’s communications depart- search means that the researcher does not ment, I finally made contact by email and just take from the participants but gives posed seven questions including: Who something in return by means of building wrote the article?; Who came up with the a relationship. Bessarab and Ng’andu em- idea?; Who decided on the headlines and phasise this by stating that “yarning is a the order of signatories?; and Others have process that requires the researcher to de- said that LKAB were in a rush to get the velop and build a relationship that is ac- article published at that particular time, is countable to Indigenous people participat- this true according to your experience of ing in the research” (ibid.). Yarning can be what happened and if so why was it so im- described as a form of narrative method, portant to publish this article at that par- particularly conducive to Indigenous re- ticular time? I did not receive answers to lated research (Lemley & Mitchell 2012). any of the questions. However, I did re- Originally the project aimed to have a fo- ceive a one-sentence answer stating that cus group of six participants, both male the article came into existence through and female and of various ages. However, discussions between all the parties who as the study concerns a specific case, the signed it. two members were asked to be research This article is part of a research project, participants because of their involvement an international comparison of power in the process around the opinion piece. I structures in the relations between Indi- travelled to the town of Kiruna to meet genous groups and mining companies with the research participants a total of through single case studies in Sweden and five times during the period and the narra- Australia. The project is co-owned and tives used in this article were recorded mentored by the National Association of during group interviews at four of these the Swedish Sami People (SSR). Initially sessions. The interviews took place at I came in contact with Laevas sameby Samegården, a guest house and Sami mu- through a land protection project. The seum in Kiruna and resulted in many number of mines and exploration permits hours of recordings that make up the focus that Laevas sameby are facing on their of the analysis, which was conducted by land, made their experiences relevant for applying peace researcher Johan Gal- this study. One research participant was tung’s theories on structural and cultural invited to participate in the project violence. through discussions with SSR and a refer- Kristina Sehlin MacNeil, Shafted. A Case of Cultural and Structural Violence 77
ral or snowball sampling technique was tion against Sami in Sweden as well as used where that participant recruited other common stereotypes and prejudice members of the sameby (Morgan 2008: against Sami in general and reindeer 815). herding Sami in particular (Pikkarainen and Brodin 2008). Also, Sami issues are Different Forms of Violence often thrown in with general issues con- Peace researcher Johan Galtung intro- cerning Norrland (the north of Sweden) duced the concept of structural violence and therefore treated as non-issues. in the late 1960s (Galtung 1969). He Eriksson (2010) points out that there is a then introduced the concept of cultural colonial discourse present in Sweden violence in the late 1980s (Galtung where Norrland is commonly viewed as 1990a). In his discussion about structural backwards and unimportant, as opposed or indirect violence, Galtung was at- to the capital, Stockholm, in the south, tempting to broaden both the meaning of which is modern and important. This fur- the word peace and what peace should ther contributes to Sami people and their reject, violence. Thus, structural vio- history, culture and society being made lence does not necessarily involve a per- invisible, which can also be evidenced by son or group intentionally causing phys- the lack of national interest that the Gál- ical harm to another person or group but lok conflict generated during the summer the “…violence is built into the structure of 2013. The conflict received more at- and shows up as unequal power and con- tention from international media outlets sequently as unequal life chances” than national ones. According to journal- (Galtung 1969:171). ist Po Tidholm, the fact that mines are In the case of Laevas sameby and the opening in Sápmi is a piece of “…non- LKAB mining company, the structural news. Like that the apples will soon be violence can be seen as the power in- ripe” (Dagens Nyheter, September 23, equalities caused by uneven resources. 