sign in sign up
<<
Home , Porul (Kural book), Sangam literature

MHRD UGC ePG Pathshala

Subject: English Principal Investigator: Prof. Tutun Mukherjee, University of Hyderabad

Paper 11: Indian Literary Criticism and Theory Paper Coordinator: Dr. Bhandaram Vani, S. N. Vanita Mahavidyalaya, Hyderabad

Module No. 06: Tholkappiyar: Tholkappiyam Content Writer: Ms. Nisha Kutty, Independent Researcher

Content Reviewer: Dr. Bhandaram Vani, S. N. Vanita Mahavidalaya, Hyderabad Language Editor: Dr. Mrinmoy Pramanick, University of Calcutta

What is this Module About?

This module elaborates on the earliest known work of grammar in . Due to the elaborate explanations of a wide range of semantics discussed through the course of the text, The Tolkappiyam remains one of the most crucial textbooks in Ancient Indian Literary history. Through the course of this module, the intricate details of linguistics and other literary devices discussed in The Tolkappiyam would be explained at length.

Introduction

Tolkappiyam is considered to be one of the earliest known texts from Ancient . As a text that largely concerns itself with the descriptive linguistics of the , Tolkappiyam has remained available to scholars who are fluent in Tamil. Translations of the texts, although attempted, have been largely unsuccessful or incomplete. Tolkappiyam as a text can be roughly divided into three major sections – the first two deals with the linguistic intricacies of the Tamil language while the third section deals with ideas referred to in Tamil Literature. Each of these major sections has further been divided into nine chapters. As 21st century scholars, today we can understand that Tolkappiyam deals with crucial factors pertaining to linguistics like, morphology, phonology, orthography, semantics and ideas vital to the composition of Tamil Literature.

The Tolkappiyam was also the first text to classify the Tamil language into two halves – sentamil (classical Tamil used in works of Literature) and koduntamil (Tamil dialects spoken by people of various regions of then). The text further categorizes Tamil alphabets into vowels and consonants followed by a thorough analysis of every alphabet. Compared to other Indian languages, Tamil has fewer numbers of alphabets and to make it

easier for the reader there is a section devoted to grammaticization associated with the use of certain words and syntaxes.

There has been an ongoing debate regarding when the Tolkappiyam had originally been written. Though it is still imprecise, a large number of scholars believe the text has been written between the 5th century BCE and the 3rd century CE. While commenting on the debate dating Tolkappiyam, in his text Indian Literary Criticism : Theory and Interpretation, literary critic Ganesh Devy has stated how S. Ilakkuvanar believed the text to be written somewhere between 6th century BCE and 10th century BCE. At the same time, Devy states how Indologist believes Tolkappiyam to be a gradually growing body that took about eight centuries to acquire it’s final shape. Zvelebil’s theory also states that the sections dealing with prosody and diction in Tamil literature should belong to the 4th or 5th century AD. Devy completes his argument by stating how Zvelebil’s theory of dating Tolkappiyam seems most probable.

Apart from the controversy regarding the dating of the text, a complete understanding of the Tolkappiyam is possible only by analyzing the historical literary era of which Tolkappiyam remains an integral part.

This historical period is termed as the “” in ancient . The period is believed to have spanned from 300 BCE to 300 CE. Over 2381 poems are believed to have been composed during this period. itself can be categorized into two major topics – Akattiyam and Tolkappiyam.

The Tolkappiyam and Sangam Literature

Renowned scholar A.K Ramanujan wrote two books titled The Interior Landscape and Poems of Love and War on the beautiful poems from the Sangam Period. Writing about these, he states, “Tamil, one of the two classical , is the only language of contemporary India which is recognizably continuous with a classical past. “These poem are ‘classical,’ i.e., early, ancient; they are also ‘classics,’ i.e., works that have stood the test of time, the founding works of a whole tradition. Not to know them is not to know a unique and major poetic achievement of Indian civilization. In their antiquity and in their contemporaneity, there is not much else in any equal to these quiet and dramatic Tamil poems. In their values and stances, they represent a mature classical poetry: passion is balanced by courtesy, transparency by ironies and nuances of design, impersonality by vivid detail and leanness of line by richness of implication. These poems are not just the earliest evidence of Tamil genius. The , in their 2,000 years of literary effort, wrote nothing better”. (Ramanujan: Prologue) The rich literary history of Classical Tamil Language is a fascinating one. Tamil is the earliest Dravidian language and is often considered to be one of the most creative of the regional literatures in India.

Sangam Poetry, which existed in written form, is considered to be the most important portion

of works within Sangam Literature. The core idea of Sangam Poetry lies in the different types of literary works and the feelings transpired through them.

The early stage of Tamil poetry is often referred to as the “Sangam Age” after three legendary “Sangams” or academies of literary excellence that are said to have supervised works of the classical poets and scholars. Indeed, one of the great legacies of the period is a body of poetic works dated roughly between 1st and 4th centuries Christian era, devoted to the subject of love (Akam) and the heroic themes of battle and the panegyric ().

Thus, it is important to note that Classical poetry from the Sangam Period can be majorly divided into two types –

● Akam ● Puram According to Tamil tradition, there were three Sangams from mythological times. The first owes its origin to Agathiar (Agasthya) who came from North India and stayed at , Tamil Nadu. This academy consisted of 549 members, patronized by 89 Pandyas and lasted for 4,440 years.

Once Madurai was submerged in the sea, it led to the emergence of the 2nd Sangam. Agasthya established the 2nd Sangam. The Sangam consisted of 3,700 poets, patronized by 59 Panyas and lasted for 3,700 years. The last Sangam lasted for 1850 years and was patronized by 49 Pandyas. The date of the last Sangam is the early centuries of the Christian era. This is probably the only historically validated Sangam, located in Madurai, on the banks of the River Vaigayi.

Sangam Poetry concerns itself with four major goals, namely–

● (Righteousness/virtue) ● (Worldly success) ● Ridu (Release) ● Imbam (Pleasure) While the first three goals are conveyed through “Puram Poetry”, the last one is best conveyed through “Akam Poetry”.

Akam

Akam poetry usually deals with feelings of love and affection. They speak of family and relationships as the central themes through which the experiences of life are best developed.

“Akam” deals with two kinds of love:-

1) Mutual Love 2) One-sided love Sangam Landscapes, into which each of these works of poetry is categorized, has been classified into ‘thinais’ based on the mood of the poem, season and land type.

Mutual love itself was reflected through a description of landscape where the poetry takes place.

Poems on love are named based on the differentiation of the landscapes they are situated in:-

● Kurinchi (mountains) ● Neytal (Sea shore ) ● Palai (Wasteland) ● Mullai (Forest / Pasture) ● Marutani (Agricultural lowland) No matter what kind, Akam poetry always showcases a conscious relationship between theme and genre. These poems deal with the relationship between man and woman and the various stages of love between them, Puram deals with works of heroism, war and ethics.

Coming to the role of gender in these poems, the role of women are practically negligible. However, a lot of importance is given to the chastity of women in these poems. There are several Akam poems where the woman (the heroine) relates the depth of her love for the hero by revealing details about her chastity. Interior landscapes convey the feelings and emotions involved. These poems speak of how a feeling of possession is vital in love. In Akam poetry, there would always be a speaker and a listener. Poetry unfolds through a conversation which is almost like a dramatic monologue between two people. In case of one-sided love poems, underlying tension is an almost palpable feeling. The feelings of love and desires being unfulfilled along with a possibility of separation are predominant in these poems.

Akam speaks of the interior landscape of one’s own heart and Puram speaks of the external.

Sangam poetry is essentially court poetry of an age which often spoke of Heroism. While Akam poetry deals with private emotions, Puram deals with public domains and public feelings.