2013. Author’s own translation). LKAB has a communications department Johan Galtung is far from the only with several employees, Laevas sameby scholar who has explored power relations does not. LKAB is a state-owned compa- and structures of power. One of the more ny with political and financial support at famous scholars who has dealt with the the highest level, Laevas sameby is a concept of power is Michel Foucault, Sami community in Swedish Sápmi, an whose analysis of power relations and dis- area that is colonised by the Swedish courses (see for example The order of dis- state and they exist under laws created by course, 1984) can be used as a base for un- the Swedish state. In terms of cultural derstanding this study’s context, in which violence, Galtung intends this to mean structural and cultural violence exists. For the attitudes and ideas commonly held in instance, in this study the experiences of a society that can be used to justify struc- the members of Laevas sameby are em- tural or even direct violence (Galtung bedded in many different discourses and 1990a:291). In this study the cultural many different relations of power affect violence involves racism and discrimina- their interactions with LKAB. Foucault 78 Kristina Sehlin MacNeil, Shafted. A Case of Cultural and Structural Violence
theorised that there is a relation between company. The question is whether there knowledge and power and that discourse can be room for both a sameby and a min- itself is a form of power struggle (Fair- ing company in and around the town of clough 1992). Galtung critiques Fou- Kiruna, where the main LKAB mine is lo- cault’s concept of power because of what cated. It is not only a matter of reindeer he sees as a “reification of zero-sum, ei- grazing lands quickly declining but also a ther or relations” (Kuur-Sørensen and matter of power relations, stereotypes and Galtung 2007) where, in Foucault’s view, discrimination that affect the daily lives of some conflicts are unsolvable. According the sameby members. The research par- to Kuur-Sørensen and Galtung, Foucault’s ticipants both agree that the situation is notion of power makes conflict transfor- better than it once was and that racism and mation impossible. This study deals spe- discrimination is less overt these days, yet cifically with the structural and cultural they still exist in the shadow of the violence experienced by the research par- world’s largest underground iron ore ticipants and does not further investigate mine. the various discourses in which these ex- We can’t compete and bring out unemployment periences sit. However, further research numbers and financial examples, we don’t stand a into these discourses could certainly shed chance.5 even more new light on this particular The sameby members also discussed how situation. LKAB has an enormous influence on the town of Kiruna and the region. LKAB Public Relations and Power Relations provides jobs for many of the people that On June 3, 2013, the agreement between they share their town with. One of the Laevas sameby and LKAB was signed. sameby members also emphasised how On August 23, the first planning meeting uncomfortable it can be to be an LKAB on how to go forward with the actual critic in his town. work, stated in the agreement, took place. After the meeting was finished the sameby It’s just to choose in what kind of climate you want to live.6 members were presented with a draft opinion piece and asked to put their names The last quote points to an aspect that to the article. The events that followed, in stands out throughout the narratives given the lead up to the opinion piece being pub- by the research participants. Their daily lished in Aftonbladet, on August 31, and lives involve a strategic struggle to protect afterwards, when the sameby members their lands and save their livelihood. They had to face the consequences, are de- need to carefully calculate how their deci- scribed in the following text, using direct sions and actions might affect not only quotes from two of the Laevas sameby their futures but also the futures of other members involved. reindeer herding communities in Sápmi. Theirs is a reality where one small strate- Next to the World’s Largest Mine gic miscalculation can lead to big conse- The Swedish state-owned mining compa- quences. ny LKAB is both an old and very large Kristina Sehlin MacNeil, Shafted. A Case of Cultural and Structural Violence 79
The Timing was Crucial bers involved in the agreement project The sameby members both described how with LKAB discussed whether they could LKAB seemed to be in a rush to get the put their names to the opinion piece. They opinion piece published within a particu- decided not to out of apprehension for lar timeframe. On Friday, August 23, the what the consequences could be. How- sameby members were handed the first ever, after further discussion with the min- draft of the opinion piece. On Sunday, Au- ing company, they went along with the ar- gust 25, the sameby member responsible ticle. for communicating with LKAB about the On the Tuesday, I called [another sameby mem- opinion piece, left for reindeer slaughter ber] and said no, we can’t let this article out like in remote Norway, a place where he could this, we can’t go along with it. Because I was only be contacted via satellite phone. The afraid already then about what kind of message it reindeer slaughter lasted until the follow- would end up with. Particularly when there was ing Thursday. During this time the same- fighting in Kallak too. And so we decided. But then there was a slight change (to the article) be- by member had to make crucial decisions tween Wednesday and Thursday and then we went about his role in regards to the opinion along with it.10 piece. The sameby member described how he We found out about the opinion piece on the 23 of was concerned about the way that the August, it was a Friday. We had a first meeting in August about how to shape the work. And when opinion piece was formulated and how it we finished up that meeting we got this script. It seemed to indicate that mines did not have was not like this, it was even worse.7 a big impact on reindeer husbandry as long as the mining industry and samebys The same sameby member questioned cooperated. why he had not been given the appropriate time to edit the article. I remember I even said to [our consultant] that this article can’t carry a message that it is possible to We sort of ended up in a bit of conflict regarding build mines everywhere, that it is possible to co- this article with LKAB, how it was used. We had operate. But that is how it ended up, that a mine reindeer slaughter in Norway that week, it was one doesn’t matter, you can cooperate. [Our consult- of those unfortunate timings. And there was a real ant] was aware that we couldn’t have such a word- hurry to get it out right then. And there’s some- ing.11 thing in that, why did they want to get it out at that exact time?8 The same sameby member explained how He also described how the circumstances his community had not been given the op- had been inadequate to undertake the edit- portunity to fully participate in the process ing necessary to ensure that the article of creating the opinion piece, on the same could not be misinterpreted. terms as the mining company. They were never given the final version of the article I did not see this article at all, I just had it read to before it was printed. me over the phone and you know how that is, you lose words. I was on reindeer husbandry duty in LKAB chose the final content. There we have the Norway at the time.9 aspect of time entering the picture. We were not allowed to be involved in the details of the content During the first days of the reindeer in a dignified way as it was pushed out so quick- slaughter in Norway, the sameby mem- ly.12 80 Kristina Sehlin MacNeil, Shafted. A Case of Cultural and Structural Violence
Both sameby members stressed how they message brought forth in the opinion piece believed that the situation could have been could be a potential threat for other same- different, had they been given the chance bys. to participate on equal terms. I have made that clear, here we have to distinguish We worked on it under such different, how should between new and old mines. They are completely I say, conditions. Had we been sitting down with different things. You can’t just open a mine in this and developed it around a table I don’t think some other sameby and say that it’s possible to co- it would have looked like this.13 exist.16 One of the sameby members concluded The sameby members further discussed his experiences of the process surrounding the different situations experienced by dif- the making of the opinion piece with the ferent samebys. There are 51 samebys in following reflection: Sweden and not all of them have mines And how it was handled, one could say that we got operating on their lands. According to the steamrolled. When it comes to the timing for this sameby members, the traditional Sami kind of article.14 livelihood of reindeer husbandry will struggle to continue under the conditions suggested in the opinion piece, where Divide and Rule mines and reindeer husbandry would be The opinion piece states that mining expected to coexist simply by cooperat- companies and samebys can cooperate ing. Their sameby has had no choice but to despite having different interests and that exist next to one of the world’s largest mines can grow without threatening rein- mines for over a hundred years as stated deer husbandry. Both sameby members by one sameby member: agreed that they did not oppose being in- volved in producing an opinion piece, but You need to be aware