There are several examples of famous akam poems that have been translated in English by AK Ramanujan. One such example has been illustrated below. The poem was originally composed by Poet Uraiyur Mutukotra and written in Mullai thinai, titled “What she said”;

“My lover has not come back: the jasmine has bloomed.

A goat-herd comes into town with goats and milk to take some rice to others waiting outside, palmyra rain-guards in their hands,

herds of young ones in their care: in his hair nothing but buds of tiny jasmine.”

Tolkappiyam demonstrates the use of these words and their relation to a particular thinai, landscape or emotion. The use of syntax and choice of words have been described at length through the course of the Tolkappiyam, helping us deconstruct how ancient Tamil poetry and its subsequent followers followed a particular thematic structure.

Puram

Puram poems are always situated in public domains. These poems often speak of war, bloodshed, love for the one’s own people and politics. These poems are classified according to the core idea transpired through the poem:-

● Vetci (Cattle Raid) ● Vanci (Preparation for War, Invasion) ● Ulinnai (Siege) ● Tumpai (Battle) ● Vakai (Victory) ● Kanchi (Tragedy & Instability of the world) ● Patan (Elegy and Praise) These poems often speak of betrayal, separation and tragedy with relation to war and politics. Puram poems often showcase love that ends in bloodshed. Prosaic tears of love and associating love with sacrifice displays how a certain kind of violence plays part in this kind of love. The hero’s self-rebellion when it comes to love has been a recurrent idea conveyed through these poems. Confluence of love and war together has been found in several Puram poems from the Sangam age.

Textual Example கககககககககக 105, கககககககககக கககககககக, கககககககக கககக – ககககக ககககககக

பபபபபப பபபபபபப பபபபபபபப பபபபபபபபபப பபபபபபப பபபபபப பபபபப பபபபபபபபபபப பபபபபபபபபப பபபபப பபபபபபப பபபபபபபப பபபபபபபப பபபபபபபபபப பபபபபபபபப பபபபபபப பபபபப பபபபபப பபபபபபப பபபபபபப பபபபபபபபபபபபபப.

I get teary eyed when I think of my friendship with the man from the mountain filled with gods.

I shiver with pain like the innocent peacock that panics after it eats the golden tiny millet left as offering to the gods in the mountain ’ fields, and trembles like a beautiful veriyāttam dancer in a ritual.

Main Ideas Transpired Through Sangam Poetry

In their antiquity and their contemporary outlook, there is not much else in any Indian literature that equals to the quiet and dramatic Akam poems. In their values and stands, these poems represent a mature creativity. Passion is balanced through the use of dramatic poetic measures while impersonality by vivid details remains a classic feature of Puram poems.

Keeping these in mind, there are some major ideas transpired through Sangam Poetry. These are:-

1) Secularism 2) Different descriptions of Private and Public worlds where questions of personal emotions and desires hold importance. 3) Greater good of the Tamil community 4) Heroism 5) Metaphors and Imagery 6) Use of realism through descriptions of mundane (daily) activities 7) The importance of “” (Action) over “” (Duty) 8) The emergence of a non-Sanskritic tradition irrespective of the fact that Sangam poetry is a tradition as ancient as literature 9) Focus on the use of dramatic dialogue where a certain degree of democratic language is involved 10) Emergence of social reality; in instances where the woman in the poem speaks to the mother of the man, implicating a certain kind of social relationship between the two. 11) Sangam poetry as a form of court poetry, where specific methods of writing poetry are employed through generic decisions and linking natural landscapes to feelings of love. 12) The existence of a certain amount of orality involved in poetic writing. This was an important feature of Sangam poetry. Tolkappiyam – The Text

Tolkappiyam derives its name from the confluence of two words - “Tonmai” (ancient) and “Kappiam” (literature). It is an extensive work on the grammar of the Tamil language and is the earliest extant work on Tamil Literature. The text itself comprises of three books or ‘atikarams’ that have been written in the form of short formulaic compositions or ‘noorpas’. These three books are, namely:- ❖ Ezhuttadikaram – Deals with the formation of words and combination of words in