that this is the world’s larg- 17 one that carried their message. In the est mine that we are dealing with. opinion piece that was published, the The sameby members spoke of their expe- LKAB mines in question are described as riences of unequal power relations be- “new” mines. In reality the mines men- tween their community and LKAB, as tioned in the article are old mines that well as other authorities in the region. LKAB will reopen, so mines on land that If we are to coexist, if we are to live together here, has once been mined and is thus already you know if we go against this, then we’ll get the broken. One of the sameby members ex- entire region, the whole municipality against us. plained: What will the consequences for reindeer husband- ry be then?18 Because the opinion piece, for us it was quite clear. But then there was the use of some obscure One of the sameby members also empha- words in it and those words they muddled sised his concern for other samebys in the everything. Just like if LKAB is opening three current mining boom. new mines.15 We know what happens to a reindeer husbandry The same sameby member stressed how area when a mine comes in. And I don’t wish that important it is to differentiate between old upon other samebys, that the same would happen and new mines in this case and how the to them as has happened to us.19 Kristina Sehlin MacNeil, Shafted. A Case of Cultural and Structural Violence 81
Finally, the sameby members questioned interplay and make up situations of con- why the timing was so crucial, why the flict. Galtung also believes that the con- opinion piece had to be published at that flicting parties’ different cultures and exact time and whether the timing had worldviews must be taken into considera- something to do with the Gállok (Kallak) tion when analysing conflicts and he criti- conflict and the Sami Parliament’s state- cises those who believe that one (most of- ment, which was published only days be- ten Western) solution fits all (Galtung fore, as well as whether the opinion piece 1990b; Walker 2004:527). was designed to create an internal conflict According to Galtung (1969), struc- among Sami people in Sweden. tural, or indirect violence, as opposed to I think that it was to calm down the Gallók fight, direct violence, is the type of violence in- they wanted to kill off the debate a little and put a flicted on living things through discrim- wedge between us.20 inatory systems or structures. One way of describing the different forms of violence And can be “the distinction between direct I don’t think that LKAB’s local management are violence (children are murdered), struc- interested in such things. It would have to come tural violence (children die through pov- from LKAB’s Group Management or even higher up, so the government.21 erty) and cultural violence (whatever blinds us to this or seeks to justify it)” Both sameby members said that the opin- (Ramsbotham, Woodhouse, and Miall ion piece led to some severe consequences 2005:10). For this study the concepts of for them. After it was published they were structural violence, the discriminatory inundated with phone calls and incredu- structures that inflict harm on people, and lous messages from various samebys who cultural violence, the common attitudes could not understand how they could have and behaviours in a society that serve to supported the views expressed in the ar- justify the structural discrimination, are ticle. One of the research participants felt particularly useful. Galtung’s model is a a need to approach local media outlets in triangle, where direct violence, structural order to attempt public explanations of the violence and cultural violence are all situation. The ordeal was both stressful present and always at interplay with each and time consuming as well as damaging other. However, this triangle can be posi- for relationships. tioned in all possible ways creating all We’ve taken a beating for this, it did cost us, possible expressions of conflicts (Gal- we’ve had to pay for it.22 tung 1990a:294). In this particular case we might imagine Violence Present in the System the triangle placed on its direct violence Peace researcher Johan Galtung coined tip, so that the structural and cultural vio- the concepts of structural and cultural vio- lence tips are positioned on top (see lence in order to expand not only the con- Figure 1.). For, in this case, there is struc- cepts of violence and conflict, but also the tural and cultural violence at play with a concept of peace. By using his theories we possible outcome of direct violence. An can view and name the many layers that example close at hand can be found in the 82 Kristina Sehlin MacNeil, Shafted. A Case of Cultural and Structural Violence
anti-mining protests in Gállok (Kallak) communicated. Galtung talks about vio- during the Nordic summer of 2013, where lence as being the difference between the force was used to remove protestors from actual and the potential: “violence is a proposed mining site. The proposed present when human beings are being in- mine would be situated on the reindeer fluenced so that their actual somatic and grazing lands of two samebys, Sirges and mental realizations are below their poten- Jåhkågasska, and would have severe con- tial realizations” (Galtung 1969:168). In sequences for their livelihoods. Both Sami this case the sameby members were not and non-Sami protestors barricaded the given sufficient time or opportunities for road leading to the site where test drilling participation in editing and decision- was to be conducted and clashed with po- making around the published article and lice when the latter cleared the way for the thus the outcome was not what they mining company’s vehicles. Media re- wanted. Structural and cultural violence ports showed how the clashes grew more can be evidenced by the lack of time and and more violent and although the protes- insight into the process given to the tors used non-violent methods, police sameby members by the mining compa- were filmed using force, including the use ny. In addition, the article carried a mes- of dogs to intimidate protestors and tear- sage that the sameby members do not ing down towers with protestors still in- agree with, even though one of them side. found his name amongst the first on the list of signatures on the published article, making it seem like he was one of the pri- mary authors. Furthermore the sameby members talk about how one cannot crit- icise LKAB without consequences and how, if they do not cooperate to some ex- Figure 1. A Version of Galtung’s Triangle. tent, they fear that the conditions for rein- deer husbandry will become even worse. In the sameby members’ narratives there All of the above mentioned aspects can is a strong focus on the aspect of time and be seen as structural violence according the lack of time given to edit and think to Galtung, who states that “If insight through the opinion piece. One of the and/or resources are monopolized by a members stated that they were not al- group or class or are used for other pur- lowed to participate “on equal terms” due poses, then the actual level falls below to this. They both say that if they would the potential level, and violence is pres- have had sufficient time and an opportu- ent in the system” (Galtung 1969:169). nity to sit down together and work He goes on to make the distinction be- through the article, the outcome would tween “violence that works on the body, have been different. They also talk about and violence that works on the soul; not being involved in decision-making where the latter would include lies, brain- about the final content and how the head- washing, indoctrination of various kinds, lines and order of signatories were not threats, etc…” (ibid.). I argue that there Kristina Sehlin MacNeil, Shafted. A Case of Cultural and Structural Violence 83
are inbuilt threats in the power relations people have less power to determine the between Laevas sameby and LKAB, evi- course or outcome of the process, as well denced by narratives taken from the two as being completely excluded from the sameby members. When there is a con- planning stage. I argue that cultural vio- cern that if one does not cooperate it will lence can be evidenced through this unrea- harm one’s entire culture including all sonably late engagement with Sami members, not only of one’s own commu- people, as described by the research par- nity, but possibly also other samebys, ticipants. It reflects a broader discrimina- there is, as Galtung puts it, violence tory attitude towards Sami people in Swe- present in the system. den that shows up in various ways, includ- Galtung defines cultural violence as ing a general lack of knowledge about being that which justifies structural and Sami society, history and culture (Omma direct violence. “The study of cultural 2013:35; Sköld 2005:15), the lack of spe- violence highlights the way in which the cific research ethics protocol for Sami-re- act of direct violence and the fact of lated research (Ledman 2007:55; Law- structural violence are legitimized and rence 2009:66) and Sami people and is- thus rendered acceptable in society” sues often being ignored or ridiculed in (Galtung 1990a:292). In this study cul- various forms of media (J:son Lönn 2014; tural violence can be seen as the aspects Pikkarainen and Brodin 2008). This atti- of Swedish majority or dominant society tude seems to convey that Sami people do or culture that serve to make Sami culture not necessarily have to be asked, consult- invisible