Tamil Language ❖ Solladikaram – Deals with Syntax in Tamil ❖ Poruladikaram – Deals with the tools used to convey thoughts and emotions in Tamil Literature Each of these three books has been further divided into nine chapters each. Tolkappiyam formulated thirty phonemes and three dependent sounds for the Tamil language. i. Ezhuttadikaram The first book of Tolkappiyam deals with the formation of words and combination of words in Tamil Language. This book has nine subsections that focus on the linguistic aspect of the Tamil language in totality. These nine subsections are:- 1. Nuul Marabu – Focuses on Tamil language itself and organises them into consonants, vowels and diacritic symbols. 2. Marabu – The second sub section focuses on a well-defined classification of phonemes and elision. These classifications are unambiguous and follow a thorough enlisting of linguistic measurements by focusing on the use of vowels and their consequent sounds. 3. PiRappiyal – The third sub section focuses completely on the use of articulatory phonetics in Tamil, followed by the explanation of visual representation of each alphabet. 4. PuNaRiyal- The fourth sub section speaks about words that have come into existence through the combination of two or more words in Tamil. 5. Thokai Marabu – The fifth sub section is often considered a continuation of the fourth section as it focuses on explanations regarding combination of words based on their meaning in Tamil. 6. Urubiyal – This sub section focuses on word modifiers that are added to the end of a noun or pronouns to create a new meaning. 7. Uyir Mayangial – This sub-section focuses on the combination of words that contain a vowel at the beginning and end with a vowel as well. 8. Pulli – Pulli placement is one of the most distinguishing factor associated with characters in the Tamil language. Often found in the , the pulli is distinguished by its placement. The sub-section focuses on the combination of words with a consonant upon consonant ending. 9. KutriyalukarappunaRiyal – The last sub-section explores the words created by combining initial vowel-phonetic upon the shortened 'u' vowel-ending. ii. Solladikaram The second book of Tolkappiyam completely deals with the words and parts of speech in Tamil language. This book classifies Tamil words into four broad categories:-

*Iyar chor (Tamil words in common usage) *Thiri chor (Tamil words used in literature) *Vada chor (Tamil words that have been borrowed from Sanskrit) *Thisai chor (Tamil words that have been borrowed from other languages) Each of these four books contains nine subsections that concentrate on the formation and usage of syntax, adjectives, nouns, verbs, suffix-prefix and adverbs in the Tamil language. These nine subsections are:- ▪ KiLaviyaakkam – Deals with gender, number, person etc. ▪ VEtRumaiyiyal – Deals with how case works in syntax. ▪ VEtrumaimayangial – Deals with case and their correlation with suffix. ▪ ViLimarabu – Deals with how vocative cases are formed in Tamil language. ▪ Peyariyal – Deals with nouns. ▪ Vinaiyiyal – Deals with verbs. ▪ Idaiyiyal – Deals with suffix and prefix formations in Tamil. ▪ Uriyiyal – Deals with nature of qualifiers with reference to the use of adjectives and adverbs. ▪ Echchaviyal – Deals with miscellaneous ideas associated with syntax formations in Tamil. iii. Poruladikaram Poruladikaram contains the most significant set of information in the Tolkappiyam when it comes to Tamil literature. Poruladikaram in totality speaks about the descriptive use of natural landscape with relation to human emotions in Sangam literature. The third book provides classifications of different landscapes, seasons and religious deities and speaks about different modes of life attributed to each of the combinations of landscapes and seasons, for different types of people. This book also discusses the Phonemic Deviations prevalent in Sangam poetry. Poruladikaram contains 9 subsections, which are:- ▪ AkaththiNaiyiyal – Deals the life of couples ▪ PuRaththiNaiyiyal – Deals with the different aspects in the public life of people ▪ KaLaviyal – Literature where secretive love is exposed through someone and how they expose it is well described. ▪ KaRpiyal – Deals with the lives of couples in love ▪ PoruLiyal – Deals with how couples inform their families and friends about their relationship and how they react to this. ▪ Meyppaattiyal – Deals with how feelings are expressed.

▪ Uvamayiyal – Deals with natural landscapes and metaphors related to them. ▪ SeyyuLiyal – Deals with grammar in Tamil poetry ▪ Marabiyal – Deals with the chronology of Tamil language

Authorship

As previously mentioned, attributing the authorship of Tolkappiyam to a single author has been a controversy for centuries. However, vast amount of historical and linguistic evidence the authorship of the Tolkappiyam has been attributed to a Tamil Sangam poet named Tholkappiyar. Though several critics have stated that Tholkappiyar’s name is derived from the text itself, there is no clear indication as to when Tholkappiyar existed. According to sources, Tholkappiyar is believed to have been the disciple of Agathiar (Agasthya) and was born in the Tamil month of Chitirai around 865 BC. Tholkappiyar is believed to have been born in the Adankodu village in Vilavankodu taluq situated in modern-day Kanyakumari district of Tamil Nadu. References point to this fact in his work Tolkappiyam. There have been assumptions about why Tolkappiyam was compiled in the first place. Sources within the state believe that Tholkappiyar was asked to compile the great text on after “Agathiar”, a text on Tamil grammar composed by his guru Agathiar, disappeared. After the Tolkappiyam, another text on Tamil grammar Nannul had been composed by Pavananthi Munivar around the 13th century AD and it serves as a commentary on older works like Tolkappiyam itself. Religion and Tolkappiyam

Tolkappiyam along with other ancient Tamil texts like Pattupattu (10 songs) and Ettutokai (8 Anthologies) shed light on the early religious beliefs of the Tamil people from the bygone era. From ancient times to the modern-day Tamil Nadu, Murugan is a chief deity in the Hindu spectrum. Murugan or “Karthik” as he is known in other Indian cultures is the son of Lord . He is described and illustrated as one of the most beautiful gods seated on a blue peacock – an ever-young, ever resplendent figure of divinity among the Tamil people. In the third book of Tolkappiyam, we are introduced to the idea of Sangam landscapes and how they can be related to the descriptions in the poems. These attributions help us understand which Hindu deities were worshipped during the Sangam Period. These “thinais” are attributed to a specific religious figure as well as the season and the flora/fauna associated with it. Murugan was considered as the patron deity of the “Kurinchi” ‘thinai’, situated in the Blue Mountains (Nilgiris). “Kurinchi” – the ‘thinai’, is named so after a flower of the same name which is believed to bloom only in the mist engulfed greenery of the Nilgiris. “Kurinchi” is a ‘thinai’ which deals with the meeting and union of two lovers.

The Tolkappiyam states that the next thinai, “Mullai” or forests have Lord or Tirumaal as the patron deity. “Mullai” is a thinai where poems glorify lovers’ spat and their eventual reunion. The other patron deities for the other three ‘thinais’ include: - Goddess

Durga or Kottravai for “Palai” or wasteland/desert, showcasing lovers’ separation and hero’s journey through a dangerous territory; Lord or Vendan for “Marutham” or agricultural lowlands, where lovers elope to hide their love away from others; Lord Varuna or Kadalon for “Neythal” or sea coast, where lovers experience the longest separation from each other. Below is a table which tabulates these attributions more closely.