or to shape Sami culture in a ed or invited to participate when dealing way that fits with the majority society. with issues that affect them. It treats con- Examples of this are the lack of informa- sultation as a privilege and not a right of tion about Sami history, culture and so- ciety taught in Swedish schools (Omma the Sami people. Several scholars, among 2013:35; Ledman 2012:157), Swedish them Lantto (2012), Mörkenstam (1999), laws such as the Mineral Act that enable Nordin (2002) and Åhrén (2008) have mining companies to break ground on pointed to this attitude being linked to the reindeer grazing lands (Liliequist and colonisation of Swedish Sápmi and how Cocq 2014, 2), as well as racist and these discriminatory positions were con- discriminating attitudes towards Sami structed in the late 19th and early 20th people in Swedish majority society (Pik- centuries, when the colonisers believed karainen and Brodin 2008). Sami people not fit to take care of their In Sweden Sami people are often con- own matters. The discriminatory attitudes sulted at the last possible moment when it live on in modern Swedish society and can comes to matters that concern them. This then be seen as cultural violence toward could be anything from research projects Sami people, which serves to legitimize to cultural or political events. Being invit- the structural violence experienced by the ed to participate at a late stage in a process two sameby members in the events around gives the semblance of consultation and the creation and publishing of the opinion collaboration but in reality means Sami piece. 84 Kristina Sehlin MacNeil, Shafted. A Case of Cultural and Structural Violence
Conclusions structural and direct violence are valu- This paper centres the voices of two able for a deeper understanding of the members of Laevas sameby in order to sameby members’ experiences, which in analyse the manifestation of cultural and turn can lead to more successful conflict structural violence in their interactions management between mining companies with the Swedish state-owned mining and Sami communities. In Swedish Sáp- company, LKAB. It is a single case mi many samebys are facing similar situ- study, focusing on the sameby members’ ations due to the expanding mining experiences of the creation and publish- boom. There is an obvious increased ing of an opinion piece that appeared in stress for reindeer herders as well as a the Swedish tabloid Aftonbladet on Au- risk of cultural and structural violence gust 31, 2013. To be able to convey the turning into direct violence. This study research participants’ voices as accurate- demonstrates a need for further research ly as possible a number of direct quotes into the power relations between Sami have been used, outlining the series of communities and mining companies in events. Their experiences are analysed order to create stronger foundations for through Johan Galtung’s conflict triangle conflict transformation. and the concepts of structural and cultur- al violence are applied in order to view Kristina Sehlin MacNeil the situation from a new vantage point. PhD Student The narratives given by the research par- Centre for Sami Research, Umeå University ticipants clearly show that they were not Department of Culture and Media Studies given the power of insight or the oppor- (Ethnology), Umeå University tunity to participate in the process in a Industrial Doctoral School, Umeå University SE-901 87 Umeå way that would have enabled them to e-mail: [email protected] have any real power over the outcome. The result was a published article with a Notes message they do not agree with but with 1 Sameby means Sami village in Swedish, how- one of them displayed as a primary au- ever it is not a village as it is much more com- thor. I argue that there is both cultural plex. Similar to ethnologist Hugh Beach, who and structural violence present in this has produced numerous works about Swedish situation and that these expressions of Sápmi, I have chosen to use the word sameby (samebys in plural) rather than an English violence are manifested in particular translation (Beach 1981). A sameby is both an ways. Cultural violence can be evidenced economic association and a specific geo- through the general lack of knowledge graphical area. Members of a sameby can en- about Sami matters in Swedish society, gage in reindeer husbandry within the specific area. A board that is elected at an annual as well as the attitude that the sameby meeting runs the sameby and each sameby members did not really need to be in- consists of several different reindeer herding volved on equal terms. Structural vio- companies with one or more owners. You lence can be demonstrated through the must be Sami to exercise reindeer husbandry in Sweden. The samebys and reindeer hus- lack of influence over the content of the bandry is regulated by the Reindeer Herding opinion piece. The concepts of cultural, Act 1971:437 (Löf 2014:45; Sápmi 2014). Kristina Sehlin MacNeil, Shafted. A Case of Cultural and Structural Violence 85
2 The Sami Parliament is regulated by the Sami tappar man ju ord. Då var jag i renskötsel- Parliament Act 1992:1433. The Sami Parlia- tjänst i Norge.” ment’s primary task is to oversee and promote 10 Original quote: “På tisdagen ringde jag till [en Sami culture in Sweden. The Sami Parliament annan samebymedlem] och sa att nej, vi kan is a popularly elected parliament as well as a inte släppa ut den här artikeln så här, vi kan state administrative agency and its tasks are inte gå med på det. För jag var rädd redan då thus legally regulated by the Swedish govern- för vilket budskap den skulle komma att få. ment (Lundmark 1998:130). Just det här när det var strider i Kallak också. 3 Sápmi is the Sami homeland and spans over Och så blev det. Men så kom det en liten änd- four countries, Norway, Sweden, Finland and ring där mellan onsdagen och torsdagen och Russia. Sami people are the Indigenous då gick vi med på det.” peoples in these countries (Lundmark 1998: 11 Original quote: “Jag kommer ihåg att jag sa 11; Sápmi 2014). även till [vår konsult] att den här artikeln får 4As my PhD project investigates power rela- inte få ett sådant budskap att det går att bygga tions between Indigenous groups and min- gruvor överallt, att det går att samverka. Och ing companies in Sweden and Australia I det var det den fick sedan, att en gruva gör am, during 2014-2015, a Visiting Scholar in ingenting, man kan samverka. [Vår konsult] the David Unaipon College of Indigenous var ju medveten om det att en sådan formule- Education and Research at University of ring får det inte vara.” South Australia in Adelaide. It is interesting 12 Original quote: “LKAB valde det slutgiltiga to note the stark difference between the innehållet. Där har vi också tidsaspekten som Swedish and Australian academe in the field kommer in i bilden. Det detaljerade innehål- let fick vi inte vara med på, på ett värdigt sätt of Indigenous related research and should be i och med att den gick ut så snabbt.” emphasised that within the Unaipon College 13 Original quote: “Så vi jobbade ju fram den I would not have passed the ethics reviews med så olika, hur ska jag säga, förutsättningar. had I not been ethically and methodological- Hade vi suttit med den här och tagit fram den ly committed to honouring my research par- runt ett bord så tror jag inte att den hade blivit ticipants in terms of respect, reciprocity and så här.” relationships. 14 Original quote: “Och hanteringen där, det kan 5 Original quote: ”Vi kan ju inte hävda oss och man väl säga att där blev vi överkörda. Just ta fram arbetslöshetssiffror och ekonomiska tidsmässigt med en sådan här artikel.” räkneexempel, vi har ju inte en chans.” 15 Original quote: “För den här artikeln, för oss 6 Original quote: “Alltså det är ju bara att välja i var den ju tydlig. Men sedan användes det väl vilket klimat man vill leva.” lite otydliga ord i den och de där orden de 7Original quote: “När vi fick reda på om den vände ju på alltihop. Precis som att LKAB här [debattartikeln], det var den 23 augusti, öppnar tre nya gruvor.” det var en fredag. Då hade vi i augusti ett 16 Original quote: “Och det har jag tydliggjort sådant där första möte om hur vi ska lägga här, här måste man skilja mellan nyetable- upp de här arbetslinjerna. Och när vi avslu- ringar och gamla gruvor. Det är helt skilda tade det mötet då fick vi den här skriften, saker. Det går inte att smälla upp en gruva i den var inte så här, den var ännu värre.” någon annan by och säga att det går att sam- 8Original quote: “Vi hamnar ju lite i konflikt existera.” gällande den här artikeln med LKAB, just 17 Original quote: “Man måste tänka att det här hur den användes. Vi hade renslakt i Norge är världens största gruva som vi har att göra just den veckan, det var ju en sådan där med.” olycklig tid. Och det var jättebråttom att få 18 Original quote: “Om vi ska samexistera, om ut den just då. Och det är där det ligger vi ska leva tillsammans här, går vi emot det någonting i, varför ville de få ut den just här vet du, då får vi hela regionen, hela kom- då?” munen emot oss. Vad blir det för konsekven- 9 Original quote: “Alltså jag såg ju inte den här ser för renskötseln sen?” artikeln alls utan jag fick den ju bara uppläst 19 Original quote: “Vi har ju facit i hand vad det över telefon och då vet du ju hur det blir, då blir utav ett renskötselområde när det blir en 86 Kristina Sehlin MacNeil, Shafted. A Case of Cultural and Structural Violence
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