Classification Kurinchi Mullai Palai Marutham Neythal s Climate/Seaso Cold and Moist Cloudy Summer Late Spring Windy n Landscape Moutain Forest Wasteland Agricultural Sea Coast /Desert Land Patron Deity Murugan Tirumaal(Vishnu Kottravai( Vendan(Indra) Kadalon(Varuna ) ) ) Flora Kurinchi flower Jasmine flower Paalai flower, Marudam flower Water Lily Cactus

Soil Red/Black Soil Red Soil Marshy ground Alluvial Soil Sand

The Tolkappiyam and Its Contribution to the Indian Literary Tradition

Not only did The Tolkappiyam throw light on the culture and life of people in Tamil Nadu from the ancient age, but also contributed to the Indian linguistic study as we know it today. Without the Tolkappiyam, a major part of India’s linguistic history would have been void. As a country which has been constantly overshadowed by Postcolonial sentiments, Tolkappiyam towers as a text which showcases Indian literary brilliance. As a text written in Pre-Christian era, Tolkappiyam exhibits a linguistic and literary precision that is much beyond its time. Beginning from the deconstruction of constants, vowels and use of syntax, Tolkappiyam is the first text of grammar steeped completely in Indian linguistic understanding. It is one of the first books in the world to have decoded literary tools with such precision, given the time period it is a part of. Tolkappiyam also gave shape to Indian poetic traditions for centuries to come. The relation to Sangam Literature holds true not just for works from the ancient age but also today. The intricacies with which each of these ‘thinais’ attribute their relation to a season, a religious deity and flora/fauna is the earliest known example of literary metaphors in Tamil literature. Even today, the attributions given to each of these ‘thinai’ remain valid in modern-day Indian theatre or films. Separation between lovers is often showcased through deserts in celluloid, union of lovers is shown is a beautiful landscape, mostly having mountains have a backdrop

and lastly, sea coast is used to depict ‘viraha-gatha’ or long periods of separation between lovers. Thus showing the relevance of how Tolkappiyam shaped the landscape of Indian poetic imagination for centuries that followed.

To Conclude

Tolkappiyam shaped up the history of poetic tradition in India for centuries to come. As a country constantly struggling with the colonial ideas instilled in our history, Tolkappiyam as a pre-colonial text outshines the binding shackles of literary conflicts. It exhibits the rich and vibrant culture existent in ancient India and the deep rooted understanding of grammaticism. Tolkappiyam helped in shaping the face of Indian poetic thought for centuries that followed, by detailing factors that contributed to the existence of Indian poetry as we know it today. The residual reflections of the intricacies within Sangam poetry can still be seen in contemporary Indian poetry where characters follow similar modes of expression as seen within Sangam literature. Irrespective of various controversies which surround its dating and authorship, the Tolkappiyam continues to remain an anchoring precursor in the history of Indian literary tradition.

Works Cited

● Dev, Amiya, and Sisir Kumar Das. Comparative Literature: Theory and Practice. Shimla: Indian Institute of Advanced Study in Association with Allied, New Delhi, 1989. Print. ● Devy, G. N. Indian Literary Criticism: Theory and Interpretation. New Delhi: Orient Blackswan, 2011. Print. ● PILLAI, S. VAIYAPURI. History of Tamil Language and Literature. Beginning to 1000 A.D. Pp. Xvi. 206. New Century Book House: Madras, 1956. Print. ● Ramanujan, A. K. The Interior Landscape. Delhi: Oxford UP, 1994. Print. ● Tholkalppiyar, and Subrahmanya Sastri P. S. Tolkappiyam: The Earliest Extant Tamil Grammar: With a Short Commentary in English. Chennai: Kuppuswami Sastri Research Institute, 1999. Print.

Summary of the Module

This module traces the origin and evolution of Tolkappiyam – the earliest extant text of grammar in India. We discuss the various intricacies associated with Tolkappiyam and its major contribution in deconstructing Sangam poetry for scholars of centuries that followed. The Tolkappiyam is a text which is steeped in the rich study of ancient Tamil grammar, its syntax and other various components of grammar. It also helps us understand the slow evolution of ancient Tamil language. It is also interesting to see how translation plays an important role in bringing Tolkappiyam to a wider range of audience. Though the number of translations is sparse, Tolkappiyam and its literary brilliance has reached far and wide, much beyond the periphery of Indian literature.